A mouse's mammary gland that was grown in a lab.
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Myoepithelial cells wrapped around milk-producing sacs in a mouse's mammary gland.
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"They'd get stuck in the mammary gland and never reach the baby," Dr. Power said.
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And he decided, instead, to punch her right in the mammary gland and fuck up his whole night.
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A sample from a mouse mammary gland, used in research to understand tumor initiation and progression (University of Amsterdam).
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"The developing brain is also very sensitive to estrogen, as is the mammary gland and the heart," she notes.
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But pumping both breasts increases levels of prolactin, a hormone involved in milk production, and increases mammary gland stimulation.
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Myoepithelial cells in the mammary gland contract, moving the milk into the nipple, through the ducts, and into the baby's mouth.
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"Because gynecomastia is an overgrowth of the mammary gland, not fat, working out doesn't get rid of it," Dr. Blau writes.
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Sendler was one of many authors of a mammary gland study that was conducted by the lab and published in the journal Genes and Development.
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The sheep, named Dolly Parton because the cell from which they'd cloned her had been taken from a sheep's mammary gland, would be the first cloned mammal to survive into adulthood.
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" In 1997, the first cloned mammal, a sheep derived from a mammary gland cell, was named after her because the scientists "couldn't think of a more impressive pair of glands than Dolly Parton's.
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Still a relatively inefficient technology, SCNT is performed by taking the nucleus from an adult cell (such as a mammary gland, as with Dolly and her clones) and swapping it with the nucleus of a donated egg cell.
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The EPA said Hexythiazox is classified as "likely to be carcinogenic to humans" based on a treatment related to an increase in benign and malignant liver tumors in female mice and the presence of mammary gland tumors in male rats.
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Biologists warn against the wanton use of the word milk — sorry, almond "milk" really isn't — and some mammalogists would like to restrict the term to the secretions of a dedicated mammary gland, which only their study subjects happen to possess.
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Breastmilk is really made up of a few "ingredients," including blood and water, that are synthesized into milk in the mammary gland, Katie Hinde, PhD, associate professor at the School of Human Evolution and Social Change and the Center for Evolution and Medicine at Arizona State University told Refinery29.
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Then, that person's body gathers "ingredients" to make the milk from their blood, and synthesizes them (sometimes pulling in water) in the mammary gland, says Katie Hinde, PhD, associate professor at the School of Human Evolution and Social Change and the Center for Evolution and Medicine at Arizona State University.
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Using a breakthrough technique called somatic cell nuclear transfer, scientists at Roslin took a nucleus -- the part of the cell that contains most of its genetic information -- from cells within the mammary gland of an adult sheep and stuck it inside an unfertilized egg from which the nucleus had been removed.
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Breast: mS100a7a15 is weakly expressed in normal mammary gland tissue.
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A functional breast: a mammary gland feeding an infant child.
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The Breast: cross-section scheme of the mammary gland. A mammary alveolus (plural: alveoli, from Latin alveolus, "little cavity") is a small cavity or sac found in the mammary gland. Mammary alveoli are the site of milk production and storage in the mammary gland. Mammary alveoli cluster into groups called mammary lobules, and each breast may contain 15 to 20 of these lobules.
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Thus, the mammary gland and breast milk have critical roles alongside M cells in mucosal immune system.
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The mammary ridge or mammary crest is a primordium specific for the development of the mammary gland.
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This addresses the issue in terms of modeling the amplification of HER2 in mice development. In the non-fused mouse, the mammary gland would revert to a near virgin, but with this addition the mammary gland maintained the developed function.Fry, EA; Taneka, P; Inoue, K. (2016). Oncogenic and tumor-suppressive mouse models for breast cancer engaging HER2/neu.
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Mastitis occurs when white blood cells (leukocytes) are released into the mammary gland, usually in response to bacteria invading the teat canal or occasionally by chemical, mechanical, or thermal trauma on the udder. Milk-secreting tissue and various ducts throughout the mammary gland are damaged due to toxins released by the bacteria resulting in reduced milk yield and quality.
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Impaired Mammary Gland Development in Cyl-12/2 Mice during Pregnancy and Lactation Is Epithelial Cell Autonomous. Developmental Biology, 212, 1–11.
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There are two known isoforms of SIM2 which play different roles in various tissues. The isoform SIM2 Short (SIM2s) has been shown to be specifically expressed in mammary gland tissue. SIM2s is a splice variant which lacks exon 11 of SIM2. It has been researched that SIM2s acts in mammary gland development and has tumor suppressive characteristics specifically in breast cancer.
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Other components found in raw cow's milk are living white blood cells, mammary gland cells, various bacteria, and a large number of active enzymes.
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More recently, it was discovered that CSF-1 and its receptor CSF1R are implicated in the mammary gland during normal development and neoplastic growth.
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It results in vasodilation, renoprotection, mammary gland development, etc. Sulfated steroids and bile acids are also detected by vomeronasal receptors, specifically the V1 family.
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Bisphenol A (BPA) is an example of an endocrine disruptor which negatively affects reproductive development. BPA is a known as an estrogen mimicker (Xenoestrogen) and a likely androgen mimicker. It is used in the production of various plastic products. BPA exposure in fetal female rats leads to mammary gland morphogenesis, increased formation of ovarian tumors, and increased risk of developing mammary gland neoplasia in adult life.
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Sterneck began to study the functions of CCAAT-enhancer-binding proteins (C/EBP) transcription factors, including their roles in normal mammary gland development, through genetically engineered mice.
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Increased levels of CSF1R1 are found in microglia in Alzheimer's disease and after brain injuries. The increased receptor expression causes microglia to become more active. Both CSF1R, and its ligand colony stimulating factor 1 play an important role in the development of the mammary gland and may be involved in the process of mammary gland carcinogenesis. Mutations in CSF1R are associated with chronic myelomonocytic leukemia and type M4 acute myeloblastic leukemia.
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In this research article titled "Irradiation of Juvenile, but not Adult, Mammary Gland Increases Stem Cell Self-Renewal and Estrogen Receptor Negative Tumors", two agent-based models were developed and were used in parallel with in vivo and in vitro experiments to evaluate cell inactivation, dedifferentiation via epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and self-renewal (symmetric division) as mechanisms by which radiation could increase stem cells. The first agent- based model is a multiscale model of mammary gland development starting with a rudimentary mammary ductal tree at the onset of puberty (during active proliferation) all the way to a full mammary gland at adulthood (when there is little proliferation). The model consists of millions of agents, with each agent representing a mammary stem cell, a progenitor cell, or a differentiated cell in the breast. Simulations were first run on the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Lawrencium supercomputer to parameterize and benchmark the model against a variety of in vivo mammary gland measurements.
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Integrins also serve as receptors to trigger signal transduction cascades when binding to the ECM. A well-studied example of morphogenesis that involves ECM is mammary gland ductal branching.
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Based on its mixed effects in different tissues, estetrol has been described as a unique, "natural" selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) rather than as a "weak estrogen." Estetrol is weakly estrogenic in breast/mammary gland, but shows very low potency in this tissue and, when administered in combination with estradiol, antagonizes the effects of estradiol. Relative to estradiol, estetrol shows 100-fold lower potency in stimulation of the proliferation of human breast epithelial cells in vitro and of mouse mammary gland cells in vivo. In animal models, estetrol shows antiestrogenic effects in mammary gland tissue comparable to those of the SERM tamoxifen and of ovariectomy, antagonizing the stimulatory effects of estradiol and preventing tumor development in a 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA) mammary tumor model.
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Cell death activator CIDE-A is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CIDEA gene. Cidea is an essential transcriptional coactivator regulating mammary gland secretion of milk lipids.Cidea is an essential transcriptional coactivator regulating mammary gland secretion of milk lipids This gene encodes the homolog of the mouse protein Cidea that has been shown to activate apoptosis. This activation of apoptosis is inhibited by the DNA fragmentation factor DFF45 but not by caspase inhibitors.
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Whey Acidic Protein(WAP) is the major milk protein in certain mammals. There are exceptions in some mammalian species, whereby WAP has not been found to be synthesized in the mammary gland.
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Mammary stem cells provide the source of cells for growth of the mammary gland during puberty and gestation and play an important role in carcinogenesis of the breast. Mammary stem cells have been isolated from human and mouse tissue as well as from cell lines derived from the mammary gland. Single such cells can give rise to both the luminal and myoepithelial cell types of the gland and have been shown to have the ability to regenerate the entire organ in mice.
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Several additional studies have found that eflornithine in combination with other compounds decreases the carcinogen concentrations of ethylnitrosourea, dimethylhydrazine, azoxymethane, methylnitrosourea, and hydroxybutylnitrosamine in the brain, spinal cord, intestine, mammary gland, and urinary bladder.
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ADAM17 also regulates the MAP kinase signaling pathway by regulating shedding of the EGFR ligand amphiregulin in the mammary gland. ADAM17 also has a role in the shedding of L-selectin, a cellular adhesion molecule.
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Moreover, suppression of PGE2 in breast tissue is relevant because, via activation of prostaglandin EP receptors, PGE2 potently induces amphiregulin expression in breast tissue, and activation of the EGFR by amphiregulin increases COX-2 expression in breast tissue, in turn resulting in more PGE2, and thus, a self-perpetuating, synergistic cycle of growth amplification due to COX-2 appears to potentially be present in normal breast tissue. Accordingly, overexpression of COX-2 in mammary gland tissue produces mammary gland hyperplasia as well as precocious mammary gland development in female mice, mirroring the phenotype of VDR knockout mice, and demonstrating a strong stimulatory effect of COX-2, which is downregulated by VDR activation, on the growth of the mammary glands. Also in accordance, COX-2 activity in the breasts has been found to be positively associated with breast volume in women.
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KLK9 belongs to the kallikrein subgroup of serine proteases, which have diverse physiologic functions in many tissues. KLK9 is primarily expressed in thymus, testis, spinal cord, cerebellum, trachea, mammary gland, prostate, brain, salivary gland, ovary, and skin.
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Mammaglobin is a gene that encodes a 10-kilodalton glycoprotein. In humans expression of the gene is limited to the adult mammary gland, a correlation between increased expression of the gene and breast cancer has been reported.
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Estrogen stimulation of ERα is known to stimulate cell proliferation in breast tissue. ERα is thought to be responsible for pubertal development of the adult phenotype, through mediation of mammary gland response to estrogens. This role is consistent with the abnormalities of female ERKO mice: the epithelial ducts of female ERKO mice fail to grow beyond their pre-pubertal length, and lactational structures do not develop. As a result, the functions of the mammary gland—including both lactation and release of prolactin—are greatly impaired in ERKO mice.
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67 (Suppl. 1): 467.Mollett, T. A., C. B. Brooks and E. A. Leighton. 1988. Milk quality, composition and isolation of microorganisms from the mammary gland of the dam associated with reduced calf weaning weight in beef cattle.
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David S. Salomon, Ph.D. (born 1947) is a cancer research scientist and co- discoverer of the Cripto-1 gene. His areas of research include stem cells, cell signaling, breast cancer, mammary gland development, small molecule inhibitors, and embryonic development.
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Bio-active components in human milk are speculated to colonize in human milk in several ways including secretion by the mammary gland, epithelium cells, and by milk cells. Maternal immune factors are transferred by lymphocytes traveling from the mother's gut to the mammary gland where the secretory cells of the breast produce antibodies. The origin of the human milk microbiota, including those with immune-modulating functions, are not well established. However, several theories including skin-to-skin contact, the entero-mammary pathway, and retrograde back-flow hypothesis have been put forth to explain the microbial composition of human milk.
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Using lineage tracing of basal cells and luminary mammary gland cells during embryonic development and post-natal development, the Blanpain lab showed that different mammary tissue lineages stem from multipotent embryonic progenitors. These multipotent progenitors are replaced soon after birth by unipotent stem cells. His group developed new techniques to perform quantitative lineage tracing to unravel the multilineage differentiation potential of stem cells during development and adult homeostasis. Using novel lineage tracing strategies, they demonstrated that ER positive cells in the mammary gland developed and are maintained in adult gland through unipotent progenitors that are restricted to hormone receptor expressing cells.
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The breasts are apocrine glands which produce milk for the feeding of infant children,Tortora, Gerard J. Introduction to the Human Body, Fifth Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: New York, 2001. p. 560. Breast augmentation: cross-section scheme of the mammary gland.
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Mouse mammary tumor virus molecular biology and oncogenesis. Viruses 2(9), 2000-2012. doi: 10.3390/v2092000 Whey acidic protein (WAP), is another common promoter used to generate mouse mammary cancer models. For a list of other mammary gland specific promoters and mouse models see.
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During pregnancy until after birth, mammary glands grow steadily to a size required for optimal milk production. At the end of breastfeeding, the number of cells in the mammary gland becomes reduced until approximately the same number is reached as before the start of pregnancy.
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The mouse counterpart of this gene is found to induce the expression of BCL2L1/BCL-X(L), which suggests the antiapoptotic function of this gene in cells. It also transduces prolactin signals to the milk protein genes and is necessary for mammary gland development.
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The lymphatic drainage of the breasts is especially relevant to oncology because breast cancer is common to the mammary gland, and cancer cells can metastasize (break away) from a tumour and be dispersed to other parts of the body by means of the lymphatic system.
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In mice, Pinc is expressed in the developing embryo and in the mammary glands of adults. Its expression in the mammary gland is induced by pregnancy and drops during lactation. It may have a role in cell survival and in the regulation of cell cycle progression.
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Braun-Menedez, J.C. Fasciolo, L.F. Leloir, J.M. Muñoz)The Journal of Physiology(1940) no.98 pg.283-298 That same year, his colleague Ranwel Caputto, in his investigations of the mammary gland, made discoveries regarding carbohydrate storage and its subsequent transformation into a reserve energy form in organisms.
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She then completed graduate studies at McGill in the Department of Genetics under Charles Leonard Huskins. Her Ph.D. thesis was The correlation between chromosome behaviour and susceptibility to mammary gland cancer in mice (1938), for which she won the Governor General's Academic Medal for graduate work in science.
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Based on the EST profile, CORO6 expressed in high level at the larynx, nerve and muscle. CORO6 has also been shown to be expressed in high levels in the breast (mammary gland) tumor. During the human development stage, the higher level of CORO6 expressed at blastocyst and adult.
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Plasma FGF21 was similarly increased in the absence of parturition when an energy-deficit state was induced by feed restricting late- lactating dairy cows, implicating energy insufficiency as a cause of chronically elevated FGF21 in EL. The liver was the major source of plasma FGF21 in early lactation with little or no contribution by WAT, skeletal muscle, and mammary gland. Meaningful expression of the FGF21 coreceptor β-Klotho was restricted to liver and WAT in a survey of 15 tissues that included the mammary gland. Expression of β-Klotho and its subset of interacting FGF receptors was modestly affected by the transition from LP to EL in liver but not in WAT.
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The mammary ridge is primordial for the mammary gland on the breast in humans, and is associated with mammary gland and breast development. In human embryogenesis the mammary ridge usually appears as a narrow, microscopic ectodermal thickening during the first seven weeks of pregnancy and grows caudally as a narrow, linear ridge. In many mammals, these glands first appear as elevated ridges along the milk lines, which then separate into individual buds located in regions lateral to the ventral midline. The location of these buds varies according to species: they are located in the thoracic region in primates, in the inguinal area in ungulates, and along the entire length of the trunk in rodents and pigs.
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In 1966, during its clinical development, ethynerone was found to produce mammary gland tumors in dogs treated with it at very high doses for prolonged periods of time. Subsequent investigation found that 17α-hydroxyprogesterone derivatives included anagestone acetate, chlormadinone acetate, medroxyprogesterone acetate, and megestrol acetate produced similar mammary gland tumors, and that their ability to do so correlated directly with their progestogenic actions. In contrast, the non-halogenated 19-nortestosterone derivatives norgestrel, norethisterone, noretynodrel, and etynodiol diacetate, which are much less potent as progestogens, did not produce such effects at the dosages tested. Clinical development of ethynerone was discontinued, and many of the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone derivatives were withdrawn for the indication of hormonal contraception.
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At very low levels the FDA has long considered BPA in food to be safe, but this has been challenged over the years as more information is discovered regarding the effects of the chemical. Rats exposed prenatally to environmentally relevant doses of BPA show an increased number of intraductal hyperplasias (precancerious lesions) in mammary glands that appear during adulthood, while high doses induce the development of carcinomas in breast tissue. Animals exposed to BPA during fetal life develop palpable tumors, and all studies show an increased susceptibility to mammary gland neoplasia that manifests during adulthood. Exposure of mouse dams to environmentally relevant levels of BPA during organogenesis results in considerable alterations in the mammary gland.
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The mammary gland is thought to have derived from apocrine skin glands. It has been suggested that the original function of lactation (milk production) was keeping eggs moist. Much of the argument is based on monotremes (egg-laying mammals). The original adaptive significance of milk secretions may have been nutrition or immunological protection.
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The cells were derived from the pleural effusion of a ductal carcinoma found in the mammary gland of an elderly human patient. T-47D cells are distinct from other human breast cancer cells in that their progesterone receptors are not regulated by estradiol, a hormone that is abundant within the cells themselves.
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RANKL is expressed in several tissues and organs including: skeletal muscle, thymus, liver, colon, small intestine, adrenal gland, osteoblast, mammary gland epithelial cells, prostate and pancreas. Variation in concentration levels of RANKL throughout several organs reconfirms the importance of RANKL in tissue growth (particularly bone growth) and immune functions within the body.
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The human mammary gland provides the baby with a unique fat composition where the fatty acids arranged in specific combinations, different from the triglycerides in other human tissues and plasma,Breckenridge, W.C., L. Marai, and A. Kuksis, Triglyceride structure of human milk fat. Can J Biochem, 1969. 47(8): p. 761-9.
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According to the National Center for Biotechnology Information, C2CD4D has only been found to be expressed in adult individuals with some form of cancer.National Center for Biotechnology Information C2CD4D is not ubiquitously expressed, and thus far scientists have only found C2CD4D expressed in the tissues of the brain, intestine, and mammary gland.
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File:GEO Profile of A1BG tissue expression.jpg#filelinks A1BG is expressed at high levels in the adult and fetal liver. Additionally, the mammary gland shows roughly half as much expression as the liver. Trace amounts of A1BG expression can be found in the blood, brain, lung, lymph node, ovary, testis, pancreas, and pancreas.
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This dynamic affirms the consensus among researchers that human milk evolved to provide not only nutritional but immunological benefits to the infant. Some researches have proposed that the mammary gland and milk production evolved as a part of the human innate immune system, with its immunological protective role predating its nutritional role.
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VDR knockout mice show more extensive ductal development relative to wild-type mice, as well as precocious mammary gland development. In addition, VDR knockout has also been shown to result in increased responsiveness of mouse mammary gland tissue to estrogen and progesterone, which was represented by increased cell growth in response to these hormones. Conversely however, it has been found that VDR knockout mice show reduced ductal differentiation, represented by an increased number of undifferentiated TEBs, and this finding has been interpreted as indicating that vitamin D may be essential for lobuloalveolar development. As such, calcitriol, via the VDR, may be a negative regulator of ductal development but a positive regulator of lobuloalveolar development in the mammary gland. A possible mechanism of the negative regulatory effects of the VDR on breast development may be indicated by a study of vitamin D3 supplementation in women which found that vitamin D3 suppresses cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression in the breast, and by doing so, reduces and increases, respectively, the levels of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and transforming growth factor β2 (TGF-β2), a known inhibitory factor in breast development.
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Expression Levels found in Leukemia It is also found to be highly expressed in breast (mammary gland) tumor, cervical tumor, esophageal tumor, leukemia, liver tumor; lung tumor, pancreatic tumor, prostate cancer, and soft tissue/muscle tissue tumor. TMEM106C is found in all stages of development from embryoid body, blastocyst, fetus, infant, juvenile and adult.
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NCBI GEO Profiles detailed several conditions under which NHLRC2 expression is increase in comparison to base expression levels. Many, but not all, conditional cases involved an increase of NHLRC2 expression in various cancer types, including—but not limited to—the following: leukemia, lymphomas, breast & mammary gland cancer, colorectal cancer, Wilms' tumor, and lung cancer.
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Expressed sequence tag mapping of TMEM229B gene expression indicates that it is ubiquitously expressed throughout the body. TMEM229B is more heavily expressed in the parathyroid, skin, and thyroid tissues, and moderately expressed in bone marrow, trachea, spleen, eye, brain, pancreas, mammary gland, intestine, liver, thymus, lymph node, ovarian, muscle, lung, blood, and kidney tissues.
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Expression of KIAA1107 does not appear to be ubiquitous in Homo sapiens. KIAA1107 is found to be expressed mostly in the brain, with lower levels of expression occurring in the bladder, mammary gland, muscle, prostate, and testis. Within the brain, KIAA1107 is expressed highest in the pineal gland, prefrontal cortex, cingulate cortex, and subthalamic nucleus.
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Breast cancer: mS100a7a15 is upregulated in DMBA induced mammary gland tumors confined to epithelial tumor cells. mS100a7a15 overexpression in mammary epithelial cells enhances proliferation, angiogenesis and metastasis through induction of prometastatic and angiogenic factors like CCL2, Cox-2, MMP2, MMP9 and VEGF. Furthermore mS100a7a15 recruits tumor-associated-macrophages (TAM) through RAGE and Stat3 activation to promote tumorigenesis.
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In molecular biology, ZNFX1 antisense RNA 1, also known as ZNFX1-AS1 or ZFAS1, is a long non-coding RNA. It is expressed in the lung and mammary gland in mice. Its expression is down-regulated in mammary tumours, it may function as a tumour suppressor gene. The ZNFX1-AS1 gene hosts three snoRNA genes (SNORD12, SNORD12B and SNORD12C)).
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Hernandez grew up in El Paso, Texas. Initially she studied at Iowa State University, however she transferred to New Mexico State University where she completed her masters in animal science and toxicology. She started her PhD in 2005 at the University of Arizona with mammary gland physiologist Bob Collier. Hernandez joined the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 2011.
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TRIM62, also called DEAR1 (for ductal epithelium–associated RING chromosome 1), is a protein in the tripartite motif family. In human it is encoded by the gene TRIM62. TRIM62 is involved in the morphogenesis of the mammary gland, and loss of TRIM62 gene expression in breast is associated with a higher risk of recurrence in early-onset breast cancer.
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These two ER types are encoded by different genes located on separate chromosomes and have different functions. ERα is mostly active in the mammary gland and uterus, and aide in the regulation of skeletal homeostasis and metabolism. ER-β on the other hand, plays a more prominent role in the central nervous and immune systems functional mechanisms.
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She was promoted to Associate Professor in 2012 and full Professor in 2016. Her research considers how cells within tissues integrate complicated biological systems spatially and dynamically. At Princeton Nelson leads the Tissue Morphodynamic Laboratory, which combines engineering, cell biology and developmental biology. She investigates the morphogenesis process that builds both the mammary gland and vertebrate lung.
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Microcalcifications are tiny deposits of calcium salts that are too small to be felt but can be detected by imaging. They can be scattered throughout the mammary gland, or occur in clusters. Microcalcifications can be an early sign of breast cancer. Based on morphology, it is possible to classify by radiography how likely microcalcifications are to indicate cancer.
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Lymph vessels originating at the base of the nipples can ventrally extend as far as the intermammary cleftCharles Wesley Turner, The mammary gland (vol. 1), page 80, Lucas Bros., 1952 and to the opposite breast. The intermammary lymphatics begin as a bunch of small channels consisting of a single layer of epithelium that is supported by stroma tissues.
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They give the breast its offspring-feeding functions as a mammary gland. They are distributed throughout the body of the breast. Approximately two-thirds of the lactiferous tissue is within 30 mm of the base of the nipple. The terminal lactiferous ducts drain the milk from TDLUs into 4–18 lactiferous ducts, which drain to the nipple.
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For example, in normal condition, mammary ridge (milk line) would extend from the bilateral axillary tail to the inguinal region. If this extension does not occur in normal way, the breast would not develop successfully. Amastia may also be caused by the inability of producing parathyroid hormone related protein. The absence of this protein will disrupt the normal development of mammary gland.
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It aids in normal mammary gland development. It is necessary for maintenance of the mammary bud. Loss of PTHrP or its receptor causes the mammary bud cell fate to change back into epidermis. In lactation, it may regulate in conjunction with the calcium sensing receptor the mobilization and transfer of calcium to the milk, as well as placental transfer of calcium.
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External abscesses are the most common form of pigeon fever seen in horses. Abscesses develop on the body, usually in the pectoral region and along the ventral midline of the abdomen. However, abscesses can also develop on other areas of the body such as the prepuce, mammary gland, triceps, limbs and head. The fatality rate for this form infection is very low.
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At the apical membranes of the liver and kidney, it enhances excretion of xenobiotics. In the lactating mammary gland, it has a role on excreting vitamins such as riboflavin and biotin into milk. In the kidney and gastrointestinal tract, it has a role in urate excretion. The protein also carries the Jr(a) antigen, which defines the Junior blood group system.
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Working against estrogen, the presence of testosterone in a pubescent female inhibits breast development and promotes muscle and facial hair development. Estrogen levels also rise significantly during pregnancy. A number of other changes typically occur during pregnancy, including enlargement and increased firmness of the breasts, mainly due to hypertrophy of the mammary gland in response to the hormone prolactin. The size of the nipples may increase noticeably.
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PMCA2 expression falls on weaning, leading to calcium-induced apoptosis and mammary gland involution. Persistent PMCA2 expression in certain breast cancers lowers calcium levels inside malignant cells, allowing them to avoid apoptosis. These tumors are also usually positive for the HER2 protein, tend to involve the lymph nodes, and are more common among young women, which could help explain their worse prognosis compared with postmenopausal women.
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During both of these periods, progesterone levels are high. Because the hormonal profile of a pregnant female and a female in diestrus are the same, sometimes a non-pregnant female will go through a period of pseudo-pregnancy. At that time she may gain weight, have mammary gland development, produce milk, and exhibit nesting behaviours. 4\. Anestrus is the remaining period, the time of reproductive quiescence.
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The equid mammary gland has a low capacity (max 2.5 l) and a part of the milk production should be left to the foal and milking may be carried out two or three hours after separation from the foal.Doreau M (1991) Le lait de jument. INRA Productions Animales 4 :297–302. Donkeys should be milked three times a day from 20 to 90 days after foaling.
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Milk lipids are secreted in a unique manner by lactocytes, which are specialized epithelial cells within the alveoli of the lactating mammary gland. The process takes place in multiple stages. First, fat synthesized within the endoplasmic reticulum accumulates in droplets between the inner and outer phospholipid monolayers of the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. As these droplets increase in size, the two monolayers separate further and eventually pinch off.
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PELP1 is a proto-oncogene that provides cancer cells with a distinct growth and survival advantage. PELP1 interacts with various enzymes that modulate the cytoskeleton, cell migration, and metastasis. PELP1 deregulation in vivo promotes development of mammary gland hyperplasia and carcinoma PELP1 is implicated in progression of breast, endometrial, ovarian, salivary prostate, lung, pancreas, and colon neoplasms. PELP1 signaling contributes to hormonal therapy resistance.
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Mammary gland tumors are the third common type of cancer in older female cats, with the most common symptom manifesting as a lump in the breast tissue. Domestic short-haired cats and Siamese appear to have a higher incident rates. The tumor is typically firm and nodular, and adheres to the overlying skin. Nipples may also appear to be red and swollen, oozing yellowish fluid.
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Accordingly, ERα, amphiregulin, and EGFR knockout mice copy each other phenotypically in regards to their effects on ductal development. Also in accordance, treatment of mice with amphiregulin or other EGFR ligands like TGF-α or heregulin induces ductal and lobuloalveolar development in the mouse mammary gland, actions that occur even in the absence of estrogen and progesterone. As both the IGF-1R and the EGFR are independently essential for mammary gland development, and as combined application of IGF-1 and EGF, through their respective receptors, has been found to synergistically stimulate the growth of human breast epithelial cells, these growth factor systems appear to work together in mediating breast development. Elevated levels of HGF and, to a lesser extent, IGF-1 (by 5.4-fold and 1.8-fold, respectively), in breast stromal tissue, have been found in macromastia, a very rare condition of extremely and excessively large breast size.
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Lactiferous ducts are those ducts that converge and form a branched system connecting the nipple to the lobules of the mammary gland. When lactogenesis occurs, under the influence of hormones, the milk is moved to the nipple by the action of smooth muscle contractions along the ductal system to the tip of the nipple. They are also referred to as galactophores, galactophorous ducts, mammary ducts, mamillary ducts or milk ducts.
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Amazia refers to the absence of one or both mammary glands but the nipples remain present. While athelia refers to the absence of one or both nipples, but the mammary gland remains. Amastia is presumably due to failure of embryologic mammary ridge development, or incomplete involution. People with amastia often suffer from ectodermal defects, which include various syndromes such as cleft palate, isolated pectoral muscle and abnormal formation of upper limb.
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It was taken by mouth. The main components of conjugated estriol are estriol glucuronides and to a lesser extent estriol sulfates. Estrogen glucuronides can be deglucuronidated into the corresponding free estrogens by β-glucuronidase in tissues that express this enzyme, such as the mammary gland, liver, and kidney, among others. Likewise, estrogen sulfates can be desulfated into the corresponding free estrogens by steroid sulfatase in tissues that express this enzyme.
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4T1 cell culture - 50% confluence 4T1 is a breast cancer cell line derived from the mammary gland tissue of a mouse BALB/c strain. 4T1 cells are epithelial and are resistant to 6-thioguanine. In preclinical research, 4T1 cells have been used to study breast cancer metastasis as they can metastasize to the lung, liver, lymph nodes, brain and bone. The cells are known to be highly aggressive in live tissues.
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Expression of C9orf152 in the brain of a mouse via Allen Brain Atlas. The only area of high expression is the dark purple on the left, which is located in the olfactory bulb. C9orf152 is expressed in the bladder, intestine, mammary gland, and trachea and in smaller amounts in the lungs, liver, prostate, uterus, and brain. Within the brain, expression of C9orf152 is limited to the olfactory bulb.
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The breast is one of two prominences located on the upper ventral region of the torso of primates. In females, it serves as the mammary gland, which produces and secretes milk to feed infants. Both females and males develop breasts from the same embryological tissues. At puberty, estrogens, in conjunction with growth hormone, cause breast development in female humans and to a much lesser extent in other primates.
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Foxes tend to have an average litter size of four to five with an 80 percent success rate in becoming pregnant. Litter sizes can vary greatly according to species and environmentthe Arctic fox, for example, can have up to eleven kits. The vixen usually has six or eight mammae. Each teat has 8 to 20 lactiferous ducts, which connect the mammary gland to the nipple, allowing for milk to be carried to the nipple.
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In 1986 he was among the scientists who launched the Human Genome Project. From 1993 to 1997 he moved back to Italy, where he was president of the Institute of Biomedical Technologies at C.N.R. (National Council of Research) in Milan. He also retained his position on the faculty of Salk Institute for Biological Studies. Dulbecco was actively involved in research into identification and characterization of mammary gland cancer stem cells until December 2011.
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Jarid1B has been implicated in the development of prostate, breast, and skin cancer and also has been associated with melanoma maintenance. Knockout mice (Jarid1b−/−) produced are viable in neonatal life. These mice do exhibit the phenotype of premature mortality, decreased fertility in female mice, reduction in body weight and impairment in mammary gland development. It also acted to decrease serum estrogen levels and caused reduced mammary epithelial cell proliferation in the early stages of puberty.
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Cathepsin L2, also known as cathepsin V and encoded by the CTSV gene, is a human gene. The protein encoded by this gene, a member of the peptidase C1 family, is a lysosomal cysteine proteinase that may play an important role in corneal physiology. This gene is expressed in colorectal and breast carcinomas but not in normal colon, mammary gland, or peritumoral tissues, suggesting a possible role for this gene in tumor processes.
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Metastasis-associated protein MTA3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MTA3 gene. MTA3 protein localizes in the nucleus as well as in other cellular compartments MTA3 is a component of the nucleosome remodeling and deacetylate (NuRD) complex and participates in gene expression. The expression pattern of MTA3 is opposite to that of MTA1 and MTA2 during mammary gland tumorigenesis. However, MTA3 is also overexpressed in a variety of human cancers.
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Although Jacobsohn was not permitted to do research as she was a foreigner without a Swedish degree, she worked with Westman at Lund University and ran clinical hormone assays for the hospital. Nonetheless, she published over 22 research papers during this 10 year collaboration. In 1944, she gained Swedish citizenship and in 1948, a Swedish medical degree, with a thesis on mammary gland development. This allowed her to finally become a professor at Lund University.
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In females that are not lactating, when M cells recognize antigen in the gut, they stimulate production of many Immunoglobulin A (IgA) antibodies. These antibodies are released into the gut mucosa, salivary glands, and lymph nodes. However, in females that are lactating, M cells recognize antigen and IgA is directed from the gut to the mammary gland. IgA traveling from the gut to breast milk supply is controlled by hormones, chemokines, and cytokines.
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They will investigate how endocrine disrupting agents modulate the activity of fibroblasts in high and low mammographic density breast tissue. They use a 3D in vitro model of the human mammary gland. By identifying how oestrogen mimics effect human fibroblasts from areas of different breast density it will be possible to identify how the drives breast cancer development. She has published extensively on breast cancer and has a h-index of over 40.
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Based on NCBI GEO expression profiles and EST analyses, the protein appears to be narrowly expressed throughout human tissues. It is highly expressed in bone marrow, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, lymph node, mammary gland, spleen, stomach, thyroid, and small intestine tissue. Expression is elevated in cases of early T-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia and lowered in breast cancer cells that are treated with estrogen, suggesting an interaction between the protein and estrogen.
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Sterneck began her independent research with an NCI-Scholar grant before being recruited as a principal investigator to the National Cancer Institute (NCI) in 2003. She is a senior investigator and head of the molecular mechanisms in development section. Sterneck's research investigates signaling pathways with emphasis on pro-inflammatory molecules in breast epithelial cells and cells of the tumor microenvironment. She studies cell signaling pathways that regulate mammary gland development and tumorigenesis.
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Removal should be with wide margins to prevent recurrence, taking the whole mammary gland if necessary. Because 40 to 50 percent of dog mammary tumors have estrogen receptors, spaying is recommended by many veterinarians. A recent study showed a better prognosis in dogs that are spayed at the time of surgery or that had been recently spayed. However, several other studies found no improvement of disease outcome when spaying was performed after the tumor had developed.
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Activation of AMPK-related kinases by LKB1 plays vital roles maintaining cell polarity thereby inhibiting inappropriate expansion of tumour cells. A picture from current research is emerging that loss of LKB1 leads to disorganization of cell polarity and facilitates tumour growth under energetically unfavorable conditions. Loss of LKB1 activity is associated with highly aggressive HER2+ breast cancer. HER2/neu mice were engineered for loss of mammary gland expression of Lkb1 resulting in reduced latency of tumorgenesis.
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Netrin has been discovered to play a key role in the development and mature regulation of tissue outside the nervous system. Some of the non-neural tissues implicated include lung, placental, vasculature, pancreas, muscle and mammary gland tissue. Netrin contributes to tissue morphogenesis by controlling developing cell migration and cell adhesion in different organs. In developing mammary glands, the growing tips of the ductal network consist of two layers made up of luminal epithelial cells and cap cells.
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The conditional gene knockout method is often used to model human diseases in other mammals. It has increased scientists’ ability to study diseases, such as cancer, that develop in specific cell types or developmental stages. It is known that mutations in the BRCA1 gene are linked to breast cancer. Scientists used conditional gene knockout to delete the BRCA1 allele in mammary gland tissue in mice and found that it plays an important role in tumour suppression.
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Whereas free steroids like estradiol are lipophilic and can enter cells via passive diffusion, steroid conjugates like E1S are hydrophilic and are unable to do so. Instead, steroid conjugates require active transport via membrane transport proteins to enter cells. Studies in animals and humans have had mixed findings on uptake of exogenously administered E1S in normal and tumorous mammary gland tissue. This is in contrast to substantial uptake of exogenously administered estradiol and estrone by the mammary glands.
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Rotter's lymph nodes are small interpectoral lymph nodes located between the pectoralis major and pectoralis minor muscles. They receive lymphatic fluid from the muscles and the mammary gland, and deliver lymphatic fluid to the axillary lymphatic plexus. These lymph nodes are susceptible to breast cancer, as the cancer sometimes spreads (metastasizes) to the interpectoral lymph nodes. Rotter's lymph nodes are named after German surgeon Josef Rotter (1857-1924), who described them in the early 19th century.
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Estrone is biosynthesized from cholesterol. The principal pathway involves androstenedione as an intermediate, with androstenedione being transformed into estrone by the enzyme aromatase. This reaction occurs in both the gonads and in certain other tissues, particularly adipose tissue, and estrone is subsequently secreted from these tissues. In addition to aromatization of androstenedione, estrone is also formed reversibly from estradiol by the enzyme 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17β-HSD) in various tissues, including the liver, uterus, and mammary gland.
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Its ectodomain consists of a collagen- binding discoidin domain followed by ~200 residues of unknown structure. It binds fibril-forming collagens and primarily type IV collagen, but also collagen of types I, VI, VIII. It is expressed mainly in epithelial cells and leukocytes and expression rate changes due to cell cycle phase. Functions include: mammary gland development; arterial wound repair; regulation of cell proliferation, cell adhesion and MMP expression; kidney function, differentiation and function of leukocytes.
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Udder of a cow An udder is an organ formed of two or four mammary glands of dairy animals ruminants such as cattle, goats, and sheep. A mammary gland is equivalent to the breast in primates. The udder is a single mass hanging beneath the animal, consisting of pairs of mammary glands with protruding teats. In cattle, there are normally two pairs, in sheep, goats and deer, there is one pair, and in some animals, there are many pairs.
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C9orf43 is expressed in health states including cervical tumors, normal tumors, and soft tissue/muscle tumors. C9orf43 is expressed at high levels in sperm cells compared to lower relative expression in teratozoospermia. Greater relative expression of C9orf43 is seen in the hyperplastic enlarged lobular unit of the mammary gland as compared to the normal terminal duct lobular unit. C9orf43 expression varies in megakaryocyte differentiation as seen in peripheral blood CD34 plus cells as compared to CHRF-288-11 cells.
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When born, calves are generally 10 to 15 feet long. They feed off their mothers milk, which is produced and fed to their calves through mammary gland slits. The calf is able to roll its tongue into a tube and siphon in the milk that is ejected into the water. Occasionally pods of dolphins are found trailing mothers and their calves, and it has been speculated that they are consuming be leftover milk that the calf does not eat.
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Pseudopregnancy has been suggested for use in decreasing the risk of breast cancer in women, though this has not been assessed in clinical studies. Natural pregnancy before the age of 20 has been associated with a 50% lifetime reduction in the risk of breast cancer. Pseudopregnancy has been found to produce decreases in risk of mammary gland tumors in rodents similar to those of natural pregnancy, implicating high levels of estrogen and progesterone in this effect.
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In a mouse specimen, when SIM2s was not expressed in mammary epithelial cells there were development defects leading to cancer-like characteristics in the cells. The defects were increased cell proliferation, cellular invasion of local stroma, loss of cellular polarity, and loss of E-cadherin cellular adhesion molecules. These observations suggest that SIM2s is essential for proper mammary gland development. Experiments reintroducing SIM2s in human breast cancer cells allowed for the tumor suppressive characteristics to be observed.
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Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) literally means groups of "cancerous" epithelial cells which remained in their normal location (in situ) within the ducts and lobules of the mammary gland. Clinically, it is considered a premalignant (i.e. potentially malignant) condition, because the biologically abnormal cells have not yet crossed the basement membrane to invade the surrounding tissue. When multiple lesions (known as "foci" of DCIS) are present in different quadrants of the breast, this is referred to as "multicentric" disease.
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As a mammary gland, the breast comprises lobules (milk glands at each lobe-tip) and the lactiferous ducts (milk passages), which widen to form an ampulla (sac) at the nipple. # Adipose tissue. The fat tissue of the breast is composed of lipidic fluid (60–85% weight) that is 90–99 per cent triglycerides, free fatty acids, diglycerides, cholesterol phospholipids, and minute quantities of cholesterol esters, and monoglycerides; the other components are water (5–30% weight) and protein (2–3% weight). # The skin envelope.
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Cross-section scheme of the mammary gland. The presence of breast implants currently presents no contraindication to breast feeding, and no evidence to support that the practice may present health issues to a breast feeding infant is recognized by the USFDA. Women with breast implants may have functional breast-feeding difficulties; mammoplasty procedures that feature periareolar incisions are especially likely to cause breast-feeding difficulties. Surgery may also damage the lactiferous ducts and the nerves in the nipple-areola area.
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It is hypothesized that other pleiotropic effects associated with the V370A allele were favored by natural selection to help promote the presence of the allele and thus the emergence of shovel-shaped incisors. One of these associated traits is increased ductal branching in the mammary gland, which improves nutrient transport in breastmilk. This may likely have conferred a survival advantage to those with the allele during the Last Glacial Maximum in certain environments with high altitudes and low Vitamin D.
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The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the LAR protein tyrosine phosphatase-interacting protein (liprin) family. Liprins interact with members of LAR family of transmembrane protein tyrosine phosphatases, which are known to be important for axon guidance and mammary gland development. This protein binds to the intracellular membrane-distal phosphatase domain of tyrosine phosphatase LAR, and appears to localize LAR to cell focal adhesions. This interaction may regulate the disassembly of focal adhesion and thus help orchestrate cell-matrix interactions.
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During the dry period changes begin to occur within the mammary gland which correspond to milk synthesis and secretion. This period is important for the rejuvenation of new udder tissue in preparation for lactation. It also provides the cow the opportunity to eliminate mastitis causing pathogens within the udder. In the early stages of the non-lactating period (between 12 and 24 hours) there is decrease of milk protein and cell survival genes, resulting in a loss of epithelial cells.
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The change in intracellular processes and gene regulation causes a decrease in milk production until all milk production from mammary epithelial cells cease. Concentrations of milk-specific components such as lactose and fat will also decrease as milk production decreases. This stage is followed by a steady state period where the mammary glands remain in a non-lactating state. Preceding parturition, parenchymal tissue within the mammary gland will redevelop, allowing the reconstruction of new udder tissue in preparation for lactation.
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After peak milk production her body condition will also steadily recover. Producers will typically continue to milk the cow until she is two months away from parturition then they will dry her off. Giving the cow a break during the final stages of pregnancy allows her mammary gland to regress and re-develop, her body condition to recover, and the calf to develop normally. Decreased body condition in the cow means she will not be as productive in subsequent milk cycles.
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FOXA1 in breast cancer is highly correlated with ERα+, GATA3+, and PR+ protein expression as well as endocrine signaling. FOXA1 acts as a pioneer factor for ERa in ERα+ breast cancer, and its expression might identify ERα+ cancers that undergo rapid reprogramming of ERa signaling that is associated with poor outcomes and treatment resistance. Conversely, in ERα− breast cancer FOXA1 is highly correlated with low-grade morphology and improved disease free survival. FOXA1 is a downstream target of GATA3 in the mammary gland.
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Every time a cow enters the parlor several things need to happen to ensure milk quality and cow health. First, the cow's udder must be cleaned and disinfected to prevent both milk contamination and udder infections. Then the milking technician must check each teat for signs of infection by observing the first stream of milk. During this processes, called stripping the teat, the milking technician is looking for any discoloration or chunkiness that would indicate mastitis, an infection in the cow's mammary gland.
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MMTV codes for the retroviral structural genes and additionally for a superantigen. This stimulates T lymphocytes with a certain type of V beta chain in their T cell receptor, which in turn stimulates B cell proliferation increasing the population of cells that can be infected. During puberty, the virus enters the mammary glands with migrating lymphocytes and infects proliferating mammary gland epithelial cells. As a retrovirus the mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) is able to insert its viral genome in the host genome.
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The OXTR protein belongs to the G-protein coupled receptor family, specifically Gq, and acts as a receptor for oxytocin. Its activity is mediated by G proteins that activate several different second messenger systems. Oxytocin receptors are expressed by the myoepithelial cells of the mammary gland, and in both the myometrium and endometrium of the uterus at the end of pregnancy. The oxytocin-oxytocin receptor system plays an important role as an inducer of uterine contractions during parturition and of milk ejection.
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As a mammary gland, the breast comprises lobules (milk glands at each lobe-tip) and the lactiferous ducts (milk passages), which widen to form an ampulla (sac) at the nipple. # Adipose tissue. The fat tissue of the breast is composed of lipidic fluid (60–85% weight) that is 90–99 per cent triglycerides, free fatty acids, diglycerides, cholesterol phospholipids, and minute quantities of cholesterol esters, and monoglycerides; the other components are water (5–30% weight) and protein (2–3% weight). # Fatty tissue.
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In contrast to the other AKRs, AKR1C3 has low catalytic efficiency for reduction of 5α-DHP. These AKRs are highly expressed in the human liver and mammary gland but have relatively modest expression in the human brain and uterus. 5α-DHP is an agonist of the progesterone receptor and a positive allosteric modulator of the GABAA receptor (albeit with an affinity for this receptor that is regarded as relatively low (in comparison to 3α-hydroxylated progesterone metabolites such as allopregnanolone and pregnanolone)).
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The ERICH3 gene in humans is 105,628 bases and is encoded on the minus strand at position 31.1 on the short arm of chromosome 1 from base pair 75,033,795 bp to 75,139,422 bp from pter. C1orf173's function in humans is still unclear though there is a link between expression of this gene and several forms of cancer, such as breast cancer and skin sarcomas. C1orf173 is expressed in the brain, eye, lung, mammary gland, muscle, pituitary gland, testis, trachea, and uterus.
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Gardner syndrome is also associated with familial adenomatous polyposis and may manifest as aggressive fibromatosis (desmoid tumors) of the retroperitoneum.DeVita. Cancer, Principles and Practice of Oncology, 8th Ed. p. 1742. Desmoid tumors arise most frequently from the aponeurosis of the rectus abdominal muscle of multiparous women. The extra- abdominal form is rare and desmoids of the breast may arise in the mammary gland or may occur as an extension of a lesion arising from the muscles of the chest wall.
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Liprin-beta-1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PPFIBP1 gene. The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the LAR protein-tyrosine phosphatase-interacting protein (liprin) family. Liprins interact with members of LAR family of transmembrane protein tyrosine phosphatases, which are known to be important for axon guidance and mammary gland development. It has been proposed that liprins are multivalent proteins that form complex structures and act as scaffolds for the recruitment and anchoring of LAR family of tyrosine phosphatases.
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According to data on NCBI’s EST Abundance Profile page for KIAA1109, the gene is expressed in many different tissues in humans. Human expression is seen most predominately in parathyroid, muscle, ear, eye, mammary gland, lymph node, thymus in addition to 27 other tissues. KIAA1109 is also expressed in various disease states including 12 different tumors as well as bladder carcinoma, chondrosarcoma, glioma, leukemia, lymphoma, non-neoplasia, retinoblastoma tissues. KIAA1109 is expressed in all stages of development from embryoid body to adult, except in infants.
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Glycoside hydrolase family 22 CAZY GH_22 comprises lysozyme type C () lysozyme type i () and alpha-lactalbumins. Asp and/or the carbonyl oxygen of the C-2 acetamido group of the substrate acts as the catalytic nucleophile/base. Alpha-lactalbumin, is a milk protein that acts as the regulatory subunit of lactose synthetase, acting to promote the conversion of galactosyltransferase to lactose synthase, which is essential for milk production. In the mammary gland, alpha-lactalbumin changes the substrate specificity of galactosyltransferase from N-acetylglucosamine to glucose.
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This technique is rarely used in cosmetic surgery due to high risk of animation deformities. #Prepectoral or subcutaneous: in a breast reconstruction following a skin- sparing or skin- and nipple-sparing mastectomy, the implant is placed above the pectoralis major muscle without dissecting it so that the implant fills directly the volume of the mammary gland that has been removed. To avoid the issue of capsular contracture, the implant is often covered frontally or completely with a mesh in biomaterial, either biological or synthetic.
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CCL28 has also been implicated in the migration of IgA-expressing cells to the mammary gland, salivary gland, intestine and other mucosal tissues. It has also been shown as a potential antimicrobial agent effective against certain pathogens, such as Gram negative and Gram positive bacteria and the fungus Candida albicans. Human CCL28 is encoded by an RNA transcript of 373 nucleotides and a gene with four exons. The gene codes for a 127-amino acid CCL28 protein with a 22-amino acid N-terminal signal peptide.
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Wnt proteins constitute a large family of secreted molecules that are involved in intercellular signalling during development. The name derives from the first 2 members of the family to be discovered: int-1 (mouse) and wingless (Drosophila). It is now recognised that Wnt signalling controls many cell fate decisions in a variety of different organisms, including mammals. Wnt signalling has been implicated in tumourigenesis, early mesodermal patterning of the embryo, morphogenesis of the brain and kidneys, regulation of mammary gland proliferation and Alzheimer's disease.
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RANK is constitutively expressed in mammary epithelial tissues. Calcium transferred from mother to fetus and neonate is provided by the degradation of the female bone by increased osteoclastic activity, which is regulated by the RANK/RANKL axis. RANKL also works through RANK to provide proliferative and survival signals to promote the final stages of lactating mammary gland development. Dysfunctional RANK or RANKL causes the arrest of differentiation and expansion of the alveolar bunds into mature lobulo-alveolar mammary structures, disabling the production of milk.
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Women with menopause have often been given various types of postmenopausal hormone therapies to prevent osteoporosis and reduce menopausal symptoms. Medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) is a synthetic progestin and was commonly used as a contraceptive or used as a hormone therapy for endometriosis or osteoporosis. Recent studies suggest, using MPA increases patient risks of developing breast cancer due to an increase expression of RANKL. MPA causes a substantial induction of RANKL in mammary-gland epithelial cells while deletion of RANKL decreases the incidence MPA-induced breast cancer.
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MDA-MB-468 is a cell line that was isolated from a 51-year-old female human in 1977, and is commonly used in breast cancer research. MDA-MB-468 cells were extracted from a pleural effusion of mammary gland and breast tissues, and have proven useful for the study of metastasis, migration, and breast cancer proliferation. The cell line was isolated in 1977 by R. Cailleau, et al., from a pleural effusion of a 51-year-old Black female patient with metastatic adenocarcinoma of the breast.
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The cows teat is a projection of the mammary gland that is sealed during their dry period.A dry cow refers to a dairy cow that is in a stage of their lactation cycle where milk production ceases prior to calving. This part of their lactation cycle is referred to as the cows dry period and typically last between 40 and 65 days. Dry cows are typically divided into two groups: far- off (60–21 days before calving) and close-up (21 days to calving).
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In F. U. Reuss and J. M. Coffin (2000) experiments it is mentioned that the expression of the virus genome is activated by an enhancer element that is present in the U3 region of the long terminal repeat of the genome. In addition the expression of the genome is activated specifically in the mammary gland cells. Estrogen is able to further activate the expression of the viral genome. The expression of sag gene which is present in the provirus is responsible for the production of a superantigen.
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The gene is flanked by UBR4 on its right and MRTO4 on its left. This Information is graphically displayed in Figure 1. Expressed Sequence Tags and isolated cDNA clones indicate KIAA0090 is expressed ubiquitously in low to moderate levels throughout the body. This includes but is not limited to testis, tongue, lung, cerebellum, brain, mammary gland, trachea, placenta, esophageal, salivary gland, brain, hippocampus, amygdale, bone marrow, thalamus, spleen, uterus, thymus, kidney, eye, heart, gall bladder, prostate, liver, parathyroid gland, ovary, stomach, skeletal muscle, colon, pancreas, and skin.
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BT-20 is a breast cancer cell line derived from a 74-year-old human female in 1958 by E.Y. Lasfargues and L. Ozzello. The cells technically came from a triple-negative breast cancer, which was caused by an invasive ductal carcinoma in the mammary gland. BT-20 cells are known to have amplified regions of chromosomes 6, 11, and 20, with most cells being hyperdiploid. The cells express an estrogen receptor with a deletion of exon 5, and are used in preclinical studies of breast cancer.
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Mammary tumor in a dog A mammary tumor is a neoplasm originating in the mammary gland. It is a common finding in older female dogs and cats that are not spayed, but they are found in other animals as well. The mammary glands in dogs and cats are associated with their nipples and extend from the underside of the chest to the groin on both sides of the midline. There are many differences between mammary tumors in animals and breast cancer in humans, including tumor type, malignancy, and treatment options.
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Further work on dog kidney cells has shown that a signaling cascade involving the phosphorylation of EGFR by Yes leading to the activation of Rab11FIP5 by MAPK1 upregulates transcytosis. Transcytosis has been shown to be inhibited by the combination of progesterone and estradiol followed by activation mediated by prolactin in the rabbit mammary gland during pregnancy. In the thyroid, follicular cell transcytosis is regulated positively by TSH . The phosphorylation of caveolin 1 induced by hydrogen peroxide has been shown to be critical to the activation of transcytosis in pulmonary vascular tissue.
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Receptor activator of nuclear factor κ B (RANK), also known as TRANCE receptor or TNFRSF11A, is a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) molecular sub-family. RANK is the receptor for RANK-Ligand (RANKL) and part of the RANK/RANKL/OPG signaling pathway that regulates osteoclast differentiation and activation. It is associated with bone remodeling and repair, immune cell function, lymph node development, thermal regulation, and mammary gland development. Osteoprotegerin (OPG) is a decoy receptor for RANKL, and regulates the stimulation of the RANK signaling pathway by competing for RANKL.
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The cytoplasmic domain of RANK binds TRAFs 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 which transmit signals to downstream targets such as NF-κB and JNK. RANK is constitutively expressed in skeletal muscle, thymus, liver, colon, small intestine, adrenal gland, osteoclast, mammary gland epithelial cells, prostate, vascular cell, and pancreas. Most commonly, activation of NF-κB is mediated by RANKL, but over-expression of RANK alone is sufficient to activate the NF-κB pathway. RANKL (receptor activator for nuclear factor κ B ligand) is found on the surface of stromal cells, osteoblasts, and T cells.
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Instead of just recording the change in heat generated by the tumor, the image is now able to identify changes due to the vascularization of the mammary gland. In order for a tumor (to originate, develop and grow) an enhanced blood supply is necessary (angiogenesis theory). The more detailed map of the vascular network contains information pointing to the location where the breast has changed to accommodate the tumor. More importantly, the ability to visualize tumors in a precancerous state enables prompt and strategic removal, which of course removes the cause of the tumor.
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Dry periods that are too short have been associated with reduced milk yields and increased risks of infections. Dry periods that are too long have also been linked to an overall decrease in lifetime milk yields but could also lead to over-conditioning, metabolic diseases and infections. During this time the cow is highly susceptible to intra-mammary infections due to the anatomical and functional changes occurring within the mammary gland. Proper individualized treatments and management must be implemented for optimal health and production as well as disease prevention.
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ERα plays a role in the physiological development and function of a variety of organ systems to varying degrees, including the reproductive, central nervous, skeletal, and cardiovascular systems. Accordingly, ERα is widely expressed throughout the body, including the uterus and ovary, male reproductive organs, mammary gland, bone, heart, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, liver, lung, kidney, spleen, and adipose tissue. The development and function of these tissues is disrupted in animal models lacking active ERα genes, such as the ERα knockout mouse (ERKO), providing a preliminary understanding of ERα function at specific target organs.
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TMEM171 is moderately and differentially expressed, indicating that it is neither a housekeeping gene nor a tissue-enriched gene. Its expression is highest in the thyroid, mammary gland, stomach, duodenum, and kidney. It is also expressed at moderate levels in tissues including the spleen, ileum, colon, salivary gland, and expressed at lower levels in a variety of other tissues. Conditional expression patterns of TMEM171 include decreased expression in papillary thyroid carcinoma, colon cancer, and gastric cancer, as well as increased expression in p63-depleted tissue and induced alveolar macrophages.
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Milk is composed of my bioconstituents, but only a few will be outlined here. In the first days of puerperium, the first milk is thick and yellowish, also called colostrum. For weeks after that, mature milk is expressed and it has been shown that fetal-mammary gland signaling occurs even before birth in determining milk type and concentrations based on the fetus sex. Colostrum plays an important role in establishing the infant gut microbiome, as it contains important immunoglobins, and is high in protein and low in fat and milk sugar such as lactose.
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It was concluded that perinatal exposure to low doses of BPA results in altered mammary gland morphogenesis, induction of precancerous lesions, and carcinoma in situ. A study sought to determine whether early exposure to BPA could accelerate mammary carcinogenesis in a dimethylbenzanthracene (DMBA) model of rodent mammary cancer. In the study, scientists exposed neonatal/prebubertal rats to BPA via lactation from nursing dams treated orally with 0, 25, and 250 µg BPA/kg body weight/day. For tumorigenesis studies, female offspring were exposed to 30 mg DMBA/kg body weight at 50 days of age.
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Known flavivirus vector-borne viruses include Dengue virus, Yellow Fever virus, tick-borne encephalitis virus, and West Nile virus. In 1958, MODV was first isolated from the mammary gland tissue of a white-footed deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) captured in Modoc County, California. Since the first isolation, the MODV has also been isolated from deer mice in Oregon, Colorado, and Montana. There are other anti-genetically and genetically related viruses which also have no known vector such as Jutiapa virus, the Cowbone Ridge virus, the Sal Vieja virus, and the San Perlita virus.
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As a mammary gland, the breast is composed of differing layers of tissue, predominantly two types: adipose tissue; and glandular tissue, which affects the lactation functions of the breasts. Morphologically the breast is tear-shaped. The superficial tissue layer (superficial fascia) is separated from the skin by 0.5–2.5 cm of subcutaneous fat (adipose tissue). The suspensory Cooper's ligaments are fibrous-tissue prolongations that radiate from the superficial fascia to the skin envelope. The female adult breast contains 14–18 irregular lactiferous lobes that converge at the nipple.
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Spironolactone has weak progestogenic activity in bioassays. Its actions in this regard are a result of direct agonist activity at the PR, though with a very low half-maximal potency. Spironolactone's progestogenic activity has been suggested to be involved in some of its side effects, including the menstrual irregularities seen in women and the undesirable serum lipid profile changes that are seen at higher doses. It has also been suggested to augment the gynecomastia caused by the estrogenic effects of spironolactone, as progesterone is known to be involved in mammary gland development.
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His research using a stem cell model system suggested that a single malignant cell with stem cell properties may be sufficient to induce cancer in mice and can generate distinct populations of tumor- initiating cells also with cancer stem cell properties. Dulbecco's examinations into the origin of mammary gland cancer stem cells in solid tumors was a continuation of his early investigations of cancer being a disease of acquired mutations. His interest in cancer stem cells was strongly influenced by evidence that in addition to genomic mutations, epigenetic modification of a cell may contribute to the development or progression of cancer.
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The five surgical approaches to emplacing a breast implant to the implant pocket are often described in anatomical relation to the pectoralis major muscle. # Subglandular: the breast implant is emplaced to the retromammary space, between the breast tissue (the mammary gland) and the pectoralis major muscle (major muscle of the chest), which most approximates the plane of normal breast tissue, and affords the most aesthetic results. Yet, in women with thin pectoral soft-tissue, the subglandular position is likelier to show the ripples and wrinkles of the underlying implant. Moreover, the capsular contracture incidence rate is slightly greater with subglandular implantation.
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Scientists speculated that Dolly's death in 2003 was related to the shortening of telomeres, DNA-protein complexes that protect the end of linear chromosomes. However, other researchers, including Ian Wilmut who led the team that successfully cloned Dolly, argue that Dolly's early death due to respiratory infection was unrelated to problems with the cloning process. This idea that the nuclei have not irreversibly aged was shown in 2013 to be true for mice. Dolly was named after performer Dolly Parton because the cells cloned to make her were from a mammary gland cell, and Parton is known for her ample cleavage.BBC.
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Variation in modern human incisor shoveling has been associated with the presence/absence of the V370A allele of the Ectodysplasin A Receptor (EDAR) gene. The EDAR V370A isoform arises from a single nucleotide polymorphism/missense mutation which changes the 370 Valine residue to an Alanine on the EDAR gene. The effect is approximately additive, where individuals with one copy of the allele have intermediate expression of shovel-shaped incisors and homozygotes have more strongly shoveled incisors. The trait is pleiotropically related to thicker and straighter hair shafts, other dental traits, sweat glands, and mammary gland ductal branching.
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A more thorough examination of the phenomenon was conducted in 1982, confirming the results. A later study in 1987 further explained their previous findings. After differentiation of the mammary gland resulting from a full-term pregnancy of the rat, the rate of cell division decreases and the cell cycle length increases, allowing more time for DNA repair. Despite the fact that the Russos' studies found similar risk rates between virgin and pregnancy interrupted rats, their research would be used to support the contention that abortion created a greater risk of breast cancer for the next twenty years.
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Tyrosine kinase receptors, including the IGF-1 receptor, mediate their activity by causing the addition of a phosphate groups to particular tyrosines on certain proteins within a cell. This addition of phosphate induces what are called "cell signaling" cascades - and the usual result of activation of the IGF-1 receptor is survival and proliferation in mitosis- competent cells, and growth (hypertrophy) in tissues such as skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle. During embryonic development, the IGF-1R pathway is involved with the developing limb buds. The IGFR signalling pathway is of critical importance during normal development of mammary gland tissue during pregnancy and lactation.
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The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the STAT family of transcription factors. In response to cytokines and growth factors, STAT family members are phosphorylated by the receptor associated kinases, and then form homo- or heterodimers that translocate to the cell nucleus where they act as transcription activators. This protein mediates the signal transduction triggered by various cell ligands, such as IL2, IL4, CSF1, and different growth hormones. It has been shown to be involved in diverse biological processes, such as TCR signaling, apoptosis, adult mammary gland development, and sexual dimorphism of liver gene expression.
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These have the benefit of being inexpensive and do not require a surgical procedure to implant them under the skin. Breast reconstruction surgery, for example, can use this technique when the mammary gland is removed by surgery (mastectomy). Later, a more permanent breast implant filled with saline or silicone gel is inserted under the expanded skin pocket. In other applications, excess skin is grown purposely by expansion on the back or the buttocks, so that it can be harvested later for transplantation to another site where skin was lost due to trauma, extensive wounds, surgery, burns, etc.
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The four surgical approaches to emplacing a breast implant to the implant pocket are described in anatomical relation to the pectoralis major muscle. # SubglandularThe breast implant is emplaced to the retromammary space, between the breast tissue (the mammary gland) and the pectoralis major muscle (major muscle of the chest), which most approximates the plane of normal breast tissue, and affords the most aesthetic results. Yet, in women with thin pectoral soft-tissue, the subglandular position is likelier to show the ripples and wrinkles of the underlying implant. Moreover, the capsular contracture incidence rate is slightly greater with subglandular implantation.
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Birkett's most memorable contribution to his field was his treatise on diseases on the mammary gland, the very first comprehensive treatment of the subject, for which he was awarded the Jacksonian Prize by The Royal College of Surgeons of England in 1848. The dissertation was published as a book entitled The Diseases of the Breast and Their Treatment in 1850. It was 258 pages long, with 12 plates. Birkett's work fell into obscurity for 150 years, and both it and he himself (in the context of breast disease at least) were largely forgotten by medical historians.
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Coagulation factor VIIa (recombinant)-jncw (Sevenfact) is expressed in the mammary gland of genetically engineered rabbits and secreted into the rabbits' milk. During purification and processing of the milk, FVII is converted into activated FVII (FVIIa). The recombinant DNA (rDNA) construct in the genetically engineered rabbits used for the production of Sevenfact was approved by the FDA's Center for Veterinary Medicine. The safety and efficacy of coagulation factor VIIa (recombinant)-jncw were determined using data from a clinical study that evaluated 27 patients with hemophilia A or B with inhibitors, which included treatment of 465 mild or moderate, and three severe bleeding episodes.
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Though to a far lesser extent than estrogen, which is the major mediator of mammary ductal development (via the ERα), progesterone may be involved in ductal development of the mammary glands to some extent as well. PR knockout mice or mice treated with the PR antagonist mifepristone show delayed although otherwise normal mammary ductal development at puberty. In addition, mice modified to have overexpression of PRA display ductal hyperplasia, and progesterone induces ductal growth in the mouse mammary gland. Progesterone mediates ductal development mainly via induction of the expression of amphiregulin, the same growth factor that estrogen primarily induces the expression of to mediate ductal development.
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Interestingly, even after oncogenic activation of a tissue, several researchers have identified a senescent phenotype. Researchers have identified a senescent phenotype in benign lesions of the skin carrying oncogenic mutations in neurofibroma patients with a defect that specifically causes an increase in Ras. This finding has been highly reproducible in benign prostate lesions, in melanocytic lesions of UV-irradiated HGF/SF-transgenic mice, in lymphocytes and in the mammary gland from N-Ras transgenic mice, and in hyperplasias of the pituitary gland of mice with deregulated E2F activity. The key to these findings is that genetic manipulations that abrogated the senescence response led to full-blown malignancy in those carcinomas.
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After an eight-year project involving the use of a pioneering cloning technique, Japanese researchers created 25 generations of healthy cloned mice with normal lifespans, demonstrating that clones are not intrinsically shorter-lived than naturally born animals. Other sources have noted that the offspring of clones tend to be healthier than the original clones and indistinguishable from animals produced naturally. Dolly the sheep was cloned from a six-year old cell sample from a mammary gland. Because of this, some posited she may have aged more quickly than other naturally born animals, as she died relatively early for a sheep at the age of six.
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The fact that the heterozygous parents and heterozygous sister were unaffected indicates that the disorder is transmitted in an autosomal recessive manner and that a single normal allele is sufficient to achieve normal puberty and fertility, which is consistent with what has been observed in ERα knockout mice. All three siblings presented with pubertal failure. Both of the sisters had no breast development (i.e., Tanner stage I), illustrating how the ERα is absolutely required for normal mammary gland development. The older sister was overweight ( 26.3) and had mild incidental adipomastia, or adipose tissue deposition in the breasts without true glandular tissue, a trait that is not indicative of pubertal development.
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To understand the pathogenesis of cancer patients, it is necessary to have model systems that faithfully mimic this condition. The application of a murine cancer cell line, such as 4T1, in a mouse model is of great value for preclinical TNBC studies. The 4T1 cell line is widely used as a syngeneic model for human triple-negative breast cancer, which is responsible for more than 17% of breast cancers diagnosed worldwide each year. 4T1 cells can be transplanted into the fat pad of the murine mammary gland, where they are highly tumorigenic, invasive, and spontaneously metastasize to distant organs such as the lungs, liver, lymph nodes, brain, and bone.
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Anagestone acetate was introduced in combination with mestranol as a birth control pill in 1968 by Ortho Pharmaceutical. It was withdrawn in 1969. In 1969, along with a variety of other progestogens including progesterone, chlormadinone acetate, megestrol acetate, medroxyprogesterone acetate, ethynerone, and chloroethynyl norgestrel, anagestone acetate was found to induce the development of mammary gland tumors in Beagle dogs after extensive treatment (2–7 years) with very high doses (10–25 times the recommended human dose), though notably not with 1–2 times the human dosage. In contrast, the non-halogenated 19-nortestosterone derivatives norgestrel, norethisterone, noretynodrel, and etynodiol diacetate were not found to produce such nodules.
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On the other hand, it appears that estriol may be able to stimulate the growth of active breast cancer. In rodents, estriol induces mammary gland development similar to that with estrone. By the oral route in women, estriol has approximately 30% of the potency of estradiol in terms of hot flashes relief and suppression of follicle-stimulating hormone secretion, and about 20% of the potency of estradiol on stimulation of liver production of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. A study of ovulation inhibition by estrogens in women found that prevention of ovulation occurred with 5 mg/day oral estriol in only 1 of 7 cycles.
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Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical used to make plastics, and is frequently used to make baby bottles, water bottles, sports equipment, medical devices, and as a coating in food and beverage cans. Scientists are concerned about BPA's behavioral effects on fetuses, infants, and children at current exposure levels because it can affect the prostate gland, mammary gland, and lead to early puberty in girls. BPA mimics and interferes with the action of estrogen—an important reproduction and development regulator. It leaches out of plastic into liquids and foods, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found measurable amounts of BPA in the bodies of more than 90 percent of the U.S. population studied.
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Disruption of hedgehog signaling during embryonic development, through either deleterious mutation or consumption of teratogens by the gestating mother, can lead to severe developmental abnormalities. Holoprosencephaly, the failure of the embryonic prosencephalon to divide to form cerebral hemispheres, occurs with a frequency of about 1 in 8,000 live births and about 1 in 200 spontaneous abortions in humans and is commonly linked to mutations in genes involved in the hedgehog pathway, including SHH and PTCH. Cyclopia, one of the most severe defects of holoprosencephaly, results if the pathway inhibitor cyclopamine is consumed by gestating mammals. Activation of the hedgehog pathway has been implicated in the development of cancers in various organs, including brain, lung, mammary gland, prostate and skin.
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Studies have shown that PR-B activation is important for growth and development of the mammary gland, whereas PR-A has a significant role in normal reproductive function and ovulation. As well, in vitro researches have demonstrated that under identical conditions, the PR-B works as stronger transactivator of reporter genes, while PR-A is able to transrepress PR-B and other steroid receptors. Various reasons have been found for this variety of function between the isoforms. First to mention is that progesterone receptor isoform A lacks 164 N-terminal amino acids compared to isomer B, depriving it of the AF-3 activation function due to loss of B-upstream segment, which leaves it with only 2 activation functions.
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The CALCRL or CLR KO mouse recapitulates the same phenotype, as it lacks both the AM1 and AM2 receptors (incidentally confirming the lack of physiological significance for the earlier single protein AM receptor discovered by Kapas). RAMP2 KO mice also recapitulates the same phenotype showing that major physiological effects of AM are transduced by the AM1 receptor. Even the heterozygote RAMP 2 mice have disturbed physiology with unusual bone and mammary gland defects, and very aberrant endocrinology, leading to poor fertility and lactation problems. What is very surprising is that the effect of deletion of RAMP3 has no deleterious effects and seems to confer advantages due to higher than normal bone mass, and reduced weight gain in older age.
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Broparestrol () (brand names Acnestrol, Longestrol; former developmental code name LN-107), also known as α-bromo-α,β-diphenyl-β-p-ethylphenylethylene (BDPE), is a synthetic, nonsteroidal selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) of the triphenylethylene group that has been used in Europe as a dermatological agent and for the treatment of breast cancer. The drug is described as slightly estrogenic and potently antiestrogenic, and inhibits mammary gland development and suppresses prolactin levels in animals. It is structurally related to clomifene and diethylstilbestrol. Broparestrol is a mixture of E- and Z- isomers (LN-1643 and LN-2299, respectively), both of which are active and are similarly antiestrogenic but, unlike broparestrol, were never marketed.
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A reduction mammoplasty to re-size enlarged breasts and to correct breast ptosis resects (cuts and removes) excess tissues (glandular, adipose, skin), overstretched suspensory ligaments, and transposes the NAC higher upon the breast hemisphere. At puberty, the breast grows in consequence to the influences of the hormones estrogen and progesterone; as a mammary gland the breast is composed of lobules of glandular tissue, each of which is drained by a lactiferous duct that empties to the nipple. Most of the volume (ca. 90%) and rounded contour of the breasts are conferred by the adipose fat interspersed amongst the lobules – except during pregnancy and lactation, when breast milk constitutes most of the breast volume.
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Estetrol has potent estrogenic effects in bone, vagina, uterus (both myometrium and endometrium), arteries, and certain areas of the brain like the pituitary gland and hypothalamus (in terms of hot flash relief, antigonadotropic effects, and ovulation inhibition). It has comparable efficacy to ethinylestradiol on bone turnover and hot flashes and to estradiol valerate on vaginal atrophy. In addition, estetrol has stimulatory effects on the endometrium and poses a risk of endometrial hyperplasia and endometrial cancer similarly to other estrogens. Conversely, the effects of estetrol in certain other tissues such as breast/mammary gland, liver, vascular tissue, and various brain areas differ, with weakly estrogenic or even antiestrogenic effects occurring in such tissues.
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BrdU pulse/chase experiments with these cells demonstrated that chromosomes segregated non-randomly only when the cells were induced to divide asymmetrically like adult stem cells. These asymmetrically dividing cells provide an in vitro model for demonstration and investigation of immortal strand mechanisms. Scientists have strived to demonstrate that this immortal DNA strand mechanism exists in vivo in other types of adult stem cells. In 1996 Nik Zeps published the first paper demonstrating label retaining cells were present in the mouse mammary gland and this was confirmed in 2005 by Gilbert Smith who also published evidence that a subset of mouse mammary epithelial cells could retain DNA label and release DNA label in a manner consistent with the immortal DNA strand mechanism.
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Also, it was observed that lobuloalveolar maturation reverses upon discontinuation of CPA after surgical castration, similarly to the case of mammary gland involution in postpartum women, indicating that continued progestogen treatment is necessary to maintain the histology. It should be noted however that although these findings may have important implications in the context of lactation and breastfeeding, epithelial tissue accounts for approximately only 10% of breast volume with the bulk of the breasts (80–90%) being represented by stromal or adipose tissue, and it is uncertain to what extent, if any, that development of lobuloalveolar structures (a type of epithelial tissue) contributes to breast size or shape. CPA has been found to increase prolactin levels in humans both alone and in combination with an estrogen.
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The breast: cross- section scheme of the mammary gland. In women, the breasts overlie the pectoralis major muscles and usually extend from the level of the second rib to the level of the sixth rib in the front of the human rib cage; thus, the breasts cover much of the chest area and the chest walls. At the front of the chest, the breast tissue can extend from the clavicle (collarbone) to the middle of the sternum (breastbone). At the sides of the chest, the breast tissue can extend into the axilla (armpit), and can reach as far to the back as the latissimus dorsi muscle, extending from the lower back to the humerus bone (the bone of the upper arm).
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16α-Hydroxyprogesterone (16α-OHP), also known as 16α-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione, is a minor endogenous progestogen steroid hormone and a metabolite of progesterone that is formed in lower amounts than 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17α-OHP). It occurs in micromolar concentrations and its physiological relevance hence is questionable. However, it may accumulate in target tissues and could have a physiological role in the reproductive system and mammary gland development as well as the cardiovascular and central nervous systems. 16α-OHP is formed from progesterone via 16α-hydroxylation primarily by CYP17A1 and primarily in steroidogenic tissues including the adrenal glands, testes, and ovaries. It is also synthesized from progesterone during pregnancy by hepatic cytochrome P450 enzymes like CYP3A4 and CYP1A1 in the fetal liver as well as placenta.
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It was developed in combination with estradiol enantate as a long-lasting combined injectable contraceptive under the tentative brand names Deladroxate and Droxone by Squibb and was studied in women starting in 1964. Development was discontinued by Squibb in the United States in the late 1960s due to concerns of toxicological findings in animals, including mammary gland tumors in beagle dogs and pituitary hyperplasia in rats, as well as possible accumulation of estradiol enantate in the body with continued use. Subsequent research has shed doubt that these animal findings are applicable to humans and that the dosages required for contraception would pose any risks. Although the medication was not marketed in the United States, its development was continued elsewhere and it went on to be introduced and widely used in Latin America and Spain.
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Whole process is relatively easy to perform and require just changes of given solutions with no need for some customized laboratory equipment. Process of clearing and subsequent imaging is fast (hours to days depending on sample size), especially in comparison with physical sectioning of whole organ, imaging of their parts and reconstruction before subsequent image analysis (that could easily take several weeks). Above that 3DISCO works on many types of tissues (lung, spleen, lymph nodes, mammary gland, tumors). Main drawbacks of this method are partial delipidation of tissue during clearing discriminating use of lipophilic dyes, shrinkage of tissue during clearing, partial degradation of fluorescence, complete degradation of fluorescence during long term storage and toxicity of used reagents (and their potential to damage the microscopy objectives if leak from imaging chamber).
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The delivery of fresh feed while the cattle are away for milking stimulates the cattle to fed upon return, potentially reducing the prevalence of mastitis as the sphincters have time to close while standing This makes the pattern of feeding directly after being milked an ideal method of increasing the efficiency of the herd. Cows have a high motivation to lie down so farmers should be conscious of this, not only because they have a high motivation to lie down, but also because lying down can increase milk yield. When the lactating dairy cow lies down, blood flow is increased to the mammary gland which in return results in a higher milk yield. To ensure that the dairy cows lie down as much as needed, the stalls must be comfortable.
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Parton has turned down several offers to pose nude for Playboy magazine, but did appear on the cover of the October 1978 issue wearing a Playboy bunny outfit, complete with ears (the issue featured Lawrence Grobel's extensive and candid interview with Parton, representing one of her earliest high-profile interviews with the mainstream press). The association of breasts with Parton's public image is illustrated in the naming of Dolly the sheep after her, since the sheep was cloned from a cell taken from an adult ewe's mammary gland. In Mobile, Alabama, the General W.K. Wilson Jr. Bridge is commonly called "the Dolly Parton Bridge" due to its arches resembling her bust. The Hernando de Soto Bridge over the Mississippi River at Memphis is also sometimes called this for the same reason.
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Pulmonary alveolar microlithiasis (PAM) is a rare, inherited disorder of lung phosphate balance that is associated with small stone formation in the airspaces of the lung. Mutations in the gene SLC34A2 result in loss of a key sodium, phosphate co-transporter (called Npt2b), known to be expressed in distal alveolar type II cells, as well as in the mammary gland, and to a lesser extent in intestine, kidney, skin, prostate and testes. As the disease progresses, the lung fields become progressively more dense (white) on the chest xray, and low oxygen level, lung inflammation and fibrosis, elevated pressures in the lung blood vessels, and respiratory failure ensue, usually in middle age. The clinical course of PAM can be highly variable, with some patients remaining asymptomatic for decades, and others progressing more rapidly.
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The β subunits have tyrosine kinase enzyme activity which is triggered by the insulin binding. This activity provokes the autophosphorylation of the β subunits and subsequently the phosphorylation of proteins inside the cell known as insulin receptor substrates (IRS). The phosphorylation of the IRS activates a signal transduction cascade that leads to the activation of other kinases as well as transcription factors that mediate the intracellular effects of insulin. The cascade that leads to the insertion of GLUT4 glucose transporters into the cell membranes of muscle and fat cells, and to the synthesis of glycogen in liver and muscle tissue, as well as the conversion of glucose into triglycerides in liver, adipose, and lactating mammary gland tissue, operates via the activation, by IRS-1, of phosphoinositol 3 kinase (PI3K).
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By the end of the fourth month of pregnancy, at which time lobuloalveolar maturation is complete, the breasts are fully prepared for lactation and breastfeeding. Insulin, glucocorticoids such as cortisol (and by extension adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)), and thyroid hormones such as thyroxine (and by extension thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)) also play permissive but less well-understood/poorly- characterized roles in breast development during both puberty and pregnancy, and are required for full functional development. Leptin has also been found to be an important factor in mammary gland development, and has been found to promote mammary epithelial cell proliferation. In contrast to the female- associated sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone, the male-associated sex hormones, the androgens, such as testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT), powerfully suppress the action of estrogen in the breasts.
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ABCC11 is a gene encoding an apical ATP-driven efflux transporter that has been found to transport a variety of lipophilic anions including cyclic nucleotides, estradiol glucuronide, steroid sulfates such as DHEA-S, and monoanionic bile acids. It is expressed and localized in apocrine glands, including in the axilla, the ceruminous glands in the auditory canal, and in the mammary gland. A single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) 538G→A in ABCC11 that leads to a G180R substitution in the encoded protein has been found to result in loss-of-function via affecting N-linked glycosylation and in turn causing proteasomal degradation of the protein. This polymorphism has been found to be responsible for the dry and white earwax phenotype, and is considered to be unique as it has been described as the only human SNP that has been found to determine a visible genetic trait.
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At least one way that they do this is by reducing the expression of the estrogen receptor in breast tissue. In the absence of androgenic activity, such as in women with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS), modest levels of estrogen (50 pg/mL) are capable of mediating significant breast development, with CAIS women showing breast volumes that are even above-average. The combination of much higher levels of androgens (about 10-fold higher) and much lower levels of estrogen (about 10-fold less), due to the ovaries in females producing high amounts of estrogens but low amounts of androgens and the testes in males producing high amounts of androgens but low amounts of estrogens, are why males generally do not grow prominent or well-developed breasts relative to females. Calcitriol, the hormonally active form of vitamin D, acting through the vitamin D receptor (VDR), has, like the androgens, been reported to be a negative regulator of mammary gland development in mice, for instance, during puberty.
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Estrogen, progesterone, and prolactin, as well as GH/IGF-1, produce their effects on breast development by modulating the local expression in breast tissue of an assortment of autocrine and paracrine growth factors, including IGF-1, IGF-2, amphiregulin, EGF, FGF, hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), tumor necrosis factor β (TNF-β), transforming growth factor α (TGF-α), transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), heregulin, Wnt, RANKL, and leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF). These factors regulate cellular growth, proliferation, and differentiation via activation of intracellular signaling cascades that control cell function, such as Erk, Akt, JNK, and Jak/Stat. Based on research with epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) knockout mice, the EGFR, which is the molecular target of EGF, TGF-α, amphiregulin, and heregulin, has, similarly to the insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R), been found to be essential for mammary gland development. Estrogen and progesterone mediate ductal development mainly through induction of amphiregulin expression, and thus downstream EGFR activation.
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MTA1 modulates the expression of target genes due to its ability to act as a corepressor or coactivator. MTA1 targets and/or effector pathways regulate pathways with cellular functions in both normal and cancer cells. Physiological functions of MTA1 include: its role in the brain due to MTA1 interactions with DJ1 and endophilin-3; regulation of Rhodopsin expression in the murine eye; modifier of circadian rhythm due to MTA1 interactions with the CLOCK-BMAL1 complex and stimulation of Cry-transcription; in heart development due to MTA1-FOG2 interaction; in mammary gland development as MTA1 depletion leads to ductal hypobranching, in spermatogenesis; in immunomodulation due to differential effects on the expression of cytokines in the resting and activated macrophage; in liver regeneration following hepatic injury; differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells into osteogenic axis; and a component of DNA-damage response. In cancer cells, MTA1 and its downstream effectors regulate genes and/or pathways with roles in transformation, invasion, survival, angiogenesis, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, metastasis, DNA damage response, and hormone-independence of breast cancer.
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In addition to its role in mediating ductal development, estrogen causes stromal tissue to grow and adipose (fat) tissue to accumulate, as well as the nipple- areolar complex to increase in size. Progesterone, in conjunction with GH/IGF-1 similarly to estrogen, affects the development of the breasts during puberty and thereafter as well. To a lesser extent than estrogen, progesterone contributes to ductal development at this time, as evidenced by the findings that progesterone receptor (PR) knockout mice or mice treated with the PR antagonist mifepristone show delayed (albeit eventually normal, due to estrogen acting on its own) ductal growth during puberty and by the fact that progesterone has been found to induce ductal growth on its own in the mouse mammary gland mainly via the induction of the expression of amphiregulin, the same growth factor that estrogen primarily induces to mediate its actions on ductal development. In addition, progesterone produces modest lobuloalveolar development (alveolar bud formation or ductal sidebranching) starting at puberty, specifically through activation of PRB (and notably not PRA), with growth and regression of the alveoli occurring to some degree with each menstrual cycle.
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Performing a BLASTn query search with the ESTs (expressed sequence tags) database for the cDNA clones derived from the probes, revealed that 53% of related transcripts were found in placental cells. A southern blot using hybridization of gag, pro, env derived probes revealed a complex distribution of HERV-Ws in the human haploid genome with 70 gag, 100 pro, and 30 env regions. With in vitro transcription techniques three suggested ORFs on chromosome 3 (gag), 6 (pro) and 7 (env) were detected and further analyzed revealing that the ORF on chromosome 7q21.2 uniquely encoded a glycosylated Env protein. Performing RealTime RT-PCR on adrenal gland, bone marrow, cerebellum, whole brain, fetal brain, fetal liver, heart, kidney, liver, lung, placenta, prostate, salivary gland, skeletal muscle, spinal cord, testis, thymus, thyroid gland, trachea, and uterus cells revealed 22 complete HERV-W families on chromosomes 1–3, 5–8, 10–12, 15, 19 and X. In silico expression data revealed that these HERV-W elements are randomly expressed in various tissues (brain, mammary gland, cerebrum, skin, testis, eye, embroyonic tissue, pancreatic islet, pineal gland, endocrine, retina, adipose tissue, placenta and muscle).
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