1000 Sentences With "macroscopic" | Random Sentence Generator

They are macroscopic organisms that can be easily manipulated and observed.

Shifting between microscopic and macroscopic scales has some unintentionally humorous side effects.

Well, we know that all these macroscopic thermodynamic systems are composed of particles.

Denying the difference is the typical macroscopic stumbling block of anti-racism racism.

But it's almost always easier to discuss causes and effects in terms of macroscopic entities.

At the moment, you can help by taking photographs of microscopic species or macroscopic arthropods.

You need an interface between the molecular and the macroscopic world, and that's what this is.

The world of these near-macroscopic atoms was like a warped version of our own reality.

Existing systems that "faithfully store" quantum information, according to the new paper, mostly function at macroscopic scales.

And since the Industrial Revolution, machines have become ubiquitous, a practically invisible backdrop to the macroscopic world.

When a macroscopic observer becomes entangled with a microscopic quantum system in a superposition, the world branches.

Eventually, researchers are working toward creating wave-like interference in objects even closer to the macroscopic realm.

However, the EmDrive doesn't seem very quantum: It's just a macroscopic device with good old electromagnetic microwaves inside.

But "Westside"'s strength, we know from the start, is not in the macroscopic but in the microscopic.

These systems magnify the mind-boggling effects of quantum mechanics to nearly macroscopic scales, making them easier to study.

But as is the case with most nearly macroscopic collections of atoms, Bose-Einstein condensates feel the effects of gravity.

"If you have a particle that has an energy of that order, that's a macroscopic amount of energy," says Snow.

"The tiniest elements of nature are bonded to the most macroscopic phenomena, like the expansion of the universe," D'Angelo said.

The exhibition's untitled centerpiece exhibits a more macroscopic tension that we must reckon with: the fight between urbanization and vegetation.

Bose-Einstein condensates are nearly macroscopic, and these systems expand from tens of micrometers to a hundred micrometers on each side.

It's just that in the macroscopic world superpositions are always getting washed out by interference before it can make much difference.

Hoel and his collaborators aim to show that higher-level causes—as well as agents and other macroscopic things—ontologically exist.

He gestures with macroscopic sausage fingers, each one capable of knocking the tiny mirrors on the table completely out of alignment.

These cold gases, therefore, begin to show the weird effects of quantum mechanics on a macroscopic scale, like flowing without any resistance.

Both species are using their light-scattering cells to create an palette of individual colors that, on a macroscopic level, appear white.

It's not as macroscopic as a cat, but it's a bit more so than the usual picture of a single superimposed particle.

The artist Luchita Hurtado's work spans micro- and macroscopic worlds; it's laden with environmental and feminist symbolism that feels of-the-moment.

Rocha Pitta's version of nature is immortal and quick, operating on the microscopic and macroscopic levels to reclaim land lost to humanity.

The D-Wave relies on superconductors to create its qubits, materials with no electronic resistance that show quantum mechanical effects on macroscopic scales.

So she bought a camera and some bellows, and started building prototypes of instruments that could create cymatic motion at the macroscopic scale.

Human eyes may be remarkable tools to view the universe, but they also restrict our perception of reality to a limited, macroscopic slice.

Things stick together thanks to a combination of various microscopic and macroscopic behaviors, influenced by interactions between individual molecules and the shapes of surfaces.

While many of these artists like to play with vast size and scale, Jakobsons was far more interested in the macroscopic side of things.

This is what happens when you die: In the immediate afterlife, you are confronted by every macroscopic creature you killed in your earthbound lifetime.

His abstracted photos play with the viewer's perspective on the microscopic and macroscopic levels, conjuring both the cellular world and the edge of the universe.

The macroscopic object in question was an aluminum plate about 20 micrometers in diameter, or a bit less than half the width of a human hair.

Which could be the act of looking, but, in the case of the cat or any other macroscopic entity, decoherence would come courtesy of the environment itself.

Expedia works with car rental and other transportation companies to get travelers between destinations, which is very much a macroscopic version of what Uber intends to do.

Chemosynthetic microbes are prominent in extreme environments, such as deep ocean vents or subterranean lakes, but rarely are they numerous enough to sustain a large, macroscopic ecosystem.

That link appeared in the form of the so-called Planck's constant, which converts the macroscopic wavelength of light to the energy of individual photons of light.

Researchers were trying to force microbes to grow under conditions dictated by the rules of the macroscopic world, when, perhaps, the key was to submit to the small.

The span represents the largest distance that quantum mechanics has been tested to date, and an unusually macroscopic perspective on phenomena usually considered only at the finest subatomic scales.

But doing so will require more than just entangling a few atoms—it will require macroscopic systems that aren't so fragile that any nudge destroys the spooky entangled connection.

Crispr has typically been considered for macroscopic tasks: altering mosquitoes so they can't spread malaria, editing tomatoes so they are more flavorful and curing certain genetic diseases in humans.

The macroscopic animals that inhabit shipwrecks are only there thanks to much smaller forms of life, said Leila Hamdan, a marine microbial ecologist at the University of Southern Mississippi.

But then when I was a postdoc, I was teaching myself physics and becoming a physicist, and some of it was tangible, especially since I'm often interested in macroscopic phenomena.

"Our results ultimately confirm that broadband cloaking of macroscopic objects, in the sense of total scattering suppression, is impossible with linear and passive cloaks of arbitrary complexity," the UT paper concludes.

I was definitely able to translate vastness, oneness, peace, vivid color, observing the beauty of weather patterns, inner-eye gazing into natural micro/macroscopic marvels, experiencing humanity as a single being.

Its length represented the three spatial dimensions of macroscopic reality, and its circumference signified the six other spatial dimensions that string theory says exist, but which are too small to see.

Even if their precise place on the tree of life is still a matter of discussion and deserves additional research, the Gabonionta are the earliest multicellular macroscopic organisms discovered so far.

Likewise, to understand the appearance of … exoplanets' atmospheres requires approximating them as fluids and understanding the macroscopic manifestations of the quantum mechanical properties of the individual molecules: their absorption and scattering properties.

At a certain macroscopic scale, effective information peaks: This is the scale at which states of the system have the most causal power, predicting future states in the most reliable, effective manner.

In this case, the microscopic interacting particles are the passengers waiting in line to board, and the macroscopic property is how long it takes all the passengers to settle into their assigned seats.

The filmmaker quickly transitions between shots of microscopic chemical reactions and macroscopic shots of an asteroid cutting through space like a rocketm, a juxtaposition between scales and forms with all too many visual similarities.

"Life is a complex macroscopic feature emerging from inanimate matter, while quantum information is a feature of qubits—microscopic isolated objects happening in the universe of the very small," Solano told me in an email.

Co-author Sveinung Erland of Western Norway University and colleagues from Latvia and Israel exploited the well-known connection between microscopic dynamics of interacting particles and macroscopic properties and applied it to the boarding process.

For six minutes, the MAIUS-1 team managed to create the first space-based Bose-Einstein condensate—a gas of ultra-cold atoms, so cold that they begin to demonstrate strange quantum effects on macroscopic scales.

Then it's on to the periodic table, the four forces of physics, the Standard Model, DNA, cells, our macroscopic world of everyday stuff, all the way out to the solar system and the most distant galaxies.

Likewise, the macroscopic properties of exotic matter change in stepwise "quantum leaps" if the materials involved are thin or small enough that their behavior is determined by the strange rules that govern the behavior of atoms.

If you're interested in a macroscopic view of bird migration in the New World, this is a one-year look at these movements (based on a decade's worth of data from a number of tagged birds).

But Ai and his team shot much more footage and interviews for Human Flow than they could use in one film, so they've followed it up with The Rest, which moves from the macroscopic to the microscopic.

Moreover, it connects the micro- and the macroscopic, from the minuscule to the colossal, the finite to the infinite and cosmic (including time-lapse photography and punctuating shots of the sun, moon, and an eclipse to boot).

They're able to demonstrate strange quantum effects on macroscopic scales, and they allow researchers to create otherwise impossible-to-study phenomena, like magnets with only one pole, supersolids, Rydberg polarons, and in this case, strange, knotted magnetic fields.

References to Hollywood and World War II, along with covers of the German newspaper Der Spiegel, are intermixed with the artist's own autobiography, as if proclaiming the inescapable interconnectivity of culture at both a microscopic and macroscopic level.

They say coarse-grained macroscopic states of a physical system (such as the psychological state of a brain) can have more causal power over the system's future than a more detailed, fine-grained description of the system possibly could.

Hawaiian Bobtail SquidCredit: Mark R Smith, Macroscopic SolutionsNative to the Pacific Ocean, Hawaiian bobtail squid are nocturnal predators that remain buried under the sand during the day and come out to hunt for shrimp near coral reefs at night.

Researchers at the Pierre Auger Observatory observed the highest energy cosmic rays, microscopic particles so energetic that you can measure them with macroscopic energy units, far more powerful than the energies created by particles in the highest-energy physics experiments.

Most recently, scientists Jagjit Singh Sidhu and Glenn Starkman, both from Case Western Reserve University, and Robert J. Scherrer from Vanderbilt University considered another class of particles that would be macroscopic, and around or less massive than a human being.

That equation describes the entropy of a black hole—entropy can be understood as the number of different microscopic configurations that could add up to the macroscopic qualities you observe, or how a system's energy disperses out at a given temperature.

Click here to view original GIFGIF: MIT NewsWhen a droplet hits the macroscopic structure it spreads out and fills it, but only until it hits the bowl's edge, at which point it's deflected upward and ultimately away from the surface.

A genius of the recondite and the banal, of occult disciplines and popular culture, he possessed the third or inner eye, meaning he was capable of microscopic and macroscopic vision, of delving into the visceral while attaining a state of illumination.

"Our results make these iconic members of the Ediacara biota the oldest confirmed macroscopic animals in the rock record, indicating that the appearance of the Ediacara biota was indeed a prelude to the Cambrian explosion of animal life," conclude the researchers in the study.

The researchers were able to examine "Sunflowers" at the Van Gogh Museum in 2016 using a new process of chemical mapping called Macroscopic X‐ray Powder Diffraction, which allows them to detect materials within the pigments of a painting without ever touching the painting.

It is only when you step back, stop looking at the wires one by one, microscopically, and take a macroscopic view of the whole cage, that you can see why the bird does not go anywhere; and then you will see it in a moment.

By doing so, Morley and his colleagues were able to detect materials in the sediment not normally visible to the naked eye, such as evidence of coprolites, small bits of bone, microscopic and macroscopic fragments of charcoal from fire pits, and traces of ash and flakes from stone tools.

"The biggest implication that I hope the work will have is to inspire more researchers to develop modular, collective, and adaptive DNA robots for a diverse range of tasks, to truly understand the engineering principles for building artificial molecular machines, and make them as easily programmable as macroscopic robots," said Qian.[Science]

"Seeing these phenomena on macroscopic scales in many-particle systems is an important step in this framework, in a field trying to control quantum behavior on larger scales and use them in technology and eventually everyday objects," Phillip Treutlein, one of the papers' authors from University of Basel in Switzerland, told Gizmodo.

Even more intriguing is that the abstract quality of time appears to be subterraneously connected to many, if not all, of the great unsolved mysteries around us: the nature of the mind, the origin of the universe, the fate of black holes, the irreversibility of macroscopic phenomena and the functioning of life.

The new method builds on research from about six years ago when it was discovered that small macroscopic features added to a surface, like a series of nearly imperceptible ridges, helped break up a water drop's shape and symmetry as it recoiled from an impact, increasing the speed at which it bounced away from that surface.

In the paper, the authors offer a choice metaphor for platforms' current approach: These two approaches are equivalent to attempts to try to understand how water boils by looking for a bad particle in a sea of billions (even though there is not one for phase transitions), or the macroscopic viewpoint that the entire system is to blame (akin to thermodynamics).

The spines are essentially hardened steel spikes that grip small bumps in a surface from two directions — "the opposed-grip strategy for microspines is just like a human hand grasping a bottle of water, except that while humans require some macroscopic curvature to get our fingers around both sides of an object, the microspines can go deep into the micro-features of a rough surface and latch on those tiny bumps and pits," said researcher Hao Jiang of Stanford.

In a macroscopic medium, electromagnetic effects are described by spatially averaged (macroscopic) fields. The Poynting vector in a macroscopic medium can be defined self- consistently with microscopic theory, in such a way that the spatially averaged microscopic Poynting vector is exactly predicted by a macroscopic formalism. This result is strictly valid in the limit of low-loss and allows for the unambiguous identification of the Poynting vector form in macroscopic electrodynamics.

Gomatam’s primary area of research is in non-relativistic quantum mechanics (QM), which emerged in 1925 with Erwin Schrödinger's derivation of the "wave equation". Gomatam is developing his own approach to macroscopic quantum mechanics (MQM, applying the wave equation to the macroscopic regime), which is distinct from the ideas of ‘macroscopic dissipative systems’ and ‘macroscopic quantum coherence’, developed in the early 80s by Anthony James Leggett. In general, Leggett's attempt is to indirectly observe superposition at the macroscopic level by extending current microscopic quantum physics to the macroscopic level. In contrast, Gomatam is attempting to develop MQM independent of the application of the Schrödinger equation to the micro regime, in such a manner that quantum superposition can be directly observed at the macroscopic level.

Tegula funebralis is primarily herbivorous. Food for T. funebralis can be categorized as either rock encrusting algae, macroscopic algae, or organic detritus. Studies into the macroscopic algal preferences of T. funebralis revealed a strong preference for Nereocystis luetkana and Macrocystis integrifolia. Macroscopic algae species preferred by T. funebralis are similar in that they are non- calcareous, non-filamentous, and softer in comparison to other macroscopic algae in the region.

In the Quantum Measurement Problem the issue of what constitutes macroscopic and what constitutes the quantum world is unresolved and possibly unsolvable. The related Correspondence Principle can be articulated thus: every macroscopic phenomena can be formulated as a problem in quantum theory. A violation of the Correspondence Principle would thus ensure an empirical distinction between the macroscopic and the quantum. In pathology, macroscopic diagnostics generally involves gross pathology, in contrast to microscopic histopathology.

The FT is more general. It can be applied to both microscopic and macroscopic systems. When applied to macroscopic systems, the FT is equivalent to the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

Macroscopic quantum phenomena refer to processes showing quantum behavior at the macroscopic scale, rather than at the atomic scale where quantum effects are prevalent. The best-known examples of macroscopic quantum phenomena are superfluidity and superconductivity; other examples include the quantum Hall effect, giant magnetoresistance and topological order. Since 2000 there has been extensive experimental work on quantum gases, particularly Bose–Einstein condensates. Between 1996 and 2016 six Nobel Prizes were given for work related to macroscopic quantum phenomena.

Statistical mechanics describes macroscopic systems in terms of statistical ensembles, such as the macroscopic properties of an ideal gas. Ergodic theory is a branch of mathematics arising from the study of statistical mechanics.

See .Grandy, W.T., Jr (2004). Time evolution in macroscopic systems.

The term "megascopic" is a synonym. "Macroscopic" may also refer to a "larger view", namely a view available only from a large perspective (a hypothetical "macroscope"). A macroscopic position could be considered the "big picture".

A macroscopic quantum state is a state of matter in which macroscopic properties, such as mechanical motion, thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity and viscosity, can be described only by quantum mechanics rather than merely classical mechanics. This occurs primarily at low temperatures where there is little thermal motion present to mask the quantum nature of a substance. Macroscopic quantum phenomena can emerge from coherent states of superfluids and superconductors. Quantum states of motion have been directly observed in a macroscopic mechanical resonator (see quantum machine).

Thus macroscopic objects tend toward being neutral overall, but macroscopic objects are rarely perfectly net neutral. Sometimes macroscopic objects contain ions distributed throughout the material, rigidly bound in place, giving an overall net positive or negative charge to the object. Also, macroscopic objects made of conductive elements, can more or less easily (depending on the element) take on or give off electrons, and then maintain a net negative or positive charge indefinitely. When the net electric charge of an object is non-zero and motionless, the phenomenon is known as static electricity.

For classical non-equilibrium studies, we will consider some new locally defined intensive macroscopic variables. We can, under suitable conditions, derive these new variables by locally defining the gradients and flux densities of the basic locally defined macroscopic quantities. Such locally defined gradients of intensive macroscopic variables are called 'thermodynamic forces'. They 'drive' flux densities, perhaps misleadingly often called 'fluxes', which are dual to the forces.

Macroscopic findings include purulent exudates, opaque leptomeninges (thinning of meninges), pus, and ventriculitis/ ependymitis.

Quantum phenomena are generally classified as macroscopic when the quantum states are occupied by a large number of particles (of the order of the Avogadro number) or the quantum states involved are macroscopic in size (up to kilometer-sized in superconducting wires).

While their input is small compared to trees, microscopic and macroscopic algae also produce isoprene.

It uses and extends concepts from thermodynamics and develops other macroscopic descriptions of complex systems.

With adults, age is measured through macroscopic and microscopic methods. Macroscopic methods do not involve destruction of the specimen while microscopic methods are more time intensive and require equipment, some destruction, and specialized knowledge. Despite some disadvantages, microscopic methods give more accurate results.Ubelaker 2008, p.

Coupled collective phenomena, including multi-stability, hysteresis, regions of coexistence, and macroscopic chaos have been found.

When two miscible liquids are brought into contact, and diffusion takes place, the macroscopic (or average) concentration evolves following Fick's law. On a mesoscopic scale, that is, between the macroscopic scale described by Fick's law and molecular scale, where molecular random walks take place, fluctuations cannot be neglected. Such situations can be successfully modeled with Landau-Lifshitz fluctuating hydrodynamics. In this theoretical framework, diffusion is due to fluctuations whose dimensions range from the molecular scale to the macroscopic scale.

Classical thermodynamics is built on the assumption that entropy is a state function of the macroscopic variables—i.e., that none of the history of the system matters, so that it can all be ignored. The extended, wispy, evolved probability distribution, which still has the initial Shannon entropy STh(1), should reproduce the expectation values of the observed macroscopic variables at time t2. However it will no longer necessarily be a maximum entropy distribution for that new macroscopic description.

Different self-sealing strategies for elastomeric materials were developed showing significant mechanical restoration after a macroscopic lesion.

Artificial reservoirs as well as natural ones create microclimates and often influence the macroscopic climate as well.

Lebowitz, Joel. "Microscopic Reversibility and Macroscopic Behavior: Physical Explanations and Mathematical Derivations." Rutgers University. Nov 1, 1994.

In other words, thermal fluctuations tend to bring a system toward its macroscopic state of maximum entropy.

The Cambrian fossil record suggests that many metazoans were macroscopic and adapted for life in the macrobenthos.

Ensemble averaging over a number of SVEs may be used for improving the approximations to the macroscopic responses..

The widespread European species Morchella semilibera is morphologically indistinguishable from M. populiphila, in both macroscopic and microscopic characteristics.

Time evolution in macroscopic systems. III: Selected applications. Found. Phys. 34: 771-813. See .Grandy 2004 see also .

The de Broglie wave has a macroscopic analogy termed Faraday wave.John W. M. Bush: "Quantum mechanics writ large".

A perfectly coherent state has a density matrix (also called the "statistical operator") that is a projection onto the pure coherent state and is equivalent to a wave function, while a mixed state is described by a classical probability distribution for the pure states that make up the mixture. Macroscopic scale quantum coherence leads to novel phenomena, the so-called macroscopic quantum phenomena. For instance, the laser, superconductivity and superfluidity are examples of highly coherent quantum systems whose effects are evident at the macroscopic scale. The macroscopic quantum coherence (off-diagonal long-range order, ODLRO) for superfluidity, and laser light, is related to first-order (1-body) coherence/ODLRO, while superconductivity is related to second-order coherence/ODLRO.

The most common examples of self-assembly at the macroscopic scale can be seen at interfaces between gases and liquids, where molecules can be confined at the nanoscale in the vertical direction and spread over long distances laterally. Examples of self-assembly at gas-liquid interfaces include breath-figures, self-assembled monolayers and Langmuir–Blodgett films, while crystallization of fullerene whiskers is an example of macroscopic self- assembly in between two liquids. Another remarkable example of macroscopic self-assembly is the formation of thin quasicrystals at an air-liquid interface, which can be built up not only by inorganic, but also by organic molecular units. Self-assembly processes can also be observed in systems of macroscopic building blocks.

Granular Matter is a system composed of many macroscopic particles. Microscopic particles (atoms\molecules) are described (in classical mechanics) by all DOF of the system. Macroscopic particles are described only by DOF of the motion of each particle as a rigid body. In each particle are a lot of internal DOF.

These species are all known to associate with willow, and all have macroscopic similarities.Vauras and Kokkonen 2009, p. 66.

Solution dispersed thick films and highly ordered transparent films of carbon nanotubes have been used for the macroscopic applications.

This implies that the pressure of an ideal gas has a purely entropic origin. What is the microscopic origin of such an entropic force or pressure? The most general answer is that the effect of thermal fluctuations tends to bring a thermodynamic system toward a macroscopic state that corresponds to a maximum in the number of microscopic states (or micro-states) that are compatible with this macroscopic state. In other words, thermal fluctuations tend to bring a system toward its macroscopic state of maximum entropy.

But the potential for this microscopic work to additively sum to macroscopic work depends on there being an asymmetric distribution of particle speeds, so that the average collision pushes in a focused direction. Microscopic work is necessary but not sufficient for macroscopic work. A global property of asymmetric distribution is also required.

This macroscopic flow due to the combination of brittle deformation mechanisms can be referred to as Deformation mechanism#Cataclasitic flow.

Whereas there is no clear threshold of oxidation, it becomes noticeable at macroscopic scales at temperatures of several hundred °C.

Essentially, this causes quantum fluctuations to appear on a macroscopic scale. However, no such behavior is observed in the film.

A macroscopic body that is stationary (i.e. a reference frame has been chosen to correspond to the body's center of momentum) may have various kinds of internal energy at the molecular or atomic level, which may be regarded as kinetic energy, due to molecular translation, rotation, and vibration, electron translation and spin, and nuclear spin. These all contribute to the body's mass, as provided by the special theory of relativity. When discussing movements of a macroscopic body, the kinetic energy referred to is usually that of the macroscopic movement only.

An example of a physical theory that takes a deliberately macroscopic viewpoint is thermodynamics. An example of a topic that extends from macroscopic to microscopic viewpoints is histology. Not quite by the distinction between macroscopic and microscopic, classical and quantum mechanics are theories that are distinguished in a subtly different way. At first glance one might think of them as differing simply in the size of objects that they describe, classical objects being considered far larger as to mass and geometrical size than quantal objects, for example a football versus a fine particle of dust.

RQM is, in essence, quite similar to the Copenhagen interpretation, but with an important difference. In the Copenhagen interpretation, the macroscopic world is assumed to be intrinsically classical in nature, and wave function collapse occurs when a quantum system interacts with macroscopic apparatus. In RQM, any interaction, be it micro or macroscopic, causes the linearity of Schrödinger evolution to break down. RQM could recover a Copenhagen-like view of the world by assigning a privileged status (not dissimilar to a preferred frame in relativity) to the classical world.

Algal bloom commonly refers to rapid growth of microscopic, unicellular algae, not macroscopic algae. An example of a macroscopic algal bloom is a kelp forest. Algal blooms are the result of a nutrient, like nitrogen or phosphorus from fertilizer runoff, entering the aquatic system and causing excessive growth of algae. An algal bloom affects the whole ecosystem.

They also suggest that the multiple branches may be an artifact of incomplete descriptions and of using quantum mechanics to represent the states of macroscopic objects. They argue that macroscopic objects are significantly different from microscopic objects in not being isolated from the environment, and that using quantum formalism to describe them lacks explanatory and descriptive power and accuracy.

These equations are not microscopic: they do not describe the equation of motion of individual nuclear magnetic moments. These are governed and described by laws of quantum mechanics. Bloch equations are macroscopic: they describe the equations of motion of macroscopic nuclear magnetization that can be obtained by summing up all nuclear magnetic moment in the sample.

The methods are different. In addition, interface and colloid science studies macroscopic phenomena that occur in heterogeneous systems due to peculiarities of interfaces.

From a macroscopic perspective, the cellular structure is perceived as a homogenous structure and characterized by considering the effective (or averaged) material parameters.

With higher loading conditions, such coefficient tends to be similar to the macroscopic one. Temperature and relative motion speed can also affect friction.

In the breast, the macroscopic, microscopic, epidemiologic, and prognostic features of LELC are very similar to medullary carcinoma; EBV status is one differentiator.

These fluctuations could be large enough to cause significant departures from the smooth spacetime seen at macroscopic scales, giving spacetime a "foamy" character.

Bird remains can be identified, first and foremost from feathers (which are distinctive to a particular species at both macroscopic and microscopic levels).

However it is generally held that such "quantum weirdness", even if it is shown to exist, cannot carry information at a macroscopic level.

However, for any sufficiently detailed description, all these forces are the results of conservative ones since each of these macroscopic forces are the net results of the gradients of microscopic potentials. The connection between macroscopic nonconservative forces and microscopic conservative forces is described by detailed treatment with statistical mechanics. In macroscopic closed systems, nonconservative forces act to change the internal energies of the system, and are often associated with the transfer of heat. According to the Second law of thermodynamics, nonconservative forces necessarily result in energy transformations within closed systems from ordered to more random conditions as entropy increases.

Equation-free modeling is a method for multiscale computation and computer- aided analysis. It is designed for a class of complicated systems in which one observes evolution at a macroscopic, coarse scale of interest, while accurate models are only given at a finely detailed, microscopic, level of description. The framework empowers one to perform macroscopic computational tasks (over large space-time scales) using only appropriately initialized microscopic simulation on short time and small length scales. The methodology eliminates the derivation of explicit macroscopic evolution equations when these equations conceptually exist but are not available in closed form; hence the term equation-free.

Rumor is an important form of social communications, and the spread of rumors plays a significant role in a variety of human affairs. There are two approaches to investigate the rumor spreading process: the microscopic models and the macroscopic models. The macroscopic models propose a macro view about this process are mainly based on the widely used, i.e. DK model and MK model.

Mean inter-particle distance (or mean inter-particle separation) is the mean distance between microscopic particles (usually atoms or molecules) in a macroscopic body.

Oxford: Oxford Scientific Publications. This may strongly affect the macroscopic properties of the material, for example the electrical resistance or creep rates.Hart EW (1972).

AS3356 consistently had one of the highest ranked connectivity degrees on the Internet.Visualizing Internet Topology at a Macroscopic Scale January 2009, caida.orgAS ranking caida.

Peats may be divided into several types, including fibric, coarse hemic, hemic, fine hemic, and sapric, based on their macroscopic, microscopic, and chemical characteristics.

Gu et al. presented a class of physical systems that exhibits non-computable macroscopic properties. More precisely, if one could compute certain macroscopic properties of these systems from the microscopic description of these systems, then one would be able to solve computational problems known to be undecidable in computer science. Gu et al. concluded that > Although macroscopic concepts are essential for understanding our world, > much of fundamental physics has been devoted to the search for a 'theory of > everything', a set of equations that perfectly describe the behavior of all > fundamental particles. The view that this is the goal of science rests in > part on the rationale that such a theory would allow us to derive the > behavior of all macroscopic concepts, at least in principle. The evidence we > have presented suggests that this view may be overly optimistic.

Self- organization requires a 'macroscopic' system, consisting of many nonlinearly interacting subsystems. Depending on the external control parameters (environment, energy-fluxes) self-organization takes place.

Page 9. Many non-conservative forces may be perceived as macroscopic effects of small- scale conservative forces.Tom W. B. Kibble, Frank H. Berkshire. Classical mechanics.

Firstly work with microstructures corresponding to block of voxels instead of individual voxels directly . Secondly, ignore the microstructure geometry and consider only the macroscopic behavior.

Although these models distinguish and describe the vehicles individually, their behavior is described by aggregate equations of motions like in a macroscopic traffic flow model.

Because it is formed from viscous molten rock, lava flows and eruptions create distinctive formations, landforms and topographical features from the macroscopic to the microscopic.

Anatomy and physiology, which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts respectively, make a natural pair of related disciplines, and are often studied together. Human anatomy is one of the essential basic sciences that are applied in medicine. The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic. Macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided eyesight.

Figure 7. Tissues of PPV-infected fetuses of gilts experimentally infected oronasally. (A) Necrotic focus in liver of live fetus of a gilt infected on day 40 of gestation and killed 42 days later; fetus had numerous macroscopic lesions (H&E; ×400). (B) Perivascular cuffing with mononuclear cells in cerebrum of live fetus, littermate of A; fetus had no macroscopic lesions (H&E; ×320).

What is meant here by "inexactitude of specification" is not that the mean values of the macroscopic variables are inexactly specified, but that the use of macroscopic variables to describe processes that actually occur by the motions and interactions of microscopic objects such as molecules is necessarily lacking in the molecular detail of the processes, and is thus inexact. There are many microscopic states compatible with a single macroscopic state, but only the latter is specified, and that is specified exactly for the purposes of the theory. It is reproducibility in repeated observations that identifies dynamical structure in a system. E.T. JaynesJaynes, E.T. (1985).

Properties of acoustic metamaterials usually arise from structure rather than composition, with techniques such as the controlled fabrication of small inhomogeneities to enact effective macroscopic behavior.

Macroscopic plant remains from the freshwater Miocene of the Nowy Sącz Basin (West Carpathians, Poland) by Maria Łańcucka- Środoniowa, Acta Palaeobotanica 1979 20 (1): 3-117.

There are several other Lactarius species that bear resemblance to L. xanthogalactus, but most can be distinguished by differences in staining reactions, macroscopic characteristics, or habitat.

The laboratory does chemical and physical analysis of rock, soil and water samples, macroscopic and microscopic analyses of rock soil and water samples, chemical and metallurgical tests.

However, due to the decreased power requirements of the micro-scale plasma actuators, experiments suggest effective macroscopic flow control via large arrays of micro-scale plasma actuators.

Macroscopic modeling may be primarily classified according to the type of traffic as homogeneous and heterogeneous, and further with respect to the order of the mathematical model.

The sequence is worked out through detailed microscopic studies in polished ore mineral section, petrologic thin section and fluid inclusion studies as well as macroscopic field relations.

Entropy and the Time Evolution of Macroscopic Systems, Oxford University Press, Oxford, , pages 60-62.Kondepudi, D. (2008). Introduction to Modern Thermodynamics, Wiley, Chichester, , pages 197-199.

Systems in mutual thermodynamic equilibrium are simultaneously in mutual thermal, mechanical, chemical, and radiative equilibria. Systems can be in one kind of mutual equilibrium, though not in others. In thermodynamic equilibrium, all kinds of equilibrium hold at once and indefinitely, until disturbed by a thermodynamic operation. In a macroscopic equilibrium, perfectly or almost perfectly balanced microscopic exchanges occur; this is the physical explanation of the notion of macroscopic equilibrium.

In this description, microstates appear as different possible ways the system can achieve a particular macrostate. A macrostate is characterized by a probability distribution of possible states across a certain statistical ensemble of all microstates. This distribution describes the probability of finding the system in a certain microstate. In the thermodynamic limit, the microstates visited by a macroscopic system during its fluctuations all have the same macroscopic properties.

Particle physics, dealing with the smallest physical systems, is also known as high energy physics. Physics of larger length scales, including the macroscopic scale, is also known as low energy physics. Intuitively, it might seem incorrect to associate "high energy" with the physics of very small, low mass-energy systems, like subatomic particles. By comparison, one gram of hydrogen, a macroscopic system, has ~ times"CODATA Value: Avogadro constant".

Macroscopic systems with a large number of microscopic degrees of freedom are usually well described by a small number of relevant variables, e.g. the magnetization in a system of spins. The Mori-Zwanzig formalism allows to find macroscopic equations that only depend on the relevant variables based on microscopic equations of motion of a system, which are usually determined by the Hamiltonian. The irrelevant part appears in the equations as noise.

This description is simply another way to view metamaterials. And these are electric permittivity, ε and magnetic permeability, μ. Hence, by designing the individual, geometrically shaped unit of the material, called a cell, as the right kind of composite, it becomes a material with macroscopic properties that do not occur in nature. Of particular interest regarding nonlinear metamaterials, is the artificially induced macroscopic property known as negative refractive index.

Vesicle-based assay for ion channels. Ion transporter induces an all-or-none change at the level of the individual vesicle, culminating in a macroscopic time-course that is dependent on transporter activity and concentration. One line of evidence for ion transport comes from macroscopic examination of statistical ensembles. All these techniques use intact vesicles with an entrapped volume, with ion channel activities reported by different spectroscopic methods.

In Sec. 6.1 of the book has been shown that the traffic phase definitions [S] and [J] are the origin of most hypotheses of three-phase theory and related three-phase microscopic traffic flow models. The traffic phase definitions [J] and [S] are non-local macroscopic ones and they are applicable only after macroscopic data has been measured in space and time, i.e., in an "off-line" study.

The thickness decrease occurs dominantly across the voids, the macroscopic dipole moments decrease, and so do the electrode charges, yielding a positive d33 (intrinsic or direct (quasi-)piezoelectricity).

Mesofauna are macroscopic soil animals such as arthropods or nematodes. Mesofauna are extremely diverse; considering just the springtails (Collembola), as of 1998, approximately 6,500 species had been identified.

The preservational mode is rare in the preceding Ediacaran period, but those assemblages known show no trace of animal life – perhaps implying a genuine absence of macroscopic metazoans.

A survey of the macroscopic marine algae of County Donegal was published in 2003.Morton, O. 2003. The marine macroalgae of County Donegal, Ireland. Bulletin of Irish biogeoghical Society.

"The challenge of molecular communication", Technology Review (Physics arXiv blog), 28 June 2010. Based on the macroscopic theoryH.C. Berg (1993). Random Walks in Biology, Princeton University Press, NJ, USA.

Photomicrograph of olivine adcumulate, Archaean Komatiite, Agnew, Western Australia. In addition to macroscopic properties such as color or lustre, minerals have properties that require a polarizing microscope to observe.

The many forms of micro and macroscopic marine life that live on and inside of the rock, which acts as an ideal habitat, give it the name "live rock".

Thermodynamic equilibrium is an axiomatic concept of thermodynamics. It is an internal state of a single thermodynamic system, or a relation between several thermodynamic systems connected by more or less permeable or impermeable walls. In thermodynamic equilibrium there are no net macroscopic flows of matter or of energy, either within a system or between systems. In a system that is in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium, no macroscopic change occurs.

Pillared graphene represents a class of three-dimensional carbon nanotube architectures. 3D carbon scaffolds Recently, several studies have highlighted the prospect of using carbon nanotubes as building blocks to fabricate three-dimensional macroscopic (>100 nm in all three dimensions) all-carbon devices. Lalwani et al. have reported a novel radical-initiated thermal crosslinking method to fabricate macroscopic, free-standing, porous, all-carbon scaffolds using single- and multi-walled carbon nanotubes as building blocks.

Sensible heat is heat exchanged by a body or thermodynamic system in which the exchange of heat changes the temperature of the body or system, and some macroscopic variables of the body or system, but leaves unchanged certain other macroscopic variables of the body or system, such as volume or pressure.Partington, J.R. (1949). An Advanced Treatise on Physical Chemistry, Volume 1, Fundamental Principles. The Properties of Gases, Longmans, Green, and Co., London, pages 155-157.

When treating large degrees of freedom at the macroscopic level, statistical mechanics becomes useful. Statistical mechanics describes the behavior of large (but countable) numbers of particles and their interactions as a whole at the macroscopic level. Statistical mechanics is mainly used in thermodynamics for systems that lie outside the bounds of the assumptions of classical thermodynamics. In the case of high velocity objects approaching the speed of light, classical mechanics is enhanced by special relativity.

Algae of this genus are made up of macroscopic filaments of cylindrical cells.Jones, W. E. A Key to the Genera of the British Seaweeds. 1962,. Fields Studies Vol.1 no.

Since then Lockwood (1989), Vaidman and others have made similar proposals. These proposals require placing macroscopic objects in a coherent superposition and interfering them, a task now beyond experimental capability.

According to Planck, there are three main conceptual approaches to heat.Planck, M. (1897/1903), p. viii. One is the microscopic or kinetic theory approach. The other two are macroscopic approaches.

This article summaries physical concepts that describe the generation and conduction of heat in an integrated circuit, and presents numerical methods that model heat transfer from a macroscopic point of view.

Historically, there are several scientific approaches to the explanation of temperature: the classical thermodynamic description based on macroscopic empirical variables that can be measured in a laboratory; the kinetic theory of gases which relates the macroscopic description to the probability distribution of the energy of motion of gas particles; and a microscopic explanation based on statistical physics and quantum mechanics. In addition, rigorous and purely mathematical treatments have provided an axiomatic approach to classical thermodynamics and temperature. Statistical physics provides a deeper understanding by describing the atomic behavior of matter, and derives macroscopic properties from statistical averages of microscopic states, including both classical and quantum states. In the fundamental physical description, using natural units, temperature may be measured directly in units of energy.

The rules of quantum mechanics are highly successful in describing microscopic objects, atoms and elementary particles. But macroscopic systems, like springs and capacitors, are accurately described by classical theories like classical mechanics and classical electrodynamics. If quantum mechanics were to be applicable to macroscopic objects, there must be some limit in which quantum mechanics reduces to classical mechanics. Bohr's correspondence principle demands that classical physics and quantum physics give the same answer when the systems become large.

Kinetic theory provides insight into the macroscopic properties of gases by considering their molecular composition and motion. Starting with the definitions of momentum and kinetic energy,For assumptions of kinetic theory see McPherson, pp.60–61 one can use the conservation of momentum and geometric relationships of a cube to relate macroscopic system properties of temperature and pressure to the microscopic property of kinetic energy per molecule. The theory provides averaged values for these two properties.

Such idealizations are useful for most everyday calculations, but may fail entirely for molecules, atoms, photons, and other elementary particles. In many ways, classical mechanics can be considered a mainly macroscopic theory. On the much smaller scale of atoms and molecules, classical mechanics may fail, and the interactions of particles are then described by quantum mechanics. Near the absolute minimum of temperature, the Bose–Einstein condensate exhibits effects on macroscopic scale that demand description by quantum mechanics.

In this way, microscopic reversibility was used to prove macroscopic irreversibility and convergence of ensembles of molecules to their thermodynamic equilibria. Another macroscopic consequence of microscopic reversibility is the symmetry of kinetic coefficients, the so-called reciprocal relations. The reciprocal relations were discovered in the 19th century by Thomson and Helmholtz for some phenomena but the general theory was proposed by Lars Onsager in 1931. He found also the connection between the reciprocal relations and detailed balance.

One of the first proposed experiments for demonstrating a violation of macroscopic realism employs superconducting quantum interference devices. There, using Josephson junctions, one should be able to prepare macroscopic superpositions of left and right rotating macroscopically large electronic currents in a superconducting ring. Under sufficient suppression of decoherence one should be able to demonstrate a violation of the Leggett–Garg inequality. However, some criticism has been raised concerning the nature of indistinguishable electrons in a Fermi sea.

The MSGF method is multiscale in the sense that it links the response of materials to an applied force at atomistic scales to their response at the macroscopic scales. The response of materials at the macroscopic scales is calculated by using the continuum model of solids. In the continuum model, the discrete atomistic structure of solids is averaged out into a continuum. Properties of nanomaterials are sensitive to their atomistic structure as well as their overall dimensions.

Some caveats should be considered with the above. 1\. Like all statistical mechanical results according to the MaxEnt school, this increase in thermodynamic entropy is only a prediction. It assumes in particular that the initial macroscopic description contains all of the information relevant to predicting the later macroscopic state. This may not be the case, for example if the initial description fails to reflect some aspect of the preparation of the system which later becomes relevant.

The macroscopic scale is the length scale on which objects or phenomena are large enough to be visible with the naked eye, without magnifying optical instruments. It is the opposite of microscopic.

The photosynthetic cyanobacterium Hyella caespitosa (round shapes) with fungal hyphae (translucent threads) in the lichen Pyrenocollema halodytes A lichen is a symbiosis of a macroscopic fungus with photosynthetic microbial algae or cyanobacteria.

As such, Maxwell's macroscopic equations ignore many details on a fine scale that can be unimportant to understanding matters on a gross scale by calculating fields that are averaged over some suitable volume.

The term plasmodium, introduced by Leon Cienkowski,Kuznicki, L. & Dryl, S. (1987). Leon Cienkowski. Acta Protozoologica 26 (1): 1-2, . usually refers to the feeding stage of slime molds; these are macroscopic mycetozoans.

However, as a background in which gravitational fields (or gravitons) can operate, due to diffeomorphism invariance, the space on the macroscopic scale, is equivalent to any other (open) solution of Einstein's field equations.

200px Wickham striae are whitish lines visible in the papules of lichen planus and other dermatoses, typically in the oral mucosa. The macroscopic appearance shows hypergranulosis. It is named after Louis Frédéric Wickham.

Because the supermembrane(s) correspond to all particles at a particular causal time slice, it also corresponds to all the gravitons particles (which are particular vibrational modes). Thus the geometry of the 2+1D supermembrane contains within it the description of the geometry of the (macroscopic) 10+1D space-time. But as it is a quantum theory it gives probabilities for different space-times consistent with observation. The different space-times may only differ microscopically whereas the macroscopic space-time is smooth.

Yoseph Imry (Hebrew: יוסף אמרי; born 23 February 1939 – 29 May 2018) was an Israeli physicist. He was best known for taking part in the foundation of mesoscopic physics, a relatively new branch of condensed matter physics. It is concerned with how the behavior of systems whose size is in between micro- and macroscopic, crosses over between these two regimes. These systems can be handled and addressed by more or less usual macroscopic methods, but their behavior may still show quantum effects.

This then allows for a macroscopic description expressed as electric permittivity and magnetic permeability. In order to manufacture an artificial permittivity and permeability there must be a capability to access the atoms themselves. This degree of precision is impractical. However, in the late 1940s - in the domain of long wavelengths such as radio frequencies and microwave - it became possible to manufacture larger scale, and more accessible scatterers that mimic the local response of natural materials - along with a synthesized macroscopic response.

Galaxies are so large that stars can be considered particles relative to them The term "particle" is usually applied differently to three classes of sizes. The term macroscopic particle, usually refers to particles much larger than atoms and molecules. These are usually abstracted as point-like particles, even though they have volumes, shapes, structures, etc. Examples of macroscopic particles would include powder, dust, sand, pieces of debris during a car accident, or even objects as big as the stars of a galaxy.

Reductionist thinking and methods form the basis for many of the well-developed topics of modern science, including much of physics, chemistry and molecular biology. Classical mechanics in particular is seen as a reductionist framework. For instance, we understand the solar system in terms of its components (the sun and the planets) and their interactions. Statistical mechanics can be considered as a reconciliation of macroscopic thermodynamic laws with the reductionist method of explaining macroscopic properties in terms of microscopic components.

Theory of heat. London: Longmans, Green & Co. Boltzmann modeled gas molecules as colliding billiard balls in a box, noting that with each collision nonequilibrium velocity distributions (groups of molecules moving at the same speed and in the same direction) would become increasingly disordered leading to a final state of macroscopic uniformity and maximum microscopic disorder or the state of maximum entropy (where the macroscopic uniformity corresponds to the obliteration of all field potentials or gradients).Boltzmann, L. (1974). The second law of thermodynamics.

The dispersion (London) force is the most important component because all materials are polarizable, whereas Keesom and Debye forces require permanent dipoles. The London interaction is universal and is present in atom-atom interactions as well. For various reasons, London interactions (dispersion) have been considered relevant for interactions between macroscopic bodies in condensed systems. Hamaker developed the theory of van der Waals between macroscopic bodies in 1937 and showed that the additivity of these interactions renders them considerably more long-range.

A Macroscopic traffic flow model is a mathematical traffic model that formulates the relationships among traffic flow characteristics like density, flow, mean speed of a traffic stream, etc.. Such models are conventionally arrived at by integrating microscopic traffic flow models and converting the single-entity level characteristics to comparable system level characteristics. The method of modeling traffic flow at macroscopic level originated under an assumption that traffic streams as a whole are comparable to fluid streams. The first major step in macroscopic modeling of traffic was taken by Lighthill and Whitham in 1955, when they indexed the comparability of ‘traffic flow on long crowded roads’ with ‘flood movements in long rivers’. A year later, Richards (1956) complemented the idea with the introduction of ‘shock-waves on the highway’, completing the so-called LWR model.

In other words, the geometry of the membrane determines the geometry of (macroscopic) space-time. This is different from string theory where only condensates of many separate strings can macroscopically determine the space-time.

Theoretical calculations in a quantum tunneling model with mass estimates from a macroscopic-microscopic model predict the alpha-decay half-lives of isotopes of tennessine (namely, 289–303Ts) to be around 0.1–40 ms.

This relation of the macroscopic and microscopic suggested Anaximenes believed there was an overarching principle that regulated all life and behavior. Essentially, he thought air was the primary substance that held the universe together.

Adhesiveness depends not only on the type of tape but also on its macroscopic shape. Tapes with sharp corners start to detach at pointed corners. Adhesive strength can be improved by rounding the corners.

This view is widely taken as the practical one, quantity of heat being measured by calorimetry. Bailyn also distinguishes the two macroscopic approaches as the mechanical and the thermodynamic.Bailyn, M. (1994), pp. 65, 79.

Her doctoral thesis was titled "Trauma and its treatment in British antiquity: An osteoarchaeological study of macroscopic and radiological features of long bone fractures from the historic period with a comparative study of clinical radiographs".

Philosophers Karl Popper and John Eccles and physicist Henry Stapp have theorized that such indeterminacy may apply at the macroscopic scale.Popper, Karl R., and John C. Eccles. 1977. The Self and Its Brain. Berlin: Springer.

The visible (macroscopic) results of plastic deformation are the result of microscopic dislocation motion. For example, the stretching of a steel rod in a tensile tester is accommodated through dislocation motion on the atomic scale.

Downhill folding is a process in which a protein folds without encountering any significant macroscopic free energy barrier. It is a key prediction of the folding funnel hypothesis of the energy landscape theory of proteins.

Ensemble computing is a computational model that uses a macroscopic number of identical computers. Each computer contains a certain number of qubits, and the computational operations are performed simultaneously on all the computers. The output of the computation can be obtained by measuring the state of the entire ensemble, which would be the average output of each computer in it. Since the number of computers is macroscopic, the output signal is easier to detect and measure than the output signal of each single computer.

Most such micromechanical methods use periodic homogenization, which approximates composites by periodic phase arrangements. A single repeating volume element is studied, appropriate boundary conditions being applied to extract the composite's macroscopic properties or responses. The Method of Macroscopic Degrees of Freedom can be used with commercial FE codes, whereas analysis based on asymptotic homogenization typically requires special-purpose codes. The Variational Asymptotic Method for Unit Cell Homogenization (VAMUCH) and its development, Mechanics of Structural Genome (see below), are recent Finite Element based approaches for periodic homogenization.

Species of the genus Tetraspora are unicellular green algae, in which the individual cells are non-motile and are shaped spherically or elliptically. These individual cells are arranged in sets or multiples of four; these could be in the arrangement of four-by-four cells or two-by-two. All cells are encased within a macroscopic mucilaginous matrix, that creates macroscopic colonies. Within the envelope, the cells are uniformly distributed and overall, the mucilaginous envelope creates an irregular outline with asymmetrical shapes and edges.

Guttmann, Y.M. (1999), p. 29. The probabilities represent both the degree of knowledge and lack of information in the data and the model used in the analyst's macroscopic description of the system, and also what those data say about the nature of the underlying reality. The fitness of the probabilities depends on whether the constraints of the specified macroscopic model are a sufficiently accurate and/or complete description of the system to capture all of the experimentally reproducible behaviour. This cannot be guaranteed, a priori.

The macroscopic theory of van der Waals theory has many experimental validations. Among which, some of the most notable ones are Derjaguin (1960); Derjaguin, Abrikosova and Lifshitz (1956) and Israelachvili and Tabor (1973), who measured the balance of forces between macroscopic bodies of glass, or glass and mica; Haydon and Taylor (1968), who measured the forces across bilayers by measuring their contact angle; and lastly Shih and Parsegian (1975), who investigated Van der Waals potentials between heavy alkali-metal atoms and gold surfaces using atomic- beam-deflection.

A microscopic theory is one that contains an explanation at the atomic or subatomic level in contrast to a higher level or classical macroscopic or phenomenological theory. e.g. in superconductivity BCS theory is a microscopic theory.

The moving particle semi-implicit (MPS) method is a computational method for the simulation of incompressible free surface flows. It is a macroscopic, deterministic particle method (Lagrangian mesh-free method) developed by Koshizuka and Oka (1996).

Another result of the above-mentioned findings was the identification of 'real experimentally realizable macroscopic systems violating Bell's inequalities'. Around this time Luigi Accardi, proved that the violation of Bell's inequalities is equivalent to the non-existence of one Kolmogorovian probability model for the considered joint experiments. An intriguing implication of Accardi's findings was that the macroscopic systems violating Bell's inequalities identified by Aerts should entail a non-Kolmogorovian probability structure, possibly even a quantum probability structure, which, at that time, was very much contrary to general belief. It motivated Aerts to conduct an in-depth investigation, which yielded new concrete macroscopic models based on genuine quantum structure, as well as a new explanation, namely that quantum structure appears as a consequence of the presence of fluctuations on the interaction between the measurement apparatus and the entity under investigation.

We can therefore demonstrate formally why it is that the questions which Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen assumed could be asked together, of a single quantum system, simply cannot be asked together. On the other hand, we can demonstrate that classical, logical reasoning often does apply, even to quantum experiments – but we can now be mathematically exact about the limits of classical logic. Quantum decoherence, on the other hand (in combination with the consistent histories approach), recovers classical behaviour at the macroscopic level. The formal mathematics of this approach allows us to demonstrate, finally, that is impossible (or rather, massively improbable) for a macroscopic Schrödinger's cat to exist for longer than a minuscule time (related to the macroscopic energy dissipation time by a factor involving the square of Planck's constant) in a quantum superposition of its and . states.

Dashi-Dorzho Itigilov (; , Etigelei Dashadorjo; 1852–1927) was a Buryat Buddhist lama of the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, best known for the lifelike state of his dead body, which is reported not to be subject to macroscopic decay.

Collapse models posit the existence of natural processes which periodically localize the wave-function. Such theories provide an explanation to the nonexistence of superpositions of macroscopic objects, at the cost of abandoning unitarity and exact energy conservation.

An optical coating, as used for instance in a dielectric mirror, is made of several layers that have different refractive indexes. Giant magnetoresistance is a macroscopic quantum effect observed in alternating ferromagnetic and non-magnetic conductive layers.

First report of black Sigatoka in Florida. (Disease Note) Plant Disease 83:300. As it spread, Black Sigatoka replaced the yellow form and has become the dominant disease of bananas worldwide. Black Sigatoka macroscopic view of lesions.

At macroscopic level, Fourier's law states a relation between the transmitted heat per unit time per unit area and the gradient of temperature: : q= - \kappa abla T Where \kappa is the thermal conductivity, [W·m−1 K−1].

The fungus is named for its prominent cystidia, which can be seen with a hand lens. A defining macroscopic characteristic is the translucent look of the fruit body when fresh, and its horny, brittle texture when dried.

An example is metazeunerite. In penetration twins the individual crystals have the appearance of passing through each other in a symmetrical manner. Orthoclase, staurolite, pyrite, and fluorite often show penetration twinning. Galvanized surface with macroscopic crystalline features.

Horsehair worms are not considered pathogenic or parasitic on humans and their presence in the body is incidental.Winters, R. and W. Winn. (2008). Macroscopic mimics of helminths in stool specimen examination. Lab Medicine 39(2), 114-18.

Some macroscopic animals like molluscs, sponges, corals, brachiopods and echinoderms may use osmotrophic feeding as a supplemental food source. Osmotrophy as a means of gathering nutrients in microscopic organisms relies on cellular surface area to ensure that proper diffusion of nutrients occurs into the cell. When organisms increase in size, the surface area per volume ratio drops and osmotrophy becomes insufficient to meet nutrient demands. Larger macroscopic organisms that rely on osmotrophy can compensate for a reduced surface area per volume ratio with a very flat, thin body.

Free- living species are common in both salt and freshwater as well as soil, moss and leaf litter. Some live as parasites or symbiotes of other organisms, and some are known to cause disease in humans and other organisms. While the majority of amoebozoan species are unicellular, the group also includes several clades of slime molds, which have a macroscopic, multicellular stage of life during which individual amoeboid cells remain together after mutliple cell division to form a macroscopic plasmodium or, in cellular slime molds, aggregate to form one. Amoebozoa vary greatly in size.

These shape characteristics are not necessary for a crystal—a crystal is scientifically defined by its microscopic atomic arrangement, not its macroscopic shape—but the characteristic macroscopic shape is often present and easy to see. Euhedral crystals are those with obvious, well-formed flat faces. Anhedral crystals do not, usually because the crystal is one grain in a polycrystalline solid. The flat faces (also called facets) of a euhedral crystal are oriented in a specific way relative to the underlying atomic arrangement of the crystal: they are planes of relatively low Miller index.

To reduce the complexities in the kinetic description, the fluid model describes the plasma based on macroscopic quantities (velocity moments of the distribution such as density, mean velocity, and mean energy). The equations for macroscopic quantities, called fluid equations, are obtained by taking velocity moments of the Boltzmann equation or the Vlasov equation. The fluid equations are not closed without the determination of transport coefficients such as mobility, diffusion coefficient, averaged collision frequencies, and so on. To determine the transport coefficients, the velocity distribution function must be assumed/chosen.

Its appearance is a matter of debate, for no representative has been (or is ever likely to be) identified in the fossil record. Two reconstructed urbilaterian morphologies can be considered: first, the less complex ancestral form forming the common ancestor to Xenacoelomorpha and Nephrozoa; and second, the more complex (coelomate) urbilaterian ancestral to both Protostomes and Deuterostomes, sometimes referred to as the "urnephrozoan". Since all protostomes and deuterostomes share features — e.g., blood circulation systems and guts — that are useful only in relatively large (macroscopic) organisms, their common ancestor ought also to have been macroscopic.

Randomly oriented nanobuds have already been demonstrated to have an extremely low work function for field electron emission. Reported test measurements show (macroscopic) field thresholds of about 0.65 V/μm, (non-functionalized single-walled carbon nanotubes have a macroscopic field threshold for field electron emission ~2 V/μm) and a much higher current density as compared with that of the corresponding pure single-walled carbon nanotubes. The electron transport properties of certain nanobud classes have been treated theoretically. The study shows that electrons indeed pass to the neck and bud region of the nanobud system.

For most macroscopic objects, this wavelength is so short that it is not meaningful to assign a wavelength to them. A sodium atom traveling at about 30,000 m/s would have a De Broglie wavelength of about 50 pico meters. Because the wavelength for even the smallest of macroscopic objects is extremely small, diffraction of matter waves is only visible for small particles, like electrons, neutrons, atoms and small molecules. The short wavelength of these matter waves makes them ideally suited to study the atomic crystal structure of solids and large molecules like proteins.

Wojciech Zurek pointed out, that the same ideas play a role for the phase transition of normal fluid helium to superfluid helium. The analogy between the Higgs field and superfluid helium is given by the two-component order parameter; superfluid helium is described via a macroscopic quantum mechanical wave function with global phase. In helium, two components of the order parameter are magnitude and phase (or real and imaginary part) of the complex wave function. Defects in superfluid helium are given by vortex lines, where the coherent macroscopic wave function disappears within the core.

Like all quantum bits, flux qubits require a suitably sensitive probe coupled to it in order to measure its state after a computation has been carried out. Such quantum probes should introduce as little back-action as possible onto the qubit during measurement. Ideally they should be decoupled during computation and then turned "on" for a short time during read-out. Read-out probes for flux qubits work by interacting with one of the qubit's macroscopic variables, such as the circulating current, the flux within the loop or the macroscopic phase of the superconductor.

Sample of fossiliferous limestone Fossiliferous limestone is any type of limestone, made mostly of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the form of the minerals calcite or aragonite, that contains an abundance of fossils or fossil traces. The fossils in these rocks may be of macroscopic or microscopic size. The sort of macroscopic fossils often include crinoid stems, brachiopods, gastropods, and other hard shelled mollusk remains. In some cases, microfossils such as siliceous diatom shells in deposition may convert over time to opal and chert, providing the only inferred evidence of bioactivity preserved in limestone.

Classical thermodynamics is the description of the states of thermodynamic systems at near-equilibrium, that uses macroscopic, measurable properties. It is used to model exchanges of energy, work and heat based on the laws of thermodynamics. The qualifier classical reflects the fact that it represents the first level of understanding of the subject as it developed in the 19th century and describes the changes of a system in terms of macroscopic empirical (large scale, and measurable) parameters. A microscopic interpretation of these concepts was later provided by the development of statistical mechanics.

As a rock partially melts and begins to flow, its rheology changes significantly. Such changes will localize the strain created by regional tectonics and as per Le Chatelier's Principle, the system responds by pumping melt towards zones of dilantancy (lower pressure) thereby segregating the melt from its anatectic source on a local scale. Where this has occurred and been preserved in the rock record, one can expect to see macroscopic melt-rich layers (leucosomes), and macroscopic residual solid layers (melanosomes). These layers will commonly be oriented parallel to the fabric of the host rock.

Boltzmann equations represent the macroscopic evolution of colliding particles in rarefied gases, while McKean Vlasov diffusions represent the macroscopic behavior of fluid particles and granular gases. In computational physics and more specifically in quantum mechanics, the ground state energies of quantum systems is associated with the top of the spectrum of Schrödinger's operators. The Schrödinger equation is the quantum mechanics version of the Newton's second law of motion of classical mechanics (the mass times the acceleration is the sum of the forces). This equation represents the wave function (a.k.a.

Nevertheless, it can result in non-negligible macroscopic effects, particularly in conducting media such as metals, electrolytes and plasmas. Spatial dispersion also plays role in optical activity and Doppler broadening, as well as in the theory of metamaterials.

While in the case of tilted crystallites, domain walls, grain boundaries etc. orientation contrast occurs on a macroscopic scale, it can also be generated more locally around defects, e.g. due to curved lattice planes around a dislocation core.

As a result, chronic neuropathic pain can induce macroscopic anatomical remodeling of the hindbrain, including the cerebellum. The magnitude of this remodeling and the induction of neuron progenitor markers suggest the contribution of adult neurogenesis to these changes.

This work underlies the concept of electronegativity equalization, which suggests that electrons distribute themselves around a molecule to minimize or to equalize the Mulliken electronegativity. This behavior is analogous to the equalization of chemical potential in macroscopic thermodynamics.

Estimates of the present global macroscopic species diversity vary from 2 million to 100 million, with a best estimate of somewhere near 9 million, the vast majority arthropods. Diversity appears to increase continually in the absence of natural selection.

A dynamic dependency approach representing interdependence of dynamic systems, such as synchronization and spreading has been developed based on multilayer networks. The study found phenomena such as coupled collective phenomena, including multistability, hysteresis, regions of coexistence, and macroscopic chaos.

In lithic analysis in archaeology the cortex is the outer layer of rock formed on the exterior of raw materials by chemical and mechanical weathering processes.Andrefsky, William 2005 Lithics: Macroscopic Approaches to Analysis. 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Of course, in reality there is only one real state of the system. The entropy is not a direct function of that state. It is a function of the real state only through the (subjectively chosen) macroscopic model description.

In 1926 Gilbert N. Lewis named these light quanta particles photons. Eventually the modern theory of quantum mechanics came to picture light as (in some sense) both a particle and a wave, and (in another sense), as a phenomenon which is neither a particle nor a wave (which actually are macroscopic phenomena, such as baseballs or ocean waves). Instead, modern physics sees light as something that can be described sometimes with mathematics appropriate to one type of macroscopic metaphor (particles), and sometimes another macroscopic metaphor (water waves), but is actually something that cannot be fully imagined. As in the case for radio waves and the X-rays involved in Compton scattering, physicists have noted that electromagnetic radiation tends to behave more like a classical wave at lower frequencies, but more like a classical particle at higher frequencies, but never completely loses all qualities of one or the other.

The kinetic theory of gases explains the macroscopic properties of gases, such as volume, pressure, and temperature, as well as transport properties such as viscosity, thermal conductivity and mass diffusivity. The model also accounts for related phenomena, such as Brownian motion.

Particles may also be suspended in the form of atmospheric particulate matter, which may constitute air pollution. Larger particles can similarly form marine debris or space debris. A conglomeration of discrete solid, macroscopic particles may be described as a granular material.

But there are exceptions. Some single-celled marine protists are macroscopic. Some marine slime molds have unique life cycles that involve switching between unicellular, colonial, and multicellular forms. Other marine protist are neither single-celled nor microscopic, such as seaweed.

Lincoln University. with as much as 75% of the tahr diet consisting of natural grasses.Clauss, M., Hummel, J., Vercammen, F., Streich, W. J., (30 June 2005) Observations on the Macroscopic Digestive Anatomy of the Himalayan Tahr (hemitragus jemlahicus). Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia.

Other major issues are brought to the reader's attention, such as quantum mechanics and experience, as well as quantum mechanics and the measurement problem. Finally, this chapter addresses the important subject of decoherence and its relevance towards the macroscopic world.

Dendrochronology can reveal a past impact, with missing tree rings, as the tree rings grow around and close over a gap; the callus tissue can be seen microscopically. A macroscopic section can be used for dating of avalanche and rockfall events.

Monzogranites can be divided into two groups (magnesio-potassic monzogranite and ferro-potassic monzogranite) and are further categorized into rock types based on their macroscopic characteristics, melt characteristics, specific features, available isotopic data, and the locality in which they are found.

Zubarev D. N.,(1974). Nonequilibrium Statistical Thermodynamics, translated from the Russian by P.J. Shepherd, New York, Consultants Bureau. ; . The longer relaxation time is of the order of magnitude of times taken for the macroscopic dynamical structure of the system to change.

On the square lattice, the energies \epsilon_1,\ldots,\epsilon_6 associated with vertex configurations 1-6 determine the relative probabilities of states, and thus can influence the macroscopic behaviour of the system. The following are common choices for these vertex energies.

The demon can not have negative energy and it does not interact with the particles beyond exchanging energy. Note that the additional degree of freedom of the demon does not alter a system with many particles significantly on a macroscopic level.

In thermodynamical systems, equal macroscopic properties (e. g. temperature) can result from different microscopic properties (e. g. velocities of individual particles). Computer simulations of the full equations of motion for every individual particle to simulate microscopic properties is computationally very expensive.

Green algae live most of their lives as single cells or are filamentous, while others form colonies made up from long chains of cells, or are highly differentiated macroscopic seaweeds. They form an informal group containing about 8,000 recognized species.

All of these define the relative numbers of particles in a system as decreasing exponential functions of energy (at the particle level) over kT, with k representing the Boltzmann constant and T representing the temperature observed at the macroscopic level.

Researchers have also successfully used quantum teleportation to transmit information between clouds of gas atoms, notable because the clouds of gas are macroscopic atomic ensembles. In 2018, physicists at Yale demonstrated a deterministic teleported CNOT operation between logically encoded qubits.

29(1): p. 47–65. DEM has enhanced rapidly our understanding of granular system by producing quantitative predictions rather than only qualitative description, increased our insight into particle assemblies by providing both microscopic and macroscopic information.H. J. Herrmann, J.-P.

J. Phys. Chem. 1967 vol 71 pp3001-3006.Zhang, X. et al Thermodynamics of macroscopic and microscopic proton ionization from protonated 4-aminobenzoic acid in aqueous solution from 298.15 to 393.15 K. J. Phys. Chem. B 2000 vol 104 pp8598-8605.

The van der Waals forces arise from interaction between uncharged atoms or molecules, leading not only to such phenomena as the cohesion of condensed phases and physical absorption of gases, but also to a universal force of attraction between macroscopic bodies.

Normal squamous cells Dysplastic cells Dysplasia is any of various types of abnormal growth or development of cells (microscopic scale) and/or organs (macroscopic scale), and/or the abnormal histology or anatomical structure presumably resulting from such growth. Dysplasias on a mainly microscopic scale include epithelial dysplasia and fibrous dysplasia of bone. Dysplasias on a mainly macroscopic scale include hip dysplasia, myelodysplastic syndrome, and multicystic dysplastic kidney. In one of the modern histopathologic senses of the term, dysplasia is sometimes differentiated from other categories of tissue change including hyperplasia, metaplasia, and neoplasia, and dysplasias are thus generally not neoplastic (not cancerous).

When applied to physical phenomena and bodies, the macroscopic scale describes things as a person can directly perceive them, without the aid of magnifying devices. This is in contrast to observations (microscopy) or theories (microphysics, statistical physics) of objects of geometric lengths smaller than perhaps some hundreds of micrometers. A macroscopic view of a ball is just that: a ball. A microscopic view could reveal a thick round skin seemingly composed entirely of puckered cracks and fissures (as viewed through a microscope) or, further down in scale, a collection of molecules in a roughly spherical shape (as viewed through an electron_microscope).

In physics and chemistry, there are two main macroscopic consequences of the time-reversibility of microscopic dynamics: the principle of detailed balance and the Onsager reciprocal relations. The statistical description of the macroscopic process as an ensemble of the elementary indivisible events (collisions) was invented by L. Boltzmann and formalised in the Boltzmann equation. He discovered that the time-reversibility of the Newtonian dynamics leads to the detailed balance for collision: in equilibrium collisions are equilibrated by their reverse collisions. This principle allowed Boltzmann to deduce simple and nice formula for entropy production and prove his famous H-theorem.

The idea that macroscopic objects may follow the laws of quantum mechanics dates back to the advent of quantum mechanics in the early 20th century.. However, as highlighted by the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment, quantum effects are not readily observable in large-scale objects. Consequently, quantum states of motion have only been observed in special circumstances at extremely low temperatures. The fragility of quantum effects in macroscopic objects may arise from rapid quantum decoherence. Researchers created the first quantum machine in 2009, and the achievement was named the "Breakthrough of the Year" by Science in 2010.

The magnitude of the kelvin is now defined in terms of kinetic theory, derived from the value of Boltzmann's constant. Kinetic theory provides a microscopic account of temperature for some bodies of material, especially gases, based on macroscopic systems' being composed of many microscopic particles, such as molecules and ions of various species, the particles of a species being all alike. It explains macroscopic phenomena through the classical mechanics of the microscopic particles. The equipartition theorem of kinetic theory asserts that each classical degree of freedom of a freely moving particle has an average kinetic energy of where denotes Boltzmann's constant.

The brain is definitely a macroscopic physical system operating on the scales (of time, space, temperature) which differ crucially from the corresponding quantum scales. (The macroscopic quantum physical phenomena, such as the Bose-Einstein condensate, are also characterized by the special conditions which are definitely not fulfilled in the brain.) In particular, the brain’s temperature is simply too high to be able to perform the real quantum information processing, i.e., to use the quantum carriers of information such as photons, ions, electrons. As is commonly accepted in brain science, the basic unit of information processing is a neuron.

Fresnel suggested instead that there was a microscopic current circulating around each particle of the magnet. In his first note, he argued that microscopic currents, unlike macroscopic currents, would explain why a hollow cylindrical magnet does not lose its magnetism when cut longitudinally. In his second note, dated 5 July 1821, he further argued that a macroscopic current had the counterfactual implication that a permanent magnet should be hot, whereas microscopic currents circulating around the molecules might avoid the heating mechanism. He was not to know that the fundamental units of permanent magnetism are even smaller than molecules .

He has been very active in the study of atomic and molecular clusters, particularly in their phases and phase changes. This has led to a broader interest in bridging between the microscopic and macroscopic descriptions of physical systems, especially of finding the boundary below which a macroscopic description fails. His interests, apart from traditional scientific studies, have included energy and energy policy (which he was teaching with the economist George Tolley), scientific integrity issues, scientific information, its distribution and its contributions to policy and governmental decisions including those of the courts, and science education, particularly the problem of science illiteracy.

Thus this law is about the boundary conditions rather than the equations of motion. The Second Law of Thermodynamics is statistical in nature, and therefore its reliability arises from the huge number of particles present in macroscopic systems. It is not impossible, in principle, for all 6 × 1023 atoms in a mole of a gas to spontaneously migrate to one half of a container; it is only fantastically unlikely—so unlikely that no macroscopic violation of the Second Law has ever been observed. T Symmetry is the symmetry of physical laws under a time reversal transformation.

The thermodynamic limit is essentially a consequence of the central limit theorem of probability theory. The internal energy of a gas of N molecules is the sum of order N contributions, each of which is approximately independent, and so the central limit theorem predicts that the ratio of the size of the fluctuations to the mean is of order 1/N1/2. Thus for a macroscopic volume with perhaps the Avogadro number of molecules, fluctuations are negligible, and so thermodynamics works. In general, almost all macroscopic volumes of gases, liquids and solids can be treated as being in the thermodynamic limit.

At every point of a superconducting electronic circuit (that is a network of electrical elements), the condensate wave function describing the charge flow is well-defined by a specific complex probability amplitude. In a normal conductor electrical circuit, the same quantum description is true for individual charge carriers, however the various wave functions are averaged in the macroscopic analysis, making it impossible to observe quantum effects. The condensate wave function allows designing and measuring macroscopic quantum effects. For example, only a discrete number of magnetic flux quanta penetrates a superconducting loop, similarly to the discrete atomic energy levels in the Bohr model.

They are widely used in Internet encryption protocols such as Transport Layer Security (TLS). Random number generators can also be built from "random" macroscopic processes, using devices such as coin flipping, dice, roulette wheels and lottery machines. The presence of unpredictability in these phenomena can be justified by the theory of unstable dynamical systems and chaos theory. Even though macroscopic processes are deterministic under Newtonian mechanics, the output of a well-designed device like a roulette wheel cannot be predicted in practice, because it depends on the sensitive, micro-details of the initial conditions of each use.

Evidence supporting such a concept of cell assemblies was later observed, both at the macroscopic level with the cortical columns in the somato-sensory areas, and at the microscopic level with the NMDA coding of coordinated activity in synapses. However, the mesoscopic level has remained elusive. Some authors, including Vernon Mountcastle, argued that the mesoscopic level of sensory brain areas might be topologically organized similarly to the macroscopic and microscopic level, in cortical minicolumns, specifically what has been termed the columnar functional organization. However, any exact mechanism of information encoding and decoding in these sensory cortical columns has remained elusive.

In a wide range of chemical, physical and biological systems, coherent macroscopic behavior emerges from interactions between microscopic entities themselves (molecules, cells, grains, animals in a population, agents) and with their environment. Sometimes, remarkably, a coarse-scale differential equation model (such as the Navier-Stokes equations for fluid flow, or a reaction-diffusion system) can accurately describe macroscopic behavior. Such macroscale modeling makes use of general principles of conservation (atoms, particles, mass, momentum, energy), and closed into a well-posed system through phenomenological constitutive equations or equations of state. However, one increasingly encounters complex systems that only have known microscopic, fine scale, models.

In the last few years, there has been a growing interest in rumor propagation in Online social networks problems where different approaches have been proposed to investigate it. By carefully scrutinizing the existing literature, we categorize the works into macroscopic and microscopic approaches.

For example, usage distinctions can be made based on macroscopic swallowing of detritus (as an earthworm does) versus microscopic lysis of detritus (as a mushroom does). A facultative saprophyte appears on stressed or dying plants and may combine with the live pathogens.

Molecular wires (or sometimes called molecular nanowires) are molecular chains that conduct electric current. They are the proposed building blocks for molecular electronic devices. Their typical diameters are less than three nanometers, while their lengths may be macroscopic, extending to centimeters or more.

The two species are similar in most macroscopic characteristics, but they can be reliably differentiated by differences in spore width: O. lachnopus is 2.8–4.0 by 2.0–2.4 µm, while the dimensions of O. lignatilis spores are 4.0–5.6 by 2.4–3.2 µm.

Bryopsis/ˌbɹaɪˈɑpsɪs/ is a genus of macroscopic, siphonous marine green algae that is made up of units of single tubular filaments. Species in this genus can form dense tufts up to 40 cm in height (Fong et al., 2019; Giovagnetti et al., 2018).

He also introduced the notion of coherence length in superconductors in his proposal for the non-local generalisation of the London equationsF. London, Superfluids, Vol. I: Macroscopic Theory of Superconductivity (Dover Publications, New York, 1961), p. 152. concerning electrodynamics in superfluids and superconductors.

In pediatric populations, the prevalence is 0.5–2%. Risks factor include older age and female gender. About 5% of individuals with microscopic hematuria receive a cancer diagnosis. 40% of individuals with macroscopic hematuria (blood easily visible in the urine) receive a cancer diagnosis.

These and other control capabilities have come from advances in basic understanding of plasma science in such areas as plasma turbulence, plasma macroscopic stability, and plasma wave propagation. Much of this progress has been achieved with a particular emphasis on the tokamak.

Shock, impact, or repeated cyclic stresses can cause the laminate to separate at the interface between two layers, a condition known as delamination. Individual fibres can separate from the matrix e.g. fibre pull-out. Composites can fail on the microscopic or macroscopic scale.

Buckypaper is a macroscopic aggregate of carbon nanotubes (CNT), or "buckytubes". It owes its name to the buckminsterfullerene, the 60 carbon fullerene (an allotrope of carbon with similar bonding that is sometimes referred to as a "Buckyball" in honor of R. Buckminster Fuller).

George V. Skrotskii (January 11, 1915 - July 13, 1992) was a Russian physicist. Skrotskii realized that electromagnetic field equations in a curved spacetime can be written in a non-covariant form formally equivalent to Maxwell's equations in a macroscopic medium in flat spacetime.

In 2006, the barrier shape of some cluster decay modes were obtained by using the macroscopic- microscopic method. An alpha emitter (106Te) was discovered with a potential energy surface on which the alpha-decay valley may be seen by the same method.

Co. ; New York, 1978, . The state variables may be measurable, e.g., crack density, or inferred from the effect they have on some macroscopic property, such as stiffness, coefficient of thermal expansion, remaining life, etc. The state variables have conjugate thermodynamic forces that motivate further damage.

The physical mechanisms that occur within short sections of the polymer chains produce the elastic forces and the network morphology determines how these forces combine to produce the macroscopic stress that we observe when a rubber sample is deformed, e.g. subjected to tensile strain.

Eustrongylidosis is caused by three species of Eustrongylides: E. ignotus, E. tubifex, and E. excisus. Eustrongylides spp. are macroscopic roundworms or nematodes that reproduce sexually year-round. The parasite has a complex lifecycle that involves two intermediate hosts, a paratenic host, and a definitive host.

Protists are asexual but can reproduce rapidly through mitosis or by fragmentation. In contrast to the cells of prokaryotes, the cells of eukaryotes are highly organised. Plants, animals and fungi are usually multi-celled and are typically macroscopic. Most protists are single- celled and microscopic.

Hydrodynamic trapping can be used on a more macroscopic scale for mineral trapping. It can be used to store CO2 in geothermal reservoirs. Geothermal energy can result in large emissions of CO2 into the atmosphere. Hydronamic trapping allows CO2 to be converted into CaCO3.

The species, common and widely distributed in North America, grows in the ground in association with conifer trees. There are several other Lactarius species that bear resemblance to L. vinaceorufescens, but most can be distinguished by differences in staining reactions, macroscopic characteristics, or habitat.

Even if the macroscopic electric field is zero, any single ion will experience an electric field due to the neighboring charged particles in the plasma. This results in a broadening of some lines that can be used to determine the density of the plasma.

Marcoscopy On a macroscopic basis CMV Esophagitis may appear to be punched out lesions Microscopy Histology of CMV Esophagitis demonstrates enlarged cells with inclusions within both the cytoplasm and the nucleus of the cell. Also aggregates of macrophage cells are common on microscopic examination.

"Mushroom" has been used for polypores, puffballs, jelly fungi, coral fungi, bracket fungi, stinkhorns, and cup fungi. Thus, the term is more one of common application to macroscopic fungal fruiting bodies than one having precise taxonomic meaning. Approximately 14,000 species of mushrooms are described.

Consider inelastic collision between two particles - the energy from velocity as rigid body is transferred to microscopic internal DOF. We get “Dissipation” - irreversible heat generation. The result is that without external driving, eventually all particles will stop moving. In macroscopic particles thermals fluctuations are irrelevant.

There is a traditional doctrine, starting with Clausius, that entropy can be understood in terms of molecular 'disorder' within a macroscopic system. This doctrine is obsolescent.Denbigh, K.G., Denbigh, J.S. (1985). Entropy in Relation to Incomplete Knowledge, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK, , pp. 43–44.

Polymer properties depend of their structure and they are divided into classes according to their physical basis. Many physical and chemical properties describe how a polymer behaves as a continuous macroscopic material. They are classified as bulk properties, or intensive properties according to thermodynamics.

The spermatophore of this species is described as conical, 2.5 mm in height and with a colorless stalk that tapers towards the tip.Organ, J.A. and L.A. Lowenthal. (1963). Comparative studies of macroscopic and microscopic features of spermatophores of some plethodontid salamanders. Copeia 1963:659-669.

This produces a macroscopic bound charge in the material even though all of the charges involved are bound to individual molecules. For example, if every molecule responds the same, similar to that shown in the figure, these tiny movements of charge combine to produce a layer of positive bound charge on one side of the material and a layer of negative charge on the other side. The bound charge is most conveniently described in terms of the polarization of the material, its dipole moment per unit volume. If is uniform, a macroscopic separation of charge is produced only at the surfaces where enters and leaves the material.

Outside the material, an assembly of such microscopic current loops is not different from a macroscopic current circulating around the material's surface, despite the fact that no individual charge is traveling a large distance. These bound currents can be described using the magnetization .See for a good description of how relates to the bound current. The very complicated and granular bound charges and bound currents, therefore, can be represented on the macroscopic scale in terms of and , which average these charges and currents on a sufficiently large scale so as not to see the granularity of individual atoms, but also sufficiently small that they vary with location in the material.

Under other conditions (for instance, lower temperature), a LC might inhabit one or more phases with significant anisotropic orientational structure and short-range orientational order while still having an ability to flow. The ordering of liquid crystalline phases is extensive on the molecular scale. This order extends up to the entire domain size, which may be on the order of micrometers, but usually does not extend to the macroscopic scale as often occurs in classical crystalline solids. However some techniques, such as the use of boundaries or an applied electric field, can be used to enforce a single ordered domain in a macroscopic liquid crystal sample.

This has been verified not only for elementary particles but also for compound particles like atoms and even molecules. In fact, according to traditional formulations of non-relativistic quantum mechanics, wave–particle duality applies to all objects, even macroscopic ones; although the wave properties of macroscopic objects cannot be detected due to their small wavelengths. Interactions between particles have been scrutinized for many centuries, and a few simple laws underpin how particles behave in collisions and interactions. The most fundamental of these are the laws of conservation of energy and conservation of momentum, which let us make calculations of particle interactions on scales of magnitude that range from stars to quarks.

In real systems containing Kramers ions, like crystalline samples of single ion magnets, the degeneracy of the ground states is frequently lifted through dipolar interactions with neighboring spins, and as such quantum spin tunneling is frequently observed even in the absence of an applied external field for these systems. Initially discussed in the context of magnetization dynamics of magnetic nanoparticles, the concept was known as macroscopic quantum tunneling, a term that highlights both the difference with single electron tunneling and connects this phenomenon with other macroscopic quantum phenomena. In this sense, the problem of quantum spin tunneling lies in the boundary between the quantum and classical descriptions of reality.

"The New Science of the Birth and Death of Words ", CHRISTOPHER SHEA, Wall Street Journal, March 16, 2012 Culturomic approaches have been taken in the analysis of newspaper content in a number of studies by I. Flaounas and co-authors. These studies showed macroscopic trends across different news outlets and countries. In 2012, a study of 2.5 million articles suggested that gender bias in news coverage depends on topic and how the readability of newspaper articles is related to topic. A separate study by the same researchers, covering 1.3 million articles from 27 countries, showed macroscopic patterns in the choice of stories to cover.

Several other experimental violations have been reported, including in 2016 with neutrino particles using the MINOS dataset. Brukner and Kofler have also demonstrated that quantum violations can be found for arbitrarily large macroscopic systems. As an alternative to quantum decoherence, Brukner and Kofler are proposing a solution of the quantum-to-classical transition in terms of coarse-grained quantum measurements under which usually no violation of the Leggett–Garg inequality can be seen anymore. Experiments proposed by Mermin and Braunstein and Mann would be better for testing macroscopic realism, but warns that the experiments may be complex enough to admit unforeseen loopholes in the analysis.

This defines how much additional microscopic physical information is needed to specify one of the macroscopically specified states, given the macroscopic specification of the other – often a conveniently chosen reference state which may be presupposed to exist rather than explicitly stated. A final condition of a natural process always contains microscopically specifiable effects which are not fully and exactly predictable from the macroscopic specification of the initial condition of the process. This is why entropy increases in natural processes – the increase tells how much extra microscopic information is needed to distinguish the initial macroscopically specified state from the final macroscopically specified state.Ben-Naim, A. (2008).

Dichroic filters are created using optically transparent materials. In the field of optics, transparency (also called pellucidity or diaphaneity) is the physical property of allowing light to pass through the material without appreciable scattering of light. On a macroscopic scale (one where the dimensions investigated are much larger than the wavelength of the photons in question), the photons can be said to follow Snell's Law. Translucency (also called translucence or translucidity) allows light to pass through, but does not necessarily (again, on the macroscopic scale) follow Snell's law; the photons can be scattered at either of the two interfaces, or internally, where there is a change in index of refraction.

The internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on its temperature, and not on the volume of its containing box, so it is not an energy effect that tends to increase the volume of the box as gas pressure does. This implies that the pressure of an ideal gas has an entropic origin. What is the origin of such an entropic force? The most general answer is that the effect of thermal fluctuations tends to bring a thermodynamic system toward a macroscopic state that corresponds to a maximum in the number of microscopic states (or micro-states) that are compatible with this macroscopic state.

In the 20th century, an alternative explanation, called "friction melting", proposed by Lozowski, Szilder, Le Berre, Pomeau and others showed that because of the viscous frictional heating, a macroscopic layer of melt ice is in-between the ice and the skate. With this they fully explained the low friction with nothing else but macroscopic physics, whereby the frictional heat generated between skate and ice melts a layer of ice . This is a self-stabilizing mechanism of skating. If by fluctuation the friction gets high, the layer grows in thickness and lowers the friction, and if it gets low, the layer decreases in thickness and increases the friction.

Some major ARS centres in central Tunisia are Sidi Marzouk Tounsi, Henchir el-Guellal (Djilma), and Henchir es- Srira, all of which have ARS lamp artifacts attributed to them by the microscopic chemical makeup of the clay fabric as well as macroscopic style prevalent in that region.

The Filobasidiales are an order in the fungal class Tremellomycetes. The one family in the order, the Filobasidiaceae, contains four species. They are distinguished from other tremelloid species by the lack of a macroscopic basidiocarp. One species of the family seems to be interesting for biotechnological applications.

The early genetic events in tumorigenesis are difficult to measure clinically, but can be simulated according to known biology. Macroscopic tumors are now beginning to be described in terms of their underlying genetic changes, providing additional data to refine the framework described in The Hallmarks of Cancer.

Microscopic traffic flow models are a class of scientific models of vehicular traffic dynamics. In contrast to macroscopic models, microscopic traffic flow models simulate single vehicle-driver units, so the dynamic variables of the models represent microscopic properties like the position and velocity of single vehicles.

Although not many studies have been conducted and little is known between microinfarcts and other vascular or epidemiological risk factors, these brain lesions are thought to be masked by other pathologies. However, the common macroscopic infarct is not exhibited in 45% of people tested for microinfarcts.

In particular, STAR studies the collective expansion of the hot quark-gluon matter, such as the elliptic flow. This allows to extract the transport coefficients that characterize the quark-gluon matter, including the shear and bulk viscosity, and to investigate macroscopic quantum phenomena, such as the chiral magnetic effect.

Molecular diffusion from a microscopic and macroscopic point of view. Initially, there are solute molecules on the left side of a barrier (purple line) and none on the right. The barrier is removed, and the solute diffuses to fill the whole container. Top: A single molecule moves around randomly.

Blood in urine is a usual feature of Alport syndrome from early infancy, identifiable on urine dipsticks. In young children, episodes of visible (macroscopic) haematuria may occur. Protein begins to appear in urine as the disease progresses. This is now regarded as an indication for treatment with ACE inhibitors.

As is typical for mean field micromechanics models, fourth-order concentration tensors relate the average stress or average strain tensors in inhomogeneities and matrix to the average macroscopic stress or strain tensor, respectively; inhomogeneity "feels" effective matrix fields, accounting for phase interaction effects in a collective, approximate way.

Genera of the Pyronemataceae lack unifying macroscopic or microscopic characteristics; this lack of uniting characters has led various authors to propose a variety of classification schemes.Kimbrough JW. Arguments towards restricting the limits of the Pyronemataceae (Ascomycetes, Pezizales). Memoirs of the New York Botanic Garden. 1989 49:326–335.

Given the initial positions (e.g., from theoretical knowledge) and velocities (e.g., randomized Gaussian), we can calculate all future (or past) positions and velocities. One frequent source of confusion is the meaning of temperature in MD. Commonly we have experience with macroscopic temperatures, which involve a huge number of particles.

Aerographene was discovered at Zhejiang University by a team of scientists led by Gao Chao. He and his team had already successfully created macroscopic materials made out of graphene. These materials were one- dimensional and two-dimensional. However, when synthesizing aerographene, the scientists instead created a three-dimensional structure.

It was described as a psychoactive species of Psilocybe in section Semilanceatae, but Ramírez-Cruz et al. (2012) found that its macroscopic and microscopic morphological features and its DNA sequence, which Ramírez-Cruz et al. did not publish, were a better match for Deconica. Ramírez-Cruz et al.

The reverse process is also possible; the so-called reverse Kirkwood–Buff (reverse-KB) theory, due to Arieh Ben-Naim, derives molecular details from thermodynamic (bulk) measurements. This advancement allows the use of the KB formalism to formulate predictions regarding microscopic properties on the basis of macroscopic information.

A 'theory > of everything' is one of many components necessary for complete > understanding of the universe, but is not necessarily the only one. The > development of macroscopic laws from first principles may involve more than > just systematic logic, and could require conjectures suggested by > experiments, simulations or insight.

One of the major goals of chemistry is the study of material transformations where chemical kinetics plays an important role. Scientists during the 19th century stated macroscopic chemical processes consist of many elementary chemical reactions that are themselves simply a series of encounters between atomic or molecular species. In order to understand the time dependence of chemical reactions, chemical kineticists have traditionally focused on sorting out all of the elementary chemical reactions involved in a macroscopic chemical process and determining their respective rates. Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius studied this phenomenon during the late 1880s, and stated the relations between reactive molecular encounters and rates of reactions (formulated in terms of activation energies).

This work is represented by two books, Thermomechanics of Evolving Phase Boundaries in the Plane (Oxford University Press, 1993) and Configurational Force as a Basic Concept of Continuum Physics (Springer-Verlag, 2000). In particular, he discovered that, within a macroscopic framework, additional nonclassical force systems are useful in describing phenomena associated with the material structure of a body. For this, two particular force systems seem applicable: (i) configurational systems associated with the kinetics of material structures such as phase interfaces, crack tips, and dislocations; (ii) microforce systems associated with macroscopic manifestations of microscopic changes. Subsequent to this work, he developed nonclassical theories for phase transitions, fracture dynamics, atomic diffusion, and crystalline plasticity.

Macroscopic and microscopic findings from a patient who died from intestinal (bowel) gas gangrene (a) Macroscopic picture of the edematous intestinal wall with multiple submucosal and subserosal cysts (b) Histological picture of the intestinal mucosa with nonreactive necrosis (c) Gram stain of cysts with large, rod-shaped bacteria (d) Electron microscopic picture of a bacterium found in a submucosal cyst Gas gangrene (also known as clostridial myonecrosis and myonecrosis) is a bacterial infection that produces tissue gas in gangrene. This deadly form of gangrene usually is caused by Clostridium perfringens bacteria. About 1,000 cases of gas gangrene are reported yearly in the United States. Myonecrosis is a condition of necrotic damage, specific to muscle tissue.

Some intensive properties do not apply at very small sizes. For example, viscosity is a macroscopic quantity and is not relevant for extremely small systems. Likewise, at a very small scale color is not independent of size, as shown by quantum dots, whose color depends on the size of the "dot".

Complicating this picture of a collapsing cloud are the effects of turbulence, macroscopic flows, rotation, magnetic fields and the cloud geometry. Both rotation and magnetic fields can hinder the collapse of a cloud. Turbulence is instrumental in causing fragmentation of the cloud, and on the smallest scales it promotes collapse.

The structures commonly form when microbial mats (which may comprise bacteria, fungi, protozoans, archaea or algae) are preserved in the sedimentary geological record. There are 17 main types of macroscopic and microscopic MISS.Noffke, N., 2010, Microbial Mats in Sandy Deposits from the Archean Era to Today: Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, 193 p.

Ichnofossils such as Skolithos and Teichichnus that were created by burrowing organisms are common in the middle to upper portions of the McMurray Formation. Other macroscopic fossils are rare,Pemberton, S.G., Flach, P.D. and Mossop, G.D. 1982. Trace fossils from the Athabasca Oil Sands, Alberta, Canada. Science, 217: 825-827.

Invertebrates lack a vertebral column, and some have evolved a shell or a hard exoskeleton. As on land and in the air, marine invertebrates have a large variety of body plans, and have been categorised into over 30 phyla. They make up most of the macroscopic life in the oceans.

In 1978, Schwinger, DeRadd, and Milton published a similar derivation for the Casimir Effect between two parallel plates. In fact, the description in terms of van der Waals forces is the only correct description from the fundamental microscopic perspective, while other descriptions of Casimir force are merely effective macroscopic descriptions.

Neutron radiation, alpha radiation, and extremely energetic gamma (> ~20 MeV) can cause nuclear transmutation and induced radioactivity. The relevant mechanisms are neutron activation, alpha absorption, and photodisintegration. A large enough number of transmutations can change macroscopic properties and cause targets to become radioactive themselves, even after the original source is removed.

Dielectric breakdown model (DBM) is a macroscopic mathematical model combining the diffusion-limited aggregation model with electric field. It was developed by Niemeyer, Pietronero, and Weismann in 1984. It describes the patterns of dielectric breakdown of solids, liquids, and even gases, explaining the formation of the branching, self-similar Lichtenberg figures.

Only around 20 species of fungi are macroscopic. The non-lichenised species come from 416 different genera, representing all major fungi phyla. The first fungi identified from the sub- antarctic islands was Peziza kerguelensis, which was described in 1847. In 1898 the first species from the mainland, Sclerotium antarcticum, was sampled.

In the study of rare events, he and collaborators have developed the string method and transition path theory. In multiscale modeling, he and collaborators have developed the heterogeneous multiscale methods (HMM). He has also made significant contributions to the mathematical understanding of the microscopic foundation to the macroscopic theories for solids.

Spermatocytic tumors are diagnosed based on tissue from orchiectomy (or partial orchiectomy), done for a lesion suspicious for cancer on medical imaging. The macroscopic appearance of the tumour is of a mutinodular grey-white to tan coloured mass with gelatinous, haemorrhagic and necrotic areas. The tumour may extend beyond the testis.

The framework of generalized standard environments, due to Halphen and Nguyen Quoc Son, allows an easy writing of the laws of macroscopic behaviour.Germain P., Nguyen Q.S., Suquet P., « Continuum Thermodynamics », J. Appl. Mech., 50, 1983, p. 1010–1020 In 1982, Pierre SuquetSuquet P. : "Plasticité et homogénéisation". Thèse de doctorat d’État.

However, there is no standard theoretical explanation about the reasons and mechanisms of the physical averagings leading to the emergence of "universal" response in macroscopic solid-state ionic conductors.A. Despotuli, A. Andreeva, /"Maxwell displacement current and nature of Jonsсher’s “universal” dynamic response in nanoionics", Ionics, vol. 21, no. 2, pp.

Relativistic fluid dynamics studies the macroscopic and microscopic fluid motion at large velocities comparable to the velocity of light. This branch of fluid dynamics accounts for the relativistic effects both from the special theory of relativity and the general theory of relativity. The governing equations are derived in Riemannian geometry for Minkowski spacetime.

The thermal time hypothesis has been put forward as a possible solution to this problem by Carlo Rovelli and Alain Connes, both in classical and quantum theory. It postulates that physical time flow is not an a priori given fundamental property of the theory, but is a macroscopic feature of thermodynamical origin.

Superfluidity and superconductivity are macroscopic manifestations of quantum mechanics. There is considerable interest, both theoretical and practical, in these quantum phase transitions. There has been a tremendous amount of work done in the field of phase transitions and critical phenomena in two dimensions.David Thouless: Condensed Matter Physics in Less Than Three dimensions.

Lifshitz was the second of only 43 people ever to pass Landau's "Theoretical Minimum" examination. He made many invaluable contributions, in particular to quantum electrodynamics, where he calculated the Casimir force in an arbitrary macroscopic configuration of metals and dielectrics. A special multicritical point, the Lifshitz point, carries, since 1975, his name.

Biotite is generally of low content and the main mafic minerals are clinopyroxene (±) and amphibole (±). The macroscopic colour is grey, being little darker than granite. There is high-grade metamorphic rock originated from nepheline syenite that is characterized by gneiss texture of very rare occurrence. It is called nepheline syenite gneiss or litchfieldite.

Although there were a variety of macroscopic marine plants no land plant (embryophyte) fossils are known from the Cambrian. However, biofilms and microbial mats were well developed on Cambrian tidal flats and beaches 500 mya., and microbes forming microbial Earth ecosystems, comparable with modern soil crust of desert regions, contributing to soil formation.

A. Taruttis, G.M. van Dam, V. Ntziachristos, "Mesoscopic and macroscopic optoacoustic imaging of cancer", Cancer Res. 75 (2015) 1548-1559.D.-K. Yao, K. Maslov, K.K. Shung, Q. Zhou, L.V. Wang, "In vivo label-free photoacoustic microscopy of cell nuclei by excitation of DNA and RNA", Opt. Lett. 35 (2010) 4139-4141.

Kornfield studies the macroscopic properties of polymer materials. Her research considers the physics and chemistry of polymers, as well as treatments for eye disease. She was recruited to the faculty at Caltech in 1990. She was the first woman who earned her bachelor's in the department of chemical engineering to join the faculty.

As a macroscopic religious artifact itself, the Sanctuary first served as an exclusive space. This space embodied the countryside's sacred aspects, as a space by which urbanity (city) is severed from the world of nature. However, the Sanctuary also functioned as a realm of inclusiveness, i.e. through its festivals, ritual rites, and cults.

They cannot be predicted in particular by the scientist, but they are determined by the laws of nature and they are the singular causes of the natural development of dynamical structure. It is pointed outGrandy, W.T., Jr (2004). Time evolution in macroscopic systems. I: Equations of motion. Found. Phys. 34: 1-20.

A molecular propeller is a molecule that can propel fluids when rotated, due to its special shape that is designed in analogy to macroscopic propellers. It has several molecular-scale blades attached at a certain pitch angle around the circumference of a nanoscale shaft. Also see molecular gyroscope. Daisy chain [2]rotaxane.

Quantum gravity refers to the imagined merger between the twin pillars of physical science which are quantum mechanics, the study of the microscopic (e.g., electrons), and general relativity, the science of the macroscopic (e.g., galaxies). Currently, these two great domains of science cannot be effectively interwoven into a single, physical Theory of Everything.

More particularly, it is characteristic of macroscopic thermodynamics that the probability vanishes, that the splitting operation occurs at an instant when system is in the kind of extreme transient microscopic state envisaged by the Poincaré recurrence argument. Such splitting and recomposition is in accord with the above defined additivity of extensive variables.

Helminths on the other hand are macroscopic, multicellular organisms that belong to the kingdom Animalia. Protozoans obtain their required nutrients through pinocytosis and phagocytosis. Helminths of class Cestoidea and Trematoda absorb nutrients, whereas nematodes obtain needed nourishment through ingestion. Occasionally the definition of "parasitic disease" is restricted to diseases due to endoparasites.

For everyday (macroscopic) situations, the probability that the second law will be violated is practically zero. However, for systems with a small number of particles, thermodynamic parameters, including the entropy, may show significant statistical deviations from that predicted by the second law. Classical thermodynamic theory does not deal with these statistical variations.

Irreversibility in thermodynamic processes is a consequence of the asymmetric character of thermodynamic operations, and not of any internally irreversible microscopic properties of the bodies. Thermodynamic operations are macroscopic external interventions imposed on the participating bodies, not derived from their internal properties. There are reputed "paradoxes" that arise from failure to recognize this.

1 (1901), pp. 44-63, 213–237. In its common English translation, the explicit statement reads: Stairs of model reduction from microscopic dynamics (the atomistic view) to macroscopic continuum dynamics (the laws of motion of continua) (Illustration to the content of the book Alt URL). :6. Mathematical Treatment of the Axioms of Physics.

The sequence of images demonstrating the rotation of the self-propelled PVC tubing, containing camphor. The time separation between frames is 0.33 s. Self-propulsion is the autonomous displacement of nano-, micro- and macroscopic natural and artificial objects, containing their own means of motion. Self-propulsion is driven mainly by interfacial phenomena.

Dhar works on the theory and applications of statistical physics to study non–equilibrium problems. One of his research areas is transport phenomena. Particularly, stochastic processes such as heat transport in classical low dimensional macroscopic systems and quantum transport. He also studies active matter models, particularly through theoretical investigations of active particles.

Tyszka, J. A. R. O. S. Ł. A. W. (2001). Microfossil assemblages as bathymetric indicators of the Toarcian/Aalenian “Fleckenmergel”-facies in the Carpathian Pieniny Klippen Belt. Geologica Carpathica, 52(3), 147-158. The formation has been considered as following the model of the Fleckenmergel Marl, without macroscopic paleodepths implicated on the processes.

André Zaoui's scientific work covers the fields of research, training and collective research animation. They are focused on the transition from microscopic to macroscopic material mechanics, at the crossroads between the mechanics of continuous media and materials science. His research work has been devoted to investigating the relationships between the microstructure of mesoscale materials (scale of polycrystal grains, inclusions or fibres in composites, phase domains in multiphase materials...) and their macroscopic mechanical behaviour, both in deformation and damage. In this framework, his contributions focus on the design, development and use of theoretical, methodological and experimental tools to link the microscopic and macroscopic scales in materials mechanics. He first (1964-72) studied the viscoplasticity of metals, in particular updating and interpreting the phenomenon of "creep hesitation ":L. Brun, A. Zaoui, « Sur l’hésitation au fluage, C. Gr. F », Rhéologie, 5, (1967), p. 267-284 to this end, he contributed to the development of models of the transition from single to polycrystal in elasto(visco)plasticity by proposing a critique of previous models and a secant formulation of the self-coherent model for non-linear behaviours.A. Zaoui, « Effets de désorientation sur la viscoplasticité de polycristaux C.F.C. », Int.

The more interesting case is when the material's electron spontaneously break above-mentioned symmetry. For ferromagnetism in the ground state, there is a common spin quantization axis and a global excess of electrons of a given spin quantum number, there are more electrons pointing in one direction than in the other, giving a macroscopic magnetization (typically, the majority electrons are chosen to point up). In the most simple (collinear) cases of antiferromagnetism, there is still a common quantization axis, but the electronic spins are pointing alternatingly up and down, leading again to cancellation of the macroscopic magnetization. However, specifically in the case of frustration of the interactions, the resulting structures can become much more complicated, with inherently three-dimensional orientations of the local spins.

Writing in the journal Sociometry, Stewart set out an "agenda for social physics." Comparing the microscopic versus macroscopic viewpoints in the methodology of formulating physical laws, he made an analogy with the social sciences: > Fortunately for physics, the macroscopic approach was the commonsense one, > and the early investigators Boyle, Charles, Gay-Lussac were able to > establish the laws of gases. The situation with respect to "social physics" > is reversed... If Robert Boyle had taken the attitude of many social > scientists, he would not have been willing to measure the pressure and > volume of a sample of air until an encyclopedic history of its molecules had > been compiled. Boyle did not even know that air contained argon and helium > but he found a very important law.

In 1985, David Deutsch proposed a variant of the Wigner's friend thought experiment as a test of many-worlds versus the Copenhagen interpretation. It consists of an experimenter (Wigner's friend) making a measurement on a quantum system in an isolated laboratory, and another experimenter (Wigner) who would make a measurement on the first one. According to the many-worlds theory, the first experimenter would end up in a macroscopic superposition of seeing one result of the measurement in one branch, and another result in another branch. The second experimenter could then interfere these two branches in order to test whether it is in fact in a macroscopic superposition or has collapsed into a single branch, as predicted by the Copenhagen interpretation.

In statistical physics textbooks for interacting particle systems the three ensembles are assumed to be thermodynamically equivalent: the fluctuations of macroscopic quantities around their average value become small and, as the number of particles tends to infinity, they tend to vanish. In the latter limit, called the thermodynamic limit, the average constraints effectively become hard constraints. The assumption of ensemble equivalence dates back to Gibbs and has been verified for some models of physical systems with short-range interactions and subject to a small number of macroscopic constraints. Despite the fact that many textbooks still convey the message that ensemble equivalence holds for all physical systems, over the last decades various examples of physical systems have been found for which breaking of ensemble equivalence occurs.

The ensemble formalises the notion that an experimenter repeating an experiment again and again under the same macroscopic conditions, but unable to control the microscopic details, may expect to observe a range of different outcomes. The notional size of ensembles in thermodynamics, statistical mechanics and quantum statistical mechanics can be very large, including every possible microscopic state the system could be in, consistent with its observed macroscopic properties. For many important physical cases, it is possible to calculate averages directly over the whole of the thermodynamic ensemble, to obtain explicit formulas for many of the thermodynamic quantities of interest, often in terms of the appropriate partition function. The concept of an equilibrium or stationary ensemble is crucial to many applications of statistical ensembles.

Mechanics (Greek: ) is the area of physics concerned with the motions of macroscopic objects. Forces applied to objects result in displacements, or changes of an object's position relative to its environment. This branch of physics has its origins in Ancient Greece with the writings of Aristotle and ArchimedesDugas, Rene. A History of Classical Mechanics.

These polymers may be administered in the liquid form through a macroscopic injection and solidify or gel in situ because of the difference in pH or temperature. Nanoparticle and liposome preparations are also routinely used for material encapsulation and delivery. A major advantage of liposomes is their ability to fuse to cell and organelle membranes.

Most molluscs are herbivorous, grazing on algae or filter feeders. For those grazing, two feeding strategies are predominant. Some feed on microscopic, filamentous algae, often using their radula as a 'rake' to comb up filaments from the sea floor. Others feed on macroscopic 'plants' such as kelp, rasping the plant surface with its radula.

This is so in all cases, including those of non-uniform external force fields. For an externally imposed gravitational field, this may be proved in macroscopic thermodynamic terms, by the calculus of variations, using the method of Langrangian multipliers.Gibbs, J.W. (1876/1878), pp. 144-150.ter Haar, D., Wergeland, H. (1966), pp. 127–130.

However, for this macroscopic response to be valid a type of spatial ordering must be present between the scatterers. In addition, a certain relation to the wavelength is part of its description. A lattice structure, with some degree of spatial ordering is present. Also, the applied field is longer in wavelength than the lattice spacing.

He solved the problem in a general way for a transfer of charge between two bodies of arbitrary shape with arbitrary surface and volume charge. For the self-exchange reaction, the redox pair (e.g. Fe(H2O)63+ / Fe(H2O)62+) is substituted by two macroscopic conducting spheres at a defined distance carrying specified charges.

Its fruit bodies (mushrooms) have white caps with an orange-red to orange-brown center that measure up to wide. The cream-colored to light pink stems are up to long by thick, and have a ring. L. castaneidisca can be distinguished from other similar Lepiota species by differences in habitat, macroscopic, or microscopic characteristics.

From a macroscopic perspective, there is a well-defined, encapsulated or circumscribed mass, showing a soft, yellow tan to deep brown mass. The size ranges from 1 to 27 cm, although the mean is about 10 cm. A high power hematoxylin and eosin stained photograph of a hibernoma. The tumors histologically resemble brown fat.

She was appointed a lecturer at the University of Cambridge in 2011. Oliver studies gallium nitride materials for LEDs and laser diodes. Her research considers ways to engineer the nanostructure of light emitting diodes and how this impacts macroscopic device performance. She has developed atom-probe tomography and scanning capacitance microscopy to study nitride devices.

The first laboratory experiment that verified the validity of the FT was carried out in 2002. In this experiment, a plastic bead was pulled through a solution by a laser. Fluctuations in the velocity were recorded that were opposite to what the second law of thermodynamics would dictate for macroscopic systems. See and later.

Large masses of yeast cells, asci or ascus-like cells, or conidia can also form macroscopic structures. For example. Pneumocystis species can colonize lung cavities (visible in x-rays), causing a form of pneumonia. Asci of Ascosphaera fill honey bee larvae and pupae causing mummification with a chalk-like appearance, hence the name "chalkbrood".

The term high energy physics requires elaboration. Intuitively, it might seem incorrect to associate "high energy" with the physics of very small, low mass objects, like subatomic particles. By comparison, an example of a macroscopic system, one gram of hydrogen, has ~ times"CODATA Value: Avogadro constant". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty.

The macroscopic appearance of an area of coagulative necrosis is a pale segment of tissue contrasting against surrounding well vascularised tissue and is dry on cut surface. The tissue may later turn red due to inflammatory response. The surrounding surviving cells can aid in regeneration of the affected tissue unless they are stable or permanent.

As the structure of a carbon nanotube determines the energy levels that the carbon's electrons may occupy, the structure affects macroscopic properties of the nanotube structure, most notably electrical and thermal conductivity.Sundaram, Vivek. Dept. of Mechanical Engineering University of Colorado at Boulder. CARBON NANOTUBES: One of the best discoveries man has ever made in Science .

2015 The diabases are dark green, almost black aphanitic rocks without macroscopic orientation. The hornblende content of the Siilinjärvi diabases is 50-70 %, and plagioclase content is 25-40 %. The hornblende is altered to biotite in contact zones, and the plagioclase is albitic. The altered margins of the hornblende dyke are about 50 cm wide.

Terminologia Anatomica (TA) is the international standard on human anatomic terminology. It was developed by the Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology (FCAT) and the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAA) and was released in 1998. It supersedes the previous standard, Nomina Anatomica. Terminologia Anatomica contains terminology for about 7500 human gross (macroscopic) anatomical structures.

Undeformed platy minerals such as micas and amphiboles align in a preferred orientation, and minerals such as quartz or calcite deform into a grain shape preferred orientation. Continuous cleavage is scale dependent, so a rock with a continuous cleavage on a microscopic level could show signs of spaced cleavage when observed on a macroscopic level.

However, this interpretation of its implications has been criticized in several publications reviewed in Altenberg, L. (1995). The Schema Theorem and Price’s Theorem. Foundations of genetic algorithms, 3, 23-49., where the Schema Theorem is shown to be a special case of the Price equation with the schema indicator function as the macroscopic measurement.

The data published by Zeilinger et al. were consistent with de Broglie wave interference for C60 molecules. This experiment was noted for extending the applicability of wave–particle duality by about one order of magnitude in the macroscopic direction. In 2009, researchers from IBM managed to take the first picture of a real molecule.

Anatomy considers the forms of macroscopic structures such as organs and organ systems. It focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently. Anatomy and cell biology are two studies that are closely related, and can be categorized under "structural" studies.

Simon Asher Levin (born April 22, 1941) is an American ecologist and the James S. McDonnell Distinguished University Professor in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and the Director of the Center for BioComplexity at Princeton University. He specializes in using mathematical modeling and empirical studies in the understanding of macroscopic patterns of ecosystems and biological diversities.

Small scale demonstration of the square lattice HPP model (click the picture for animated version). The HPP model is a fundamental lattice gas automaton for the simulation of gases and liquids. It was a precursor to the lattice Boltzmann methods. From lattice gas automata, it is possible to derive the macroscopic Navier-Stokes equations.

Computational neuroscience is not limited to microscopic levels with regard to biology. Parallels along microscopic and macroscopic levels of biological applications also exist. For example, the dynamic neural field within the brain that corresponds to processes such as filtering, associating, and organizing is implemented to computational structures to execute pragmatic and sophisticated systems.Alexandre, F., Palacios, A., (2012).

This interaction is responsible for many of the details of atomic structure. In solid-state physics, the spin coupling with the orbital motion can lead to splitting of energy bands due to Dresselhaus or Rashba effects. In the macroscopic world of orbital mechanics, the term spin–orbit coupling is sometimes used in the same sense as spin–orbit resonance.

Classical mechanics is the branch of physics used to describe the motion of macroscopic objects. It is the most familiar of the theories of physics. The concepts it covers, such as mass, acceleration, and force, are commonly used and known. The subject is based upon a three-dimensional Euclidean space with fixed axes, called a frame of reference.

Dring, M. J. The Biology of Marine Plants. London: E. Arnold, 1982. Print. Marine parasites occur as a higher proportion of marine flora in temperate rather than tropical waters. While no full explanation for this is available, many of the potential host plants such as kelp and other macroscopic brown algae are generally restricted to temperate areas.

Macroscopic amounts of curium(III) fluoride were obtained in 1950 by W. W. T. Crane, J. C. Wallmann and B. B. Cunningham. Its magnetic susceptibility was very close to that of GdF3 providing the first experimental evidence for the +3 valence of curium in its compounds. Curium metal was produced only in 1951 by reduction of CmF3 with barium.

The thermodynamic study of non-equilibrium systems requires more general concepts than are dealt with by equilibrium thermodynamics. Many natural systems still today remain beyond the scope of currently known macroscopic thermodynamic methods. Laws governing systems which are far from equilibrium are also debatable. One of the guiding principles for these systems is the maximum entropy production principle.

Rupturing is aided by the accumulations of high differential stress (the difference between the maximum and minimum stress acting on the object). Most fracture grow into faults. However, the term fault is only used when the fracture plane accommodate some degree of movement. Fracturing can happen across all scales, from microfractures to macroscopic fractures and joints in the rocks.

Nostoc thermotolerans was a newly isolated strain of cyanobacteria cultured in Mandsaur, Madhya Pradesh, India as of 2017. In habitat, these cyanobacteria live in macroscopic light blue-green mats found in the crevices of small hillocks. This Nostoc species lives in an extremely hot and dry environment, which the name implies. Thermotolerans (heat - tolerating) (Thermè (heat), tolerans (tolerating)).

Quantum mechanics is needed to explain this property and thus both states of liquid helium (helium I and helium II) are called quantum fluids, meaning they display atomic properties on a macroscopic scale. This may be an effect of its boiling point being so close to absolute zero, preventing random molecular motion (thermal energy) from masking the atomic properties.

For cell analysis, cells can be studied intact or after lysis. A lytic buffer stream can be introduced alongside a stream containing cells and by diffusion induces lysis prior to further analysis. Cell analysis is typically done by flow cytometry and can be implemented into microfluidics with lower fluid velocities and lower throughput than their conventional macroscopic counterparts.

Niedermeyer E. and da Silva F.L., Electroencephalography: Basic Principles, Clinical Applications, and Related Fields. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2004. The activity of neurons generate electric currents; and the synchronous action of neural ensembles in the cerebral cortex, comprising large numbers of neurons, produce macroscopic oscillations. These phenomena can be monitored and graphically documented by an electroencephalogram (EEG).

However, the photon has disappeared in the process of being captured (measured), and its quantum wave function has disappeared with it. In its place some macroscopic physical change in the detection screen has appeared, e.g., an exposed spot in a sheet of photographic film, or a change in electric potential in some cell of a CCD.

Together with Sougato Bose, Mazumdar has also proposed a table-top experiment to test linearized quantum aspects of gravity via witnessing spin entanglement between two macroscopic superposition of masses, along with his colleagues from quantum optics and quantum information. Sougato Bose, Anupam Mazumdar, Gavin Morley (et.al),(Phys. Rev. Lett. 119, no. 24, 240401 (2017) doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.

Simulating multiphase/multicomponent flows has always been a challenge to conventional CFD because of the moving and deformable interfaces. More fundamentally, the interfaces between different phases (liquid and vapor) or components (e.g., oil and water) originate from the specific interactions among fluid molecules. Therefore, it is difficult to implement such microscopic interactions into the macroscopic Navier–Stokes equation.

Part III deals with the macroscopic realm of the cosmos. Chapter 8, "Of Snowflakes and Spacetime", tells the reader that the history of the universe is in fact the history of symmetry. Symmetry and its importance to cosmic evolution becomes the focus of this chapter. Again, general relativity is addressed as a stretching fabric of spacetime.

In 2012, a pair of physicists in the US claimed that all classical probabilities can be collapsed into quantum probabilities. They concluded that fluid interactions on a microscopic scale can amplify minute quantum fluctuations, which can then propagate to macroscopic scales.Albrecht, Andreas, and Daniel Phillips. “Origin of Probabilities and Their Application to the Multiverse.” Physical Review D, vol.

In 1931, Arthur Holly Compton championed the idea of human freedom based on quantum indeterminacy and invented the notion of amplification of microscopic quantum events to bring chance into the macroscopic world. In his somewhat bizarre mechanism, he imagined sticks of dynamite attached to his amplifier, anticipating the Schrödinger's cat paradox.SCIENCE, 74, p. 1911, August 14, 1931.

The hole drilling method is one of the most used methods for residual stress measurement. The hole drilling method can measure macroscopic residual stresses near the material surface. The principle is based on drilling of a small hole into the material. When the material containing residual stress is removed the remaining material reaches a new equilibrium state.

Brézin was born in Paris, France, to a family of Jewish background. He studied at École Polytechnique before doing a PhD. He worked at the theory division of the Commissariat à l'énergie atomique in Saclay until 1986. Brezin contributed to the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter and high energy physics.

While inside the ship, he can trigger various events. The spaceship gives the player the ability to visit various planets. Aside from using the ship to move between planets, a complicated network of shortcuts exists between planets and scenes. The game, being presented in first person view, enables shifts from the macroscopic to the microscopic level.

By matching the propagation speed of the electrical signal with the transit speed of the electrons, maximum bandwidth (frequency response) was achieved. The technique works well whenever a sufficiently uniform stream can be created, as discussed above. Therefore, it has been used in controlling macroscopic particle streams, for instance in fluorescence-activated cell sorting, as well.

University of Rochester physics professor John Howell and graduate student Joseph Choi have announced a scalable cloaking device which uses common optical lenses to achieve visible light cloaking on the macroscopic scale, known as the "Rochester Cloak". The device consists of a series of four lenses which direct light rays around objects which would otherwise occlude the optical pathway.

Allen Everett argued that Deutsch's approach "involves modifying fundamental principles of quantum mechanics; it certainly goes beyond simply adopting the MWI", and that even if Deutsch's approach is correct, it would imply that any macroscopic object composed of multiple particles would be split apart when traveling back in time, with different particles emerging in different worlds.

The equation derived above is typically difficult to solve due to the convolution term. Since we are typically interested in slow macroscopic variables changing timescales much larger than the microscopic noise. Expanding the equation to second order in iLA(t), we obtainRobert Zwanzig Nonequilibrium Statistical Mechanics 3rd ed., Oxford University Press, New York, 2001, S.165 ff.

Dislocation avalanches are rapid discreet events during plastic deformation, in which defects are reorganized collectively. This intermittent flow behavior has been observed in microcrystals, whereas macroscopic plasticity appears as a smooth process. Intermittent plastic flow has been observed in several different systems. In AlMg Alloys, interaction between solute and dislocations can cause sudden jump during dynamic strain aging.

B (1975). S. 101. In the temperature range of the liquid crystalline phase, the mesogen's orientation forces the polymer chains into a stretched conformation. By heating the sample above the clearing temperature this orientation is lost and the polymer backbone can relax into (the more favored) random coil conformation which can lead to a macroscopic, reversible deformation.

Several reports have demonstrated the attachment of synthetic molecular motors to surfaces. These primitive nanomachines have been shown to undergo machine-like motions when confined to the surface of a macroscopic material. The surface anchored motors could potentially be used to move and position nanoscale materials on a surface in the manner of a conveyor belt.

"Quantum" comes from the Latin meaning "how much." It refers to the discrete units of matter and energy that make up every single object in the universe. The laws of physics that govern objects on a macroscopic scale are well understood, both scientifically and intuitively. At atomic and sub-atomic scales, these “classical” laws break down.

The current international standard for human anatomical terminology is based on the Terminologia Anatomica (TA). It was developed by the Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology (FCAT) and the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAA) and was released in 1998. It supersedes the previous standard, Nomina Anatomica. Terminologia Anatomica contains terminology for about 7500 human gross (macroscopic) anatomical structures.

This means that the temperature of the system is spatially uniform. This is so in all cases, including those of non-uniform external force fields. For an externally imposed gravitational field, this may be proved in macroscopic thermodynamic terms, by the calculus of variations, using the method of Langrangian multipliers.Gibbs, J.W. (1876/1878), pp. 144-150.

They can behave as single- domain systems (a volume within the system having the same atomic or molecular arrangement throughout) that can help explain the behaviour of macroscopic samples of a similar material without the complicating presence of grain boundaries and other defects. Semiconductor nanocrystals having dimensions smaller than 10 nm are also described as quantum dots.

Avogadro's law provides a way to calculate the quantity of gas in a receptacle. Thanks to this discovery, Johann Josef Loschmidt, in 1865, was able for the first time to estimate the size of a molecule. English translation. His calculation gave rise to the concept of the Loschmidt constant, a ratio between macroscopic and atomic quantities.

Homogeneous nucleation occurs where no such contaminants are present and is less commonly seen. Homogeneous nucleation begins with small clusters of molecules forming from one phase to the next. As the clusters grow, they aggregate through the condensation of other molecules. The size continues to increase and ultimately form macroscopic droplets (or bubbles depending on the system).

By contrast, mounds lack a macroscopic skeletal framework. Mounds are built by microorganisms or by organisms that don't grow a skeletal framework. A microbial mound might be built exclusively or primarily by cyanobacteria. Examples of biostromes formed by cyanobacteria occur in the Great Salt Lake in Utah, and in Shark Bay on the coast of Western Australia.

In biology, abiotic factors can include water, light, radiation, temperature, humidity, atmosphere, acidity, and soil. The macroscopic climate often influences each of the above. Pressure and sound waves may also be considered in the context of marine or sub-terrestrial environments. Abiotic factors in ocean environments also include aerial exposure, substrate, water clarity, solar energy and tides.

As a part of soft matter studies, Polymer physics concerns itself with the study of mechanical propertiesP. Flory, Principles of Polymer Chemistry, Cornell University Press, 1953. . and focuses on the perspective of condensed matter physics. Because polymers are such large molecules, bordering on the macroscopic scale, their physical properties are usually too complicated for solving using deterministic methods.

Photoinduced phase transition is a process to the nonequilibrium phases generated from an equilibrium by shining on high energy photons, and the nonequilibrium phase is a macroscopic excited domain that has new structural and electronic orders quite different from the starting ground state (equilibrium phase).Nasu, K. (2004). Photoinduced Phase Transitions. World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.

This clumping behaviour applies to any small macroscopic object that floats or clings to the surface of a liquid. Examples of such objects are hair particles in shaving cream and fizzy beer bubbles. The effect is not noticeable in boats and other large floating objects because the force of surface tension is relatively small at that scale.

Couzens's body- derived work ranges from monumental figurative-based charcoal drawings to abstract watercolors that evoke internal cellular realities to sculptural objects resembling external body parts.Roth, David. "Digging for China (Still)," Strange Fascination, Sacramento CA: Center for Contemporary Art, 2005. Writer Debra Wilbur suggested that this work created mystery through its oscillation between the micro- and macroscopic,Wilbur, Debra.

Gravitational and thermal energy have a negligible effect on the energy extraction process. From a macroscopic point of view, the air flow about the wind turbine is at atmospheric pressure. If pressure is constant then only kinetic energy is extracted. However up close near the rotor itself the air velocity is constant as it passes through the rotor plane.

Images and video require the highest bandwidth for data delivery. Ingestible capsules containing video cameras are used for generating images of the macroscopic structures of hollow organs, such as the stomach and small bowel. These devices are powered by batteries, can transmit video at up to 2.7 Mbit/s, and are less invasive than other traditional endoscopic imaging devices.

Furthermore, large lasers operating in space have been suggested as a means of propelling sail craft in beam-powered propulsion. Radiation pressure forces are the bedrock of laser technology and the branches of science that rely heavily on lasers and other optical technologies. That includes, but is not limited to, biomicroscopy (where light is used to irradiate and observe microbes, cells, and molecules), quantum optics, and optomechanics (where light is used to probe and control objects like atoms, qubits and macroscopic quantum objects). Direct applications of the radiation pressure force in these fields are for example laser cooling (the subject of the 1997 Nobel Prize in Physics), quantum control of macroscopic objects and atoms (2013 Nobel Prize in Physics), interferometry (2017 Nobel Prize in Physics) and optical tweezers (2018 Nobel Prize in Physics).

The structures are much larger than the microscopic scale (the arrangement of atoms and molecules), and yet are much smaller than the macroscopic (overall) scale of the material. The properties and interactions of these mesoscopic structures may determine the macroscopic behavior of the material. For example, the turbulent vortices that naturally occur within a flowing liquid are much smaller than the overall quantity of liquid and yet much larger than its individual molecules, and the emergence of these vortices control the overall flowing behavior of the material. Also, the bubbles that comprise a foam are mesoscopic because they individually consist of a vast number of molecules, and yet the foam itself consists of a great number of these bubbles, and the overall mechanical stiffness of the foam emerges from the combined interactions of the bubbles.

These Nobel prizes were for the discovery of super-fluidity in helium-3 (1996), for the discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect (1998), for the demonstration of Bose–Einstein condensation (2001), for contributions to the theory of superconductivity and superfluidity (2003), for the discovery of giant magnetoresistance (2007), and for theoretical discoveries of topological phase transitions and topological phases of matter (2016). Macroscopic quantum phenomena can be observed in superfluid helium and in superconductors,D.R. Tilley and J. Tilley, Superfluidity and Superconductivity, Adam Hilger, Bristol and New York, 1990 but also in dilute quantum gases, dressed photons such as polaritons and in laser light. Although these media are very different, they are all similar in that they show macroscopic quantum behavior, and in this respect they all can be referred to as quantum fluids.

Lomonosov Chymiae Physicae 1752 Physical chemistry is the study of macroscopic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of the principles, practices, and concepts of physics such as motion, energy, force, time, thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics, analytical dynamics and chemical equilibrium. Physical chemistry, in contrast to chemical physics, is predominantly (but not always) a macroscopic or supra-molecular science, as the majority of the principles on which it was founded relate to the bulk rather than the molecular/atomic structure alone (for example, chemical equilibrium and colloids). Some of the relationships that physical chemistry strives to resolve include the effects of: # Intermolecular forces that act upon the physical properties of materials (plasticity, tensile strength, surface tension in liquids). # Reaction kinetics on the rate of a reaction.

The Boltzmann constant is named after its 19th century Austrian discoverer, Ludwig Boltzmann. Although Boltzmann first linked entropy and probability in 1877, the relation was never expressed with a specific constant until Max Planck first introduced , and gave a precise value for it (, about 2.5% lower than today's figure), in his derivation of the law of black body radiation in 1900–1901.. English translation: Before 1900, equations involving Boltzmann factors were not written using the energies per molecule and the Boltzmann constant, but rather using a form of the gas constant , and macroscopic energies for macroscopic quantities of the substance. The iconic terse form of the equation on Boltzmann's tombstone is in fact due to Planck, not Boltzmann. Planck actually introduced it in the same work as his eponymous .

Unlike solid-state diffusion, fluid-assisted dissolution-precipitation occurs below Tc. Interaction between the mineral phase and a coexisting fluid phase during geological events directly contributes to this process. It is a chemical reaction driven by the system stabilization from minimizing Gibbs free energy.Putnis, A. (2002). Mineral replacement reactions: from macroscopic observations to microscopic mechanisms. Mineralogical Magazine, 66(5), 689–708.

Asymmetric folds within a dextral sense shear zone, Cap de Creus Asymmetric boudins of pegmatite within a dextral sense shear zone, Cap de Creus Shear bands developed in a dextral sense shear zone, Cap de Creus The sense of shear in a shear zone (dextral, sinistral, reverse or normal) can be deduced by macroscopic structures and by a plethora of microtectonic indicators.

14 fossil fruits of †Boehmeria sibirica have been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.Łańcucka-Środoniowa M.: Macroscopic plant remains from the freshwater Miocene of the Nowy Sącz Basin (West Carpathians, Poland) [Szczątki makroskopowe roślin z miocenu słodkowodnego Kotliny Sądeckiej (Karpaty Zachodnie, Polska)]. Acta Palaeobotanica 1979 20 (1): 3-117.

A phase transition to spontaneous long-range order of microscopic magnetic toroidal moments has been termed "ferrotoroidicity". It is expected to fill the symmetry schemes of primary ferroics (phase transitions with spontaneous point symmetry breaking) with a space-odd, time- odd macroscopic order parameter. A ferrotoroidic material would exhibit domains which could be switched by an appropriate field, e.g. a magnetic field curl.

The quantization rules are technically true even for macroscopic systems, like the angular momentum L of a spinning tire. However they have no observable effect. For example, if L_z/\hbar is roughly 100000000, it makes essentially no difference whether the precise value is an integer like 100000000 or 100000001, or a non-integer like 100000000.2—the discrete steps are too small to notice.

If appropriate electrical contacts are attached to a nanotube, electron-hole pairs (excitons) can be generated by injecting electrons and holes from the contacts. Subsequent exciton recombination results in electroluminescence (EL). Electroluminescent devices have been produced from single nanotubes and their macroscopic assemblies. Recombination appears to proceed via triplet-triplet annihilation giving distinct peaks corresponding to E11 and E22 transitions.

Ordinary differential equations (ODEs) are used to describe the dynamics of biological systems. ODEs are used on a microscopic, mesoscopic and macroscopic scale to examine continuous variables. The equations represent the time evolution of observed variables such as concentrations of protein, transcription factors or number of cell types. They are usually used for modelling immunological synapses, microbial recognition and cell migration.

Modeling and analysis of transport phenomena is essential for many industrial applications. Transport phenomena involve fluid dynamics, heat transfer and mass transfer, which are governed mainly by momentum transfer, energy transfer and transport of chemical species, respectively. Models often involve separate considerations for macroscopic, microscopic and molecular level phenomena. Modeling of transport phenomena, therefore, requires an understanding of applied mathematics.

The temperature within a system in thermodynamic equilibrium is uniform in space as well as in time. In a system in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium, there are no net internal macroscopic flows. In particular, this means that all local parts of the system are in mutual radiative exchange equilibrium. This means that the temperature of the system is spatially uniform.

Werner (2007a) used the Dehaene-Changeux Global Neuronal Workspace to defend the use of statistical physics approaches for exploring phase transitions, scaling and universality properties of the so-called "Dynamic Core" of the brain, with relevance to the macroscopic electrical activity in EEG and EMG.Werner G. Brain dynamics across levels of organization. J Physiol Paris. 2007 Jul–Nov;101(4–6):273-9.

This is a very large number, so the system is indeed in the correspondence limit. It is simple to see why we perceive a continuum of energy in this limit. With = 1 rad/s, the difference between each energy level is ≈ 1.05 × 10−34J, well below what we normally resolve for macroscopic systems. One then describes this system through an emergent classical limit.

David Deutsch, from Oxford’s Centre for Quantum Computation, endorses the many-worlds interpretation. He dismisses Penrose's interpretation as "based more on aesthetics than science", as no experimental anomalies have been observed. However, Penrose has responded that if his prediction is true, no experiments have been performed at the particular "one-graviton" level, where quantum theory becomes overwhelmed by macroscopic effects.

Furthermore, it appears within reach. Their solution to the hurdles presented by cloaking issues are dielectrics. These nonconducting materials (dielectrics) are used for a carpet cloak, which serves as an optical cloaking device. According to the lead investigator: Furthermore, a new cloaking system was announced in the beginning of 2011 that is effective in visible light and hides macroscopic objects, i.e.

The term "artificial dielectrics" came into use because these are macroscopic analogues of naturally occurring dielectrics. The difference between the natural and artificial substance is that the atoms or molecules are artificially (human) constructed materials. Artificial dielectrics were proposed because of the need for lightweight structures and components for various microwave delivery devices. Artificial dielectrics are a direct historical link to metamaterials.

A wetting transition (Cassie–Wenzel transition) may occur during the process of wetting of a solid (or liquid) surface with a liquid. The transition corresponds to a certain change in contact angle, the macroscopic parameter characterizing wetting.P.G. de Gennes, F. Brochard-Wyart, D. Quéré, Capillarity and Wetting Phenomena, Springer, Berlin, 2003. Various contact angles can co-exist on the same solid substrate.

Three fossil seeds of †Campanula palaeopyramidalis have been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.Łańcucka-Środoniowa M.: Macroscopic plant remains from the freshwater Miocene of the Nowy Sącz Basin (West Carpathians, Poland) [Szczątki makroskopowe roślin z miocenu słodkowodnego Kotliny Sądeckiej (Karpaty Zachodnie, Polska)]. Acta Palaeobotanica 1979 20 (1): 3-117.

These currents are of similar appearance as those reported for ion channel proteins. They are thought to be caused by lipid membrane pores spontaneously generated by the thermal fluctuations. Such thermal fluctuations explain the specific ionic selectivity or the specific time-course of the response to voltage changes on the basis of their affect on the macroscopic susceptibilities of the system.

Three fossil fruits of Carpinus betulus have been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.Łańcucka-Środoniowa M.: Macroscopic plant remains from the freshwater Miocene of the Nowy Sącz Basin (West Carpathians, Poland) [Szczątki makroskopowe roślin z miocenu słodkowodnego Kotliny Sądeckiej (Karpaty Zachodnie, Polska)]. Acta Palaeobotanica 1979 20 (1): 3-117.

Two fossil fruits of †Schefflera dorofeevii have been extracted from bore hole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.Łańcucka-Środoniowa M.: Macroscopic plant remains from the freshwater Miocene of the Nowy Sącz Basin (West Carpathians, Poland) [Szczątki makroskopowe roślin z miocenu słodkowodnego Kotliny Sądeckiej (Karpaty Zachodnie, Polska)]. Acta Palaeobotanica 1979 20 (1): 3–117.

There exist macroscopic white lamellae inside quartz and other minerals in the Bohemian Massif and at other places around the world like wavefronts generated by a meteorite impact according to the Rajlich's Hypothesis. The hypothetical wavefronts are composed of many microcavities. Their origin is seen in a physical phenomenon of ultrasonic cavitation, which is well known from the technical practice.

The uniaxial tensile test has largely been performed to obtain the stress-strain relations and related mechanical properties of bulk specimens. However, there is an extra storage of defects associated with non- uniform plastic deformation in geometrically necessary dislocations, and ordinary macroscopic test alone, e.g. uniaxial tensile test, is not enough to capture the effects of such defects, e.g. plastic strain gradient.

Depending on the manufacturing process, enantiopure forms can be more expensive to produce than stereochemical mixtures. Chiral preferences can also be found at a macroscopic level. Snail shells can be right-turning or left-turning helices, but one form or the other is strongly preferred in a given species. In the edible snail Helix pomatia, only one out of 20,000 is left-helical.

Often an excised tissue sample is the best and most definitive evidence of disease (or lack thereof) in cases where tissue is surgically removed from a patient. These determinations are usually accomplished by a combination of gross (i.e., macroscopic) and histologic (i.e., microscopic) examination of the tissue, and may involve evaluations of molecular properties of the tissue by immunohistochemistry or other laboratory tests.

Metamaterials are artificial materials engineered to provide properties which "may not be readily available in nature". These materials usually gain their properties from structure rather than composition, using the inclusion of small inhomogeneities to enact effective macroscopic behavior. The structural units of metamaterials can be tailored in shape and size. Their composition, and their form or structure, can be finely adjusted.

CMC surfaces are natural for representations of soap bubbles, since they have the curvature corresponding to a nonzero pressure difference. Besides macroscopic bubble surfaces CMC surfaces are relevant for the shape of the gas–liquid interface on a superhydrophobic surface.E.J. Lobaton, T.R. Salamon. Computation of constant mean curvature surfaces: Application to the gas–liquid interface of a pressurized fluid on a superhydrophobic surface.

Polymer chains are held together in these materials by relatively weak intermolecular bonds, which permit the polymers to stretch in response to macroscopic stresses. Natural rubber, neoprene rubber, buna-s and buna-n are all examples of such elastomers. (A) is an unstressed polymer; (B) is the same polymer under stress. When the stress is removed, it will return to the A configuration.

Five fossil fruits of †Broussonetia pygmaea have been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene freshwater deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.Łańcucka- Środoniowa M.: Macroscopic plant remains from the freshwater Miocene of the Nowy Sącz Basin (West Carpathians, Poland) [Szczątki makroskopowe roślin z miocenu słodkowodnego Kotliny Sądeckiej (Karpaty Zachodnie, Polska)]. Acta Palaeobotanica 1979 20 (1): 3-117.

The Hille equation relates the maximum ionic conductance of an ion channel to its length and radius (or diameter), with the commonly used version implicitly takes into account a hemispherical cap. As it is ultimately based on a macroscopic continuum model, it does not take into account molecular interactions, and real conductances are often several times less than the predicted maximal flux.

Using a witness for Bell correlations derived from a multi-partite Bell inequality, physicists at the University of Basel were able to conclude for the first time Bell correlation in a many-body system composed by about 480 atoms in a Bose- Einstein condensate. Even though loopholes were not closed, this experiment shows the possibility of observing Bell correlations in the macroscopic regime.

Several fossil seeds of †Stratiotes kaltennordheimensis have been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.Łańcucka-Środoniowa M.: Macroscopic plant remains from the freshwater Miocene of the Nowy Sącz Basin (West Carpathians, Poland) [Szczątki makroskopowe roślin z miocenu słodkowodnego Kotliny Sądeckiej (Karpaty Zachodnie, Polska)]. Acta Palaeobotanica 1979 20 (1): 3-117.

The diet of these organisms, like many other species of hermit crab, includes macroscopic animals and detritus, due to the fact that hermit crabs are classified as omnivorous detritivores. In addition, the bulk of their nutrient intake comes from detritus, classified by many marine scientists as “marine snow”. They consume their food sources through proteolytic enzymes that split carbohydrates and lipids.

Examples of granular materials A granular material is a conglomeration of discrete solid, macroscopic particles characterized by a loss of energy whenever the particles interact (the most common example would be friction when grains collide).Duran, J., Sands, Powders, and Grains: An Introduction to the Physics of Granular Materials (translated by A. Reisinger). November 1999, Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., New York, .

As the name suggests, this process is a not a true equilibrium since the system is still evolving. Non-equilibrium fluid systems can be successfully modeled with Landau-Lifshitz fluctuating hydrodynamics. In this theoretical framework, diffusion is due to fluctuations whose dimensions range from the molecular scale to the macroscopic scale. Chemical diffusion increases the entropy of a system, i.e.

Four fossil seeds of †Gratiola tertiaria have been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.Łańcucka-Środoniowa M.: Macroscopic plant remains from the freshwater Miocene of the Nowy Sącz Basin (West Carpathians, Poland) [Szczątki makroskopowe roślin z miocenu słodkowodnego Kotliny Sądeckiej (Karpaty Zachodnie, Polska)]. Acta Palaeobotanica 1979 20 (1): 3-117.

The macroscopic sporophyte has many specialized blades growing near the holdfast. These blades bear various sori containing sporangia, which release haploid spores, which will grow into microscopic female and male gametophytes. These gametophytes, after reaching the appropriate substrata, grow mitotically to eventually produce gametes.M.H. Graham, J.A. Vásquez and A.H. Buschmann (2007) Global ecology of the giant kelp Macrocystis: From ecotypes to ecosystems.

Macroscopic viscous flow fields can direct self-assembly of a random solution of particles into ordered crystals. However, the assembled particles tend to disassemble when the flow is stopped or removed. Shear flows are useful for jammed suspensions or random close packing. As these systems begin in nonequilibrium, flow fields are useful in that they help the system relax towards ordered equilibrium.

The region of small strains, "toe" region, corresponds to the removal of a macroscopic crimp, uncrimping, in the collagen fibrils, visible in light microscope. At larger strains, "heel" and "linear" region, there's no further structural change visible. Tropocollagen is the molecular component fiber, consisting of three left handed polypeptide chains (red, green, blue) coiled around each other, forming a right-handed triple helix.

Within many of his paintings he also utilized the combination of an open space or landscape with various other forms, usually biological or zoomorphic figures that served to represent other structures. This can be seen for example in his 1937 painting View of a Shell , where the macroscopic depiction of two barnacle shells appear as mountains in an underwater seascape.

They believe that an important reason for the success in this area of physics is that they have a background in both the microscopic atomic physics and in the macroscopic condensed-matter physics. It is only through a combination of this knowledge that one can arrive at sophisticated many-body theories that can be directly compared with experiment without any fitting parameters.

One fossil seed of Menyanthes trifoliata has been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.Łańcucka- Środoniowa M.: Macroscopic plant remains from the freshwater Miocene of the Nowy Sącz Basin (West Carpathians, Poland) [Szczątki makroskopowe roślin z miocenu słodkowodnego Kotliny Sądeckiej (Karpaty Zachodnie, Polska)]. Acta Palaeobotanica 1979 20 (1): 3-117.

Two fossil seeds of †Vaccinium minutulum have been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.Łańcucka-Środoniowa M.: Macroscopic plant remains from the freshwater Miocene of the Nowy Sącz Basin (West Carpathians, Poland) [Szczątki makroskopowe roślin z miocenu słodkowodnego Kotliny Sądeckiej (Karpaty Zachodnie, Polska)]. Acta Palaeobotanica 1979 20 (1): 3-117.

The pressure at the knife edge can easily create microscopic (or even macroscopic) cuts in the board. This cut is a ready source of abrasive material as well as a channel full of this abrasive through which the edge slides. For this reason, and without regard for the health benefits, wooden boards are much more desirable. A similar occurrence arises with glass-cutters.

As of 2008, the cost of weapons-grade plutonium was around $4,000/gram, and californium exceeded $60,000,000/gram. Einsteinium is the heaviest element that has been produced in macroscopic quantities. Transuranic elements that have not been discovered, or have been discovered but are not yet officially named, use IUPAC's systematic element names. The naming of transuranic elements may be a source of controversy.

Once materials of macroscopic size can be self- assembled, those materials can find use in many applications. For example, nano-structures such as nano-vacuum gaps are used for storing energy and nuclear energy conversion. Self-assembled tunable materials are promising candidates for large surface area electrodes in batteries and organic photovoltaic cells, as well as for microfluidic sensors and filters.

One fossil fruit of †Patrinia palaeosibirica has been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.Łańcucka-Środoniowa M.: Macroscopic plant remains from the freshwater Miocene of the Nowy Sącz Basin (West Carpathians, Poland) [Szczątki makroskopowe roślin z miocenu słodkowodnego Kotliny Sądeckiej (Karpaty Zachodnie, Polska)]. Acta Palaeobotanica 1979 20 (1): 3-117.

There are biogeochemical cycles for the chemical elements calcium, carbon, hydrogen, mercury, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, selenium, and sulfur; molecular cycles for water and silica; macroscopic cycles such as the rock cycle; as well as human-induced cycles for synthetic compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB). In some cycles there are reservoirs where a substance remains for a long period of time.

One fossil fruit of a Hydrocotyle sp. has been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.Łańcucka-Środoniowa M.: Macroscopic plant remains from the freshwater Miocene of the Nowy Sącz Basin (West Carpathians, Poland) [Szczątki makroskopowe roślin z miocenu słodkowodnego Kotliny Sądeckiej (Karpaty Zachodnie, Polska)]. Acta Palaeobotanica 1979 20 (1): 3-117.

This wave packet becomes increasingly localized with the addition of many waves. The Fourier transform is a mathematical operation that separates a wave packet into its individual plane waves. The waves shown here are real for illustrative purposes only, whereas in quantum mechanics the wave function is generally complex. The uncertainty principle is not readily apparent on the macroscopic scales of everyday experience.

Friedman first described the world's economy as being macroscopic. He explains that only countries interacted with each other, not individuals or small groups. Friedman then focused on how this has changed and improved within globalization 3.0. Under globalization 3.0, the world turned flat and individuals now had the opportunity to work and collaborate with other individuals from varying and diverse backgrounds.

Bismite is a bismuth oxide mineral, bismuth trioxide or Bi2O3. It is a monoclinic mineral, but the typical form of occurrence is massive and clay- like with no macroscopic crystals. The color varies from green to yellow. It has a Mohs hardness of 4 to 5 and a specific gravity of 8.5 to 9.5, quite high for a nonmetallic mineral.

The gelatinous hyphae are only present on the cap surface, not the surface of the stem; these local differences in cell structure explain the ease with which the scales are sloughed off the cap, but not the stems of the fruit bodies. The macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of the mycelia of this species grown in culture have been described in detail.

The range of applicability and validity or invalidity of these 'principles' has been examined and debated by many others,Lavenda, B.H. (1978). Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes, Macmillan, London, Martyushev, L.M., Seleznev, V.D. (2006), Maximum entropy production principle in physics, chemistry, and biology, Physics Reports, 426: 1-45.Grandy, W.T., Jr (2008). Entropy and the Time Evolution of Macroscopic Systems, Oxford University Press, Oxford, .

One fossil seed of Najas marina has been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.Łańcucka- Środoniowa M.: Macroscopic plant remains from the freshwater Miocene of the Nowy Sącz Basin (West Carpathians, Poland) [Szczątki makroskopowe roślin z miocenu słodkowodnego Kotliny Sądeckiej (Karpaty Zachodnie, Polska)]. Acta Palaeobotanica 1979 20 (1): 3-117.

The compensatory root water uptake conductance (Kcomp) (L^3 P^{-1} T^{-1}) characterizes how a plant compensates its water uptake under heterogeneous water potential. It controls the root water uptake in a soil where the water potential is not uniform.A simple three-dimensional macroscopic root water uptake model based on the hydraulic architecture approach Couvreur, V.; Vanderborght, J.; Javaux, M.

The second law of thermodynamics can be interpreted as quantifying state transformations which are statistically unlikely so that they become effectively forbidden. The second law typically applies to systems composed of many particles interacting; Quantum thermodynamics resource theory is a formulation of thermodynamics in the regime where it can be applied to a small number of particles interacting with a heat bath. For processes which are cyclic or very close to cyclic, the second law for microscopic systems takes on a very different form than it does at the macroscopic scale, imposing not just one constraint on what state transformations are possible, but an entire family of constraints. These second laws are not only relevant for small systems, but also apply to individual macroscopic systems interacting via long-range interactions, which only satisfy the ordinary second law on average.

These macroscopic signs of solar activity are considered by astrophysicists as the phenomenology related to events of relaxation of stressed magnetic fields, during which part of the energy they have stored is released ultimately into particle kinetic energy (heating); this could be via current dissipation, Joule effect, or any of several non-thermal plasma effects. Theoretical work often appeals to the concept of magnetic reconnection to explain these outbursts. Rather than a single large-scale episode of such a process, though, modern thinking suggests that a multitude of small-scale versions reconnection, cascading together, might be a better description. The theory of nanoflares then supposes that these events of magnetic reconnection, occurring at nearly the same time on small length- scales wherever in the corona, are very numerous, each providing an imperceptibly small fraction of the total energy required in a macroscopic event.

In theoretical thermodynamics, respected authors vary in their approaches to the definition of quantity of heat transferred. There are two main streams of thinking. One is from a primarily empirical viewpoint (which will here be referred to as the thermodynamic stream), to define heat transfer as occurring only by specified macroscopic mechanisms; loosely speaking, this approach is historically older. The other (which will here be referred to as the mechanical stream) is from a primarily theoretical viewpoint, to define it as a residual quantity after transfers of energy as macroscopic work, between two bodies or closed systems, have been determined for a process, so as to conform with the principle of conservation of energy or the first law of thermodynamics for closed systems; this approach grew in the twentieth century, though was partly manifest in the nineteenth.

Both the Arrhenius activation energy and the rate constant k are experimentally determined, and represent macroscopic reaction-specific parameters that are not simply related to threshold energies and the success of individual collisions at the molecular level. Consider a particular collision (an elementary reaction) between molecules A and B. The collision angle, the relative translational energy, the internal (particularly vibrational) energy will all determine the chance that the collision will produce a product molecule AB. Macroscopic measurements of E and k are the result of many individual collisions with differing collision parameters. To probe reaction rates at molecular level, experiments are conducted under near- collisional conditions and this subject is often called molecular reaction dynamics.Levine, R.D. (2005) Molecular Reaction Dynamics, Cambridge University Press There are deviations from the Arrhenius law during the glass transition in all classes of glass-forming matter.

The theory does not tell where the threshold between the microscopic and macroscopic worlds is, that is when quantum mechanics should leave space to classical mechanics. The aforementioned issues constitute the measurement problem in quantum mechanics. Collapse theories avoid the measurement problem by merging the two dynamical principles of quantum mechanics in a unique dynamical description. The physical idea that underlies collapse theories is that particles undergo spontaneous wave-function collapses, which occur randomly both in time (at a given average rate), and in space (according to the Born rule). The imprecise talk of “observer” and a “measurement” that plagues the orthodox interpretation is thus avoided because the wave function collapses spontaneously. Furthermore, thanks to a so called “amplification mechanism” (later discussed), collapse theories recover both quantum mechanics for microscopic objects, and classical mechanics for macroscopic ones.

In 1931, Lars Onsager proposed that the regression of microscopic thermal fluctuations at equilibrium follows the macroscopic law of relaxation of small non-equilibrium disturbances. This is known as the Onsager regression hypothesis. As the values of microscopic variables separated by large timescales, \tau, should be uncorrelated beyond what we would expect from thermodynamic equilibrium, the evolution in time of a correlation function can be viewed from a physical standpoint as the system gradually 'forgetting' the initial conditions placed upon it via the specification of some microscopic variable. There is actually an intuitive connection between the time evolution of correlation functions and the time evolution of macroscopic systems: on average, the correlation function evolves in time in the same manner as if a system was prepared in the conditions specified by the correlation function's initial value and allowed to evolve.

In theoretical thermodynamics, respected authors vary in their approaches to the definition of quantity of heat transferred. There are two main streams of thinking. One is from a primarily empirical viewpoint (which will here be referred to as the thermodynamic stream), to define heat transfer as occurring only by specified macroscopic mechanisms; loosely speaking, this approach is historically older. The other (which will here be referred to as the mechanical stream) is from a primarily theoretical viewpoint, to define it as a residual quantity calculated after transfers of energy as macroscopic work, between two bodies or closed systems, have been determined for a process, so as to conform with the principle of conservation of energy or the first law of thermodynamics for closed systems; this approach grew in the twentieth century, though was partly manifest in the nineteenth.

Diagram of a 100 micrometer foglet Another proposed application of molecular nanotechnology is "utility fog" -- in which a cloud of networked microscopic robots (simpler than assemblers) would change its shape and properties to form macroscopic objects and tools in accordance with software commands. Rather than modify the current practices of consuming material goods in different forms, utility fog would simply replace many physical objects.

The electrostatic force between two charged elementary particles is vastly greater than the corresponding gravitational force between them. The gravitational attraction among elementary particles, charged or not, can hence be ignored. Gravitation dominates for macroscopic objects because they are electrostatically neutral to a very high degree. has a simple physical interpretation: it is the square of the electron mass, measured in units of Planck mass.

The thermodynamic metric can then be used with different thermodynamic potentials without changing the geometric properties of the equilibrium manifold. One expects the geometric properties of the equilibrium manifold to be related to the macroscopic physical properties. The details of this relation can be summarized in three main points: #Curvature is a measure of the thermodynamical interaction. #Curvature singularities correspond to curvature phase transitions.

The specific epithet salicis is in reference to Salix, the generic name for willow. Within the genus Inocybe, I. salicis belongs to the section Marginatae, which also includes I. obtusiuscula, I. dunensis, I. salicis- herbaceae, I. substellata, I. praetervisa, I. saliceticola and I. mixtilis. These species are all known to associate with willow, and all have macroscopic similarities. As such, they are best differentiated microscopically.

Pablo Augusto Ferrari (September 11, 1949) is an Argentinian mathematician, member of the Bernoulli Society, the Institute for Mathematical Statistics, the Brazilian Academy of Sciences, and the International Statistical Institute. He is also co-principal investigator at the Brazilian research center NeuroMat.NeuroMat Team Ferrari investigates probabilistic models of microscopic phenomena and macroscopic counterpart. He is the son of the contemporary conceptual artist León Ferrari.

Plastic deformation occurs when large numbers of dislocations move and multiply so as to result in macroscopic deformation. In other words, it is the movement of dislocations in the material which allows for deformation. If we want to enhance a material's mechanical properties (i.e. increase the yield and tensile strength), we simply need to introduce a mechanism which prohibits the mobility of these dislocations.

The Eyes of Heisenberg is a 1966 science fiction novel by American writer Frank Herbert. Originally serialized as Heisenberg's Eyes in Galaxy magazine between June and August 1966, it was issued by Berkley in the same year. The title refers to Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, here applied both on the molecular (genetic) level (producing the atypical embryo the story hinges on) and on a macroscopic, societal level.

J. Quantum Electron., , 16 (1), 113-114. too. From the viewpoint of nonlinear electrodynamics, the existence of gradient of the electric field of optical wave in the range of the unit cell corresponds to macroscopic gradient of the external electrical field, if only the frequency transposition is taken into account. In that sense, the electrogyration effect represents the first of the gradient nonlinear optical phenomena ever revealed.

Anoigmaichnus is an ichnogenus of bioclaustrations (a type of trace fossil). Anoigmaichnus includes shafts perpendicular to their hosts' growth surfaces or tilted (up to 45°); conical to cylindrical; circular to oval cross-sections; lacking separate wall. Their apertures are elevated above their hosts' growth surfaces, forming short chimney-like structures. Anoigmaichnus is the world's earliest known macroscopic endobiotic symbiont and it may have been a parasite.

1, Scheme2). In an applied electrostatic field, quasi-crystals form macroscopic threads that show linear optical dichroism. Later Krongauz described unusual phase transitions of molecules composedof mesogenic and spiropyran moieties, which he named "quasi-liquidcrystals." A micrograph of their mesophase appeared on the cover of Nature in a 1984 paper, “Quasi-Liquid Crystals.” The investigation of spiropyran-merocyanineself-organized systems, including macromolecules (see, for example, Fig.

He changed scale of Z-axis: Z'=Z/K, i.e. empty medium with ε=1 is compressed along Z. Therefore, Maxwell's equations go to equations for macroscopic anisotropic medium with tensors ε and μ. Permittivity εz along axis Z is equal to K when transverse εtr is equal to 1/K. Permeability μz is equal to K and transverse that μtr is equal to 1/K.

Biomimetic materials are gaining increasing attention in the field of optics and photonics. There are still little known bioinspired or biomimetic products involving the photonic properties of plants or animals. However, understanding how nature designed such optical materials from biological resources is worth pursuing and might lead to future commercial products. Macroscopic picture of a film of cellulose nanocrystal suspension cast on a Petri dish (diameter: 3.5cm).

However, the basic cause was not known. Louis Pasteur solved the problem (chirality of the molecules) originating a new discipline known as stereochemistry. At the macroscopic scale, Lindman applied microwaves to the problem with wire spirals (wire helices) in 1920 and 1922.(see abstract) Karl F. Lindman, from 1914 and into the 1920s, studied artificial chiral media formed by a collection of randomly oriented small spirals.

Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by strong intermolecular bonds, but the behavior of solid materials under force is complex; therefore, there are different measurements of hardness: scratch hardness, indentation hardness, and rebound hardness. Hardness is dependent on ductility, elastic stiffness, plasticity, strain, strength, toughness, viscoelasticity, and viscosity. Common examples of hard matter are ceramics, concrete, certain metals, and superhard materials, which can be contrasted with soft matter.

Macroscopic appearance of invasive ductal carcinoma of the breast. The tumor is the pale, crab-shaped mass at the center, surrounded by normal, yellow fatty tissue. Some hormones play a role in the development of cancer by promoting cell proliferation. Insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins play a key role in cancer cell growth, differentiation and apoptosis, suggesting possible involvement in carcinogenesis.

A three-dimensional lattice filled with two molecules A and B, here shown as black and white spheres. Natural dielectrics, or natural materials, are a model for artificial dielectrics. When an electromagnetic field is applied to a natural dielectric, local responses and scattering occur on the atomic or molecular level. The macroscopic response of the material is then described as electric permittivity and magnetic permeability.

Kidney organoids from stem cells with PKD mutations formed large, translucent cyst structures from kidney tubules. The cysts were capable of reaching macroscopic dimensions, up to one centimeter in diameter. Kidney organoids with mutations in a gene linked to FSGS developed junctional defects between podocytes, the filtering cells affected in that disease. This was traced to the inability of podocytes to form microvilli between adjacent cells.

This involves introducing a new notion of macroscopic objects as quantum kinds, instead of classical objects. In this regard, he is also developing two further new ideas within physics: the ontology of "Objective, Semantic Information" (OSI) and corresponding "Relational Properties" (RPs). As part of developing his version of MQM, Gomatam has related interests in exotic manifolds, semantic information processing, quantum computation, and philosophy of ordinary language.

" (Le Journal des Poètes) "More than the macroscopic of the surreal, Jean-Pierre Vallotton explores the microscopic of hyperreality. In fact, if there is one single element in this complex poetry that stands out, it is precisely the absence of anything obvious. Yet his idiosyncratic poetic structure never disrupts its symbolic density. Behind the irregularity of forms, there is recurrence, tempo, permanency of pursuit.

56 (2011) 3433. have also been used. The choice of ultrasound frequency band defines resolution and overall size range of the objects that can be resolved. This choice of frequency band dictates whether the imaging will be in the macroscopic regime, involving resolution of 100-500 microns and penetration depth >10 mm, or mesoscopic range, involving resolution of 1-50 microns and penetration depth <10 mm.

Hydrolysis of nitrocefin however, produces a shift of ultraviolet absorption inside the visible light spectrum from intact (yellow) nitrocefin (~380 nm) to degraded (red) nitrocefin (~500 nm) allowing visual detection of beta-lactamase activity on a macroscopic level.O'Callaghan, Cynthia H. et al. "Novel Method for Detection of B-Lactamases by Using a Chromogenic Cephalosporin Substrate." Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 1.4 (1972): 283-88. Ncbi.gov. Web.

Initial attempts to make atomically thin graphitic films employed exfoliation techniques similar to the drawing method. Multilayer samples down to 10 nm in thickness were obtained. Earlier researchers tried to isolate graphene starting with intercalated compounds, producing very thin graphitic fragments (possibly monolayers). Neither of the earlier observations was sufficient to launch the "graphene gold rush" that awaited macroscopic samples of extracted atomic planes.

The phenomena may be analysed in several appropriate ways. The incoming and outgoing diffracted objects may be treated severally as particles or as waves. The diffracting object may be treated as a macroscopic classical object free of quantum features, or it may be treated as a physical object with essentially quantum character. Several cases of these forms of analysis, of which there are eight, have been considered.

They are adaptive in that the individual and collective behavior mutate and self-organize corresponding to the change-initiating micro-event or collection of events. They are a "complex macroscopic collection" of relatively "similar and partially connected micro-structures" formed in order to adapt to the changing environment and increase their survivability as a macro-structure. The Complex Adaptive Systems approach builds on replicator dynamics.

This is discussed below. Another fundamental and very important difference is the difficulty or impossibility, in general, in defining entropy at an instant of time in macroscopic terms for systems not in thermodynamic equilibrium; it can be done, to useful approximation, only in carefully chosen special cases, namely those that are throughout in local thermodynamic equilibrium.Grandy, W.T., Jr (2008).Lebon, G., Jou, D., Casas-Vázquez, J. (2008).

Macroscopic prediction, in Complex Systems - Operational Approaches in Neurobiology, edited by H. Haken, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 254-269 . explains how this reproducibility is why entropy is so important in this topic: entropy is a measure of experimental reproducibility. The entropy tells how many times one would have to repeat the experiment in order to expect to see a departure from the usual reproducible result.

The convection heat transfer mode comprises one mechanism. In addition to energy transfer due to specific molecular motion (diffusion), energy is transferred by bulk, or macroscopic, motion of the fluid. This motion is associated with the fact that, at any instant, large numbers of molecules are moving collectively or as aggregates. Such motion, in the presence of a temperature gradient, contributes to heat transfer.

The bark is sometimes used for cooking, although it is regarded as inferior to true cinnamon or cassia. Thorough macroscopic and microscopic investigations revealed that Cinnamomum malabatrum is mixed with Cinnamomum tamala as an adulterant in 'Tamalapatra', a highly reputed commodity in drug and spice trade. It is often used in kumbilappam or chakka-ada, an authentic sweet from Kerala, infusing its characteristic flavor to the dumplings.

This work was widely reported in the press. In 2020, observations at high spatial and spectral resolution of the solar photosphere have show that solar turbulent convection satisfies the symmetries predicted by the fluctuation relation at a local level. Note that the FT does not state that the second law of thermodynamics is wrong or invalid. The second law of thermodynamics is a statement about macroscopic systems.

Effective medium approximations (EMA) or effective medium theory (EMT) pertain to analytical or theoretical modeling that describes the macroscopic properties of composite materials. EMAs or EMTs are developed from averaging the multiple values of the constituents that directly make up the composite material. At the constituent level, the values of the materials vary and are inhomogeneous. Precise calculation of the many constituent values is nearly impossible.

Oscillatory activity in groups of neurons generally arises from feedback connections between the neurons that result in the synchronization of their firing patterns. The interaction between neurons can give rise to oscillations at a different frequency than the firing frequency of individual neurons. A well- known example of macroscopic neural oscillations is alpha activity. Neural oscillations were observed by researchers as early as 1924 (by Hans Berger).

The modern theoretical treatment of electromagnetism is as a quantum field in quantum electrodynamics. In many situations of interest to electrical engineering, it is not necessary to apply quantum theory to get correct results. Classical physics is still an accurate approximation in most situations involving macroscopic objects. With few exceptions, quantum theory is only necessary at the atomic scale and a simpler classical treatment can be applied.

The cyclopeptide-producing Amanita phalloides is well known for its toxic potential and is responsible for approximately 90% of all mushroom fatalities. The other primary mycotoxin groups found in mushrooms include: orellanine, monomethylhydrazine, disulfiram-like, hallucinogenic indoles, muscarinic, isoxazole, and gastrointestinal (GI)-specific irritants. The bulk of this article is about mycotoxins that are found in microfungi other than poisons from mushrooms or macroscopic fungi.

Cercospora arachidicola only infects peanut plants, causing symptoms of brown lesions with chlorotic rings on the stems, leaves, and petioles. The first macroscopic symptoms usually appear on the adaxial surface of the lower leaves about 30 to 50 days after planting. Further damage can lead to premature defoliation and even yield loss. Signs include tufts of silvery, hair-like spores on lesions during humid weather.

3 (1870), the completion of the project is described in a long footnote by "J. Lissajous." Not included in the OeuvresSilliman, 2008, p. 171. are two short notes by Fresnel on magnetism, which were discovered among Ampère's manuscripts. In response to Ørsted's discovery of electromagnetism in 1820, Ampère initially supposed that the field of a permanent magnet was due to a macroscopic circulating current.

Gaseous allotropes exist as well, such as dioxygen and ozone. At temperatures close to absolute zero, atoms can form a Bose-Einstein condensate, at which point quantum mechanical effects, which are normally only observed at the atomic scale, become apparent on a macroscopic scale. This super-cooled collection of atoms then behaves as a single super atom, which may allow fundamental checks of quantum mechanical behavior.

From a macroscopic perspective, in classical thermodynamics, the entropy is a state function of a thermodynamic system: that is, a property depending only on the current state of the system, independent of how that state came to be achieved. Entropy is a key ingredient of the Second law of thermodynamics, which has important consequences e.g. for the performance of heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps.

Morphological characteristics of the caps of mushrooms Identifying mushrooms requires a basic understanding of their macroscopic structure. Most are Basidiomycetes and gilled. Their spores, called basidiospores, are produced on the gills and fall in a fine rain of powder from under the caps as a result. At the microscopic level, the basidiospores are shot off basidia and then fall between the gills in the dead air space.

When a shape-memory alloy is in its cold state (below As), the metal can be bent or stretched and will hold those shapes until heated above the transition temperature. Upon heating, the shape changes to its original. When the metal cools again, it will retain the shape, until deformed again. With the one-way effect, cooling from high temperatures does not cause a macroscopic shape change.

They are also sensitive to the macroscopic structure of the host material in which they are embedded. The MSGF method is used to model such composite systems. The MSGF method is also used for analyzing behavior of crystals containing lattice defects such as vacancies, interstitials, or foreign atoms. Study of these lattice defects is of interest as they play a role in materials technology.

So given a particular final state, we can ask, what can we "retrodict" to improve our knowledge about earlier states? However the Second Law argument above also runs in reverse: given macroscopic information at time t2, we should expect it too to become less useful. The two procedures are time-symmetric. But now the information will become less and less useful at earlier and earlier times.

Unbaked dough. During baking, the transient gluten network turns into a permanent network. At higher temperatures, intermolecular disulfide bonds form between glutenin molecules, as well as between gliadin and glutenin. With more bonds being made, the gluten network becomes more rigid, strengthening the croissant’s crumb texture. Additionally, the baking process significantly stretches the dough layers due to the large macroscopic deformation that occurred during fermentation’s dough lift.

For small microscopic systems, different statistical ensembles (microcanonical, canonical, grand canonical) permit different behaviours. For example, in the canonical ensemble the number of particles inside the system is held fixed, whereas particle number can fluctuate in the grand canonical ensemble. In the thermodynamic limit, these global fluctuations cease to be important. It is at the thermodynamic limit that the additivity property of macroscopic extensive variables is obeyed.

Carbon nanotubes (microstructures), single molecules, or block copolymers are common templates. Nanoparticles are often shown to self-assemble within distances of nanometers and micrometers, but block copolymer templates can be used to form well- defined self-assemblies over macroscopic distances. By incorporating active sites to the surfaces of nanotubes and polymers, the functionalization of these templates can be transformed to favor self-assembly of specified nanoparticles.

Three key parts to evaporation are heat, atmospheric pressure (determines the percent humidity), and air movement. On a molecular level, there is no strict boundary between the liquid state and the vapor state. Instead, there is a Knudsen layer, where the phase is undetermined. Because this layer is only a few molecules thick, at a macroscopic scale a clear phase transition interface cannot be seen.

Determination of the macroscopic structure of the mesenteric organ allowed a recent characterisation of the histological and electron microscopic properties. The microscopic structure of the mesocolon and associated fascia is consistent from ileocecal to mesorectal levels. A surface mesothelium and underlying connective tissue is universally apparent. Adipocytes lobules within the body of the mesocolon are separated by fibrous septae arising from submesothelial connective tissue.

The structure of a polymeric material can be described at different length scales, from the sub-nm length scale up to the macroscopic one. There is in fact a hierarchy of structures, in which each stage provides the foundations for the next one.Sperling, p. 29 The starting point for the description of the structure of a polymer is the identity of its constituent monomers.

On the other hand, Bohr consistently held that, in order to illustrate the microscopic aspects of reality, it is necessary to set off a process of amplification, which involves macroscopic apparatuses, whose fundamental characteristic is that of obeying classical laws and which can be described in classical terms. This ambiguity would later come back in the form of what is still called today the measurement problem.

Any system, no matter how complicated, has a ground state along with an infinite series of higher- energy excited states. The principal motivation for quasiparticles is that it is almost impossible to directly describe every particle in a macroscopic system. For example, a barely-visible (0.1mm) grain of sand contains around 1017 nuclei and 1018 electrons. Each of these attracts or repels every other by Coulomb's law.

As with all kelps, Alaria demonstrate a heteromorphic, sporic life history, with a macroscopic, dominant sporophyte, and a microscopic gametophyte. Unique to the genus Alaria is that the sori of the unilocular sporangia are restricted to certain blades, the sporophylls. The sporophylls are formed as lateral blades from the stipe. Most species are perennial; after reproduction, the blade sloughs off, leaving the stipe and meristem.

The book also contains descriptions of a typical mammary fistula; treatment of the same by seton stitch; breast cysts; and mastalgia and galactorrhea. Mansel, Sweetland, and Hughes describe the macroscopic and microscopic illustrations of duct ectasia and fibroadenoma in the plates as "ahead of their time", also observing that the descriptions of duct ectasia pre-date the work of Joseph Colt Bloodgood by half a century.

At least nine species have been recorded from mainland India, some of which also overlap C. cinnabarinums range in Indonesia, Taiwan, or Japan. Many of these species can be readily distinguished by macroscopic features. C. japonicum is pinkish orange and lacks a gelatinous outer layer, while both C. jiangii and C. junghuhnii are brown. However, others require microscopic features of spore shape and ornamentation for identification.

Muscle architecture is the physical arrangement of muscle fibers at the macroscopic level that determines a muscle’s mechanical function. There are several different muscle architecture types including: parallel, pennate and hydrostats. Force production and gearing vary depending on the different geometries of the muscle. Some parameters used in architectural analysis are muscle length (Lm), fiber length (Lf), pennation angle (θ), and physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA).

Organic materials usually fail in a relatively short period of time, primarily due to biodegradation. With inorganic materials are these processes considerably longer and more complex. Amount of gases, humidity, depth and composition of soil are very important. In case of salty and sweet water finds essential are amount of gases dissolved in water, depth of water, direction of currents, and microscopic and macroscopic living organisms.

Research topics that Davis addresses concern the macroscopic quantum physics of emergent quantum matter at low temperatures. Active research interests include studies of superconductors, superfluids and supersolids; Kondo, Weyl and Hund metals; magnetic and Kondo topological condensates; and spin & monopole liquids. For these studies, a variety of specialized instrumentation has been developed including scanning tunneling microscopes, quantum interferometers, quantum mechanical oscillators and spin noise spectrometers.

1–15 (2001). as "macroscopic composites having a man-made, three-dimensional, periodic cellular architecture designed to produce an optimized combination, not available in nature, of two or more responses to specific excitation" by being fully programmable. That is, unlike in a conventional metamaterial, the relationship between a specific excitation and response is governed by sensing, actuation, and a computer program that implements the desired logic.

The clinical presentation of MesPGN is varied, although persistent or recurring microscopic or macroscopic hematuria with mild proteinuria is most common. Studies are performed in most patients to exclude known causes. MesPGN can also be a finding in resolving postinfectious. Isolated deposits with scanty subendothelial or subepithelial (hump-like) deposits on electron microscopy may be seen in this situation indicating a likelihood of MesPGN.

In macroscopic systems, the timescales over which a system can truly explore the entirety of its own phase space can be sufficiently large that the thermodynamic equilibrium state exhibits some form of ergodicity breaking. A common example is that of spontaneous magnetisation in ferromagnetic systems, whereby below the Curie temperature the system preferentially adopts a non- zero magnetisation even though the ergodic hypothesis would imply that no net magnetisation should exist by virtue of the system exploring all states whose time-averaged magnetisation should be zero. The fact that macroscopic systems often violate the literal form of the ergodic hypothesis is an example of spontaneous symmetry breaking. However, complex disordered systems such as a spin glass show an even more complicated form of ergodicity breaking where the properties of the thermodynamic equilibrium state seen in practice are much more difficult to predict purely by symmetry arguments.

The kelvin (the word is spelled with a lower-case k) is the unit of temperature in the International System of Units (SI). The temperature of a body in its own state of thermodynamic equilibrium is always positive, relative to the absolute zero. Besides the internationally agreed Kelvin scale, there is also a thermodynamic temperature scale, invented by Kelvin, also with its numerical zero at the absolute zero of temperature, but directly relating to purely macroscopic thermodynamic concepts, including the macroscopic entropy, though microscopically referable to the Gibbs statistical mechanical definition of entropy for the canonical ensemble, that takes interparticle potential energy into account, as well as independent particle motion, so that it can account for measurements of temperatures near absolute zero. This scale has a reference temperature at the triple point of water, the numerical value of which is defined by measurements using the aforementioned internationally agreed Kelvin scale.

It is the foundation of all quantum physics including quantum chemistry, quantum field theory, quantum technology, and quantum information science. Classical physics, the description of physics that existed before the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics, describes many aspects of nature at an ordinary (macroscopic) scale, while quantum mechanics explains the aspects of nature at small (atomic and subatomic) scales, for which classical mechanics is insufficient. Most theories in classical physics can be derived from quantum mechanics as an approximation valid at large (macroscopic) scale. Quantum mechanics differs from classical physics in that energy, momentum, angular momentum, and other quantities of a bound system are restricted to discrete values (quantization), objects have characteristics of both particles and waves (wave-particle duality), and there are limits to how accurately the value of a physical quantity can be predicted prior to its measurement, given a complete set of initial conditions (the uncertainty principle).

Ionic relaxation comprises ionic conductivity and interfacial and space charge relaxation. Ionic conductivity predominates at low frequencies and introduces only losses to the system. Interfacial relaxation occurs when charge carriers are trapped at interfaces of heterogeneous systems. A related effect is Maxwell-Wagner-Sillars polarization, where charge carriers blocked at inner dielectric boundary layers (on the mesoscopic scale) or external electrodes (on a macroscopic scale) lead to a separation of charges.

Chemisorption is a kind of adsorption which involves a chemical reaction between the surface and the adsorbate. New chemical bonds are generated at the adsorbant surface. Examples include macroscopic phenomena that can be very obvious, like corrosion, and subtler effects associated with heterogeneous catalysis, where the catalyst and reactants are in different phases. The strong interaction between the adsorbate and the substrate surface creates new types of electronic bonds.

Josephson junctions are being studied in order to expose and optimize the conditions that allow for long-lived macroscopic quantum coherence, and to clarify the processes that lead to noise and decoherence. Electron glasses are being studied in order to understand the underlying mechanisms that lead to their peculiar properties, specifically the interplay of interactions, disorder and nonequilibrium, as well as how these are manifested in transport properties.

Under conditions of starvation or desiccation, the amoebae differentiate reversibly into dormant spores with cell walls. When immersed in water, amoebae differentiate reversibly into flagellated cells, which involves a major reorganization of the cytoskeleton. The plasmodium is typically diploid and propagates via growth and nuclear division without cytokinesis, resulting in the macroscopic multinucleate syncytium. While nutrients are available, the network-shaped plasmodium can grow to a foot or more in diameter.

The area is home to 1250 species of vascular plants, 200 bryophytes, 300 lichens and 180 macroscopic fungi.. On the lower slopes and in the valleys the Andean wax palms are dominant. The upper Andean forest has trees reaching up to in height. In the páramo, frailejones dominate the landscape and a range of mosses, lichens can be observed. Coulored algae can be found in the various lagoons.

Peds are aggregates of soil particles formed as a result of pedogenic processes; this natural organization of particles forms discrete units separated by pores or voids. The term is generally used for macroscopic (visible; i.e. greater than 1 mm in size) structural units when observing soils in the field. Soil peds should be described when the soil is dry or slightly moist, as they can be difficult to distinguish when wet.

Although primarily interested in macroscopic fungi, she also collected some flowering plants, slime molds, lichens, and mosses. The bulk of her collections now resides at either the University Herbarium at the University of California at Berkeley, or in the U.S. National Fungus Collections at Beltsville, Maryland. Morse died 13 November 1955 in Berkeley, California. Fungal taxa named by Morse include Albatrellus flettii, Calbovista, Cantharellus bonarii, Cantharellus wilkinsiae, and Tricholoma sclerotoideum.

She was also a panelist at the Woodstock-II. Since the early days Greene has continued research on unconventional or novel superconducting materials, especially by Andreev reflection (PCAR) spectroscopy, demonstration of Andreev bound states, and a wide range of symmetry breaking phenomena, including time- reversal symmetry breaking. Her recent work include quantum mechanics on a macroscopic level, strongly correlated materials, PCAR experiments in Heavy fermion superconductor systems, and others.

The system will begin to have a structure of thermal conductivity: the temperature, and the density and pressure with it, will vary linearly between the bottom and top plane. A uniform linear gradient of temperature will be established. (This system may be modelled by statistical mechanics). Once conduction is established, the microscopic random movement spontaneously becomes ordered on a macroscopic level, forming Benard convection cells, with a characteristic correlation length.

It follows that if two systems are in thermal equilibrium, then their temperatures are the same.R. K. Pathria, 1996 Thermal equilibrium occurs when a system's macroscopic thermal observables have ceased to change with time. For example, an ideal gas whose distribution function has stabilised to a specific Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution would be in thermal equilibrium. This outcome allows a single temperature and pressure to be attributed to the whole system.

If ceramic is subjected to substantial mechanical loading it can undergo a process called ice-templating, which allows some control of the microstructure of the ceramic product and therefore some control of the mechanical properties. Ceramic engineers use this technique to tune the mechanical properties to their desired application. Specifically, strength is increased when this technique is employed. Ice templating allows the creation of macroscopic pores in a unidirectional arrangement.

At a critical concentration (the gel point), the polymeric network becomes large enough so that on the macroscopic scale, the solution starts to exhibit gel-like physical properties: an extensive continuous solid network, no steady-state flow, and solid-like rheological properties.Raghavan, S.R.; Douglas, J.F. Soft Matter. 2012, 8, 8539. However, organogels that are “low molecular weight gelators” can also be designed to form gels via self- assembly.

Macroemulsions are, by definition, not thermodynamically stable. This means that from the moment they are created, they are always reverting to their original, immiscible and separate state. The reason why Macroemulsions can exist however, is because they are kinetically stable rather than thermodynamically stable. This means that while they are continuously breaking down, it is done at such a slow pace that it is practically stable from a macroscopic perspective.

Hybrid materials are composites consisting of two constituents at the nanometer or molecular level. Commonly one of these compounds is inorganic and the other one organic in nature. Thus, they differ from traditional composites where the constituents are at the macroscopic (micrometer to millimeter) level. Mixing at the microscopic scale leads to a more homogeneous material that either show characteristics in between the two original phases or even new properties.

In other words, the way the NIM responds is that of a new material, unlike the wires or metals and dielectrics it is made from. Hence, the NIM has become an effective medium. Also, in effect, this metamaterial has become an “ordered macroscopic material, synthesized from the bottom up”, and has emergent properties beyond its components.Sihvola, A. (2002) "Electromagnetic Emergence in Metamaterials: Deconstruction of terminology of complex media", pp.

In any particular sample, various domains will have opposite handedness, but within any given domain, strong chiral ordering will be present. The appearance mechanism of this macroscopic chirality is not yet entirely clear. It appears that the molecules stack in layers and orient themselves in a tilted fashion inside the layers. These liquid crystals phases may be ferroelectric or anti-ferroelectric, both of which are of interest for applications.

Shuttle imagery of re-entry phase When observing a gas, it is typical to specify a frame of reference or length scale. A larger length scale corresponds to a macroscopic or global point of view of the gas. This region (referred to as a volume) must be sufficient in size to contain a large sampling of gas particles. The resulting statistical analysis of this sample size produces the "average" behavior (i.e.

Viscosity is generated by macroscopic turbulence, but the precise mechanism that produces this turbulence is not well understood. Another possible process for shedding angular momentum is magnetic braking, where the spin of the star is transferred into the surrounding disk via that star's magnetic field. The main processes responsible for the disappearance of the gas in disks are viscous diffusion and photo-evaporation. Multiple star system AS 205.

The alt=A cross-sectional drawing showing one vessel inside another. There is a liquid in the outer vessel, and it tends to flow into the inner vessel over its walls. Helium II is a superfluid, a quantum mechanical state (see: macroscopic quantum phenomena) of matter with strange properties. For example, when it flows through capillaries as thin as 10−7 to 10−8 m it has no measurable viscosity.

In microsystems the problem rises that the extremely small volumes are difficult to be controlled. The reason is the predominance of surface effects as surface charges, van-der-Waals forces and entropic effects (e.g. dewetting due to rough surfaces: the restriction in degrees of freedom of molecules penetrating such a surface is entropically more expensive than staying in bulk). Furthermore, the microsystem has to be controlled from a macroscopic human scale.

The split ring resonator and the metamaterial itself are composite materials. Each SRR has an individual tailored response to the electromagnetic field. However, the periodic construction of many SRR cells is such that the electromagnetic wave interacts as if these were homogeneous materials. This is similar to how light actually interacts with everyday materials; materials such as glass or lenses are made of atoms, an averaging or macroscopic effect is produced.

This creates a chain reaction that can cause many atoms to be displaced from their original positions. This atomic movement leads to the creation of many types of defects. The accumulation of various defects can cause microstructural changes that can lead to a degradation in macroscopic properties. As previously mentioned, the chain reaction caused by a PKA often leaves a trail of vacancies and clusters of defects at the edge.

The genus Scutellinia is currently placed in the family Pyronemataceae. However, genera of the Pyronemataceae lack unifying macroscopic or microscopic characteristics; this lack of uniting characters has led various authors to propose a variety of classification schemes. A 1996 study of British specimens of Scutellinia revealed that the species S. crinita, originally described as Peziza crinita in 1789 by French botanist Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard, was synonymous with S. scutellata.

Surgical pathology involves gross and microscopic examination of surgical specimens, as well as biopsies submitted by surgeons and non-surgeons such as general internists, medical subspecialists, dermatologists, and interventional radiologists. The practice of surgical pathology allows for definitive diagnosis of disease (or lack thereof) in any case where tissue is surgically removed from a patient. This is usually performed by a combination of gross (i.e., macroscopic) and histologic (i.e.

In geology, size strength classification is a two-parameter rock classification based on the strength of intact rock and the spacing of discontinuities in the rock mass. It was developed by Louis and Franklin (1970-75). The size-strength approach to rock mass characterisation has been found helpful in various mining and civil engineering applications. The concept of block size is analogous to that of grain size but on macroscopic scale.

The fossil species †Pilea cantalensis was widely distributed in Europe and West Siberia during the Miocene and Pliocene. It is related to the East Asian Pilea mongolica and to the North American Pilea pumila.Łańcucka-Środoniowa M.: Macroscopic plant remains from the freshwater Miocene of the Nowy Sącz Basin (West Carpathians, Poland) [Szczątki makroskopowe roślin z miocenu słodkowodnego Kotliny Sądeckiej (Karpaty Zachodnie, Polska)]. Acta Palaeobotanica 1979 20 (1): 3-117.

The branching, self-similar patterns observed in Lichtenberg figures exhibit fractal properties. Lichtenberg figures often develop during the dielectric breakdown of solids, liquids, and even gases. Their appearance and growth appear to be related to a process called diffusion-limited aggregation (DLA). A useful macroscopic model that combines an electric field with DLA was developed by Niemeyer, Pietronero, and Weismann in 1984, and is known as the dielectric breakdown model (DBM).

These can also produce a more pronounced nonlinear response than naturally occurring materials. Nonlinear metamaterials are a periodic, nonlinear, transmission medium. These are a type of negative index metamaterial where the nonlinearity is available because the microscopic electric field of the inclusions can be larger than the macroscopic electric field of the electromagnetic (EM) source. This then becomes a useful tool which allows for enhancing the nonlinear behavior of the metamaterial.

Vallecillo Mauriciosaurus type locality at Fossilworks.org The plattenkalk is quite widespread, being largely concentrated around Vallecillo but spanning an area of . Outside of these deposits, macroscopic fossils are relatively rare in the Agua Nueva. Detailed biostratigraphic zonation has been conducted for the Vallecillo plattenkalk; the presence of the vascoceratid ammonite Mammites nodosoides allows the slab containing Mauriciosaurus to be dated to the early Turonian portion of the plattenkalk.

Nanocars are single molecule vehicles that resemble macroscopic automobiles and are important for understanding how to control molecular diffusion on surfaces. The first nanocars were synthesized by James M. Tour in 2005. They had an H shaped chassis and 4 molecular wheels (fullerenes) attached to the four corners. In 2011, Ben Feringa and co-workers synthesized the first motorized nanocar which had molecular motors attached to the chassis as rotating wheels.

Rokitansky–Aschoff sinuses are pseudodiverticula or pockets in the wall of the gallbladder. They may be microscopic or macroscopic. Histologically, they are outpouchings of gallbladder mucosa into the gallbladder muscle layer and subserosal tissue as a result of hyperplasia and herniation of epithelial cells through the fibromuscular layer of the gallbladder wall. Rokitansky–Aschoff sinuses are not of themselves considered abnormal but they can be associated with cholecystitis.

Languages such as the Concurrent Description Language (CDL) separate an application's macroscopic logic (communication, synchronization and arbitration) from complex multi-threaded and/or multi-process applications into a single contiguous visual representation. The prescriptive nature of this description means that it can be machine translated into an executable framework that may be tested for structural integrity (detection of race conditions, deadlocks etc.) before the microscopic logic is available.

Materials are selected to meet the requirements of specific technological applications. Their response depends on the underlying thermodynamic and kinetic properties as well as the inherent microstructural features. In particular, microstructure depends on the applied processing techniques and starting materials, and in many cases macroscopic properties are linked to microstructure. Thus, understanding the effect of microstructure on the time evolution, response, and reliability of material properties is important.

Research is limited by its short half-life, which prevents the creation of weighable quantities. A visible piece of astatine would immediately vaporize itself because of the heat generated by its intense radioactivity. It remains to be seen if, with sufficient cooling, a macroscopic quantity of astatine could be deposited as a thin film. Astatine is usually classified as either a nonmetal or a metalloid; metal formation has also been predicted.

TRANSYT-7F is a traffic simulation and signal timing optimization program. The primary application of TRANSYT-7F is signal timing design and optimization. TRANSYT-7F features genetic algorithm optimization of cycle length, phasing sequence, splits, and offsets. TRANSYT-7F combines a detailed optimization process (including genetic algorithm, multi-period, and direct CORSIM optimization) with a detailed macroscopic simulation model (including platoon dispersion, queue spillback, and actuated control simulation).

Cross-section of an arterial aneurysm, showing most of the area consisting of organized mural thrombus (tan-brown area). Aneurysms can also be classified by their macroscopic shape and size and are described as either saccular or fusiform. The shape of an aneurysm is not specific for a specific disease. The size of the base or neck is useful in determining the chance of for example endovascular coiling.

Max Planck named the constant, , the Boltzmann constant. Statistical mechanics is one of the pillars of modern physics. It describes how macroscopic observations (such as temperature and pressure) are related to microscopic parameters that fluctuate around an average. It connects thermodynamic quantities (such as heat capacity) to microscopic behavior, whereas, in classical thermodynamics, the only available option would be to measure and tabulate such quantities for various materials.

A morphodynamic system consists of a coupling of two homeodynamic systems such that the constraint dissipation of each complements the other, producing macroscopic order out of microscopic interactions. Morphodynamic systems require constant perturbation to maintain their structure, so they are relatively rare in nature. The paradigm example of a morphodynamic system is a Rayleigh–Bénard cell. Other common examples are snowflake formation, whirlpools and the stimulated emission of laser light.

The Charales grow in freshwater and brackish environments worldwide, and have large, macroscopic thalli growing up to 120 cm long, they are branched, multicellular, and use chlorophyll to photosynthesize. Their only diploid stage in the life cycle is the unicellular oospore. They may be called stoneworts, because the plants can become encrusted in lime (calcium carbonate) after some time. The "stem" is actually a central stalk consisting of giant, multinucleated cells.

Fluctuations are damped in the neighborhood of the fixed point and a macroscopic description suffices. However, far from equilibrium stability is no longer a universal property and can be broken. In chemical systems, this occurs with the presence of autocatalytic reactions, such as in the example of the Brusselator. If the system is driven beyond a certain threshold, oscillations are no longer damped out, but may be amplified.

Lattice gauge theory is also important for the study of quantum triviality by the real-space renormalization group. The most important information in the RG flow are what's called the fixed points. The possible macroscopic states of the system, at a large scale, are given by this set of fixed points. If these fixed points correspond to a free field theory, the theory is said to be trivial or noninteracting.

Wang, and P. Hänggi that allows for system-bath interaction to play a role in equilibrium differing from the KMS state. In 1981, Amir Caldeira and Anthony J. Leggett proposed a simplifying assumption in which the bath is decomposed to normal modes represented as harmonic oscillators linearly coupled to the system.A. Caldeira and A. J. Leggett, Influence of dissipation on quantum tunneling in macroscopic systems, Physical Review Letters, vol. 46, p.

A well-controlled laser beam can be exactly positioned to scatter off a microscopic particle with a deterministic outcome, for instance. Such situations are encountered in radar scattering as well, where the targets tend to be macroscopic objects such as people or aircraft. Similarly, multiple scattering can sometimes have somewhat random outcomes, particularly with coherent radiation. The random fluctuations in the multiply scattered intensity of coherent radiation are called speckles.

Two effects which are closely related to pyroelectricity are ferroelectricity and piezoelectricity. Normally materials are very nearly electrically neutral on the macroscopic level. However, the positive and negative charges which make up the material are not necessarily distributed in a symmetric manner. If the sum of charge times distance for all elements of the basic cell does not equal zero the cell will have an electric dipole moment (a vector quantity).

Julia Ann Kalow is an Assistant Professor of Chemistry at Northwestern University. She is primarily a synthetic chemist, who works on polymers, photochemistry and tissue engineering. She is interested in synthetic strategies that can turn molecular structure and chemical reactivity into macroscopic properties. She has been awarded the National Science Foundation CAREER Award, Thieme Award and was selected by the University of Chicago as a Rising Star in Chemistry.

Icon books Ltd, UK. Such metachronal motion has been shown to enhance fluid transport properties in natural ciliaSpontaneous Creation of Macroscopic Flow and Metachronal Waves in an Array of Cilia, BorisGuiraoJean- FrançoisJoanny, Biophysical Journal, 92, Issue 6, 15, 2007, 1900-1917. Metachronal motion has also been replicated in synthetic microfluidic systems using magnetic filamentsHanasoge et al., Metachronal motion of artificial magnetic cilia, Soft Matter, 2018,14, 3689-3693, DOI: 10.1039/C8SM00549D.

Systems ecology can be seen as an application of general systems theory to ecology. It takes a holistic and interdisciplinary approach to the study of ecological systems, and particularly ecosystems. Systems ecology is especially concerned with the way the functioning of ecosystems can be influenced by human interventions. Like other fields in theoretical ecology, it uses and extends concepts from thermodynamics and develops other macroscopic descriptions of complex systems.

RQM argues that this is a complete picture of the world because the notion of "state" is always relative to some observer. There is no privileged, "real" account. The state vector of conventional quantum mechanics becomes a description of the correlation of some degrees of freedom in the observer, with respect to the observed system. The terms "observer" and "observed" apply to any arbitrary system, microscopic or macroscopic.

Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 53:19] The reticulum is adjacent to the diaphragm, lungs, abomasum, rumen and liver. The heights of the reticular crests and depth of the structures vary across ruminant animal species.[Clauss, M., Hofmann, R. R., Streich, W. J., Fickel, J., and Hummel, J. 2009. Convergence in the macroscopic anatomy of the reticulum in wild ruminant species of different feeding types and a new resulting hypothesis on reticular function.

Van Den Beukel, A. (1975)"Theory of the Effect of Dynamic Strain Aging on Mechanical Properties". Phys. Stat. Sol. (a) 30 197: This process's most well-known macroscopic manifestations are Lüders bands and the Portevin–Le Chatelier effect. However, the mechanism is known to affect materials without these physical observations.Atkinson, JD and Yu, J.(1997) "The Role of Dynamic Strain-Aging in the Environment Assisted Cracking observed in Pressure Vessel Steels".

Polymer flooding consists in mixing long chain polymer molecules with the injected water in order to increase the water viscosity. This method improves the vertical and areal sweep efficiency as a consequence of improving the water/oil mobility ratio. Surfactants may be used in conjunction with polymers; they decrease the surface tension between the oil and water. This reduces the residual oil saturation and improves the macroscopic efficiency of the process.

The force on a current carrying wire is similar to that of a moving charge as expected since a current carrying wire is a collection of moving charges. A current-carrying wire feels a force in the presence of a magnetic field. The Lorentz force on a macroscopic current is often referred to as the Laplace force. Consider a conductor of length , cross section , and charge due to electric current .

Wishart published widely on ophthalmic topics. In 1822 he published a Case of Tumours in the Skull, Dura Mater, and Brain. This is regarded as the first publication in English in which the clinical features and macroscopic post-mortem appearances of Type 2 neurofibromatosis are described. In this paper Wishart gives an account of a 21 year old individual who presented with increasing deafness affecting one then both ears.

Born, M.(1949), Lecture . It regards quantity of heat transferred as heat as a derived concept, defined for closed systems as quantity of heat transferred by mechanisms other than work transfer, the latter being regarded as primitive for thermodynamics, defined by macroscopic mechanics. According to Born, the transfer of internal energy between open systems that accompanies transfer of matter "cannot be reduced to mechanics".Born, M. (1949), p. 44.

The origin and early diversification of the Ulvophyceae likely took place in the late Neoproterozoic. Although most contemporary ulvophytes are marine macroalgae (seaweeds), ancestral ulvophytes may have been freshwater, unicellular green algae. Molecular phylogenetic evidence suggests that macroscopic growth was achieved independently in the various major lineages of Ulvophyceae (Ulvales-Ulotrichales, Trentepohliales, Cladophorales, Bryopsidales and Dasycladales). Fossils are rare but there are some good candidates in a mid-Ordovician lagerstatten.

The large scale model of materials is based on the fact that crack deflection is an important toughening mechanism of nacre. This deflection happens because of the weak interfaces between the aragonite tiles. Systems on the macroscopic scales are used to imitate these week interfaces with layered composite ceramic tablets that are held together by weak interface “glue”. Hence, these large scale models can overcome the brittleness of ceramics.

Material behavior is explained and material properties are predicted using computational and experimental methods based on solid-state physics and materials mechanics. In this way can material structures, properties, and functions be defined. The effects of crystalline defects and microstructures on the macroscopic behavior of materials are identified, enabling the effective and efficient use of material and energy resources in order to achieve long-term improvements to technical systems.

Lang disappears into the quantum realm but manages to reverse the effects and returns to the macroscopic world. Out of gratitude for Lang's heroism, Paxton covers for Lang to keep him out of prison. Seeing that Lang survived and returned from the quantum realm, Pym wonders if his wife is alive as well. Later, Lang meets up with Luis, who tells him that Wilson is looking for him.

In an antiferroelectric, unlike a ferroelectric, the total, macroscopic spontaneous polarization is zero, since the adjacent dipoles cancel each other out. Antiferroelectricity is a property of a material, and it can appear or disappear (more generally, strengthen or weaken) depending on temperature, pressure, external electric field, growth method, and other parameters. In particular, at a high enough temperature, antiferroelectricity disappears; this temperature is known as the Néel point or Curie point.

It has been shown that only when the states have very large quantum fluctuations at late times, which means that they do not lead to macroscopic universes as described by general relativity, that the effective dynamics has departures from the quantum dynamics near bounce and the subsequent evolution. In such a case, the effective dynamics overestimates the density at the bounce, but still captures the qualitative aspects extremely well.

Callen, H.B. (1960/1985), Chapter 8, pp. 203–214.Bailyn, M. (1994), Chapter 8, Part A, pp. 312–319. In theory and, nearly, in some practical scenarios, a body can be in a stationary state with zero macroscopic flows and rates of chemical reaction (for example, when no suitable catalyst is present), yet not in thermodynamic equilibrium, because it is metastable or unstable; then Le Chatelier's principle does not necessarily apply.

The individual reflectance or transmittance of the domains is averaged if the macroscopic reflectance or transmittance is to be calculated. This can be verified simply by investigating, e.g., a polycrystalline material under a polarizing microscope having the polarizers crossed: If the crystallites are larger than the resolution limit, they will be visible. ; Cosmology:The Big Bang theory of the evolution of the observable universe assumes that space is isotropic.

The electrical activity of the heart is caused by the flow of ions across the cell membrane, between the intracellular and extracellular spaces, which determines a wave of excitation along the heart muscle that coordinates the cardiac contraction and, thus, the pumping action of the heart that enables it to push blood through the circulatory system. The modeling of cardiac electrical activity is thus related to the modelling of the flow of ions on a microscopic level, and on the propagation of the excitation wave along the muscle fibers on a macroscopic level. Between the mathematical model on the macroscopic level, Willem Einthoven and Augustus Waller defined the ECG through the conceptual model of a dipole rotating around a fixed point, whose projection on the lead axis determined the lead recordings. Then, a two-dimensional reconstruction of the heart activity in the frontal plane was possible using the Einthoven's limbs leads I, II and III as theoretical basis.

Metallurgists study the microscopic and macroscopic structure of metals using metallography, a technique invented by Henry Clifton Sorby. In metallography, an alloy of interest is ground flat and polished to a mirror finish. The sample can then be etched to reveal the microstructure and macrostructure of the metal. The sample is then examined in an optical or electron microscope, and the image contrast provides details on the composition, mechanical properties, and processing history.

A phase diagram for a binary system displaying a eutectic point Thermodynamics is concerned with heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work. It defines macroscopic variables, such as internal energy, entropy, and pressure, that partly describe a body of matter or radiation. It states that the behavior of those variables is subject to general constraints common to all materials. These general constraints are expressed in the four laws of thermodynamics.

The equations have two major variants. The microscopic Maxwell equations have universal applicability but are unwieldy for common calculations. They relate the electric and magnetic fields to total charge and total current, including the complicated charges and currents in materials at the atomic scale. The "macroscopic" Maxwell equations define two new auxiliary fields that describe the large-scale behaviour of matter without having to consider atomic scale charges and quantum phenomena like spins.

None of these elements have ever been collected in a macroscopic sample. Superheavy elements are all named after physicists and chemists or important locations involved in the synthesis of the elements. IUPAC defines an element to exist if its lifetime is longer than 10−14 seconds, which is the time it takes for the nucleus to form an electron cloud. The superheavy elements all have electrons in the 6d subshell in their ground state.

The anisotropy of the molecular structure means that these mechanisms are heavily dependent on the direction of applied stress. While aryl rings drastically increase rigidity along the direction of the chain, these materials may still be brittle in perpendicular directions. Macroscopic structure can be adjusted to compensate for this anisotropy. For example, the high strength of Kevlar arises from a stacked multilayer macrostructure where aromatic polymer layers are rotated with respect to their neighbors.

Photons with high photon energy can transform in quantum mechanics to lepton and quark pairs, the latter fragmented subsequently to jets of hadrons, i.e. protons, pions, etc. At high energies the lifetime of such quantum fluctuations of mass becomes nearly macroscopic: ; this amounts to flight lengths as large as one micrometer for electron pairs in a 100 GeV photon beam, and still 10 fermi, i.e. the tenfold radius of a proton, for light hadrons.

Mendelevium is a synthetic element with the symbol Md (formerly Mv) and atomic number 101. A metallic radioactive transuranic element in the actinide series, it is the first element by atomic number that currently cannot be produced in macroscopic quantities through neutron bombardment of lighter elements. It is the third-to-last actinide and the ninth transuranic element. It can only be produced in particle accelerators by bombarding lighter elements with charged particles.

Gross examination: appearance of the cut surface of a lung showing the honeycomb pattern of end-stage pulmonary fibrosis. Gross examination: appearance of a colorectal polyp (the cauliflower-shaped tumor) attached to the colon mucosa (the horizontal line at the bottom). Anatomical pathology (Commonwealth) or Anatomic pathology (U.S.) is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the macroscopic, microscopic, biochemical, immunologic and molecular examination of organs and tissues.

Another method of investigation is that of the radioactive tracer, used to evaluate wear at macroscopic levels. One of the two materials in contact, involved in a wear process, is marked with a radioactive tracer. In this way, the particles of this material, which will be removed, will be easily visible and accessible. Finally, to accelerate wear times, one of the best-known techniques used is that of the high pressure contact tests.

It has also been argued that the evolution of order in living systems and certain physical systems obeys a common fundamental principle termed the Darwinian dynamic. The Darwinian dynamic was formulated by first considering how macroscopic order is generated in a simple non- biological system far from thermodynamic equilibrium, and then extending consideration to short, replicating RNA molecules. The underlying order- generating process was concluded to be basically similar for both types of systems.

Microbial population biology, in practice, is the application of population ecology and population genetics toward understanding the ecology and evolution of bacteria, archaebacteria, microscopic fungi (such as yeasts), additional microscopic eukaryotes (e.g., "protozoa" and algae), and viruses. Microbial population biology also encompasses the evolution and ecology of community interactions (community ecology) between microorganisms, including microbial coevolution and predator-prey interactions. In addition, microbial population biology considers microbial interactions with more macroscopic organisms (e.g.

The first sentence of this present article is a version of this statement.Fowler, R., Guggenheim, E.A. (1939/1965), p. 56. It is not explicitly evident in the existence statement of Fowler and Guggenheim that temperature refers to a unique attribute of a state of a system, such as is expressed in the idea of the hotness manifold. Also their statement refers explicitly to statistical mechanical assemblies, not explicitly to macroscopic thermodynamically defined systems.

Lang overrides the regulator and shrinks to subatomic size to penetrate Cross' suit and sabotage it to shrink uncontrollably, killing Cross. Lang disappears into the quantum realm but manages to reverse the effects and returns to the macroscopic world. Out of gratitude for Lang's heroism, Paxton covers for Lang to keep him out of prison. Seeing that Lang survived and returned from the quantum realm, Pym wonders if his wife is alive as well.

Since the binasuan inverts the arm through rotation, it is sometimes given as a macroscopic, physical demonstration of the rotation properties of a spin-½ spinor. As the liquid never spills, the rotation can all occur within the same plane. Upon a rotation of 2π radians, the elbow changes between pointing up and down. Upon a rotation of 4π radians, the palm "doubly covers" the shoulder, and the elbow points in its original direction.

Anatomy is a treatment of the macroscopic forms of such structures organs and organ systems. Genetics is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms. Genes encode the information needed by cells for the synthesis of proteins, which in turn play a central role in influencing the final phenotype of the organism. Genetics provides research tools used in the investigation of the function of a particular gene, or the analysis of genetic interactions.

Averaged across the entire sample, molecular collisions can be regarded as essentially elastic as long as Planck's law forbids black-body photons to carry away energy from the system. In the case of macroscopic bodies, perfectly elastic collisions are an ideal never fully realized, but approximated by the interactions of objects such as billiard balls. When considering energies, possible rotational energy before and/or after a collision may also play a role.

The toughness of natural diamond has been measured as 2.0 MPa m1/2, which is good compared to other gemstones like aquamarine(blue colored), but poor compared to most engineering materials. As with any material, the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage. Diamond has a cleavage plane and is therefore more fragile in some orientations than others. Diamond cutters use this attribute to cleave some stones, prior to faceting.

The macroscopic circuit simulation addresses just the interconnect performance neglecting other important aspects like reliability and variability of CNTs, which can be properly treated only at mesoscopic level by means of fully three dimensional Technology Computer Aided Design modelling approaches. Recently, industrial and scientific community are investing considerable efforts to investigate the modelling of CNT variability and reliability by means of three dimensional Technology Computer Aided Design approaches for advanced technological generations.

Iodide anions are mostly nontoxic, but these can also be deadly if ingested in large amounts. Astatine is very radioactive and thus highly dangerous, but it has not been produced in macroscopic quantities and hence it is most unlikely that its toxicity will be of much relevance to the average individual. Tennessine cannot be chemically investigated due to how short its half-life is, although its radioactivity would make it very dangerous.

Mizutani, A.; Sekimoto, H. Ann. Nucl. Energy. 2005, 25(9), 623–638. The thermal conductivity is on the order of 4-8 times higher than that of uranium dioxide, the most commonly used nuclear fuel, at typical operating temperatures. Increased thermal conductivity results a lower thermal gradient between inner and outer sections of the fuel, potentially allowing for higher operating temperatures and reducing macroscopic restructuring of the fuel, which limits fuel lifetime.

Hydrangea alaskana is a fossil species recovered from paleogene strata in Jaw Mountain Alaska. Four fossil seeds of Hydrangea polonica have been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.Łańcucka-Środoniowa M.: Macroscopic plant remains from the freshwater Miocene of the Nowy Sącz Basin (West Carpathians, Poland) [Szczątki makroskopowe roślin z miocenu słodkowodnego Kotliny Sądeckiej (Karpaty Zachodnie, Polska)]. Acta Palaeobotanica 1979 20 (1): 3-117.

Growing the fungus in pure culture is the most reliable way to identify Sporothrix infection. A patient swab or biopsy is used to inoculate Sabouraud agar or brain heart infusion agar. Sabouraud agar is incubated at room temperature for macroscopic observation of the off- white or dark brown/black hyphal form of the fungus and microscopic examination of hyphae and conidia. The yeast form is grown on brain heart infusion agar at .

Melanoleuca is a poorly known genus of saprotrophic mushrooms traditionally classified in the family Tricholomataceae. Most are small to medium sized, white, brown, ocher or gray with a cylindrical to subcylindrical stipe and white to pale yellowish gills. The basidiospores are ellipsoid and ornamented with amyloid warts. Melanoleuca is considered a difficult group to study due to their macroscopic similarities among species and the need of a thorough microscopic analysis to separate species.

The formation of hot spots assumes the establishment of local equilibrium, which in its turn occurs if the thermal conductivity in the medium is sufficiently small. The notions of equilibrium and heat are statistical. The use of statistical methods assumes a large number of degrees of freedom. In macroscopic physics this number usually refers to the number of atoms or molecules, while in nuclear and particle physics it refers to the energy level density.

Most models of these materials use idealized and periodic structures or averaged macroscopic properties. Metal sponge has very large surface area per unit weight and catalysts are often formed into metal sponge, such as palladium black, platinum sponge, and spongy nickel. Metals such as osmium and palladium hydride are metaphorically called "metal sponges", but this term is in reference to their property of binding to hydrogen, rather than the physical structure. Ralph Wolf; Khalid Mansour.

At the absolute zero of temperature, no more energy can be removed from matter as heat, a fact expressed in the third law of thermodynamics. At this temperature, matter contains no macroscopic thermal energy, but still has quantum-mechanical zero-point energy as predicted by the uncertainty principle. This does not enter into the definition of absolute temperature. Experimentally, absolute zero can only be approached very closely, but can never be actually reached.

Empirically based temperature scales rely directly on measurements of simple macroscopic physical properties of materials. For example, the length of a column of mercury, confined in a glass-walled capillary tube, is dependent largely on temperature, and is the basis of the very useful mercury- in-glass thermometer. Such scales are valid only within convenient ranges of temperature. For example, above the boiling point of mercury, a mercury-in- glass thermometer is impracticable.

Figuratively speaking, FRG acts as a microscope with a variable resolution. One starts with a high-resolution picture of the known microphysical laws and subsequently decreases the resolution to obtain a coarse-grained picture of macroscopic collective phenomena. The method is nonperturbative, meaning that it does not rely on an expansion in a small coupling constant. Mathematically, FRG is based on an exact functional differential equation for a scale-dependent effective action.

The screw-root form design is directly threaded into bone and has macroscopic retentive elements for initial bone fixation. A direct connection between bone and the implant provides high initial stability. Over time, screw-root form designs experience bone resorption and “bone modelling and remodelling at the bone to implant interface”. Plateau-root form dental implants of 3 different sizes Plateau-root form designed implants have a different healing process to screw-root form designs.

When applied to pictorial content, what results is an image that at a microscopic scale has colorant dots in locations that do not match the DBS reference image, but which at a macroscopic scale, has effectively the same visual quality as the DBS reference image. The TDED halftoning algorithm generates high quality halftone images with greater computational efficiency than the DBS halftoning algorithm. HP Inc. is assigned the patent for Tone Dependent Error Diffusion.

Apparent 'fluctuations', which appear to arise when initial conditions are inexactly specified, are the drivers of the formation of non-equilibrium dynamical structures. There is no special force of nature involved in the generation of such fluctuations. Exact specification of initial conditions would require statements of the positions and velocities of all particles in the system, obviously not a remotely practical possibility for a macroscopic system. This is the nature of thermodynamic fluctuations.

The Strathclyde University Department of Chemical and Process Engineering is located at James Weir Building. Chemical Engineering at Strathclyde was rated the best in Scotland in the last Scottish Higher Education Funding Council Teaching Quality Assessment. All of the BEng, MEng and MSc courses are fully accredited by the Institution of Chemical Engineers. The Department also specialises in advanced computational modelling; looking at materials and processes on all scales from the atomic to the macroscopic.

Ionic conductivity is often referred to when dealing with sedimentation potential. Macroscopic Diagram of Sedementation The following relation provides a measure of the sedimentation potential due to the settling of charged spheres. First discovered by Smoluchowski in 1903 and 1921. This relationship only holds true for non-overlapping electric double layers and for dilute suspensions. In 1954, Booth proved that this idea held true for Pyrex glass powder settling in a KCl solution.

However, not all studies have found high rates of S. aureus and gram-negative bacteria. One factor responsible for these differences is the reliance on sputum samples and the strictness of the criteria to discriminate between colonising or disease-causing bacteria. Moreover, sputum samples might be less frequently obtained in the elderly.Aspiration (both of microscopic drops and macroscopic amounts of nose and throat secretions) is thought to be the most important cause of HCAP.

Thermal equilibrium of a body in itself refers to the body when it is isolated. The background is that no heat enters or leaves it, and that it is allowed unlimited time to settle under its own intrinsic characteristics. When it is completely settled, so that macroscopic change is no longer detectable, it is in its own thermal equilibrium. It is not implied that it is necessarily in other kinds of internal equilibrium.

Nanotubes were observed in 1991 in the carbon soot of graphite electrodes during an arc discharge, by using a current of 100 amps, that was intended to produce fullerenes. However the first macroscopic production of carbon nanotubes was made in 1992 by two researchers at NEC's Fundamental Research Laboratory. The method used was the same as in 1991. During this process, the carbon contained in the negative electrode sublimates because of the high-discharge temperatures.

Stress analysis is specifically concerned with solid objects. The study of stresses in liquids and gases is the subject of fluid mechanics. Stress analysis adopts the macroscopic view of materials characteristic of continuum mechanics, namely that all properties of materials are homogeneous at small enough scales. Thus, even the smallest particle considered in stress analysis still contains an enormous number of atoms, and its properties are averages of the properties of those atoms.

Results of asymptotic safety related investigations indicate that the effective spacetimes of QEG have fractal-like properties on microscopic scales. It is possible to determine, for instance, their spectral dimension and argue that they undergo a dimensional reduction from 4 dimensions at macroscopic distances to 2 dimensions microscopically. In this context it might be possible to draw the connection to other approaches to quantum gravity, e.g. to causal dynamical triangulations, and compare the results.

Adhesive strength depends also on the size and macroscopic shape of adhesive contact. When a rigid punch with a flat but oddly shaped face is carefully pulled off its soft counterpart, the detachment does not occur instantaneously. Instead, detachment fronts start at pointed corners and travel inwards until the final configuration is reached. The main parameter determining the adhesive strength of flat contacts appears to be the maximum linear size of the contact.

Suicides using bags or masks and gases are well documented in the literature. Suicide bags have been used with gases other than inert gases, with varying outcomes. Examples of other gases used are propane-butane, which has narcotic effects, and is commonly adulterated with strong smelling additives to warn of gas leaks, and natural gas. Suicides using a suicide bag and an inert gas produce no characteristic post-mortem macroscopic or microscopic findings.

Without that distinction, the vacuum Maxwell's equations are called the "microscopic" Maxwell's equations. When the distinction is made, they are called the macroscopic Maxwell's equations. The electromagnetic field also admits a coordinate-independent geometric description, and Maxwell's equations expressed in terms of these geometric objects are the same in any spacetime, curved or not. Also, the same modifications are made to the equations of flat Minkowski space when using local coordinates that are not Cartesian.

Pleurectomy/decortication spares the underlying lung and is performed in patients with early stage disease when the intention is to remove all gross visible tumor (macroscopic complete resection), not simply palliation. Extrapleural pneumonectomy is a more extensive operation that involves resection of the parietal and visceral pleurae, underlying lung, ipsilateral (same side) diaphragm, and ipsilateral pericardium. This operation is indicated for a subset of patients with more advanced tumors, who can tolerate a pneumonectomy.

Laser power required is of the order of 1 Watt focused to a spot size of several tens of micrometers. Phenomena related to morphology-dependent resonances in a spherical optical cavity have been studied by several research groups. For a shiny object, such as a metallic micro-sphere, stable optical levitation has not been achieved. Optical levitation of a macroscopic object is also theoretically possible, and can be enhanced with nano-structuring.

The food coloring diffuses in a complicated manner, which is in practice very difficult to precisely predict. However, after sufficient time has passed the system will reach a uniform color, which is much less complicated to describe. Actually, the macroscopic state of the system will be described by a small number of variables only if the system is at global thermodynamic equilibrium. Thirdly, more than one microstate can correspond to a single macrostate.

During early autumn, needles within the interior of the infected tree begin to develop yellow spots. As the fall progresses and the temperature drops, the infected needles become darker while brown horizontal bands appear on the needles’ surface. From October until about May, off-white fruiting bodies called pseudothecia appear on the yellow needles. This is a macroscopic sign as the fruiting bodies swell with moisture making them visible to the naked eye.

This effect does not come into play by going from macro to micro dimensions. However, quantum effects can become significant when the nanometer size range is reached, typically at distances of 100 nanometers or less, the so-called quantum realm. Additionally, a number of physical (mechanical, electrical, optical, etc.) properties change when compared to macroscopic systems. One example is the increase in surface area to volume ratio altering mechanical, thermal and catalytic properties of materials.

Anupam Garg is a professor in the department of Physics & Astronomy at Northwestern University, Illinois. He received his Ph.D. in 1983 from Cornell University. In 2012 he became a Fellow of the American Physical Society (APS) thanks to his work on molecular magnetism and macroscopic quantum phenomena. Garg is best known for formulating the Leggett–Garg inequality, named for Anthony James Leggett and himself, which is a mathematical inequality fulfilled by all macrorealistic physical theories.

This corresponds to a macroscopic performance of about 110 m/s. The voltage required to drive the domains along the racetrack would be proportional to the length of the wire. The current density must be sufficiently high to push the domain walls (as in electromigration). A difficulty for racetrack technology arises from the need for high current density (>108 A/cm²); a 30 nm x 100 nm cross-section would require >3 mA.

Slag inclusions are also present. Their existence implies that slag was not fully removed from the smelted metal and thus that the ingots were made from remelted copper. Macroscopic observation of the Uluburun copper ingots indicates that they were cast through multiple pours; there are distinct layers of metal in each ingot. Furthermore, the relatively high weight and high purity of the ingots would be difficult to achieve even today in only one pour.

In continuum mechanics the flow velocity in fluid dynamics, also macroscopic velocity in statistical mechanics, or drift velocity in electromagnetism, is a vector field used to mathematically describe the motion of a continuum. The length of the flow velocity vector is the flow speed and is a scalar. It is also called velocity field; when evaluated along a line, it is called a velocity profile (as in, e.g., law of the wall).

There are significant drawbacks, given by the uncertainty of the legitimacy of the model and the computational cost of modeling systems that are large enough and over sufficient timescales to be considered reproducing the macroscopic properties of the systems themselves. While atomistic simulations may access timescales close to, or into the microsecond domain, this is still several orders of magnitude lower than even the resolution of experimental methods such as patch-clamping.

Tunnelling occurs with barriers of thickness around 1–3 nm and smaller, but is the cause of some important macroscopic physical phenomena. For instance, tunnelling is a source of current leakage in very-large-scale integration (VLSI) electronics and results in the substantial power drain and heating effects that plague high-speed and mobile technology; it is considered the lower limit on how small computer chips can be made."Applications of tunneling" . Simon Connell 2006.

GCNIS is not palpable, and not visible on macroscopic examination of testicular tissue. Microscopic examination of affected testicular tissue most commonly shows germ cells with enlarged hyperchromatic nuclei with prominent nucleoli and clear cytoplasm. These cells are typically arranged along the basement membrane of the tubule, and mitotic figures are frequently seen. The sertoli cells are pushed toward the lumen by the neoplastic germ cells, and spermatogenesis is almost always absent in the affected tubules.

Steyermarkochloa is a genus of plants in the grass family.Davidse, Gerrit & Ellis, Roger P. 1987. Steyermarkochloa unifolia, a new genus from Venezuela and Colombia (Poaceae: Arundinoideae: Steyermarkochloeae) Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 71(4): 994-1012, figures 1–27 descriptions in parallel Latin and English; commentary in English; line drawings, macroscopic and microscopic photographs, anatomical diagramsTropicos, Steyermarkochloa Davidse & R.P. Ellis Judziewicz, E. J. 1990. Steyermarkochloa angustifolia (Sprengel) Judziewicz, a new combination (Poaceae-Arundinoideae- Steyermarkochloeae).

Luteoporia is a fungal genus in the family Meruliaceae. It is monotypic, containing the single white rot species Luteoporia albomarginata, found in China. Macroscopic characterics of this fungus include its annual growth habit, and crust-like fruit bodies with yellow pores. Microscopic characteristics include a monomitic hyphal system with clamp connections, hyphae in the trama featuring swollen tips projecting out of the hymenium, and spores that are hyaline, thin-walled, and oblong-ellipsoid.

A boundary can be described by the orientation of the boundary to the two grains and the 3-D rotation required to bring the grains into coincidence. Thus a boundary has 5 macroscopic degrees of freedom. However, it is common to describe a boundary only as the orientation relationship of the neighbouring grains. Generally, the convenience of ignoring the boundary plane orientation, which is very difficult to determine, outweighs the reduced information.

The problem of the direction of time arises directly from two contradictory facts. Firstly, the fundamental physical laws are time-reversal invariant; if a cinematographic film were taken of any process describable by means of the aforementioned laws and then played backwards, it would still portray a physically possible process. Secondly, our experience of time, at the macroscopic level, is not time-reversal invariant.Borchert, D.M. (2006) Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2nd Ed. Vol. 9.

Sometimes theories are incorrect, meaning that an explicit set of observations contradicts some fundamental objection or application of the theory, but more often theories are corrected to conform to new observations, by restricting the class of phenomena the theory applies to or changing the assertions made. An example of the former is the restriction of classical mechanics to phenomena involving macroscopic length scales and particle speeds much lower than the speed of light.

For macroscopic particles, because of their extremely short wavelengths, wave properties usually cannot be detected. Although the use of the wave-particle duality has worked well in physics, the meaning or interpretation has not been satisfactorily resolved; see Interpretations of quantum mechanics. Bohr regarded the "duality paradox" as a fundamental or metaphysical fact of nature. A given kind of quantum object will exhibit sometimes wave, sometimes particle, character, in respectively different physical settings.

Mycotoxins are made by fungi and are toxic to vertebrates and other animal groups in low concentrations. Low-molecular- weight fungal metabolites such as ethanol that are toxic only in high concentrations are not considered mycotoxins. Mushroom poisons are fungal metabolites that can cause disease and death in humans and other animals; they are rather arbitrarily excluded from discussions of mycotoxicology. Molds make mycotoxins; mushrooms and other macroscopic fungi make mushroom poisons.

If the electric field strength inside the material is large enough (typically larger than 30 V/mm), the carbon nanoparticles trigger a quantum mechanical tunneling effect current to flow through the material. The contribution from a large number of small tunneling effect currents can add up to macroscopic currents in the range of amperes. The quantum mechanical tunneling effect inside the material is highly temperature dependent. The current decreases exponentially with increasing temperature.

Reif (1965), pp. 67–68 It is possible for macroscopic thermodynamic work to alter the occupation numbers without change in the values of the system energy levels themselves, but what distinguishes transfer as heat is that the transfer is entirely due to disordered, microscopic action, including radiative transfer. A mathematical definition can be formulated for small increments of quasi-static adiabatic work in terms of the statistical distribution of an ensemble of microstates.

The advantages of microscanners compared to macroscopic light modulators such as galvanometer scanners are based upon their small size, low weight and minimum power consumption. Further advantages arise along with the integration possibilities of position sensor technology and electronics in the component. Microscanners are also extremely resistant to environmental influences. For example, the microscanners developed at one of the globally renowned manufacturing organizations have a shock resistance of at least 2500 g.

Researchers applied related techniques to smooth 3D data processing and transportation network management recently. J.P. Spradley, J.D. Pampush, P.E. Morse, et al. Smooth operator: The effects of different 3D mesh retriangulation protocols on the computation of Dirichlet normal energy. Am J Phys Anthropol 2017;163:94-109. K. An, Y. Chiu, X. Hu, and X. Chen, “A network partitioning algorithmic approach for macroscopic fundamental diagrambased hierarchical traffic network management,” IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, vol.

The size of such systems is also often in the nanometer range. Nanomaterials of various shapes, composition and size in the nanometer range are produced and analyzed in the laboratory. Nanoparticles have due to their small size special chemical and physical properties that differ significantly from the properties of macroscopic particles and solids. The cause therefore is the large ratio of surface to volume of the nanoparticles, so that they strongly interact with their environment.

In addition to condensed matter physics, Tolpygo was also interested in biophysics. He proposed an original microscopic theory of muscle contraction based on the idea that the energy of decomposition of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecule is transferred along the chains of hydrogen bonds between actin and myosin polymers causing their mutual motion.Tolpygo K. B. "Possible role of hydrogen-bonds in conformational changes in biopolymers and carrying out their macroscopic displacements." Studia Biophysica, v.

Chyla acknowledged, however, that in the macroscopic world, temperature plays the role of a base unit because much of the theory of thermodynamics is based on temperature. The Consultative Committee for Thermometry, part of the International Committee for Weights and Measures, publishes a mise en pratique (practical technique), last updated in 1990, for measuring temperature. At very low and at very high temperatures it often links energy to temperature via the Boltzmann constant.

Dove began working with birds during her temporary position at the National Museum of Natural History in the Division of Birds. From there she transitioned to her current position as program manager for the Feather Identification Lab. Using forensic methodologies, she is able to identify bird species from leftover fragments in the field of ornithology. These fragments range from the macroscopic level (feathers, beaks, color, size, pattern, feet) to microscopic fragments (blood, tissue samples).

Newly formed macroscopic and microscopic structures support each other, speeding up the process. These links form the structure of a new state of order in the mind through a process called scalloping (the repeated building up and collapsing of complex performance.) This new, novel state is progressive, discrete, idiosyncratic and unpredictable. Dynamic systems theory has recently been used to explain a long-unanswered problem in child development referred to as the A-not-B error.

Rajlich's hypothesis is a physical hypothesis with a significance for geology. There exist macroscopic white lamellae inside quartz and other minerals in the Bohemian Massif and even at another places in whole of the world like wavefronts generated by a meteorite impact according to the hypothesis. The hypothetical wavefronts are composed of many microcavities. Their origin is seen in a physical phenomenon of ultrasonic cavitation, which is well known from the technical practice.

This is not true for other particles such as the electron. It was surmised from the interaction of light with atoms that electrons also had both a particle-like and a wave-like nature. Newtonian mechanics, a description of the particle-like behavior of macroscopic objects, failed to describe very small objects such as electrons. Abductive reasoning was performed to obtain the dynamics of massive objects (particles with mass) such as electrons.

Red algae store sugars as floridean starch, which is a type of starch that consists of highly branched amylopectin without amylose, as food reserves outside their plastids. Most red algae are also multicellular, macroscopic, marine, and reproduce sexually. The red algal life history is typically an alternation of generations that may have three generations rather than two. The coralline algae, which secrete calcium carbonate and play a major role in building coral reefs, belong here.

In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children. In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.).

The quantum Hall effect and the AC Josephson effect are exotic quantum interference phenomena in condensed matter systems. These two effects provide a standard electrical resistance and a standard frequency, respectively, which are believed to measure the charge of the electron with corrections that are strictly zero for macroscopic systems. The quantum Hall effect yields : α−1 = 137.035 997 9 (3 2), and the AC Josephson effect yields : α−1 = 137.035 977 0 (7 7).

Qu et al. was able to demonstrate VANTA films that exhibited macroscopic adhesive forces of ~100 newtons per square centimeter, which is almost 10 times that of a gecko foot. This was achieved by tuning the growth conditions of the VANTA to form curls at the end of the CNTs, which provide stronger interfacial interactions even with a smooth surface. Qu et al. also demonstrated that the adhesive properties were less temperature sensitive than superglue and scotch tape.

N-slit interferometers, using large intra interferometric distances, have been found to be effective detectors of clear air turbulence. Here, it should be mentioned that the distortions induced by clear air turbulence upon the interferometric signal are different, in both character and magnitude, from the catastrophic collapse resulting from attempted interception of optical signals using macroscopic optical elements such as beam splitters.F. J. Duarte, Interferometric imaging, in Tunable Laser Applications, 2nd Edition (CRC, New York, 2009) Chapter 12.

This is due to the fact that propagating N-slit interferograms suffer catastrophic collapse from interception attempts using macroscopic optical methods such as beam splitting. Recent experimental developments include terrestrial intra-interferometric path lengths of 35 meters and 527 meters. These large, and very large, N-slit interferometers are also being used to study various propagation effects including microscopic disturbances on propagating interferometric signals. This work has yielded the first observation of diffraction patterns superimposed over propagating interferograms.

In clinical and research MRI, hydrogen atoms are most often used to generate a macroscopic polarization that is detected by antennas close to the subject being examined. Hydrogen atoms are naturally abundant in humans and other biological organisms, particularly in water and fat. For this reason, most MRI scans essentially map the location of water and fat in the body. Pulses of radio waves excite the nuclear spin energy transition, and magnetic field gradients localize the polarization in space.

Significant research has been dedicated to finding a physical principle that explains why quantum correlations go only up to the Tsirelson bound and nothing more. Three such principles have been found: no- advantage for non-local computation, information causality and macroscopic locality. That is to say, if one could achieve a CHSH correlation exceeding Tsirelson's bound, all such principles would be violated. Tsirelson's bound also follows if the Bell experiment admits a strongly positive quansal measure.

An isolated LCL tear or sprain rarely requires surgery. If the injury is a Grade 1 or Grade II, microscopic or partial macroscopic tearing respectively, the injury is treated with rest and rehabilitation. Ice, electrical stimulation and elevation are all methods to reduce the pain and swelling felt in the initial stages after the injury takes place. Physical therapy focuses on regaining full range-of- motion, such as biking, stretching and careful applications of pressure on the joint.

A magnon torque device was invented and later perfected at the National University of Singapore's Electrical & Computer Engineering department, which is based on such potential uses, with results published on November 29, 2019, in Science. A magnonic crystal is a magnetic metamaterial with alternating magnetic properties. Like conventional metamaterials, their properties arise from geometrical structuring, rather than their bandstructure or composition directly. Small spatial inhomogeneities create an effective macroscopic behaviour, leading to properties not readily found in nature.

For certain physical scenarios, it is impossible to model forces as being due to gradient of potentials. This is often due to macrophysical considerations that yield forces as arising from a macroscopic statistical average of microstates. For example, friction is caused by the gradients of numerous electrostatic potentials between the atoms, but manifests as a force model that is independent of any macroscale position vector. Nonconservative forces other than friction include other contact forces, tension, compression, and drag.

Since Darwin's time, the fossil record has been extended to between 2.3 and 3.5 billion years.Schopf JW (1999) Cradle of Life: The Discovery of the Earth's Earliest Fossils, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Most of these Precambrian fossils are microscopic bacteria or microfossils. However, macroscopic fossils are now known from the late Proterozoic. The Ediacara biota (also called Vendian biota) dating from 575 million years ago collectively constitutes a richly diverse assembly of early multicellular eukaryotes.

Traffic simulation models are useful from a microscopic, macroscopic and sometimes mesoscopic perspectives. Simulation can be applied to both transportation planning and to transportation design and operations. In transportation planning the simulation models evaluate the impacts of regional urban development patterns on the performance of the transportation infrastructure. Regional planning organizations use these models to evaluate what-if scenarios in the region, such as air quality to help develop land use policies that lead to more sustainable travel.

These images revealed interference between two electron waves on their way to the detector. The first attempts to use photoionization microscopy were performed on atoms of Xenon (Xe) by a team of Dutch researchers in 2001. Photoionization in the presence of an electric field allows the quantum nature of the wavefunction of an electron to be observed in the macroscopic world . The differences between direct and indirect ionization create different trajectories for the outgoing electron to follow.

The fluctuations are usually of low amplitude, less than 1 mV and of low frequency bandpass filtered RMS value (DC and high frequency AC components removed). The noise corresponds with the low level frequency noise (differential of the ZRA) signal but has a much lower amplitude when general corrosion is involved. The major source of noise can be ascribed to macroscopic random-stochastic phenomena. They include partial faradaic currents adsorption / desorption, surface coverage, corrosion cracking and mechanical erosion processes.

Two-fluid model is a macroscopic traffic flow model to represent traffic in a town/city or metropolitan area, put forward in the 1970s by Ilya Prigogine and Robert Herman. There is also a two-fluid model which helps explain the behavior of superfluid helium. This model states that there will be two components in liquid helium below its lambda point (the temperature where superfluid forms). These components are a normal fluid and a superfluid component.

Every diamond contains atoms other than carbon in concentrations detectable by analytical techniques. Those atoms can aggregate into macroscopic phases called inclusions. Impurities are generally avoided, but can be introduced intentionally as a way to control certain properties of the diamond. Growth processes of synthetic diamond, using solvent-catalysts, generally lead to formation of a number of impurity-related complex centers, involving transition metal atoms (such as nickel, cobalt or iron), which affect the electronic properties of the material.

To employ this strategy, the plant has to be large enough for the mollusc to 'sit' on, so smaller macroscopic plants are not as often eaten as their larger counterparts. Filter feeders are molluscs that feed by straining suspended matter and food particle from water, typically by passing the water over their gills. Most bivalves are filter feeders. Cephalopods are primarily predatory, and the radula takes a secondary role to the jaws and tentacles in food acquisition.

At a macroscopic level, AD is characterized by loss of neurons and synapses in the cerebral cortex and certain subcortical regions. This results in gross atrophy of the affected regions, including degeneration in the temporal lobe and parietal lobe, and parts of the frontal cortex and cingulate gyrus. Both amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles are clearly visible by microscopy in AD brains. Plaques are dense, mostly insoluble deposits of protein and cellular material outside and around neurons.

Biofilms are usually found on solid substrates submerged in or exposed to an aqueous solution, although they can form as floating mats on liquid surfaces and also on the surface of leaves, particularly in high humidity climates. Given sufficient resources for growth, a biofilm will quickly grow to be macroscopic (visible to the naked eye). Biofilms can contain many different types of microorganism, e.g. bacteria, archaea, protozoa, fungi and algae; each group performs specialized metabolic functions.

There are numerous methods for thermometry and the measurement of thermal conductance of devices and structures on a length scale of microns to macroscopic. However, the quantitative thermal characterization of nanostructures is described as an unsolved challenge in the current scientific literature. Several methods have been proposed using Raman spectroscopy, electron energy loss spectroscopy, infrared microscopy, self-heating methods and scanning thermal microscopy. However, on the length scale relevant to single CNTs and their defects, i. e.

However, Max Tegmark has argued that classical and quantum calculations show that quantum decoherence effects do not play a role in brain activity. Indeed, macroscopic quantum states have only ever been observed in superconductors near absolute zero. Yet another reply to the interaction problem is to note that it doesn't seem that there is an interaction problem for all forms of substance dualism. For instance, Thomistic dualism doesn't obviously face any issue with regards to interaction.

Current research in dynamical systems offers one possible mechanism for obtaining irreversibility from reversible systems. The central argument is based on the claim that the correct way to study the dynamics of macroscopic systems is to study the transfer operator corresponding to the microscopic equations of motion. It is then argued that the transfer operator is not unitary (i.e. is not reversible) but has eigenvalues whose magnitude is strictly less than one; these eigenvalues corresponding to decaying physical states.

In fact, there exist instances of theoretical non-quantum correlations which, a priori, do not seem physically implausible. The aim of device-independent reconstructions is to show that all such supra-quantum examples are precluded by a reasonable physical principle. The physical principles proposed so far include no- signalling, Non-Trivial Communication Complexity, No-Advantage for Nonlocal computation, Information Causality, Macroscopic Locality, and Local Orthogonality. All these principles limit the set of possible correlations in non-trivial ways.

Surprisal analysis is an information-theoretical analysis technique that integrates and applies principles of thermodynamics and maximal entropy. Surprisal analysis is capable of relating the underlying microscopic properties to the macroscopic bulk properties of a system. It has already been applied to a spectrum of disciplines including engineering, physics, chemistry and biomedical engineering. Recently, it has been extended to characterize the state of living cells, specifically monitoring and characterizing biological processes in real time using transcriptional data.

Macrocystis integrifolia Bory, DeCew's Guide to the Seaweeds of British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and Northern California, Center for Phycological Documentation, University Herbarium, University of California, Berkeley, 2002. 13 July 2007 It prefers water about to deep and exposed to the open sea and normal salinities, yet sheltered from full wave action.The Race Rocks Taxonomy, Macrocystis integrifolia, Pearson College UWC. Retrieved 6 February 2013 Macrocystis integrifolia alternates heteromorphic phases from a macroscopic sporophyte to dioecious microscopic gametophytes.

Most of the no-go theorems constrain interactions in the flat space. One of the most well-known is the Weinberg low energy theorem that explains why there are no macroscopic fields corresponding to particles of spin 3 or higher. The Weinberg theorem can be interpreted in the following way: Lorentz invariance of the S-matrix is equivalent, for massless particles, to decoupling of longitudinal states. The latter is equivalent to gauge invariance under the linearised gauge symmetries above.

Funded by the Russian Federal Space Agency and developed by Lavochkin and the Russian Space Research Institute, Fobos-Grunt was the first Russian-led interplanetary mission since the failed Mars 96. The last successful interplanetary missions were the Soviet Vega 2 in 1985–1986, and the partially successful Fobos 2 in 1988–1989. Fobos-Grunt was designed to become the first spacecraft to return a macroscopic sample from an extraterrestrial body since Luna 24 in 1976.

Daniel Sennert made the first reference suggesting a tumour arising in the kidney in his text Practicae Medicinae, first published in 1613. Miril published the earliest unequivocal case of renal carcinoma in 1810. He described the case of Françoise Levelly, a 35-year-old woman, who presented to Brest Civic Hospital on April 6, 1809, supposedly in the late stages of pregnancy. Koenig published the first classification of renal tumours based on macroscopic morphology in 1826.

Polkinghorne 1990 Polkinghorne argues that God cannot control things on the macroscopic scale by acting microscopically on each elementary particle in the universe, but that He can act within the framework of chaos theory as "pure spirit". As the complex nonlinear systems of life oscillate back and forth trying to decide which strange attractor to move towards, God intervenes gently in the direction that moves the system where he wishes it to go.Polkinghorne 1998 ch. 3 See Quantum mysticism.

Advocates of the soliton model claim that it explains several aspects of the action potential, which are not explained by the Hodgkin–Huxley model. Since it is of thermodynamic nature it does not address the properties of single macromolecules like ion channel proteins on a molecular scale. It is rather assumed that their properties are implicitly contained in the macroscopic thermodynamic properties of the nerve membranes. The soliton model predicts membrane current fluctuations during the action potential.

A nanomagnet is a submicrometric system that presents spontaneous magnetic order (magnetization) at zero applied magnetic field (remanence). The small size of nanomagnets prevents the formation of magnetic domains (see single domain (magnetic)). The magnetization dynamics of sufficiently small nanomagnets at low temperatures, typically single-molecule magnets, presents quantum phenomena, such as macroscopic spin tunnelling. At larger temperatures, the magnetization undergoes random thermal fluctuations (superparamagnetism) which present a limit for the use of nanomagnets for permanent information storage.

This concept is based on the general relativity theory and the quantum field theory from which the idea that space has a physical structure can be proposed. The macroscopic structure is described by the general relativity theory and the microscopic structure by the quantum field theory. The idea is to deform space around the space craft. By deforming the space it would be possible to create a region with higher pressure behind the space craft than before it.

The ancient Greek atomists theorized that nature consists of two fundamental principles: atom and void. Unlike their modern scientific namesake in atomic theory, philosophical atoms come in an infinite variety of shapes and sizes, each indestructible, immutable and surrounded by a void where they collide with the others or hook together forming a cluster. Clusters of different shapes, arrangements, and positions give rise to the various macroscopic substances in the world.Aristotle, Metaphysics I, 4, 985b 10-15.

This is consonant with present-day quantum mechanical thinking, in which macroscopic physical bodies are conceived as supporting collective modes,Heisenberg, W. (1969/1985) The concept of "understanding" in theoretical physics, pp. 7–10 in Properties of Matter Under Unusual Conditions (In Honor of Edward Teller's 60th Birthday), edited by H. Mark, S. Fernbach, Interscience Publishers, New York, reprinted at pp. 335–339 in Heisenberg, W., Collected Works, series C, volume 3, ed. W. Blum, H.-P.

These are quantum phase transitions which are driven by EM field fluctuations as a consequence of zero-point energy. A good example of a spontaneous phase transition that are attributed to zero-point fluctuations can be found in superconductors. Superconductivity is one of the best known empirically quantified macroscopic electromagnetic phenomena whose basis is recognised to be quantum mechanical in origin. The behaviour of the electric and magnetic fields under superconductivity is governed by the London equations.

Other diagnostic methods include radiological examinations and macroscopic examinations. After a diagnosis has been made, immunohistochemistry may be used to differentiate between epithelial cysts and arachnoid cysts. These examinations are useful to get a general idea of possible treatment options, but can be unsatisfactory to diagnose CNS cysts. Professionals still do not fully understand how cysts form; however, analyzing the walls of different cyst types, using electron microscopes and light microscopes, has proven to be the best diagnostic tool.

The study of CAS focuses on complex, emergent and macroscopic properties of the system. John H. Holland said that CAS "are systems that have a large numbers of components, often called agents, that interact and adapt or learn". Typical examples of complex adaptive systems include: climate; cities; firms; markets; governments; industries; ecosystems; social networks; power grids; animal swarms; traffic flows; social insect (e.g. ant) colonies; the brain and the immune system; and the cell and the developing embryo.

The mechanics of macroscopic systems depends on a number of extensive quantities. It should be stressed that all systems are permanently interacting with their surroundings, thereby causing unavoidable fluctuations of extensive quantities. Equilibrium conditions of thermodynamic systems are related to the maximum property of the entropy. If the only extensive quantity that is allowed to fluctuate is the internal energy, all the other ones being kept strictly constant, the temperature of the system is measurable and meaningful.

They may also lead to non- compliance with a treatment regimen. Adverse effects of medical treatment resulted in 142,000 deaths in 2013 up from 94,000 deaths in 1990 globally. The harmful outcome is usually indicated by some result such as morbidity, mortality, alteration in body weight, levels of enzymes, loss of function, or as a pathological change detected at the microscopic, macroscopic or physiological level. It may also be indicated by symptoms reported by a patient.

The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus (mushroom), used in the writings of Horace and Pliny. This in turn is derived from the Greek word sphongos (σφόγγος "sponge"), which refers to the macroscopic structures and morphology of mushrooms and molds;Ainsworth, p. 2. the root is also used in other languages, such as the German Schwamm ("sponge") and Schimmel ("mold"). The word mycology is derived from the Greek (μύκης "mushroom") and logos (λόγος "discourse").

In addition to impacting colony size, the type of water (stagnant or free flowing) also impacts the morphology of the colonies. Most macroscopic colonies of Tetraspora are cylindrical in nature, but in stagnant water colonies may appear as short sacs and clubs with thalli that resemble balloons. Flowing water colonies on the other hand, tend to form narrow cylindrical structures with the thalli also being more or less cylindrical and sometimes can be lightly rounded at the sheaths.

For example, an isotropic chiral material can comprise a random dispersion of handed molecules or inclusions, such as a liquid consisting of chiral molecules. Handedness can also be present at the macroscopic level in structurally chiral materials. For example, the molecules of cholesteric liquid crystals are randomly positioned but macroscopically they exhibit a helicoidal orientational order. Other examples of structurally chiral materials can be fabricated either as stacks of uniaxial laminas or using sculptured thin films.

In the thermodynamic analysis, all states defined in the system are assumed to be in thermodynamic equilibrium; each state has mechanical, thermal, and phase equilibrium, and there is no macroscopic change with respect to time. For the analysis of the system, the first law and second law of thermodynamics can be applied. In power plant analysis, a series of states can comprise a cycle. In this case, each state represents condition at the inlet/outlet of individual component.

Kinesin walking on a microtubule is a molecular biological machine using protein domain dynamics on nanoscales For the last several decades, chemists and physicists alike have attempted, with varying degrees of success, to miniaturize machines found in the macroscopic world. Molecular machines research is currently at the forefront with the 2016 Nobel Prize in Chemistry being awarded to Jean- Pierre Sauvage, Sir J. Fraser Stoddart and Bernard L. Feringa for the design and synthesis of molecular machines.

Each component responds independently to a radiated electromagnetic wave as it travels through the material, resulting in electromagnetic inhomogeneity for each component. Each component has its own response to the external electric and magnetic fields of the radiated source. Since these components are smaller than the radiated wavelength it is understood that a macroscopic view includes an effective value for both permittivity and permeability. These materials obey the laws of physics, but behave differently from normal materials.

Monte Carlo methods can overcome this problem by sampling microscopic states according to stochastic rules instead of modeling the complete microphysics. The microcanonical ensemble is a collection of microscopic states which have fixed energy, volume and number of particles. In an enclosed system with a certain number of particles, energy is the only macroscopic variable affected by the microphysics. The Monte Carlo simulation of a microcanonical ensemble thus requires sampling different microscopic states with the same energy.

There is an important distinction between thermal and thermodynamic equilibrium. According to Münster (1970), in states of thermodynamic equilibrium, the state variables of a system do not change at a measurable rate. Moreover, "The proviso 'at a measurable rate' implies that we can consider an equilibrium only with respect to specified processes and defined experimental conditions." Also, a state of thermodynamic equilibrium can be described by fewer macroscopic variables than any other state of a given body of matter.

Astatine is a chemical element with the symbol At and atomic number 85. It is the rarest naturally occurring element in the Earth's crust, occurring only as the decay product of various heavier elements. All of astatine's isotopes are short-lived; the most stable is astatine-210, with a half-life of 8.1 hours. A sample of the pure element has never been assembled, because any macroscopic specimen would be immediately vaporized by the heat of its own radioactivity.

An oscillation in the conductivity of a material that occurs at low temperatures in the presence of very intense magnetic fields, the Shubnikov–de Haas effect (SdH) is a macroscopic manifestation of the inherent quantum mechanical nature of matter. It is often used to determine the effective mass of charge carriers (electrons and electron holes), allowing investigators to distinguish among majority and minority carrier populations. The effect is named after Wander Johannes de Haas and Lev Shubnikov.

A biotope is generally not considered to be a large-scale phenomenon. For example, a biotope might be a neighbouring park, a back garden, even potted plants or a fish tank on a porch. In other words, the biotope is not a macroscopic but a microscopic approach to preserving the ecosystem and biological diversity. So biotopes fit into ordinary people's daily activities and lives, with more people being able to take part in biotope creation and continuing management.

Far-field imaging techniques are most desirable for imaging objects that are large compared to the illumination wavelength but that contain fine structure. This includes nearly all biological applications in which cells span multiple wavelengths but contain structure down to molecular scales. In recent years several techniques have shown that sub-diffraction limited imaging is possible over macroscopic distances. These techniques usually exploit optical nonlinearity in a material's reflected light to generate resolution beyond the diffraction limit.

All elements of period 7 are radioactive. This period contains the actinides, which includes plutonium, the naturally occurring element with the heaviest nucleus; subsequent elements must be created artificially. While the first five of these synthetic elements (americium through einsteinium) are now available in macroscopic quantities, most are extremely rare, having only been prepared in microgram amounts or less. The later transactinide elements have only been identified in laboratories in batches of a few atoms at a time.

Ductility is a material property that can be expressed in a variety of ways. Mathematically, it is commonly expressed as a total quantity of elongation or a total quantity of the change in cross sectional area of a specific rock until macroscopic brittle behavior, such as fracturing, is observed. For accurate measurement, this must be done under several controlled conditions, including but not limited to Pressure, Temperature, Moisture Content, Sample Size, etc., for all can impact the measured ductility.

The kiln firing process could take days, up to two weeks. The clay is heated slowly to around 500°C to sweat off the loose or macroscopic water between the molecules. Then the temperature is increased to close to 900°C to release the chemically bonded water in gaseous form and the clay particles will begin to melt together or sinter. If the kiln reaches 1000°C then the clay particles will vitrtify and become glass like.

Somewhat related to hardness is another mechanical property toughness, which is a material's ability to resist breakage from forceful impact. The toughness of natural diamond has been measured as 7.5–10 MPa·m1/2. This value is good compared to other ceramic materials, but poor compared to most engineering materials such as engineering alloys, which typically exhibit toughnesses over 100MPa·m1/2. As with any material, the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage.

ORNL produced the first macroscopic quantities (grams) of separated plutonium with these processes. The bismuth phosphate process was first operated on a large scale at the Hanford Site, in the later part of 1944. It was successful for plutonium separation in the emergency situation existing then, but it had a significant weakness: the inability to recover uranium. The first successful solvent extraction process for the recovery of pure uranium and plutonium was developed at ORNL in 1949.

Calcite is a carbonate mineral (CaCO3) with a rhombohedral crystal structure. Aragonite is an orthorhombic polymorph of calcite. An initial step in identifying a mineral is to examine its physical properties, many of which can be measured on a hand sample. These can be classified into density (often given as specific gravity); measures of mechanical cohesion (hardness, tenacity, cleavage, fracture, parting); macroscopic visual properties (luster, color, streak, luminescence, diaphaneity); magnetic and electric properties; radioactivity and solubility in hydrogen chloride ().

In astronomy and plasma physics, the thermal Doppler broadening is one of the explanations for the broadening of spectral lines, and as such gives an indication for the temperature of observed material. Other causes of velocity distributions may exist, though, for example, due to turbulent motion. For a fully developed turbulence, the resulting line profile is generally very difficult to distinguish from the thermal one. Another cause could be a large range of macroscopic velocities resulting, e.g.

In all cases, the assumption of thermodynamic equilibrium, once made, implies as a consequence that no putative candidate "fluctuation" alters the entropy of the system. It can easily happen that a physical system exhibits internal macroscopic changes that are fast enough to invalidate the assumption of the constancy of the entropy. Or that a physical system has so few particles that the particulate nature is manifest in observable fluctuations. Then the assumption of thermodynamic equilibrium is to be abandoned.

Cyanobacteria do not have skeletons, and individuals are microscopic. Cyanobacteria can encourage the precipitation or accumulation of calcium carbonate to produce distinct sediment bodies in composition that have relief on the seafloor. Cyanobacterial mounds were most abundant before the evolution of shelly macroscopic organisms, but they still exist today; stromatolites are microbial mounds with a laminated internal structure. Bryozoans and crinoids, common contributors to marine sediments during the Mississippian, for instance, produced a very different kind of mound.

Pumping of water by the hydrophobic surface molecular propeller Molecular propeller is a molecule that can propel fluids when rotated, due to its special shape that is designed in analogy to macroscopic propellers:J. Vacek and J. Michl, A molecular "Tinkertoy" construction kit: Computer simulation of molecular propellers, New J. Chem. 21, 1259 1997. it has several molecular- scale blades attached at a certain pitch angle around the circumference of a shaft, aligned along the rotational axis.

Fusion with more diploid stage cells, and even with other plasmodium of the same species, will continue to increase the size of the plasmodium. These macroscopic forms of the slime mold are the most well-known and best-studied stage of the life cycle. The plasmodium feeds on bacteria, other microorganisms and can even cannibalize other slime molds. The massive cytoplasm contains multiple nuclei, contractile vacuoles, mitochondria and food vacuoles found on the peripheral edge of the plasmodium.

The frequency is chosen to be similar to the natural frequency of the particles around the magnetic lines of force, the cyclotron frequency. This causes the particles in the area to gain energy, which causes them to orbit in a wider radius. Since other particles are orbiting their own lines nearby, at a macroscopic level, this change in energy appears as an increase in pressure. According to the ideal gas law, this results in an increase in temperature.

Given the correct set of conditions, the ion will reverse its motion, essentially bouncing off the increasing field, thus the name mirror. Over a macroscopic time, individual ions bounce back and forth between the two mirror coils, remaining confined within the device. For any given field arrangement, there always remains some lines of force that are not curved as they approach the ends, most notably, the lines down the center of the mirror. Ions circling these lines may escape.

Thermodynamic equilibrium is characterized by absence of flow of mass or energy. Equilibrium thermodynamics, as a subject in physics, considers macroscopic bodies of matter and energy in states of internal thermodynamic equilibrium. It uses the concept of thermodynamic processes, by which bodies pass from one equilibrium state to another by transfer of matter and energy between them. The term 'thermodynamic system' is used to refer to bodies of matter and energy in the special context of thermodynamics.

Other types of fulgurites are usually vesicular, and may lack an open central tube; their exteriors can be porous or smooth. Branching fulgurites display fractal- like self-similarity and structural scale invariance as a macroscopic or microscopic network of root-like branches, and can display this texture without central channels or obvious divergence from morphology of context or target (e.g. sheet-like melt, rock fulgurites). Fulgurites are usually fragile, making the field collection of large specimens difficult.

Since the realization that the embryophytes emerged from within the green algae, some authors are starting to include them. The clade that includes both green algae and embryophytes is monophyletic and is referred to as the clade Viridiplantae and as the kingdom Plantae. The green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, most with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid and filamentous forms, and macroscopic, multicellular seaweeds. There are about 8,000 species of green algae.

The basis for the engineered design of different HPFRCCs varies considerably despite their similar compositions. For instance, the design of one type of HPFRCC called ECC stems from the principles of micromechanics. This field of study is best described as relating macroscopic mechanical properties to a composite's microstructure, and is only one specific method used to design HPFRCCs. Another design methodology used in other formulas of HPFRCCs is based on the material’s ability to withstand seismic loading.

A protein crystal seen under a microscope. Crystals used in X-ray crystallography may be smaller than a millimeter across. Although crystallography can be used to characterize the disorder in an impure or irregular crystal, crystallography generally requires a pure crystal of high regularity to solve the structure of a complicated arrangement of atoms. Pure, regular crystals can sometimes be obtained from natural or synthetic materials, such as samples of metals, minerals or other macroscopic materials.

KCNE3 inhibits the fast inactivating Kv channel Kv4.3, which generates the transient outward Kv current (Ito) in human cardiac myocytes). similarly, KCNE3 was recently found to inhibit Kv4.2, and it is thought that this regulation modulates spike frequency and other electrical properties of auditory neurons. Kv12.2 channels were found to be inhibited by endogenous KCNE3 (and KCNE1) subunits in Xenopus laevis oocytes. Thus, silencing of endogenous KCNE3 or KCNE1 using siRNA increases the macroscopic current of exogenously expressed Kv12.2.

The word "concussion" was used at the time to describe the state of unconsciousness and other functional problems that resulted from the impact, rather than a physiological condition. In 1839, Guillaume Dupuytren described brain contusions, which involve many small hemorrhages, as contusio cerebri and showed the difference between unconsciousness associated with damage to the brain parenchyma and that due to concussion, without such injury. In 1941, animal experiments showed that no macroscopic damage occurs in concussion.

One is the approach through the law of conservation of energy taken as prior to thermodynamics, with a mechanical analysis of processes, for example in the work of Helmholtz. This mechanical view is taken in this article as currently customary for thermodynamic theory. The other macroscopic approach is the thermodynamic one, which admits heat as a primitive concept, which contributes, by scientific inductionHintikka, J. (1988), p. 180. to knowledge of the law of conservation of energy.

Nature offers a large number of ideas for the design of novel materials with superior properties. Self-assembly and self- organization being the main principle of structure formation in nature attract significant interest as promising concepts for the design of intelligent materials. Stimuli-responsive hydrogels mimic swelling/shrinking behavior of plant cells and produce macroscopic actuation is response to small variation of environmental conditions. Mostly, homogenous expansion or contraction in all directions can result a change of conditions.

The associated website maintained by VIRES GmbH is the main portal for information about OpenCRG including latest news concerning the data format, free and commercial tool- sets, test data etc.. With OpenCRG real road surfaces (e.g. by measurement) have also become available to "classic" simulation applications using a macroscopic description of road networks. The gap between the logical road description and the microscopic description of road surfaces (i.e. OpenCRG) is closed by the open file format OpenDRIVE.

Although general relativity can be used to perform a semi-classical calculation of black hole entropy, this situation is theoretically unsatisfying. In statistical mechanics, entropy is understood as counting the number of microscopic configurations of a system that have the same macroscopic qualities (such as mass, charge, pressure, etc.). Without a satisfactory theory of quantum gravity, one cannot perform such a computation for black holes. Some progress has been made in various approaches to quantum gravity.

In the BCS framework, superconductivity is a macroscopic effect which results from the condensation of Cooper pairs. These have some bosonic properties, and bosons, at sufficiently low temperature, can form a large Bose–Einstein condensate. Superconductivity was simultaneously explained by Nikolay Bogolyubov, by means of the Bogoliubov transformations. In many superconductors, the attractive interaction between electrons (necessary for pairing) is brought about indirectly by the interaction between the electrons and the vibrating crystal lattice (the phonons).

The entropy is proportional to the logarithm of the number of microstates, the ways a system can be configured microscopically while leaving the macroscopic description unchanged. Black hole entropy is deeply puzzling — it says that the logarithm of the number of states of a black hole is proportional to the area of the horizon, not the volume in the interior. Later, Raphael Bousso came up with a covariant version of the bound based upon null sheets.

While the elementary model described above is totally unadapted to the description of real-world polymers at the microscopic scale, it does show some relevance at the macroscopic scale in the case of a polymer in solution whose monomers form an ideal mix with the solvent (in which case, the interactions between monomer and monomer, solvent molecule and solvent molecule, and between monomer and solvent are identical, and the system's energy can be considered constant, validating the hypotheses of the model). The relevancy of the model is, however, limited, even at the macroscopic scale, by the fact that it does not consider any excluded volume for monomers (or, to speak in chemical terms, that it neglects steric effects). Other fluctuating polymer models that consider no interaction between monomers and no excluded volume, like the worm-like chain model, are all asymptotically convergent toward this model at the thermodynamic limit. For purpose of this analogy a Kuhn segment is introduced, corresponding to the equivalent monomer length to be considered in the analogous ideal chain.

His research focuses on the behavior of matter at temperatures near absolute zero where quantum mechanical effects are manifest. Rosenbaum recognized early the significance and ubiquity of quantum phase transitions—from metal–insulator transitions to magnetism to exotic superconductivity—and his work is recognized as putting quantum transitions on as solid a footing as that long available for classical transitions. He has both exploited and advanced methods in experimental low temperature physics, developing new techniques (hydrostatic pressure, stress, magnetometry, calorimetry) for high-resolution studies at milliKelvin temperatures, complementing laboratory dilution refrigerator approaches with synchrotron x-ray measurements in diamond anvil cells at cryogenic temperatures. He established the nature of the metal-insulator transition in doped semiconductors and correlated materials, and demonstrated macroscopic anisotropy of non-s-wave superconductivity in heavy fermion compounds. Rosenbaum’s experiments on magnets involve controllable tuning of quantum fluctuations in both ordered and disordered systems. He is interested in the macroscopic manifestations of quantum mechanics and harnessing disorder to craft a material’s electrical, magnetic, and optical response.

A successful way of describing nuclear interactions is to construct one potential for the whole nucleus instead of considering all its nucleon components. This is called the macroscopic approach. For example, scattering of neutrons from nuclei can be described by considering a plane wave in the potential of the nucleus, which comprises a real part and an imaginary part. This model is often called the optical model since it resembles the case of light scattered by an opaque glass sphere.

In his opinion, one of the main failings of aid lies in the fact that we create large, utopian lists of things we hope to accomplish, without the means to actually see them to fruition. Rather than establish a utopian vision for a particular country, Easterly insists that we shift our focus to the most basic needs and improvements. If we feed, clothe, vaccinate, build infrastructure, and support markets, the macroscopic results will follow. The "Searching Approach" is intrinsically tied to the market.

The cuticle of some mushrooms, such as Russula ochroleuca shown here, can be peeled from the cap, and may be useful as an identification feature. The pileipellis is the uppermost layer of hyphae in the pileus of a fungal fruit body. It covers the trama, the fleshy tissue of the fruit body. The pileipellis is more or less synonymous with the cuticle, but the cuticle generally describes this layer as a macroscopic feature, while pileipellis refers to this structure as a microscopic layer.

Symptoms are usually more obvious on young, rapidly growing leaves and are variable depending on the host genotype, virus strain, plant age at the moment of infection and the environment. Leaves are the tissue where the viral infection is localized and where the infection starts. Macroscopic symptoms can range from apparently asymptomatic plants to severely mottled and deformed leaves. Most of the infected cultivars become slightly stunted and show fewer pods that are sometimes dwarfed and flattened, without hairs and seeds.

In-phase (IP) and out-of- phase (OOP) sequences correspond to paired gradient echo sequences using the same repetition time (TR) but with two different echo times (TE). This can detect even microscopic amounts of fat, which has a drop in signal on OOP compared to IP. Among renal tumors that do not show macroscopic fat, such a signal drop is seen in 80% of the clear cell type of renal cell carcinoma as well as in minimal fat angiomyolipoma.

The first representative of this class of reactions was the NaOH (outer electrolyte)+CuCl2 (inner electrolyte) . Later the NaOH+AgNO3 , the CuCl2+K3[Fe(CN)6] , the NaOH+AlCl3 , and the NH3+AgNO3 reactions in several hydrogels have also proved to show similar behavior. Precipitate patterns forming in these reactions are exceptionally rich. Besides the macroscopic shapes like layered structures, helices and cardioids, regular sheets of colloidal precipitate may also emerge with a periodicity even less than 20 micrometers (microscopic patterns).

Scientists and engineers are able to use liquid crystals in a variety of applications because external perturbation can cause significant changes in the macroscopic properties of the liquid crystal system. Both electric and magnetic fields can be used to induce these changes. The magnitude of the fields, as well as the speed at which the molecules align are important characteristics industry deals with. Special surface treatments can be used in liquid crystal devices to force specific orientations of the director.

With the exception of the synthetic nihonium, all of the elements of the boron group have stable isotopes. Because all their atomic numbers are odd, boron, gallium and thallium have only two stable isotopes, while aluminium and indium are monoisotopic, having only one, although most indium found in nature is the weakly radioactive 115In. 10B and 11B are both stable, as are 27Al, 69Ga and 71Ga, 113In, and 203Tl and 205Tl. All of these isotopes are readily found in macroscopic quantities in nature.

From a macroscopic point of view, a generalized compact RLC model for CNT interconnects can be depicted as in, where the model of an individual multi-wall carbon nanotube is shown with parasitics representing both dc conductance and high-frequency impedance i.e. inductance and capacitance effects. Multiple shells of a multi-wall carbon nanotube are presented by the individual parasitics of each shell. Such model can also be applicable to single-walled carbon nanotubes where only a single shell is represented.

If the current vacuum state is a false vacuum, the vacuum may decay into a lower-energy state.Adams & Laughlin (1997), §VE. Presumably, extreme low-energy states imply that localized quantum events become major macroscopic phenomena rather than negligible microscopic events because the smallest perturbations make the biggest difference in this era, so there is no telling what may happen to space or time. It is perceived that the laws of "macro-physics" will break down, and the laws of quantum physics will prevail.

Lalwani et al. have reported a novel radical initiated thermal crosslinking method to fabricated macroscopic, free- standing, porous, all-carbon scaffolds using single- and multi-walled carbon nanotubes as building blocks. These scaffolds possess macro-, micro-, and nano- structured pores and the porosity can be tailored for specific applications. These 3D all-carbon scaffolds/architectures may be used for the fabrication of the next generation of energy storage, supercapacitors, field emission transistors, high-performance catalysis, photovoltaics, and biomedical devices and implants.

Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic and microscopic physical properties of matter. In particular it is concerned with the "condensed" phases that appear whenever the number of constituents in a system is extremely large and the interactions between the constituents are strong. The most familiar examples of condensed phases are solids and liquids, which arise from the electromagnetic forces between atoms. Condensed matter physicists seek to understand the behavior of these phases by using physical laws.

Banhart describes two dominating perspectives in which cellular metals are characterized, referring to them as atomistic and macroscopic. The atomistic (or molecular) perspective holds that a cellular material is a construction of struts, membranes, and other elements which possess mechanical properties of their bulk metal counterpart. Indeed, the physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of titanium foams are commonly measured using the same methods as that of their solid counterparts. However, special precautions must be taken due to the cellular structure of metal foams.

This is the energy scale manifesting at the macroscopic level, such as in chemical reactions. Even photons with far higher energy, gamma rays of the kind produced in radioactive decay, have photon energy that is almost always between and – still two orders of magnitude lower than the mass-energy of a single proton. Radioactive decay gamma rays are considered as part of nuclear physics, rather than high energy physics. Finally, when reaching the quantum particle level, the high energy domain is revealed.

Changing the topology of surfaces at the nanoscale, friction can be either reduced or enhanced more intensively than macroscopic lubrication and adhesion; in this way, superlubrication and superadhesion can be achieved. In micro- and nano-mechanical devices problems of friction and wear, that are critical due to the extremely high surface volume ratio, can be solved covering moving parts with super lubricant coatings. On the other hand, where adhesion is an issue, nanotribological techniques offer a possibility to overcome such difficulties.

Pole figures displaying crystallographic texture of gamma-TiAl in an alpha2-gamma alloy, as measured by high energy X-rays. In materials science, crystallographic texture (or preferred orientation) can be described using Euler angles. In texture analysis, the Euler angles provide a mathematical depiction of the orientation of individual crystallites within a polycrystalline material, allowing for the quantitative description of the macroscopic material. The most common definition of the angles is due to Bunge and corresponds to the ZXZ convention.

A major application of supramolecular chemistry is the design and understanding of catalysts and catalysis. Non-covalent interactions are extremely important in catalysis, binding reactants into conformations suitable for reaction and lowering the transition state energy of reaction. Template-directed synthesis is a special case of supramolecular catalysis. Encapsulation systems such as micelles, dendrimers, and cavitands are also used in catalysis to create microenvironments suitable for reactions (or steps in reactions) to progress that is not possible to use on a macroscopic scale.

When investigating herbivores diet, DNA metabarcoding enables detection of highly digested plant items with a higher number of taxa identified compared to microhistology and macroscopic analysis. For instance, Nichols et al. (2016) highlighted the taxonomic precision of metabarcoding on rumen contents, with on average 90% of DNA-sequences being identified to genus or species level in comparison to 75% of plant fragments recognised with macroscopy. Morevoer, another empirically tested advantage of metabarcoding compared to traditional time-consuming methods, involves higher cost efficiency.

He was also a Senior Research Officer at Oxford University during 1959 to 1992, working at the Clarendon Laboratory. During his career, he visited Bell Telephone Laboratories in New Jersey, United States, three times while on sabbatical leave (during 1954–55, 1965–66, and 1973–74). In 1973, Robinson published the book Macroscopic Electromagnetism, a standard text. His paper Microwave shot noise and minimum noise factor was awarded the Clerk Maxwell Prize in 1954 by the British Institution of Radio Engineers.

On a macroscopic level, A. giganteus colonies are characterized by their velvety texture. Colonies are often white at first, turning a pale blue-green color when exposed to light. Morphology of Aspergillus conidiophore head On a microscopic level, A. giganteus produces two tipes of conidiophores that have distinct stipes and vesicles. The first of these conidiophores are typically 2-3 mm tall, including stipe length. These shorter conidiophores produces clavate vesicles that are 100-250 μm long and 30-50 μm wide.

He was a professor of engineering at Brown University starting in 1975, and served as the dean of the Engineering Department from 1988 to 1991. He was the chair of the Applied Mechanics Division. Needleman's main research interests are in the computational modeling of deformation and fracture processes in structural materials, in particular metals. A general objective is to provide quantitative relations between the measurable (and hopefully controllable) features of the materials' micro-scale structure and its macroscopic mechanical behavior.

Direction of precession for a negatively-charged particle. The large arrow indicates the external magnetic field, the small arrow the particle's magnetic dipole moment. In physics, Larmor precession (named after Joseph Larmor) is the precession of the magnetic moment of an object about an external magnetic field. Objects with a magnetic moment also have angular momentum and effective internal electric current proportional to their angular momentum; these include electrons, protons, other fermions, many atomic and nuclear systems, as well as classical macroscopic systems.

Some individual fungal colonies can reach extraordinary dimensions and ages as in the case of a clonal colony of Armillaria solidipes, which extends over an area of more than 900ha (3.5 square miles), with an estimated age of nearly 9,000years. The apothecium—a specialized structure important in sexual reproduction in the ascomycetes—is a cup-shaped fruit body that is often macroscopic and holds the hymenium, a layer of tissue containing the spore-bearing cells.Alexopoulos et al., pp. 204–205.

This also creates voids which are known as cavitation and can be seen at a macroscopic level as a stress-whitened region as shown in Figure 1. These voids surround the aligned polymer regions. The stress in the aligned fibrils will carry majority of the stress as the covalent bonds are significantly stronger than the van der Waals bonds. The plastic like behavior of polymers leads to a greater assumed plastic deformation zone in front of the crack tip altering the failure process.

The split ring resonators which make up metamaterials are engineered to scatter light at resonance. Moreover, these resonant scattering elements are purposely designed at a uniform size throughout the material. This uniform size is much smaller than the wavelength of the frequency of light propagating through the material. Since the repeating, scattering, resonant elements, which make up the engineered material are much smaller than the frequency of propagating light, metamaterials can now, also, be described in terms of macroscopic quantities.

Macroscopic properties can be directly controlled by adjusting characteristics of the rudimentary elements, and their arrangement on, or throughout the material. Moreover, these metamaterials are a basis for building very small cloaking devices in anticipation of larger devices, adaptable to a broad spectrum of radiated light. Hence, although light consists of an electric field and a magnetic field, ordinary optical materials, such as optical microscope lenses, have a strong reaction only to the electric field. The corresponding magnetic interaction is essentially nil.

Bismil MSK, Bismil QMK. The wide awake approach to hand and wrist ganglia: Ten-year experience, technical tips and review of macroscopic pathology and outcomes of 300 cases. OA Case Reports 2013 Nov 15;2(13):129. Alternatively, a hypodermic needle may be used to drain the fluid from the cyst (via aspiration) and a corticosteroid may be injected after the cyst is empty; however, if the fluid has thickened, owing to the passage of time, this treatment is not always effective.

In a macroscopic theory proposed by Laval, the interaction between fast and slow vehicles conforms to the Newell kinematic wave model of moving bottlenecks. In air traffic control traffic is normally separated by elevation, with east bound flights at odd thousand feet elevations and west bound flights at even thousand feet elevations (1000 ft ≈ 305m). Above 28,000 ft (~8.5 km) only odd flight levels are used, with FL 290, 330, 370, etc., for eastbound flights and FL 310, 350, 390, etc.

Quantum mechanics has two fundamentally different dynamical principles: the linear and deterministic Schrödinger equation, and the nonlinear and stochastic wave packet reduction postulate. The orthodox interpretation, or Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, posits a wave function collapse every time an observer performs measurement. One thus faces the problem of defining what an “observer” and a “measurement” are. Another issue of quantum mechanics is that it forecasts superpositions of macroscopic objects, which are not observed in Nature (see Schrödinger’s cat paradox).

When viewed in terms of information theory, the entropy state function is simply the amount of information (in the Shannon sense) that would be needed to specify the full microstate of the system. This is left unspecified by the macroscopic description. In information theory, entropy is the measure of the amount of information that is missing before reception and is sometimes referred to as Shannon entropy. Shannon entropy is a broad and general concept used in information theory as well as thermodynamics.

Speciation in Gymnopilus is not clearly defined. This is further complicated by the macroscopic morphological and ecological similarities between members of the G. sapineus complex such as G. penetrans and G. nevadensis. Michael Kuo explicates upon this by speaking of the arbitrary distinction made between G. sapineus and G. penetrans made by Elias Fries.Gymnopilus sapineus at MushroomExpert He, at first labeled G. penetrans to merely be a form of G. sapineus in 1815, but then recanted and labeled them separate in 1821.

Applied stresses will detwin the martensite, but all of the atoms stay in the same position relative to the nearby atoms—no atomic bonds are broken or reformed (as they would be by dislocation motion). Thus, when the temperature is raised and austenite becomes thermodynamically favored, all of the atoms rearrange to the B2 structure which happens to be the same macroscopic shape as the B19' pre-deformation shape. This phase transformation happens extremely quickly and gives SMAs their distinctive "snap".

In the past, macroscopic observations on plants led to basic understandings of how plants respond to their environments and grow. While these investigations could somewhat correlate cause and effect as a plant develops, they could not truly explain the mechanisms at work without inspection at the molecular level. Certain studies provided simplistic models with the groundwork for further exploration and eventual explanation through epigenetics. In 1918, Gassner published findings that noted the necessity of a cold phase in order for proper plant growth.

Asakura and Oosawa assumed a uniform particle density, which is true in a homogenous solution. However, if an external potential is applied to a solution, then the uniform particle density is disrupted, making Asakura and Oosawa's assumption invalid. Density functional theory accounts for variations in particle density by using the grand canonical potential. The grand canonical potential, which is a state function for the grand canonical ensemble, is used to calculate the probability density for microscopic states in macroscopic state.

Macroscopic drawings and models with sharp boundaries are misleading because they do not show this aspect. Neutral systems generally require constrained geometries favoring interaction to produce significant degrees of homoconjugation. In the example below, the carbonyl stretching frequencies of the IR spectra of the respective compounds demonstrate homoconjugation, or lack thereof, in the neutral ground state molecules. Due to the partial π character of formally σ bonds in a cyclopropane ring, evidence for transmission of "conjugation" through cyclopropanes has also been obtained.

One response to this question was suggested in 1929 by Leó Szilárd and later by Léon Brillouin. Szilárd pointed out that a real-life Maxwell's demon would need to have some means of measuring molecular speed, and that the act of acquiring information would require an expenditure of energy. Maxwell's 'demon' repeatedly alters the permeability of the wall between A and B. It is therefore performing thermodynamic operations on a microscopic scale, not just observing ordinary spontaneous or natural macroscopic thermodynamic processes.

It has been proposed that some biological systems might lie near critical points. Examples include neural networks in the salamander retina, bird flocks gene expression networks in Drosophila, and protein folding. However, it is not clear whether or not alternative reasons could explain some of the phenomena supporting arguments for criticality. It has also been suggested that biological organisms share two key properties of phase transitions: the change of macroscopic behavior and the coherence of a system at a critical point.

Atomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter–matter and light–matter interactions on the scale of single atoms and molecules. The three areas are grouped together because of their interrelationships, the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of their relevant energy scales. All three areas include both classical, semi- classical and quantum treatments; they can treat their subject from a microscopic view (in contrast to a macroscopic view). Atomic physics studies the electron shells of atoms.

The diffusion equation is a parabolic partial differential equation. In physics, it describes the macroscopic behavior of many micro-particles in Brownian motion, resulting from the random movements and collisions of the particles (see Fick's laws of diffusion). In mathematics, it is related to Markov processes, such as random walks, and applied in many other fields, such as materials science, information theory, and biophysics. The diffusion equation is a special case of convection–diffusion equation, when bulk velocity is zero.

The term mechatronics is typically used to refer to macroscopic systems, but futurists have predicted the emergence of very small electromechanical devices. Already such small devices, known as Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), are used in automobiles to initiate the deployment of airbags, in digital projectors to create sharper images, and in inkjet printers to create nozzles for high-definition printing. In future it is hoped that such devices will be used in tiny implantable medical devices and to improve optical communication.

There are biogeochemical cycles for the elements calcium, carbon, hydrogen, mercury, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, selenium, and sulfur; molecular cycles for water and silica; macroscopic cycles such as the rock cycle; as well as human-induced cycles for synthetic compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB). In some cycles there are reservoirs where a substance can be stored for a long time. The cycling of these elements is interconnected. Marine organisms, and particularly marine microorganisms are crucial for the functioning of many of these cycles.

Small diameter wire may be drawn manually, while very thick wire may require a drawing bench with a crank. Often, a wire can be drawn three times in a row before it needs to be re-annealed. This must be done because drawing wire hardens it, which causes the wire to become brittle. Brittle wire that has not been annealed may snap during the drawing process (or develop microscopic or macroscopic cracks, which may weaken the piece or "grow" with further working).

A large, and historically more important part involves attempts to structure or re- structure the social and cultural matrix within which power activities are played out; such structuring may involve the manipulation of institutional arrangements, norms, and values. A given institutional or socio-cultural structure may be viewed as the macroscopic resultant of the application of structural or meta-power to determine permissible or acceptable activities and relationships of individuals and groups to one another and to resources or forms of property.

Macroscopic observation of Xerocomellus chrysenteron is not sufficient to determine this species with certainty, as many intermediate forms occur between it and other taxa; in particular, some forms of B. pruinatus and Hortiboletus rubellus are hardly distinguishable from B. chrysenteron without the aid of microscopic characters. B. porosporus is also similar to this species, but it is easily separated on account of the whitish under layer and truncate (chopped off) spores. Also this species is easily confused with B. declivitatum.

Though disputed, the element may have been synthesized as early as 1925 by Walter Noddack and others. ;1937:Eugene Houdry develops a method of industrial scale catalytic cracking of petroleum, leading to the development of the first modern oil refinery. ;1937:Pyotr Kapitsa, John Allen and Don Misener produce supercooled helium-4, the first zero-viscosity superfluid, a substance that displays quantum mechanical properties on a macroscopic scale. ;1938:Otto Hahn discovers the process of nuclear fission in uranium and thorium.

A photon is the quantum of light and all other forms of electromagnetic radiation. It is the force carrier for the electromagnetic force, even when static via virtual photons. The effects of this force are easily observable at the microscopic and at the macroscopic level because the photon has zero rest mass; this allows long distance interactions. Like all elementary particles, photons are currently best explained by quantum mechanics and exhibit wave–particle duality, exhibiting properties of waves and of particles.

The Kirkwood–Buff (KB) solution theory, due to John G. Kirkwood and Frank P. Buff, links macroscopic (bulk) properties to microscopic (molecular) details. Using statistical mechanics, the KB theory derives thermodynamic quantities from pair correlation functions between all molecules in a multi-component solution. The KB theory proves to be a valuable tool for validation of molecular simulations, as well as for the molecular-resolution elucidation of the mechanisms underlying various physical processes. For example, it has numerous applications in biologically relevant systems.

The net effect of these microscopic bound currents is to make the magnet behave as if there is a macroscopic electric current flowing in loops in the magnet with the magnetic field normal to the loops. The field due to such currents is then obtained through the Biot–Savart law. The Ampère model gives the correct magnetic flux density B both inside and outside the magnet. It is sometimes difficult to calculate the Ampèrian currents on the surface of a magnet.

Dipolar polarization is a polarization that is either inherent to polar molecules (orientation polarization), or can be induced in any molecule in which the asymmetric distortion of the nuclei is possible (distortion polarization). Orientation polarization results from a permanent dipole, e.g., that arising from the 104.45° angle between the asymmetric bonds between oxygen and hydrogen atoms in the water molecule, which retains polarization in the absence of an external electric field. The assembly of these dipoles forms a macroscopic polarization.

He was Professor of Electrical Engineering and of Physics at Illinois. His Ph.D. student Nick Holonyak (1954), invented the LED in 1962. At Illinois, he established two major research programs, one in the Electrical Engineering Department and one in the Physics Department. The research program in the Electrical Engineering Department dealt with both experimental and theoretical aspects of semiconductors, and the research program in the Physics Department dealt with theoretical aspects of macroscopic quantum systems, particularly superconductivity and quantum liquids.

The Qesem Cave contains one of the earliest examples of regular use of fire in the Middle Pleistocene. Large quantities of burnt bone, defined by a combination of microscopic and macroscopic criteria, and moderately heated soil lumps suggest butchering and prey-defleshing occurred near fireplaces. 10–36% of identified bone specimens show signs of burning and on unidentified bone ones it could be up to 84%. Such heat reached 500 degrees C. A 300,000-year-old hearth was unearthed in a central part of the cave.

One could say that the approach was based on a macroscopic view of psychology rather than a microscopic approach. Gestalt theories of perception are based on human nature being inclined to understand objects as an entire structure rather than the sum of its parts. Wertheimer had been a student of Austrian philosopher, Christian von Ehrenfels (1859–1932), a member of the School of Brentano. Von Ehrenfels introduced the concept of Gestalt to philosophy and psychology in 1890, before the advent of Gestalt psychology as such.

Generally covariant theories do not have a notion of a distinguished physical time with respect to which everything evolves. However, it is not needed for the full formulation and interpretation of the theory. The dynamical laws are determined by correlations which are sufficient to make predictions. But then a mechanism is needed which explains how the familiar notion of time eventually emerges from the timeless structure to become such an important ingredient of the macroscopic world we live in as well as of our conscious experience.

This says that using D_{p} , and disregarding fluid component variations of Z_{c} , is in practice equivalent to say that the macroscopic collision cross section is proportional to the hard core molar volume rather than the critical molar volume. In a fluid mixture like a petroleum gas or oil there are lots of molecule types, and within this mixture there are families of molecule types (i.e. groups of fluid components). The simplest group is the n-alkanes which are long chains of CH2-elements.

In cyclophosamide (CYP)-induced rodent models of interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/PBS), CYP instillation caused macroscopic and histological bladder alterations, inflammatory infiltrates, increased mast cell numbers, bladder pain, increased expression of nitrotyrosine, and decreased expression of endothelial tight junction zonula occludens-1. Intravesical treatment with Vessilen (a formulation of 2% adelmidrol + 0.1% sodium hyaluronate) was able to ameliorate CYP-induced bladder inflammation and pain by inhibiting nuclear factor-κB pathway, and inflammatory mediator levels as well as reduced mechanical allodynia and nerve growth factor levels.

When exposed for long times to high temperatures and moderate stresses, metals exhibit premature and low-ductility creep fracture, arising from the formation and growth of cavities. Those defects coalesce into cracks which ultimately cause macroscopic failure. Self-healing of early stage damage is thus a promising new approach to extend the lifetime of the metallic components. In metals, self-healing is intrinsically more difficult to achieve than in most other material classes, due to their high melting point and, as a result, low atom mobility.

Microcystis floating colonies in an Erlenmeyer flask. As the etymological derivation implies, Microcystis is characterized by small cells (a few micrometers in diameter), possessing gas filled vesicles (also lacking individual sheaths). The cells are usually organized into colonies (macroscopic aggregations of which are visible with the naked eye) that begin in a spherical shape, losing coherence to become perforated or irregularly shaped over time. These colonies are bound by a thick mucilage composed of complex polysaccharide compounds, including xylose, mannose, glucose, fucose, galactose, rhamnose, among other compounds.

A rendering of the position of the symbols and counts of No. 1 Yang Dun array for Tai Yi divination. The entire series consists of 72 Yang Dun and 72 Yin Dun arrays for Tai Yi. Tai Yi Shen Shu is a form of divination from China. It is also one of the Three Styles () of divination, the others being Da Liu Ren and Qi Men Dun Jia. Tai Yi Shen Shu is used to predict macroscopic events like wars or the meaning of supernovae.

Liquid, Isolator, Substrate The electrowetting effect has been defined as "the change in solid-electrolyte contact angle due to an applied potential difference between the solid and the electrolyte". The phenomenon of electrowetting can be understood in terms of the forces that result from the applied electric field. The fringing field at the corners of the electrolyte droplet tends to pull the droplet down onto the electrode, lowering the macroscopic contact angle and increasing the droplet contact area. Alternatively, electrowetting can be viewed from a thermodynamic perspective.

A piezometer is an instrument used in the measurement of pressure (non- directional) or stress (directional) from strain in rocks at any scale. Referring to the paleostress inversion principle, rock masses under stress should exhibit strain at both macroscopic and microscopic scale, while the latter is found at the grain boundaries (interface between crystal grains at the magnitude below 102μm). Strain is revealed from the change in grain size, orientation of grains or migration of crystal defects, through a number of mechanisms e.g. dynamic recrystallization (DRX).

Because they filter thousands of liters of water per day, and their environment contains a high concentration of bacteria and viruses, Suberites have developed a highly potent system of immunity. Despite the efficiency of their immune systems, Suberites can be susceptible to infection which often stimulates cell death through apoptotic pathways. Suberites, namely S. domuncula, defend themselves from macroscopic threats with a neurotoxin known as suberitine.L. Cariello, L. Zanetti, Suberitine, the toxic protein from the marine spong suberites domuncula. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 64C, 15 (1979).

The laws and mathematical objects in classical electromagnetism can be written in a form which is manifestly covariant. Here, this is only done so for vacuum (or for the microscopic Maxwell equations, not using macroscopic descriptions of materials such as electric permittivity), and uses SI units. This section uses Einstein notation, including Einstein summation convention. See also Ricci calculus for a summary of tensor index notations, and raising and lowering indices for definition of superscript and subscript indices, and how to switch between them.

The molecular mechanisms that produce the elastic force are the same for all types of strain. When these elastic force models are combined with the complex morphology of the network, it is not possible to obtain simple analytic formulae to predict the macroscopic stress. It is only via numerical simulations on computers that it is possible to capture the complex interaction between the molecular forces and the network morphology to predict the stress and ultimate failure of a rubber sample as it is strained.

Along with cell shape, Gram staining is a rapid method used to differentiate bacterial species. Such staining, together with growth requirement and antibiotic susceptibility testing, and other macroscopic and physiologic tests, forms the full basis for classification and subdivision of the bacteria (e.g., see figure and pre-1990 versions of Bergey's Manual). 660px Historically, the kingdom Monera was divided into four divisions based primarily on Gram staining: Firmicutes (positive in staining), Gracilicutes (negative in staining), Mollicutes (neutral in staining) and Mendocutes (variable in staining).

Force on a reflector results from reflecting the photon flux Radiation pressure is the mechanical pressure exerted upon any surface due to the exchange of momentum between the object and the electromagnetic field. This includes the momentum of light or electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength which is absorbed, reflected, or otherwise emitted (e.g. black-body radiation) by matter on any scale (from macroscopic objects to dust particles to gas molecules).Stellar Atmospheres, D. Mihalas (1978), Second edition, W H Freeman & CoEddington, A. S., & Eddington, A. S. (1988).

Polymers prior (no gel) and after crosslinking (gel) Gelation (gel transition) is the formation of a gel from a system with polymers. Branched polymers can form links between the chains, which lead to progressively larger polymers. As the linking continues, larger branched polymers are obtained and at a certain extent of the reaction links between the polymer result in the formation of a single macroscopic molecule. At that point in the reaction, which is defined as gel point, the system loses fluidity and viscosity becomes very large.

The term nanocomposite is used if the combination of organic and inorganic structural units yield a material with composite properties. That is to say that the original properties of the separate organic and inorganic components are still present in the composite and are unchanged by mixing these materials. However, if a new property emerges from the intimate mixture, then the material becomes a hybrid. A macroscopic example is the mule, which is more suited for hard work than either of its parents, the horse and the donkey.

Members of Trichiida (and indeed all the orders of the Myxomycetes) follow the typical slime mold lifecycle without much deviation. The Myxomycete life cycle consists of two trophic phases: the smaller, amoebic phase where the organism has a single nucleus and may or may not also have flagellum for motility. The other phase is the macroscopic plasmodium, which arises from the fusion of multiple cells in the amoebic phase. This plasmodium is essentially a single cell with thousands of nuclei, that divide at the same time.

Compton was one of a handful of scientists and philosophers to propose a two-stage model of free will. Others include William James, Henri Poincaré, Karl Popper, Henry Margenau, and Daniel Dennett. In 1931, Compton championed the idea of human freedom based on quantum indeterminacy, and invented the notion of amplification of microscopic quantum events to bring chance into the macroscopic world. In his somewhat bizarre mechanism, he imagined sticks of dynamite attached to his amplifier, anticipating the Schrödinger's cat paradox, which was published in 1935.

The horizon dates 13 million years back to the lower Sarmatian during the middle Miocene period, making the two species the earlier known seahorse fossils in the world. Among the remains, one adult female specimen is fully preserved, with bony plates and other important macroscopic features. The rest are mostly juvenile specimens and remains of head and backbones of adults. The animals are believed to have lived among seagrasses and macroalgae in the temperate shallow coastal waters of the western part of the central Paratethys.

Friction and wear have been technological issues since ancient periods. On the one hand, the scientific approach of the last centuries towards the comprehension of the underlying mechanisms was focused on macroscopic aspects of tribology. On the other hand, in nanotribology, the systems studied are composed of nanometric structures, where volume forces (such as those related to mass and gravity) can often be considered negligible compared to surface forces. Scientific equipment to study such systems have been developed only in the second half of the 20th century.

Applications of quantum mechanics include the laser, the transistor, the electron microscope, and magnetic resonance imaging. A special class of quantum mechanical applications is related to macroscopic quantum phenomena such as superfluid helium and superconductors. The study of semiconductors led to the invention of the diode and the transistor, which are indispensable for modern electronics. In even the simple light switch, quantum tunnelling is absolutely vital, as otherwise the electrons in the electric current could not penetrate the potential barrier made up of a layer of oxide.

These effects are the reasons quantum mechanics is difficult to observe on a macroscopic scale. More so, understanding the interaction of a quantum system with its environment is necessary for understanding many commonly observed phenomena like the spontaneous emission of light from excited atoms, or the performance of many quantum technological devices, like the laser. Certain mathematical techniques have been introduced to treat the interaction of a quantum system with its environment. One of these is the use of the density matrix, and its associated master equation.

A large number of CNTs are needed to store a significant amount of energy that can be used for macroscopic processes. In order to achieve such a large amount of energy storage the CNT springs must maintain high stiffness and elasticity. It is in practice quite difficult to have such high stiffness and elastic strains in yarns or fibers made up of assemblies of CNTs as they seldom maintain mechanical properties of an individual SWCNT. This behavior occurs due to atomic defects and imperfect organisation.

A classical diffractor is devoid of quantum character. For diffraction, classical physics usually considers the case of an incoming and an outgoing wave, not of particle beams. When diffraction of particle beams was discovered by experiment, it seemed fitting to many writers to continue to think in terms of classical diffractors, formally belonging to the macroscopic laboratory apparatus, and of wave character belonging to the quantum object that suffers diffraction. It seems that Heisenberg in 1927 was thinking in terms of a classical diffractor.

This is an example of zero-point energy having multiple stable states (see Quantum phase transition, Quantum critical point, Topological degeneracy, Topological order) and where the overall system structure is independent of a reductionist or deterministic view, that "classical" macroscopic order can also causally affect quantum phenomena. Furthermore, the pair production of Beltrami vortices has been compared to the morphology of pair production of virtual particles in the vacuum. Timeline of the metric expansion of space. On the left, the dramatic expansion occurs in the inflationary epoch.

The signal appears to be a deliberate attempt to "jam" macroscopic communications, blocking those with the ability to understand the other signals from being able to see them. They refer to the blocking signal simply as the "destroyer". The protagonist of the story, Ivo Archer, is taken to the macroscope station on the invitation of a childhood friend, Brad Carpenter. Ivo has an unexplained link to a mysterious hyper-intelligent character, Schön, and Brad believes Schön may be able to break through the destroyer signal.

In theoretical physics, functional renormalization group (FRG) is an implementation of the renormalization group (RG) concept which is used in quantum and statistical field theory, especially when dealing with strongly interacting systems. The method combines functional methods of quantum field theory with the intuitive renormalization group idea of Kenneth G. Wilson. This technique allows to interpolate smoothly between the known microscopic laws and the complicated macroscopic phenomena in physical systems. In this sense, it bridges the transition from simplicity of microphysics to complexity of macrophysics.

A superfluid is a fluid which has no viscosity, or resistance to flow, meaning that flow around a closed loop will last forever. These strange fluids exist only at temperatures close to absolute zero, being in effect a more ordered and separate fluid state, arising due to the macroscopic influence of quantum mechanics brought about by the low temperatures involved. Despite having no viscosity, turbulence is possible in a superfluid. This was first suggested theoretically by Richard Feynman in 1955, and was soon found experimentally.

Helium II is usefully regarded theoretically as a mixture of normal fluid and superfluid, having a total density equal to the sum of the densities of the two components. The normal part behaves like any other liquid, and the superfluid part flows without resistance. The proportions of the two components change continuously from all normal fluid at the transition temperature (2.172 K) to all superfluid at zero temperature. More details can be found in the articles on superfluid helium-4 and macroscopic quantum phenomena.

No one had previously studied such lesions systematically at the Mayo Clinic; indeed worldwide knowledge on that topic was then quite limited. Working with Mark Coventry, an orthopedic oncologist, Dahlin cataloged the clinical, radiographic, macroscopic, and histopathologic features of virtually all bone tumors in the Mayo archive. That undertaking eventuated in the publication of a book entitled "Bone Tumors: General Aspects and an Analysis of 2276 Cases," in 1957.Dahlin DC: Bone Tumors: General Aspects and an Analysis of 2276 Cases, C.C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1957.

Wood properties are improved considerably by converting hydrophilic OH-groups into larger more hydrophobic groups. Also the physical fixation of modifying chemicals in the cell wall matrix can considerably change the wood properties. In addition to a hydrophobing effect, the treatments reduce the volume of cell wall nano-pores and thus decrease the incorporation of water molecules into the cell wall matrix. On a macroscopic scale, wood modification can change important properties of the wood including biological durability (resistance against fungi), dimensional stability, hardness and UV-stability.

Advanced Composite Materials is a bimonthly peer-review scientific journal that was established in 1991. It is published by Taylor & Francis on behalf of the Japan Society for Composite Materials and the Korean Society for Composite Materials. The journal covers all scientific and technological aspects of composite materials and composite material structures, including physical, chemical, mechanical, and other properties of advanced composites as well as microscopic to macroscopic behavior studied both experimentally and theoretically. Novel fabrication techniques for composites and composite structural components are also included.

The E Ring is the second outermost ring and is extremely wide; it consists of many tiny (micron and sub-micron) particles of water ice with silicates, carbon dioxide and ammonia. The E Ring is distributed between the orbits of Mimas and Titan. Unlike the other rings, it is composed of microscopic particles rather than macroscopic ice chunks. In 2005, the source of the E Ring's material was determined to be cryovolcanic plumes emanating from the "tiger stripes" of the south polar region of the moon Enceladus.

Current physical theories cannot resolve the question of whether determinism is true of the world, being very far from a potential Theory of Everything, and open to many different interpretations. Assuming that an indeterministic interpretation of quantum mechanics is correct, one may still object that such indeterminism is for all practical purposes confined to microscopic phenomena. This is not always the case: many macroscopic phenomena are based on quantum effects. For instance, some hardware random number generators work by amplifying quantum effects into practically usable signals.

Tetraspora is a genus of green algae found within the monophyletic group Volvocales, which is under the phylum Chlorophyta. Species of Tetraspora are unicellular green algae that exist in arrangements of four and consist of cells being packaged together in a gelatinous envelope that creates macroscopic colonies. These are primarily freshwater organisms, although there have been few cases where they have been found inhabiting marine environments and even contaminated water bodies. Tetraspora species can be found all around the globe, with the exception of Antarctica.

Once the Wiegand wire has flipped magnetization, it will retain that magnetization until flipped in the other direction. Sensors and mechanisms that use the Wiegand effect must take this retention into account. The Wiegand effect is a macroscopic extension of the Barkhausen effect, as the special treatment of the Wiegand wire causes the wire to act macroscopically as a single large magnetic domain. The numerous small high- coercivity domains in the Wiegand wire outer shell switch in an avalanche, generating the Wiegand effect's rapid magnetic field change.

In particular, the Higgs boson explains why the photon has no mass, while the W and Z bosons are very heavy. Elementary-particle masses, and the differences between electromagnetism (mediated by the photon) and the weak force (mediated by the W and Z bosons), are critical to many aspects of the structure of microscopic (and hence macroscopic) matter. In electroweak theory, the Higgs boson generates the masses of the leptons (electron, muon, and tau) and quarks. As the Higgs boson is massive, it must interact with itself.

Diplomitoporus is a genus of fungi in the family Polyporaceae. The Dictionary of the Fungi (10th edition, 2008) estimated the widespread genus to contain 11 species; since then, the genus has grown with the additional of several newly described species, and some transfers from other genera. Diplomitoporus has been described as a wastebasket taxon, containing "species that share common macroscopic and microscopic characteristics, but are not necessarily related." Diplomitoporus was circumscribed in 1970 by Polish mycologist Stanislaw Domanski, with Diplomitoporus flavescens as the type species.

A molecular machine, nanite, or nanomachine, is a molecular component that produces quasi-mechanical movements (output) in response to specific stimuli (input). In biology, macromolecular machines frequently perform tasks essential for life such as DNA replication and ATP synthesis. The expression is often more generally applied to molecules that simply mimic functions that occur at the macroscopic level. The term is also common in nanotechnology where a number of highly complex molecular machines have been proposed that are aimed at the goal of constructing a molecular assembler.

Even an entire beam of protons circulated in the LHC contains ~ protons, each with of energy, for a total beam energy of ~ or ~ 336.4 MJ, which is still ~ times lower than the mass-energy of a single gram of hydrogen. Yet, the macroscopic realm is "low energy physics", while that of quantum particles is "high energy physics". The interactions studied in other fields of physics and science have comparatively very low energy. For example, the photon energy of visible light is about 1.8 to 3.1 eV.

Bleeding complications include a collection of blood adjacent to or around the kidney (perinephric haematoma), bleeding into the urine with passage of blood stained urine (macroscopic haematuria) or bleeding from larger blood vessels that lie adjacent the kidney. If blood clots in the bladder, this can obstruct the bladder and lead to urinary retention. The majority of bleeding that occurs following renal biopsy usually resolves on its own without long-term damage. Less commonly, the bleeding may be brisk (causing shock) or persistent (causing anaemia) or both.

In ordinary materials, the magnetic dipole moments of individual atoms produce magnetic fields that cancel one another, because each dipole points in a random direction. Ferromagnetic materials below their Curie temperature, however, exhibit magnetic domains in which the atomic dipole moments are locally aligned, producing a macroscopic, non-zero magnetic field from the domain. These are the ordinary "magnets" with which we are all familiar. The study of the behavior of such "spin models" is a thriving area of research in condensed matter physics.

The red layers show Fe3+/Fe2+ > 1, whereas in the greenish layers the ratio is < 1, the coloration in the latter being tied to sericite, chlorite and maybe pyrite. In thin section it can be observed that the siliceous groundmass is derived from the innumerable skeletons of radiolarians (maximal size 0.1 mm in diameter) altered during diagenesis. The cherts chemical composition nearly approaches 100% silica. On a macroscopic scale the rock is intensely criss-crossed by net-like fracture systems, which were later filled by calcite.

Tactoids are liquid crystal microdomains nucleated in isotropic phases, which can be distinguished as spherical or spindle-shaped birefringent microdroplets under polarized light microscopy. Tactoids are a transition state between isotropic and macroscopic liquid crystalline phases. The first observation of tactoids was made by Zocher in 1925, when he studied the nematic phase formed in vanadium pentoxide sols. After that, tactoids have been found in the phase transition processes in many lyotropic liquid crystalline substances, such as tobacco mosaic virus, polypeptides, and cellulose nanocrystals.

The moving boundary treatment and bubbly fluid flow behavior in high Reynolds number and Froude number flows are the primary questions to address. Driven by contributing to the understanding of the underlying physics of turbulence and wave breaking, Prof. Frandsen investigates the suitability of numerical approaches spanning a wide range of length scales from micro to macroscopic flow structures in highly nonlinear flows. The continuum- and mesoscopic approaches explored include discretization of fully non-linear free-surface potential flow -, Navier- Stokes - and Lattice Boltzmann equations (LBE).

Cage himself, however, regarded Music of Changes as a determinate work, because it is completely fixed from one performance to another . Iannis Xenakis used probability theories to define some microscopic aspects of Pithoprakta (1955–56), that is the Greek for "actions by means of probability". This work contains four sections, characterized by textural and timbral attributes, such as glissandi and pizzicati. At the macroscopic level, the sections are designed and controlled by the composer, but the single components of sound are generated by mathematical theories .

Microscopic algae and plants provide important habitats for life, sometimes acting as hiding places for larval forms of larger fish and foraging places for invertebrates. Algal life is widespread and very diverse under the ocean. Microscopic photosynthetic algae contribute a larger proportion of the world's photosynthetic output than all the terrestrial forests combined. Most of the niche occupied by sub plants on land is actually occupied by macroscopic algae in the ocean, such as Sargassum and kelp, which are commonly known as seaweeds that create kelp forests.

By doing so, they believe that it will contribute to a healthier lifestyle. Its doctrine is based on cosmobiology in which several emotional and physiological dilemmas in the body are associated with the positioning of celestial bodies in outer space. Iatromathematics is closely correlated with biomechanics because the field of biomechanics investigates macrobiotic bodies to a macroscopic degree through the appliance of several engineering principles. The perspective of iatromathematicians differed from that of iatrophysicists and iatrochemists in terms of the way human bodies function.

However, there is no reason that one must confine one's self to this strict conceptualization, that electrons move in paths the same way macroscopic objects do. Rather one can conceptualize electrons to be 'particles' that capriciously exist within the bounds of the electron cloud. Inside the atomic nucleus, the protons and neutrons are also probably moving around due to the electrical repulsion of the protons and the presence of angular momentum of both particles.Chapter 2, Nuclear Science- A guide to the nuclear science wall chart.

The lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) with its simplified kinetic picture on a lattice provides a computationally efficient description of hydrodynamics. Unlike the traditional CFD methods, which solve the conservation equations of macroscopic properties (i.e., mass, momentum, and energy) numerically, LBM models the fluid consisting of fictive particles, and such particles perform consecutive propagation and collision processes over a discrete lattice mesh. In this method, one works with the discrete in space and time version of the kinetic evolution equation in the Boltzmann Bhatnagar-Gross-Krook (BGK) form.

The two less-studied kinds of pseudoelasticity are pseudo-twin formation and rubber- like behavior due to short range order. At stresses above the martensitic stress (A), austenite will transform to martensite and induce large macroscopic strains until no austenite remains (C). Upon unloading, martensite will revert to austenite phase beneath the austenitic stress (D), at which point strain will be recovered until the material is fully austenitic and little to no deformation remains. The main pseudoelastic effect is comes from a stress-induced phase transformation.

If initially there are many windings of strings around compact dimensions, space could only expand to macroscopic sizes once these windings are eliminated, which requires oppositely wound strings to find each other and annihilate. But strings can only find each other to annihilate at a meaningful rate in three dimensions, so it follows that only three dimensions of space are allowed to grow large given this kind of initial configuration. Extra dimensions are said to be universal if all fields are equally free to propagate within them.

1, Article 9. Heterosexual men are not only given primacy over other gender and sexual minorities, but are also encouraged and rewarded. On the microscopic level, heteropatriarchy could be evident in consumption habits and relationships while on the macroscopic level it is demonstrated by the glass ceiling, marriage, and the legal control over female bodies. From a historical point of view, the term patriarchy refers to the father as the power holder inside the family hierarchy, and therefore, women become subordinate to the power of men.

It is only when you study that gas at a macroscopic scale that the effects of entropy become noticeable. On average you would expect the smoke particles around a struck match to drift away from each other, diffusing throughout the available space. It would be an astronomically improbable event for all the particles to cluster together, yet you cannot comment on the movement of any one smoke particle. By contrast, certain subatomic interactions involving the weak nuclear force violate the conservation of parity, but only very rarely.

However, the maximum energy that can be "recycled" from such recovery processes is limited by the second law of thermodynamics. Energy can be transferred between systems in a variety of ways. Examples include the transmission of electromagnetic energy via photons, physical collisions which transfer kinetic energy,The mechanism for most macroscopic physical collisions is actually electromagnetic, but it is very common to simplify the interaction by ignoring the mechanism of collision and just calculate the beginning and end result. and the conductive transfer of thermal energy.

In medicine, desensitization is a method to reduce or eliminate an organism's negative reaction to a substance or stimulus. In pharmacology, drug desensitization refers to two related concepts. First, desensitization may be equivalent to drug tolerance and refers to subjects' reactions (positive or negative) to a drug reducing following its repeated use. This is a macroscopic, organism-level effect and differs from the second meaning of desensitization, which refers to a biochemical effect where individual receptors become less responsive after repeated application of an agonist.

The power law dependence observed agrees with trends between density and modulus and compressive strength observed in experimental studies on graphene aerogels. The macroscopic geometric structure of the aerogel has been shown both computationally and experimentally to affect mechanical properties observed. 3D printed periodic hexagonal graphene aerogel structures exhibited an order of magnitude larger modulus compared to bulk graphene aerogels of the same density when is applied along the vertical axis. The dependence of stiffness on structure is commonly observed in other cellular structures.

In condensed matter physics and physical chemistry, the Lifshitz theory of van der Waals forces, sometimes called the macroscopic theory of van der Waals forces, is a method proposed by Evgeny Mikhailovich Lifshitz in 1954 for treating van der Waals forces between bodies which does not assume pairwise additivity of the individual intermolecular forces; that is to say, the theory takes into account the influence of neighboring molecules on the interaction between every pair of molecules located in the two bodies, rather than treating each pair independently.

In the physical sciences, such variability may result from random measurement errors: instrument measurements are often not perfectly precise, i.e., reproducible, and there is additional inter-rater variability in interpreting and reporting the measured results. One may assume that the quantity being measured is stable, and that the variation between measurements is due to observational error. A system of a large number of particles is characterized by the mean values of a relatively few number of macroscopic quantities such as temperature, energy, and density.

His publications were almost exclusively devoted to this until the early 1970s, when he began to distinguish himself as a historian and theorist of the global capitalist economy on a macroscopic level. His early criticism of global capitalism and championship of "anti-systemic movements" made him an éminence grise with the anti-globalization movement within and outside of the academic community, along with Noam Chomsky and Pierre Bourdieu. His most important work, The Modern World-System, appeared in four volumes between 1974 and 2011.Williams, Gregory.

Lithology was once approximately synonymous with petrography, but in current usage, lithology focuses on macroscopic hand-sample or outcrop-scale description of rocks while petrography is the speciality that deals with microscopic details. In the petroleum industry, lithology, or more specifically mud logging, is the graphic representation of geological formations being drilled through, and drawn on a log called a mud log. As the cuttings are circulated out of the borehole they are sampled, examined (typically under a 10× microscope) and tested chemically when needed.

Feynman diagram of a glueball (G) decaying to two pions (). Such decays help the study of and search for glueballs. Because Standard Model glueballs are so ephemeral (decaying almost immediately into more stable decay products) and are only generated in high energy physics, glueballs only arise synthetically in the natural conditions found on Earth that humans can easily observe. They are scientifically notable mostly because they are a testable prediction of the Standard Model, and not because of phenomenological impact on macroscopic processes, or their engineering applications.

Chase received her B.A. from Wellesley College and her Ph.D. from the University of Geneva in Switzerland. She was a research assistant at the botany department at Columbia University before moving to Washington, D.C.. In Washington, she worked for the Smithsonian Institution at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, where she studied photosynthesis and its relationship to fluorescence. In her work on "Useful Algae" she also explored the use of macroscopic marine algae as food sources. She contributed to the Smithsonian's collections, donating plants from Spain.

Statistical mechanics, also called statistical thermodynamics, emerged with the development of atomic and molecular theories in the late 19th century and early 20th century, and supplemented classical thermodynamics with an interpretation of the microscopic interactions between individual particles or quantum-mechanical states. This field relates the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic, bulk properties of materials that can be observed on the human scale, thereby explaining classical thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics, classical mechanics, and quantum theory at the microscopic level.

Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium. Most systems found in nature are not in thermodynamic equilibrium because they are not in stationary states, and are continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and energy to and from other systems. The thermodynamic study of non-equilibrium systems requires more general concepts than are dealt with by equilibrium thermodynamics. Many natural systems still today remain beyond the scope of currently known macroscopic thermodynamic methods.

In 2008, the traffic flow data of the city street network of Yokohama, Japan was collected using 500 fixed sensors and 140 mobile sensors. The studyGeroliminis, N; Daganzo, CF. “Existence of urban-scale macroscopic fundamental diagrams: Some experimental findings.” TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH PART B-METHODOLOGICAL; NOV, 2008; 42; 9; p759-p770 revealed that city sectors with approximate area of 10 km2 are expected to have well-defined MFD functions. However, the observed MFD does not produce the full MFD function in the congested region of higher densities.

On various nutrient agars, Z. bailii colonies are smooth, round, convex and white to cream coloured, with a diameter of 2 – 3 mm at 3 – 7 days. As the morphology properties of Zygosaccharomyces are identical to other yeast genera such as Saccharomyces, Candida and Pichia, it is impossible to differentiate Zygosaccharomyces from other yeasts or individual species within the genus based on macroscopic and microscopic morphology observations. Therefore, the yeast identification to species level is more dependent on physiological and genetic characteristics than on morphological criteria.

As of October 2018, the largest magnetic field produced in a laboratory over a macroscopic volume was 1.2 kT by researchers at the University of Tokyo in 2018. The largest magnetic fields produced in a laboratory occur in particle accelerators, such as RHIC, inside the collisions of heavy ions, where microscopic fields reach 1014 T. Magnetars have the strongest known magnetic fields of any naturally occurring object, ranging from 0.1 to 100 GT (108 to 1011 T).Kouveliotou, C.; Duncan, R. C.; Thompson, C. (February 2003). "Magnetars ".

Free energy diagram of the folding of a foldamer. Foldamers can vary in size, but they are defined by the presence of noncovalent, nonadjacent interactions. This definition excludes molecules like poly(isocyanates) (commonly known as (polyurethane)) and poly(prolines) as they fold into helices reliably due to adjacent covalent interactions., Foldamers have a dynamic folding reaction [unfolded → folded], in which large macroscopic folding is caused by solvophobic effects (hydrophobic collapse), while the final energy state of the folded foldamer is due to the noncovalent interactions.

In classical mechanics it is assumed that given properties – speed or mass of a particle; temperature of a gas, etc. – can in principle be measured to any degree of accuracy desired. Study of the problem of measurement in quantum mechanics has shown that measurement of any object involves interactions between the measuring apparatus and that object that inevitably affect it in some way; at the scale of particles this effect is necessarily large. On the everyday macroscopic scale the effect can be made small.

Eugene Michael Chudnovsky (born 12 December 1948) is a Distinguished Professor of Physics at Herbert H. Lehman CollegeLehman College, Chudnovsky in the list of Faculty. of the City University of New York (CUNY) and a member of the doctoral faculty at the CUNY Graduate School. Chudnovsky is a Fellow of the American Physical Society (APS), elected 1993Chudnovsky - APS Fellow for "seminal contributions to random ferromagnetism, macroscopic quantum tunneling, and hexatic order in high Tc materials". He is mostly known for his work on quantum tunneling of magnetization.

W. Kuhn and H. Kuhn: Die Frage nach der Aufrollung von Fadenmolekülen in strömenden Lösungen Helv. Chim. Acta 26:1394 (1943). Today the preferential element is called Kuhn length, in the recent textbook Principles of Physical Chemistry it is simply called statistical chain element.Principles of Physical Chemistry by Hans Kuhn, Horst-Dieter Försterling and David H. Waldeck, 2nd Edition, Wiley, Hoboken (2009) Kuhn made experiments with macroscopic models of random coils to describe the behavior in flowing liquids more accurately than based on the dumbbell-model.

In such cases, although we observe the emergence of coarse-scale, macroscopic behavior, modeling it through explicit closure relations may be impossible or impractical. Non-Newtonian fluid flow, chemotaxis, porous media transport, epidemiology, brain modeling and neuronal systems are some typical examples. Equation-free modeling aims to use such microscale models to predict coarse macroscale emergent phenomena. Performing coarse-scale computational tasks directly with fine-scale models is often infeasible: direct simulation over the full space-time domain of interest is often computationally prohibitive.

Although materials with higher melting points are more stable at room temperatures, consolidating nanocrystalline feedstock into a macroscopic component often requires exposing the material to elevated temperatures for extended periods of time, which will result in coarsening of the nanocrystalline microstructure. Thus, thermally stable nanocrystalline alloys are of considerable engineering interest. Experiments have shown that traditional microstructural stabilization techniques such as grain boundary pinning via solute segregation or increasing solute concentrations have proven successful in some alloy systems, such as Pd-Zr and Ni-W .

Even for a cat otherwise isolated from the rest of the Universe, and even with no observer present, there are so many unknowns in the quantum state of the whole cat, that the relevant mathematics determine that only the normally observed classical states of the cat are at all probable, except over the very shortest of timescales. This reasoning is developed formally within measurement theory, and applies to any macroscopic, non-super cooled measuring device, whether or not there is an observer to watch it.

A knowledge of the properties of the interstellar gas and dust through which the vehicle must pass is essential for the design of any interstellar space mission. A major issue with traveling at extremely high speeds is that interstellar dust may cause considerable damage to the craft, due to the high relative speeds and large kinetic energies involved. Various shielding methods to mitigate this problem have been proposed. Larger objects (such as macroscopic dust grains) are far less common, but would be much more destructive.

Palladium supported on vertically aligned multi-walled carbon nanotubes (Pd/VA-CNTs) is used as catalyst for the C-C coupling reactions of p-iodonitrobenzene with styrene and ethyl acrylate under microwave irradiation. Pd/VA-CNTs catalyst exhibits higher activity compared to Pd supported on activated charcoal, under the same reaction conditions. Due to the microwave irradiation, the kinetics of the reaction are strongly accelerated compared to that obtained with a traditional heating mode. The macroscopic form of aligned CNTs support allows an easy recovery of the catalyst, avoiding costly post-reaction separation processes.

The average risk of HIV infection from unprotected anal sex is considerably higher, though, at around 5.30 per 1000. However, during rape, because of the force used, it is very much more likely that there will be macroscopic or microscopic tears to the vaginal mucosa, something that will greatly increase the probability of HIV transmission. There is no information about the feasibility or cost- effectiveness in resource-poor settings of routinely offering rape victims prophylaxis for HIV. Testing for HIV infection after rape is difficult in any case.

Using a BRST antifield formalism with a duality gauge fixing, a consistent quantization in spaces of double dual curvature is obtained. The constraint imposes instanton type solutions on the curvature- squared 'Yang-Mielke theory' of gravity, proposed in its affine form already by Weyl 1919 and by Yang in 1974. However, these exact solutions exhibit a 'vacuum degeneracy'. One needs to modify the double duality of the curvature via scale breaking terms, in order to retain Einstein's equations with an induced cosmological constant of partially topological origin as the unique macroscopic 'background'.

Three other tropical genera of the family Sarcoscyphaceae, Phillipsia, Sarcoscypha, and Geodina, have brightly colored apothecia which might be confused with those of Cookeina. Although these genera may be distinguished microscopically because they all have asci which mature seriatim rather than simultaneously and paraphyses which do not anastomose to form a reticulum, distinguishing on the basis of macroscopic characters is less reliable. Species of Phyllipsia have apothecia that are saucer-shaped to discoid, thick-fleshed, and usually sessile. In Sarcoscypha the apothecia vary from saucer-shaped to cup-shaped and are usually stipitate.

These machines exploit the increased frictional forces found at the micro or nanoscale. Unlike a paddle or a propeller which depends on normal frictional forces (the frictional forces perpendicular to the surface) to achieve propulsion, cilia develop motion from the exaggerated drag or laminar forces (frictional forces parallel to the surface) present at micro and nano dimensions. To build meaningful "machines" at the nanoscale, the relevant forces need to be considered. We are faced with the development and design of intrinsically pertinent machines rather than the simple reproductions of macroscopic ones.

For equilibrium thermodynamics, in a thermodynamic state of a system, its contents are in internal thermodynamic equilibrium, with zero flows of all quantities, both internal and between system and surroundings. For Planck, the primary characteristic of a thermodynamic state of a system that consists of a single phase, in the absence of an externally imposed force field, is spatial homogeneity.Planck, M., (1923/1927), p. 3. For non-equilibrium thermodynamics, a suitable set of identifying state variables includes some macroscopic variables, for example a non-zero spatial gradient of temperature, that indicate departure from thermodynamic equilibrium.

Physarum polycephalum, an acellular slime mold or myxomycete, is a protist with diverse cellular forms and broad geographic distribution. The “acellular” moniker derives from the plasmodial stage of the life cycle: the plasmodium is a bright yellow macroscopic multinucleate coenocyte shaped in a network of interlaced tubes. This stage of the life cycle, along with its preference for damp shady habitats, likely contributed to the original mischaracterization of the organism as a fungus. P. polycephalum is used as a model organism for research into motility, cellular differentiation, chemotaxis, cellular compatibility, and the cell cycle.

It can be put in by hand, or calculated approximately using any of a number of well-known relations between the dipole fluctuations inside the simulation box and the macroscopic dielectric constant. Another possible modification is to take into account the finite time required for the reaction field to respond to changes in the cavity. This "delayed reaction field method" was investigated by van Gunsteren, Berendsen and Rullmann in 1978. It was found to give better results—this makes sense, as without taking into account the delay, the reaction field is overestimated.

An Essay on Freeman Dyson, Designer of the TRIGA Reactor Published by wirebiters.com on 7 October 2014, retrieved on 25 April 2019 In 1966, independently of Elliott H. Lieb and Walter Thirring, Dyson and Andrew Lenard published a paper proving that the Pauli exclusion principle plays the main role in the stability of bulk matter. Hence it is not the electromagnetic repulsion between outer-shell orbital electrons that prevents two stacked wood blocks from coalescing into a single piece, but the exclusion principle applied to electrons and protons that generates the classical macroscopic normal force.

A "system" is any region of space containing matter and energy: A cup of coffee, a glass of ice water, an automobile, an egg. Thermodynamic variables do not give a "complete" picture of the system. Thermodynamics makes no assumptions about the microscopic nature of a system and does not describe nor does it take into account the positions and velocities of the individual atoms and molecules which make up the system. Thermodynamics deals with matter in a macroscopic sense; it would be valid even if the atomic theory of matter were wrong.

Microviscosity, also known as microscopic viscosity, is the friction experienced by a single particle undergoing diffusion because of its interaction with its environment at the micrometer length scale. The concept of microviscosity is intimately related to the concept of single particle diffusion and can be measured using microrheology. Understanding microviscosity requires an understanding of viscosity and diffusion i.e. macroscopic viscosity and bulk diffusion and where their assumptions break down at the micro to nanometer scale where physicists are still trying to replace phenomenological laws with physical laws governing the behavior of single particle mobility.

Critics of collapse theories argue that it is not clear how to interpret these tails, since they amount to the system never being really fully localized in space. Supporters of collapse theories mostly dismiss this criticism as a misunderstanding of the theory, as in the context of dynamical collapse theories, the absolute square of the wave function is interpreted as an actual matter density. In this case, the tails merely represent an immeasurably small amount of smeared-out matter, while from a macroscopic perspective, all particles appear to be point-like for all practical purposes.

Myers and Świątecki also proposed that some superheavy nuclei would be longer-lived as a consequence of higher fission barriers. Further improvements in the nuclear shell model by Soviet physicist Vilen Strutinsky led to the emergence of the macroscopic–microscopic method, a nuclear mass model that takes into consideration both smooth trends characteristic of the liquid drop model and local fluctuations such as shell effects. This approach enabled Swedish physicist Sven Nilsson et al., as well as other groups, to make the first detailed calculations of the stability of nuclei within the island.

This aims to give industry confidence in the reliability of the numerical tools introduced in their integrated numerical models of casting, and their relationship. To achieve this goal, intensive deepening of the quantitative characterization of the basic physical phenomena that, from the microscopic to the macroscopic scales, govern microstructure formation and CET will be pursued. CET occurs during columnar growth when new grains grow ahead of the columnar front in the undercooled liquid. Under certain conditions, these grains can stop the columnar growth and then the solidification microstructure becomes equiaxed.

Alarmed by this brutality and worried Nevis will use his suit's power to subjugate her as well, Dawnstar runs away from Nevis, ultimately finding the vast seedship's control room. Anittas, meanwhile, betrays Nevis, releasing several of the ship's macroscopic bioweapons, including acid-spitting "hellkittens"; hyper- aggressive, carnivorous, bat-like creatures; spider-like, unimaginably sharp- edged organisms known as "walking webs"; and a T. rex. Furious at his treachery, Nevis kills the dying Anittas. Meanwhile, Waan, Lion, and Tuf have found the armory, but have split up due to disagreements on leadership.

A major exception to this rule is native mercury: it is still classified as a mineral by the IMA, even though crystallizes only below −39 °C, because it was included before the current rules were established. Water is and carbon dioxide are not considered minerals, even though they are often found as inclusions in other minerals; but water ice is considered a mineral. # It must have a well-defined crystallographic structure; or, more generally, an ordered atomic arrangement. This property implies several macroscopic physical properties, such as crystal form, hardness, and cleavage.

In chemistry, a molecular knot is a mechanically interlocked molecular architecture that is analogous to a macroscopic knot. Naturally forming molecular knots are found in organic molecules like DNA, RNA, and proteins. It is not certain that naturally occurring knots are evolutionarily advantageous to nucleic acids or proteins, though knotting is thought to play a role in the structure, stability, and function of knotted biological molecules. The mechanism by which knots naturally form in molecules, and the mechanism by which a molecule is stabilized or improved by knotting, is ambiguous.

The approximate version of the Eastin Knill theorem states: "If a code admits a universal set of transversal gates and corrects erasure with fixed accuracy, then for each logical qubit, a number of physical qubits per subsystem that is inversely proportional to the error parameter is needed". The approximate version of the Eastin–Knill theorem is more robust than the original because it explains why it's impossible to have continuous symmetries for transversal gates on the microscopic scale while also explaining how it's possible to have continuous symmetries for transversal gates on the macroscopic scale.

There are two essentially different kinds of rigidity. Finite or macroscopic rigidity means that the structure will not flex, fold, or bend by a positive amount. Infinitesimal rigidity means that the structure will not flex by even an amount that is too small to be detected even in theory. (Technically, that means certain differential equations have no nonzero solutions.) The importance of finite rigidity is obvious, but infinitesimal rigidity is also crucial because infinitesimal flexibility in theory corresponds to real-world minuscule flexing, and consequent deterioration of the structure.

Deepak Chopra coined the term "quantum healing". His discussions of quantum healing have been characterised as technobabble - "incoherent babbling strewn with scientific terms" which drives those who actually understand physics "crazy" and as "redefining Wrong". Quantum healing has a number of vocal followers, but the scientific community widely regards it as nonsensical. The main criticism revolves around its systematic misinterpretations of modern physics, especially of the fact that macroscopic objects (such as the human body or individual cells) are much too large to exhibit inherently quantum properties like interference and wave function collapse.

Iitaka argues that the KOH ions compensate for the large net electric dipole moment of the crystal lattice along the c-axis. The aforementioned electronic structure calculations are done assuming an infinite lattice and ignore the effects of macroscopic electric fields created by surface charges. Because such fields are present in any finite size crystal, in non-doped ice XI, domains of alternating dipole moment should form as in conventional ferroelectrics. It has also been suggested that the ice Ih => ice XI transition is enabled by the tunneling of protons.

For example, A. Münster writes: "An isolated system is in thermodynamic equilibrium when, in the system, no changes of state are occurring at a measurable rate." There are two reservations stated here; the system is isolated; any changes of state are immeasurably slow. He discusses the second proviso by giving an account of a mixture oxygen and hydrogen at room temperature in the absence of a catalyst. Münster points out that a thermodynamic equilibrium state is described by fewer macroscopic variables than is any other state of a given system.

In his exposition of his scheme of closed system equilibrium thermodynamics, C. Carathéodory initially postulates that experiment reveals that a definite number of real variables define the states that are the points of the manifold of equilibria. In the words of Prigogine and Defay (1945): "It is a matter of experience that when we have specified a certain number of macroscopic properties of a system, then all the other properties are fixed."Prigogine, I., Defay, R. (1950/1954), p. 1.Silbey, R.J., Alberty, R.A., Bawendi, M.G. (1955/2005), p. 4.

Fundamental elements for the technic description of a lithic flake In archaeology, a lithic flake is a "portion of rock removed from an objective piece by percussion or pressure,"Andrefsky, W. (2005) Lithics: Macroscopic Approaches to Analysis. 2d Ed. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press and may also be referred to as a chip or flake, or collectively as debitage. The objective piece, or the rock being reduced by the removal of flakes, is known as a core. Once the proper tool stone has been selected, a percussor or pressure flaker (e.g.

Amanita authority Rodham E. Tulloss considers A. amici (published by Claude Casimir Gillet in 1891) to be synonymous with A. gemmata, as the macroscopic characteristics of the former fall within the limits of the range expected for the latter. Within the genus Amanita, A. gemmata is classified in subgenus Amanita, section Amanita, subsection Gemmatae, and series Gemmatae. Tulloss places the species in a stirps (an informal ranking above species level) with A. russuloides and A. viscidolutea. Some mycologists believe that A. gemmata is not different from A. russuloides.

The trabeculated tissue has a spongy appearance; along with blood, it fills the large, dilated vascular spaces of the clitoris and the bulbs. Beneath the epithelium of the vascular areas is smooth muscle. As indicated by Yang et al.'s research, it may also be that the urethral lumen (the inner open space or cavity of the urethra), which is surrounded by spongy tissue, has tissue that "is grossly distinct from the vascular tissue of the clitoris and bulbs, and on macroscopic observation, is paler than the dark tissue" of the clitoris and bulbs.

Given these findings, some scientists have argued that there is a VNO in adult human beings. However, most investigators have sought to identify the opening of the vomeronasal organ in humans, rather than identify the tubular epithelial structure itself. Thus it has been argued that such studies, employing macroscopic observational methods, have sometimes missed or even misidentified the vomeronasal organ.[21] Among studies that use microanatomical methods, there is no reported evidence that human beings have active sensory neurons like those in working vomeronasal systems of other animals.

These mechanical procedures usually leave rugged surfaces with many tiny asperities protruding from the apex which led to atomic resolution on flat surfaces. However, irregular shape and large macroscopic radius of curvature result in poor reproducibility and decreased stability especially for probing rough surfaces. Another main disadvantage of making probes by this method is that it creates many mini tips which lead to many different signals, yielding error in imaging. Cutting, grinding and pulling procedures can only be adapted for metallic tips like W, Ag, Pt, Ir, Pt-Ir and gold.

Since this energy difference has a fluctuation, then the frequency/wavelength of the "macroscopic emission" (the beam) will have a certain width (i.e. it will be "broadened" with respect to the "ideal" perfectly monochromatic emission). Depending on the nature of the fluctuation, there can be two types of broadening. If the fluctuation in the frequency/wavelength is due to a phenomenon that is the same for each quantum emitter, there is homogeneous broadening, while if each quantum emitter has a different type of fluctuation, the broadening is inhomogeneous.

Underneath the macroscopic (Circuit Level) and mesoscopic (Technology Computer Aided Design level) modelling of CNT interconnects, it is also important to consider the microscopic (Ab Initio level) modelling. Significant work has been carried out on the electronic, and thermal, modeling of CNTs. Band structure and molecular level simulation tools can be also found on nanoHUB. Further potential modeling improvements include the self-consistent simulation of the interaction between electronic and thermal transport in CNTs, but also in copper-CNT composite lines and CNT contacts with metals and other relevant materials.

Photothermal optical microscopy / "photothermal single particle microscopy" is a technique that is based on detection of non-fluorescent labels. It relies on absorption properties of labels (gold nanoparticles, semiconductor nanocrystals, etc.), and can be realized on a conventional microscope using a resonant modulated heating beam, non-resonant probe beam and lock-in detection of photothermal signals from a single nanoparticle. It is the extension of the macroscopic photothermal spectroscopy to the nanoscopic domain. The high sensitivity and selectivity of photothermal microscopy allows even the detection of single molecules by their absorption.

'Loschmidt's paradox, also known as the reversibility paradox, irreversibility paradox or ''''', is the objection that it should not be possible to deduce an irreversible process from time-symmetric dynamics. This puts the time reversal symmetry of (almost) all known low-level fundamental physical processes at odds with any attempt to infer from them the second law of thermodynamics which describes the behaviour of macroscopic systems. Both of these are well- accepted principles in physics, with sound observational and theoretical support, yet they seem to be in conflict, hence the paradox.

Susan Alexjander is an American sound artist, musical composer and teacher living and working in Portland, Oregon. Finding inspiration in the natural world and in science, she is fascinated by the vibrational frequencies of natural phenomena, ranging widely from the microscopic (elements, DNA) to the macroscopic (body rhythms, water, stars, time). She has created a microtonal system based on the frequencies of DNA, transforming natural vibrational patterns into sounds to create music. She has collaborated with both scientists and artists, and her compositions have been performed both nationally and internationally.

While macroscopic systems indeed have a larger total energy content than any of their constituent quantum particles, there can be no experiment or other observation of this total energy without extracting the respective amount of energy from each of the quantum particles – which is exactly the domain of high energy physics. Daily experiences of matter and the Universe are characterized by very low energy. For example, the photon energy of visible light is about 1.8 to 3.2 eV. Similarly, the bond-dissociation energy of a carbon-carbon bond is about 3.6 eV.

Photoechoes show an ultra-wide frequency profile, which is determined by the pulse width of the illuminating pulse and the size of the object. Ultimately, though, the frequencies that can be collected and processed for image reconstruction are determined by the ultrasound detector. Macroscopic MSOT typically uses detectors operating in the frequency range from 0.1 to 10 MHz, allowing imaging depths of approximately 1–5 cm and resolution of 0.1–1 mm. Illumination light wavelengths are typically chosen from the near-IR region of the spectrum and spread over the sample to allow deep penetration.

There is significant variation in symptoms between diseases, though some symptoms are expressed across species. On a macroscopic scale, plants infected with a X. fastidiosa- related disease exhibit symptoms of water deficiencies, manifesting as leaf scorching and stunting in leaves, fruit, and overall plant height. As the bacterium progressively colonizes xylem tissues, affected plants often block off their xylem which can limit the spread of this pathogen; blocking can occur in the form of polysaccharide rich gels, tyloses, or both. These plant defenses do not seem to hinder the movement of X. fastidiosa.

His account coincides with the spread of Buddhism to the general populace; and his careful depictions of the natural surroundings of his hut and of the natural and social disasters in the capital form a unique microscopic and macroscopic view of life during a violent period of transition. Attention to nature and self-reflection characterize the genre of recluse literature, and Chōmei was its pre-eminent practitioner. Chōmei died on the tenth day of the intercalary six-month of 1216, when he asked Zenjaku to complete a koshiki for him.

The quantum mechanical technical term 'system' refers to a single specimen, a particular object that may be prepared or observed. Such an object, as is generally so for objects, is in a sense a conceptual abstraction, because, according to the Copenhagen approach, it is defined, not in its own right as an actual entity, but by the two macroscopic devices that should prepare and observe it. The random variability of the prepared specimens does not exhaust the randomness of a detected specimen. Further randomness is injected by the quantum randomness of the observing device.

LBM is a relatively new simulation technique for complex fluid systems and has attracted interest from researchers in computational physics. Unlike the traditional CFD methods, which solve the conservation equations of macroscopic properties (i.e., mass, momentum, and energy) numerically, LBM models the fluid consisting of fictive particles, and such particles perform consecutive propagation and collision processes over a discrete lattice mesh. Due to its particulate nature and local dynamics, LBM has several advantages over other conventional CFD methods, especially in dealing with complex boundaries, incorporating microscopic interactions, and parallelization of the algorithm.

In the Yuma region of the Lower Colorado River Valley, in semi-shaded sites with annual but sparse rainfall, single plants can grow to be bushy and produce around 100 flowers. The wind-borne seeds are dandelion-like, but larger and in a smaller quantity per flower. The plant with seed is easily identified since the seeds splay out in a flat circle until broken from the plant by strong wind. The seed is macroscopic in size, with about 10-16 seeds per circular flower-splay, each seed up to 0.6 in before the parachute.

Primordial fluctuations are density variations in the early universe which are considered the seeds of all structure in the universe. Currently, the most widely accepted explanation for their origin is in the context of cosmic inflation. According to the inflationary paradigm, the exponential growth of the scale factor during inflation caused quantum fluctuations of the inflaton field to be stretched to macroscopic scales, and, upon leaving the horizon, to "freeze in". At the later stages of radiation- and matter-domination, these fluctuations re- entered the horizon, and thus set the initial conditions for structure formation.

Decoherence is a problem experienced in large, macroscopic quantum computation systems. The quantum resources used by quantum computing models (superposition or entanglement) are quickly destroyed by decoherence. Long decoherence times are desired, much longer than the average gate time, so that decoherence can be combated with error correction or dynamical decoupling. In solid-state NMR using nitrogen-vacancy centers, the orbital electron experiences short decoherence times, making computations problematic; the proposed solution has been to encode the qubit in the nuclear spin of the nitrogen atom, thus increasing the decoherence time.

Quantum social science is contested by critics, who argue that it is inappropriately importing ideas from quantum physics to the social domain. The most common criticism is that due to quantum decoherence, quantum effects are filtered out at the macroscopic level, so cannot affect social systems. The physicist Max Tegmark for example has argued that brains cannot sustain quantum coherence. A related topic of controversy is whether quantum science should be applied to social systems only in a metaphorical sense, or whether it should be taken as a physical description of those systems.

Petrographic descriptions start with the field notes at the outcrop and include macroscopic description of hand specimens. However, the most important tool for the petrographer is the petrographic microscope. The detailed analysis of minerals by optical mineralogy in thin section and the micro-texture and structure are critical to understanding the origin of the rock. Electron microprobe or atom probe tomography analysis of individual grains as well as whole rock chemical analysis by atomic absorption, X-ray fluorescence, and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy are used in a modern petrographic lab.

In thermodynamics, an adiabatic wall between two thermodynamic systems does not allow heat or matter to pass across it. In theoretical investigations, it is sometimes assumed that one of the two systems is the surroundings of the other. Then it is assumed that the work transferred is reversible within the surroundings, but in thermodynamics it is not assumed that the work transferred is reversible within the system. The assumption of reversibility in the surroundings has the consequence that the quantity of work transferred is well defined by macroscopic variables in the surroundings.

The line width should depend on the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of velocities at the temperature of line formation (thermal line broadening), while it is often larger than predicted. The widening can be due to pressure broadening, when collisions between particles are frequent, or it can be due to turbulence: in this case the line width can be used to estimate the macroscopic velocity also on the Sun's surface, but with a great uncertainty. The magnetic field can be measured thanks to the line splitting due to the Zeeman effect.

He also characterized the role of non-adiabatic damping of adsorbate vibrations and the spin-splitting of surface bands by the Rashba (spin-orbit) effect. More recently he has probed the microscopic- macroscopic connection, developing tools to study microscopic magnetic fluctuations using coherent soft x-ray beams. His current emphasis is to probe, on the scale of a few domains, intermittent dynamics and memory effects in field- and thermally driven magnetization reversal. Understanding the impact of newly discovered hidden symmetries on these cascades is important to understanding microscopic intermittency in a much broader context.

Academy courtyard Cesi wanted his academicians to adhere to a research methodology based upon observation, experimentation, and the inductive method. He thus called his academy "dei lincei" because its members had "eyes as sharp as lynxes," scrutinizing nature at both microscopic and macroscopic levels. The leader of the first academy was the famous scientist Galileo Galilei. Academy of Lynxes was dissolved after the death of its founder, but was re-created by Pope Pius IX in 1847 and given the name Accademia Pontificia dei Nuovi Lincei ("Pontifical Academy of the New Lynxes").

Microinjection of a fluorescent dye into Ciona intestinalis eggs positioned in a microwell array. Microinjection is the use of a glass micropipette to inject a liquid substance at a microscopic or borderline macroscopic level. The target is often a living cell but may also include intercellular space. Microinjection is a simple mechanical process usually involving an inverted microscope with a magnification power of around 200x (though sometimes it is performed using a dissecting stereo microscope at 40–50x or a traditional compound upright microscope at similar power to an inverted model).

A strangelet is a hypothetical particle consisting of a bound state of roughly equal numbers of up, down, and strange quarks. An equivalent description is that a strangelet is a small fragment of strange matter, small enough to be considered a particle. The size of an object composed of strange matter could, theoretically, range from a few femtometers across (with the mass of a light nucleus) to arbitrarily large. Once the size becomes macroscopic (on the order of metres across), such an object is usually called a strange star.

In materials science, material failure is the loss of load carrying capacity of a material unit. This definition introduces to the fact that material failure can be examined in different scales, from microscopic, to macroscopic. In structural problems, where the structural response may be beyond the initiation of nonlinear material behaviour, material failure is of profound importance for the determination of the integrity of the structure. On the other hand, due to the lack of globally accepted fracture criteria, the determination of the structure's damage, due to material failure, is still under intensive research.

It is pointed out by W.T. Grandy Jr,Grandy 2004 see also . that entropy, though it may be defined for a non-equilibrium system is—when strictly considered—only a macroscopic quantity that refers to the whole system, and is not a dynamical variable and in general does not act as a local potential that describes local physical forces. Under special circumstances, however, one can metaphorically think as if the thermal variables behaved like local physical forces. The approximation that constitutes classical irreversible thermodynamics is built on this metaphoric thinking.

Determinism theoryCausal Determinism, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy argues against acausal events. However, the idea of causal determinism can neither be argued for nor against based on the scientific knoweldge at this point in time . Causality appears to us to be reasonably objective to determine on the macroscopic scale. (But not on the quantum scale, where random chance prevails.) However, even large-scale physical causality is a somewhat mysterious notion; there is no general theory of causality in physics, and most events in physics are theoretically reversible in time .

Micrograph of a human colonic pseudomembrane in Clostridium difficile colitis At necropsy, edema and hemorrhage in the wall of the large colon and cecum are pronounced, and the intestinal contents are fluid and often blood-stained. Macroscopic and microscopic findings include signs of disseminated intravascular coagulation, necrosis of colonic mucosa and presence of large numbers of bacteria in the devitalized parts of the intestine. Typically, the PCV is >65% even shortly after the onset of clinical signs. The leukogram ranges from normal to neutropenia with a degenerative left shift.

Kysa Johnson (born 1974, Evanston, Illinois) is a contemporary artist, drawings, paintings and installations explore patterns in nature that exist at the extremes of scale. Using the shapes of subatomic decay patterns, maps of the universe or the molecular structure of pollutants or of diseases and cures – in short, microscopic or macroscopic “landscapes” – it depicts a physical reality that is invisible to the naked eye. Often these micro patterns are built up to form compositions that relate to them conceptually. . Johnson graduated with honors from the Glasgow School of Art in Glasgow, Scotland.

Taken from orbit in October 2011, the worst algae bloom that Lake Erie has experienced in decades. Record torrential spring rains washed fertilizer into the lake, promoting the growth of microcystin-producing cyanobacteria blooms. An algal bloom or algae bloom is a rapid increase or accumulation in the population of algae in freshwater or marine water systems, and is often recognized by the discoloration in the water from their pigments. The term algae encompasses many types of aquatic photosynthetic organisms, both macroscopic, multicellular organisms like seaweed and microscopic, unicellular organisms like cyanobacteria.

In contrast with the charge state of an atomic or molecular ion, the charge states of such an "island" involve a macroscopic number of conduction electrons of the island. The quantum superposition of charge states can be achieved by tuning the gate voltage U that controls the chemical potential of the island. The charge qubit is typically read-out by electrostatically coupling the island to an extremely sensitive electrometer such as the radio- frequency single-electron transistor. Typical T2 coherence times for a charge qubit are on the order of 1–2 μs.

Some philosophers' views are difficult to categorize as either compatibilist or incompatibilist, hard determinist or libertarian. For example, Ted Honderich holds the view that "determinism is true, compatibilism and incompatibilism are both false" and the real problem lies elsewhere. Honderich maintains that determinism is true because quantum phenomena are not events or things that can be located in space and time, but are abstract entities. Further, even if they were micro- level events, they do not seem to have any relevance to how the world is at the macroscopic level.

Bryopsis have highly variable life history patterns, even within species. The life cycle of Bryopsis has two stages alternating between an erect macroscopic stage which form macrothalli and a small branched phase which form microthalli (Brück & Schnetter, 1997). Macrothalli are haploid while microthalli are diploid (Morabito et al., 2010). Haploid macrothalli may either produce gametes that will then fuse to make a zygote and then a sporophyte (microthallus), or they may produce microthalli at the tips of fronds whose cytoplasms are always kept separate from that of the “mother” organism, the macrothallus.

The RNA World concept might > offer the best chance for the resolution of this conundrum but so far cannot > adequately account for the emergence of an efficient RNA replicase or the > translation system. The MWO ["many worlds in one"] version of the > cosmological model of eternal inflation could suggest a way out of this > conundrum because, in an infinite multiverse with a finite number of > distinct macroscopic histories (each repeated an infinite number of times), > emergence of even highly complex systems by chance is not just possible but > inevitable.

Nuytinck and Verbeken (2005), p. 163. Later authors did not agree with the delimitation of these forms as distinct taxa, suggesting that the alternations in appearance represent normal morphological variations brought about by differences in age, and environmental factors such as levels of sunlight and humidity. Lactarius vinosus has often been considered as a variety of L. sanguifluus, but morphological (especially macroscopic characters and spore-ornamentation) and molecular evidence (based on internal transcribed spacer-sequencing) has confirmed that they are separate species. Lactarius sanguifluus is classified in the section Dapetes of the genus Lactarius.

Neural oscillations, or brainwaves, are rhythmic or repetitive patterns of neural activity in the central nervous system. Neural tissue can generate oscillatory activity in many ways, driven either by mechanisms within individual neurons or by interactions between neurons. In individual neurons, oscillations can appear either as oscillations in membrane potential or as rhythmic patterns of action potentials, which then produce oscillatory activation of post-synaptic neurons. At the level of neural ensembles, synchronized activity of large numbers of neurons can give rise to macroscopic oscillations, which can be observed in an electroencephalogram.

Oscillatory activity in the brain is widely observed at different levels of organization and is thought to play a key role in processing neural information. Numerous experimental studies support a functional role of neural oscillations; a unified interpretation, however, is still lacking. Hz. Upper panel shows spiking of individual neurons (with each dot representing an individual action potential within the population of neurons), and the lower panel the local field potential reflecting their summed activity. Figure illustrates how synchronized patterns of action potentials may result in macroscopic oscillations that can be measured outside the scalp.

The environment itself continuously drives these molecular machines away from equilibrium and the fluctuations it generates over the system are very relevant because the probability of observing an apparent violation of the second law of thermodynamics becomes significant at this scale. This is counterintuitive because, from a macroscopic point of view, it would describe complex processes running in reverse. For example, a jet engine running in reverse, taking in ambient heat and exhaust fumes to generate kerosene and oxygen. Nevertheless the size of such a system makes this observation almost impossible to occur.

Previous studies of left-handed or negative index metamaterials were focused on the linear properties of the medium during wave propagation. In such cases, the view was that magnetic permeability and material permittivity are each not dependent on the intensity of the electromagnetic field. However, creating tunable structures requires knowledge of non-linear properties where the intensity of the electromagnetic field alters the permittivity, or permeability, or both, which in turn affects the range of transmission spectra or stop band spectra. Hence, the effective permeability is dependent on the macroscopic magnetic field intensity.

Oligodendrocytes evolution is similar to normal MS clinical courses Sometimes patients that undergo an MRI examination for an unrelated cause can show lesions in their brains. These cases of isolated MRI findings have been recently baptised as RIS (Radiologically Isolated Syndrome) and are the most common inspections in which suggestions of silent MS have appeared. In respect to the pathology of the RIS cases, we can point out that they show cortical lesions, mainly in patients with oligoclonal bands. Macroscopic damage is similar to RRMS cases but milder.

An artist's impression of early land plants While macroscopic plant life appeared early in the Paleozoic Era and possibly late in the Neoproterozoic Era of the earlier eon, plants mostly remained aquatic until the Silurian Period, about 420 million years ago, when they began to transition onto dry land. Terrestrial flora reached its climax in the Carboniferous, when towering lycopsid rainforests dominated the tropical belt of Euramerica. Climate change caused the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which fragmented this habitat, diminishing the diversity of plant life in the late Carboniferous and Permian periods.

The hymenium is the spore-producing tissue layer of the fruit body, and consists of hyphae that extend into the gills and terminate as end cells. Various cell types can be observed in the hymenium, and the cells have microscopic characteristics that may be used to help identify or distinguish species in cases where the macroscopic characters may be ambiguous. The spore- bearing cells, the basidia, are four-spored and measure 37–45 μm long by 8–10 μm wide at the thickest point.Hesler and Smith (1979), p. 68.

B. Calvert, link , retrieved: 10/01/2016 It consists in illuminating (with parallel white light) a water-filled spherical flask through a hole in a screen. A rainbow will then appear thrown back / projected on the screen, provided the screen is large enough. Due to the finite wall thickness and the macroscopic character of the artificial raindrop, several subtle differences exist as compared to the natural phenomenon,“Revisiting the round bottom flask rainbow experiment.”, M. Selmke and S. Selmke, arXiv, link Pictures and Raytracings under "Alexander's dark band (or bright band?)", M.

In the real world, it has so far not been possible to beam objects. For one thing, there is no available technology that can disintegrate or reassemble arbitrary objects atom by atom, let alone within seconds. Furthermore, the required amount of information to fully represent macroscopic objects is far too large for today's available information technology.U. S. Air Force Teleportation Physics Study Another obstacle often cited in this context is Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, which prohibits the simultaneous measurement of position and momentum of individual particles with arbitrary precision.

The specific name is derived from the Greek words ὑγρός (hygros) "wet" and μέτρον (metron) "measure". The German Mycological Society selected the species as their "Mushroom of the Year" in 2005. Studies in the 2000s showed that several species from Asian collection sites labelled under the specific epithet hygrometricus were actually considerably variable in a number of macroscopic and microscopic characteristics. Molecular studies of the DNA sequences of the ITS region of the ribosomal DNA from a number of Astraeus specimens from around the world have helped to clarify phylogenetic relationships within the genus.

Microphotography is a writing style that emerged in the early 1990s in science journalism. The style is named after micrographs and is distinctive for its highly detailed, worm's eye or microscopic view of the macroscopic world. One of the flagship works in this style was David Bodanis's commercially prominent The Secret House: 24 hours in the strange & wonderful world in which we spend our nights and days.Contemporary Authors This book followed daily life in a typical enclosed human habitat in minute detail, featuring detailed physical and biological explanations.

During the curing process, single monomers and oligomers, mixed with or without a curing agent, react to form a tridimensional polymeric network. In the first part of the reaction branches molecules with various architectures are formed, and their molecular weight increases in time with the extent of the reaction until the network size is equal to the size of the system. The system has lost its solubility and its viscosity tends to infinite. The remaining molecules start to coexist with the macroscopic network until they react with the network creating other crosslinks.

The kinetic framework also arises in many other fields: neutron transport, radiative transfer, and biology. He is interested in asymptotic analysis, including the study of hydrodynamic regimes and homogenization theory, establishing relationships between microscopic and macroscopic descriptions. He also works on fluid mechanics, both as regards the analysis of the equations and also the design of numerical methods for computing the solutions.Avis de recherche Currently he holds a Senior INRIA Researcher (Directeur de recherche) position at Sophia Antipolis; he is the head of the team COFFEECOFFEE devoted to Complex Flows For Energy and Environment.

A Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state of matter of a dilute gas of weakly interacting bosons confined in an external potential and cooled to temperatures very near absolute zero. Under such conditions, a large fraction of the bosons occupy the lowest quantum state of the external potential, at which point quantum effects become apparent on a macroscopic scale. This state of matter was first predicted by Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein in 1924–25. Bose first sent a paper to Einstein on the quantum statistics of light quanta (now called photons).

Macroscopic lesions in affected fish are typical of an acute systemic disease with strong congestion in the internal organs and different levels of hemorrhages in the swim bladder, intestine, liver, peritoneum, spleen and kidney. Also, enlargement of the spleen, focal areas of necrosis in the liver and spleen, pericarditis, hemorrhagic fluid in the intestine, and yellowish exudate covering the brain surface are typically observed. Histopathology is found mainly in the eyes and internal organs’ capsules. Lesions on the ocular area consist of extensive fibroplasias with inflammatory cells penetration.

Some substances such as nitric oxide and glutamate are in fact essential for proper function of the body and only exert neurotoxic effects at excessive concentrations. Neurotoxins inhibit neuron control over ion concentrations across the cell membrane, or communication between neurons across a synapse.Arnon 2001 Local pathology of neurotoxin exposure often includes neuron excitotoxicity or apoptosisDikranian 2001 but can also include glial cell damage.Deng 2003 Macroscopic manifestations of neurotoxin exposure can include widespread central nervous system damage such as intellectual disability, persistent memory impairments,Jevtovic-Todorovic 2003 epilepsy, and dementia.

In physics, a Langevin equation (named after Paul Langevin) is a stochastic differential equation describing the time evolution of a subset of the degrees of freedom. These degrees of freedom typically are collective (macroscopic) variables changing only slowly in comparison to the other (microscopic) variables of the system. The fast (microscopic) variables are responsible for the stochastic nature of the Langevin equation. One application is to Brownian motion, calculating the statistics of the random motion of a small particle in a fluid due to collisions with the surrounding molecules in thermal motion.

Translated as 'On quantum mechanics ', pp. 321–385 in Van der Waerden, B.L. (1967), Sources of Quantum Mechanics, North-Holland, Amsterdam, "The basic difference between the theory proposed here and that used hitherto ... lies in the characteristic kinematics ...", p. 385. In Niels Bohr's mature view, quantum mechanical phenomena are required to be experiments, with complete descriptions of all the devices for the system, preparative, intermediary, and finally measuring. The descriptions are in macroscopic terms, expressed in ordinary language, supplemented with the concepts of classical mechanics.Dirac, P.A.M. (1930/1958).

Phaeogalera is a small genus of slender, fleshy bog and swamp-inhabiting mushrooms with large, brownish spores with a germ pore and a hymenium lacking chrysocystidia. Phaeogalera resemble Galerina in their habitat, macroscopic appearance, and spore print color, however, their microscopic characteristics (smooth spores with a distinct germ pore and non-tibiiform cystidia) more closely resemble Psilocybe. The type species, Phaeogalera stagnina, has an Arctic-alpine distribution in the Northern Hemisphere extending into the boreal forests and taiga. It grows along the edges of bogs in peaty soils and sometimes amongst Sphagnum or other mosses.

He was the first to develop the multimodality therapy for patients suffering from the disease. He championed the techniques of cytoreductive surgery and was the first to introduce the goal of macroscopic complete resection. Recognized for his efforts, Sugarbaker received the Pioneer Award from Mesothelioma Applied Research Foundation in 2012. In 2013, he received the Henry D. Chadwick Medal, the highest honor awarded by the Massachusetts Pulmonary Section of the American Lung Association of the Northeast's Medical & Scientific Branch for meritorious contributions in the study and treatment of thoracic diseases.

Charged particles whose charges have the same sign repel one another, and particles whose charges have different signs attract. Coulomb's law quantifies the electrostatic force between two particles by asserting that the force is proportional to the product of their charges, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The charge of an antiparticle equals that of the corresponding particle, but with opposite sign. The electric charge of a macroscopic object is the sum of the electric charges of the particles that make it up.

More recently, it has been recognized that the quantity 'entropy' can be derived by considering the actually possible thermodynamic processes simply from the point of view of their irreversibility, not relying on temperature for the reasoning. Ludwig Boltzmann explained the entropy as a measure of the number of possible microscopic configurations of the individual atoms and molecules of the system (microstates) which comply with the macroscopic state (macrostate) of the system. Boltzmann then went on to show that was equal to the thermodynamic entropy. The factor has since been known as Boltzmann's constant.

The mechanism responsible for the large strain of MSM alloys is the so- called magnetically induced reorientation (MIR), and is sketched in the figure. Like other ferromagnetic materials, MSM alloys exhibit a macroscopic magnetization when subjected to an external magnetic field, emerging from the alignment of elementary magnetizations along the field direction. However, differently from standard ferromagnetic materials, the alignment is obtained by the geometric rotation of the elementary cells composing the alloy, and not by rotation of the magnetization vectors within the cells (like in magnetostriction). Magnetic shape memory working principle.

In his three volumes of Systema Mycologicum published between 1821 and 1832, Elias Fries put almost all of the fleshy, gill-forming mushrooms in the genus Agaricus. He organized the large genus into "tribes", the names of many of which still exist as common genera of today. Fries later elevated several of these tribes to generic level, but later authors—including Gillet, Karsten, Kummer, Quélet, and Staude—made most of the changes. Fries based his classification on macroscopic characters of the fruit bodies and color of the spore print.

Sir Anthony James Leggett (born 26 March 1938) is a theoretical physicist and professor emeritus at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Leggett is widely recognised as a world leader in the theory of low-temperature physics, and his pioneering work on superfluidity was recognised by the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physics. He has shaped the theoretical understanding of normal and superfluid helium liquids and strongly coupled superfluids. He set directions for research in the quantum physics of macroscopic dissipative systems and use of condensed systems to test the foundations of quantum mechanics.

Dead Sea in the morning, seen from Masada The sea is called "dead" because its high salinity prevents macroscopic aquatic organisms, such as fish and aquatic plants, from living in it, though minuscule quantities of bacteria and microbial fungi are present. In times of flood, the salt content of the Dead Sea can drop from its usual 35% to 30% or lower. The Dead Sea temporarily comes to life in the wake of rainy winters. In 1980, after one such rainy winter, the normally dark blue Dead Sea turned red.

The LSGF G(0,L) in this equation reduces smoothly and automatically to the CGF for large enough x as terms O(1/x4) become gradually small and negligible. This ensures the seamless linkage of the atomistic length scale to the macroscopic continuum scale. Equations (8) and (9) along with the limiting relation given by Eq. (11), form the basic equations for the MSGF. Equation (9) gives the LSGF, which is valid at the atomistic scales and Eq. (11) relates it to the CGF, which is valid at the macro continuum scales.

These lesions are microscopic abnormalities in the pancreas and are often found in autopsies of people with no diagnosed cancer. These lesions may progress from low to high grade and then to a tumor. More than 90% of cases at all grades carry a faulty KRAS gene, while in grades 2 and 3, damage to three further genes – CDKN2A (p16), p53, and SMAD4 – are increasingly often found. A second type is the intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm (IPMN). These are macroscopic lesions, which are found in about 2% of all adults.

If a reaction results in a small energy release making way for more energy releases in an expanding chain, then the system will typically collapse explosively until much or all of the stored energy has been released. A macroscopic metaphor for chain reactions is thus a snowball causing a larger snowball until finally an avalanche results ("snowball effect"). This is a result of stored gravitational potential energy seeking a path of release over friction. Chemically, the equivalent to a snow avalanche is a spark causing a forest fire.

These effects underlie many modern developments in macroscopic quantum mechanics, in particular, optical and micro cooling nanooscillators to the zero state. It proves that units of the electron charge and the proton at 10−21 (1970) and demonstrated the validity of the equivalence principle at the level of 10−12 (1971). They predicted the existence of the limits of the sensitivity of the coordinate measurements of quantum origin, now called the standard quantum limit (1967), proposed and justified principles for a new class of measurement, allowing to overcome these limitations (quantum non-demolition measurements, 1977).

In Boltzmann's definition, entropy is a measure of the number of possible microscopic states (or microstates) of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium, consistent with its macroscopic thermodynamic properties (or macrostate). To understand what microstates and macrostates are, consider the example of a gas in a container. At a microscopic level, the gas consists of a vast number of freely moving atoms, which occasionally collide with one another and with the walls of the container. The microstate of the system is a description of the positions and momenta of all the atoms.

In principle, all the physical properties of the system are determined by its microstate. However, because the number of atoms is so large, the details of the motion of individual atoms is mostly irrelevant to the behavior of the system as a whole. Provided the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium, the system can be adequately described by a handful of macroscopic quantities, called "thermodynamic variables": the total energy E, volume V, pressure P, temperature T, and so forth. The macrostate of the system is a description of its thermodynamic variables.

It is also the configuration corresponding to the maximum of a system's entropy for a given set of accessible microstates, in other words the macroscopic configuration in which the lack of information is maximal. As such, according to the second law of thermodynamics, it is the equilibrium configuration of an isolated system. Boltzmann's entropy is the expression of entropy at thermodynamic equilibrium in the microcanonical ensemble. This postulate, which is known as Boltzmann's principle, may be regarded as the foundation of statistical mechanics, which describes thermodynamic systems using the statistical behavior of its constituents.

Arak with water and ice The ouzo effect occurs when a strongly hydrophobic essential oil (such as trans-anethole) is dissolved in a water-miscible solvent (such as ethanol), and the concentration of ethanol is lowered either by addition of small amounts of water or by evaporation of ethanol. Oil-in-water emulsions are not normally stable. Oil droplets coalesce until complete phase separation is achieved at macroscopic levels. Addition of a small amount of surfactant or the application of high shear rates (strong stirring) can stabilize the oil droplets.

The puffball has been tentatively identified from the Galápagos Islands, and has been collected from Pernambuco and São Paulo, Brazil. The South American material, however, has grayish-yellow coloration in the gleba, which may be indicative of not yet fully matured specimens. This renders identification of this material tentative, as unripe material may have different microscopic characteristics from mature material. Although the puffball has been reported from both the European part of Turkey as well as Anatolia, and from Morocco, reports without supporting microscopic or macroscopic information are viewed with skepticism.

T-wave alternans and prolonged QT interval in a male patient found to be in a narrow-complex tachycardia and ruled in for an acute myocardial infarction. Administered Ibutilide and converted to sinus rhythm but subsequently had an episode of Torsades de Pointes which required DC cardioversion back into sinus rhythm. T wave alternans (TWA) is a periodic beat-to-beat variation in the amplitude or shape of the T wave in an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) TWA was first described in 1908. At that time, only large variations ("macroscopic" TWA) could be detected.