"One of the areas that interests me is taking stable logics and changing it into mutable logics," he said.
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Their firm, Praxeo Logics LLC, is a defense trade consultancy.
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In essence, two different logics reign in the same buildings.
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Institutions get built at some arbitrary resting place between two clashing logics.
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Institutions get built at some arbitrary resting place between two clashing logics.
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What syntactical logics emerge from such writing, and what do they say towards being?
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I think the logics are either entertainment, which is sort of what happened, right?
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"It's not one design but seven different parks, with seven different design logics," Geuze said.
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As the conflict over expansion and the institution itself grew in intensity, the two political logics couldn't coexist.
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Yet in Kenya, a 3D-printing industry can emerge based on the logics of recycling, sustainability, and economic scarcity.
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There are such landscapes everywhere, Neel argues, because production, extraction, and other work everywhere reflect the same globally integrated logics.
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G.Y.: How do you think power functions through sites of commodification and marketization, logics that create problematic neoliberal mentalities and values?
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But when I translate literature — carefully, deliberately — I try to interrupt these ad hoc translations based on xenophobic logics, passing fancies and lazy incuriosities.
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Always speaking of what happens most frequently this is the moment in which some seem to enter a sort of panic mode and completely forget logics.
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I enforced these colonial logics on myself out of fear of being seen as different, and kept a distant relationship with religion until my late teens.
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To think otherwise requires a naive belief in American exceptionalism — that somehow U.S. policies and actions do not abide by the same logics of other actors.
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Published last fall, I Hope We Choose Love reckons with a number of queer community practices and logics that have become commonplace over the past two decades.
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"This makes the situation extremely difficult for intelligence, because it is two different networks with two different logics," Claude Moniquet, a former French intelligence official, told Walt.
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The madness is in the weapons themselves, powerful enough to obliterate entire countries, entire peoples, and in the logics that grew up around them to govern their disuse.
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"For us, identifying 'at-risk' students and then conducting interventions to 'off-ramp' them from the pathway to violence, uses CVE logics to address gang violence," Nguyen added.
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Giridharadas lays out how Market World debates are choreographed, or even "curated," carefully coordinating the logics of confinement through the extraction of divergent positions and approaches to shared problems.
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But when algorithms are built using CVE logics that frame Muslims, and Black communities in particular, as suspicious, all that happens is anti-Black Islamophobia becomes embedded in code.
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While it was the right move, the university remains complacent with the traditions and racist logics that make white supremacists like Spencer see this campus as a recruiting ground.
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Haters will say its Stockholm Syndrome, but when you immerse yourself in these unsettling sounds for hours at a time, its weird grammars and confusing logics start to make sense.
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In many ways, transphobia is a by-product of societal racism: Gender is racialized and consequently policed; racial logics make certain trans people more visible — and dangerously so — than others.
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Utilizing a "haphazard" collection of hardware, they're able to create pieces with surreal logics, interlocking and interacting in ways that shouldn't make sense, linking distant worlds and creating new ones.
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"Due to scale, we are looking for new drivers to give character and identity to buildings, new structural and environmental logics that will give buildings a new physiognomy," Mr. Schumacher said.
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Decisions that get made in any single instance of solving the trolley problem, or any of the other scenarios we've noted, reflect broader governing principles and ethical logics embedded in technology.
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Using white logics of racial purity, a cuckoldry scenario between a Black man and white woman represents one of the greatest threats posed to whiteness—the ultimate neutralization of white manhood.
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The designs are informed by the geometrical and material logics that underlie the human musculoskeletal system; specifically, the complex structure of muscles, connective tissues, tendons, and ligaments that modulate the human voice.
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"We hope to change all that with our personalisation platform and provide a fast, seamless experience with responsive previews and high-fidelity physical products for multiple and complex personalisation logics," he says.
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To learn more about the associative logics employed in this multimodal project, we spoke to the artists about their sources for the form of the installation and their conception of a hemispheric indigeneity.
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There still will be accidents that cause: Assume that the smart system driving your car is presented with various options that allocate these costs according to the logics reflected in the death-dealing accident scenario.
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" In picking the most extreme, unlawful, norm-violating option, and killing General Suleimani, Mr. Trump was acting according to one of his political life's clearly discernible logics: to be the antithesis of "the first female president.
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As for Facebook's systems catching what it considers "bad" content, Jana Eggers, the CEO of AI startup Nara Logics, said she "doubts" Facebook is rooting out as much of the terrorist content as Zuckerberg said it did.
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The news media has its own establishment, of course, which works in lock step with the other establishments to perpetuate their myths and nourish the same tropes, clichés and circular logics that define establishment consensus (or conventional wisdom).
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But in trying to process it, I became obsessed not with my own feelings but with the logics that underpinned why some individual or group of white male students privileged enough to be at Brown University would do this.
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"It is striking to interrupt the new shiny logics of Queen Victoria Square with an industrial artifact that both exposes the city's economic path dependency and the UK's increasing reliance on corporate sponsorship to maintain cultural energy," explains Kulkarni.
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"If post-black represents a threat, it is to the hegemony of hetero-patriarchal expressions of blackness that, in their essentialist logics and racial nostalgia, relegate African-American identity to a series of limiting scripts," he writes in the introduction of the book.
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We're supposed to ask the question, but there's no real answer to it; the ambiguity of the show's actual existing racial logics become like another plot hole, something that can be construed from enough cascading levels of narrative that any true source code is impossible to trace.
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Putting the "Signaling Through Obstruction" and "Blame Game" logics together creates a rich set of scenarios for McConnell, who is undoubtedly uncertain not only about how the electoral environments facing his 24 colleagues will unfold, but also about how these colleagues will behave as the election progresses.
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He wasn't merely engaging with the rap world, but as a hip-hop Trojan Horse aimed at suburbia, the TRL hordes with only boy bands, Britney, and Em in their Case Logics, with an American government that seemed intent on swatting him away like a bleached blonde fly.
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"The story of African collections is a shared European history, a family affair if you will, where aesthetic curiosity, scientific interests, military expeditions, networks of commerce, and 'opportunities' of all sorts contributed to feed logics of domination, affirmation, and national rivalries," she wrote, after enumerating the African holdings of major museums in other European countries.
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Since 2013, in an effort to start a glocal dialogue between this vernacular constructor and foreign fauna, flora and architecture, I have been collecting abandoned hornero nests in the city of Rosario — my hometown in Argentina — and reinstalling them in different spots of the planet under the same synanthropic logics applied by this bird.
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"To me there are two possible logics for a cut - one which is around growth and confidence, it's described by some as insurance, and I think I can see the case for that - we'll see if the data supports that," Barkin said in an interview on the sidelines of the Global Interdependence Center's annual economic summit.
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As for intermediate logics, hypersequents have been used to obtain analytic calculi for many substructural logics and fuzzy logics.
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Carnielli contributed to the proof theory and semantics of many-valued logics and paraconsistent logics. His tableau method for many-valued logics generalized all previous treatments of the subject [W. A. Carnielli. Systematization of the finite many-valued logics through the method of tableaux.
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He also published on finite and infinite combinatorics, and developed (with his collaborators A. M. Sette and P. A. Veloso) the modulated logics, a new kind of logics which allows the formalization of qualitative reasoning by means of special generalized quantifiers. His research also includes model theory, non- classical logics and foundations of quantum computation and combinations of logics.
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In mathematical logic, a superintuitionistic logic is a propositional logic extending intuitionistic logic. Classical logic is the strongest consistent superintuitionistic logic; thus, consistent superintuitionistic logics are called intermediate logics (the logics are intermediate between intuitionistic logic and classical logic).
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Stronger classical logics such as second-order logic or infinitary logic are also studied, along with Non-classical logics such as intuitionistic logic.
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More expressive logics, like fixpoint logics, have therefore been studied in finite model theory because of their relevance to database theory and applications.
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More expressive logics, such as Higher-order logics, allow the convenient expression of a wider range of problems than first order logic, but theorem proving for these logics is less well developed.Kerber, Manfred. "How to prove higher order theorems in first order logic." (1999).
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T-norm fuzzy logics are a family of non-classical logics, informally delimited by having a semantics that takes the real unit interval [0, 1] for the system of truth values and functions called t-norms for permissible interpretations of conjunction. They are mainly used in applied fuzzy logic and fuzzy set theory as a theoretical basis for approximate reasoning. T-norm fuzzy logics belong in broader classes of fuzzy logics and many-valued logics. In order to generate a well-behaved implication, the t-norms are usually required to be left-continuous; logics of left-continuous t-norms further belong in the class of substructural logics, among which they are marked with the validity of the law of prelinearity, (A -> B) ∨ (B -> A). Both propositional and first-order (or higher-order) t-norm fuzzy logics, as well as their expansions by modal and other operators, are studied.
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Basic fuzzy Logic (or shortly BL), the logic of the continuous t-norms, is one of t-norm fuzzy logics. It belongs to the broader class of substructural logics, or logics of residuated lattices;Ono (2003). it extends the logic of all left-continuous t-norms MTL.
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In the area of nonmonotonic logics, a group of logics related to artificial intelligence, he focused on investigations of Reiter's Deault Logic,M.Denecker, V.W. Marek and M. Truszczynski, Uniform semantic treatment of default and autoepistemic logics. Artificial Intelligence. 143:79–122, 2003 and autoepistemic logic of R. Moore.
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The connection between types and logic lead to a lot of subsequent research to find new type theories for existing logics and new logics for existing type theories.
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"Sally said that X"), etc., would have seemed intractable. This is an advantage because predicate calculus is better understood and simpler than the more complex alternatives (higher-order logics, modal logics, temporal logics, etc.), and there exist better automated tools (e.g. automated theorem provers and model checkers) for manipulating it.
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Other widely used techniques for proving inexpressibility results, such as the compactness theorem, do not work in finite models. Ehrenfeucht–Fraïssé-like games can also be defined for other logics, such as fixpoint logics and pebble games for finite variable logics; extensions are powerful enough to characterise definability in existential second-order logic.
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The Leibniz operator and the study of various of its properties that may or may not be satisfied for particular sentential logics have given rise to what is now known as the abstract algebraic hierarchy or Leibniz hierarchy of sentential logics. Logics are classified in various levels of this hierarchy depending on how strong a tie exists between the logic and its algebraic counterpart. The properties of the Leibniz operator that help classify the logics are monotonicity, injectivity, continuity and commutativity with inverse substitutions. For instance, protoalgebraic logics, forming the widest class in the hierarchy, i.e.
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The logics of formal inconsistency which systematize a large class of paraconsistent logics opened the way to the application of paraconsistency to computer science and to new philosophical investigations on paraconsistency.
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This page focuses on finitary first order model theory of infinite structures. Finite model theory, which concentrates on finite structures, diverges significantly from the study of infinite structures in both the problems studied and the techniques used. Model theory in higher-order logics or infinitary logics is hampered by the fact that completeness and compactness do not in general hold for these logics. However, a great deal of study has also been done in such logics.
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An infinitary logic is a logic that allows infinitely long statements and/or infinitely long proofs. Some infinitary logics may have different properties from those of standard first-order logic. In particular, infinitary logics may fail to be compact or complete. Notions of compactness and completeness that are equivalent in finitary logic sometimes are not so in infinitary logics.
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Triangles represent synthesis logics, which are special compositions attached to certain GTM compositions. These are almost always trio compositions. Finally, circles represent mutable logics, which are invitations to freely improvise or use Braxton's language musics.
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Analytic tableaux provide the most popular decision method for modal logics.
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The Journal of Symbolic Logic 52 (2), 1987, pp. 73–493]. His proposal of the possible-translations semantics (a new semantical interpretation for paraconsistent logics) contributed to a revival in the philosophical interpretation of paraconsistent logics W. A. Carnielli. Possible-translations semantics for paraconsistent logics. In: Frontiers in Paraconsistent Logic: Proceedings of the I World Congress on Paraconsistency, Ghent, 1998, pp.
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Timothy Williamson, Vagueness. London: Routledge, 1996, p. 120. J. Barkley Rosser Sr. published a treatise on many-valued logics in 1952, anticipating "many-valued sets".J. Barkley Rosser Sr. and Atwell R. Turquette, Many-valued logics.
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Since the early 20th century, certain logicians have proposed logics that deny the validity of the law. Logics known as "paraconsistent" are inconsistency- tolerant logics in that there, from P together with ¬P, it doesn't imply that any proposition follows. Nevertheless, not all paraconsistent logics deny the law of non-contradiction and some such logics even prove it. In several axiomatic derivations of logic,Steven Wolfram, A New Kind Of Science, this is effectively resolved by showing that (P ∨ ¬P) and its negation are constants, and simply defining TRUE as (P ∨ ¬P) and FALSE as ¬(P ∨ ¬P), without taking a position as to the principle of bivalence or the law of excluded middle.
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Logics that restrict the t-norm semantics to a subset of the real unit interval (for example, finitely valued Łukasiewicz logics) are usually included in the class as well. Important examples of t-norm fuzzy logics are monoidal t-norm logic MTL of all left-continuous t-norms, basic logic BL of all continuous t-norms, product fuzzy logic of the product t-norm, or the nilpotent minimum logic of the nilpotent minimum t-norm. Some independently motivated logics belong among t-norm fuzzy logics, too, for example Łukasiewicz logic (which is the logic of the Łukasiewicz t-norm) or Gödel–Dummett logic (which is the logic of the minimum t-norm).
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Dunn's research focuses on information based logics, particularly relevance logics and other so-called "substructural" logics. He has an algebraic approach to these under the heading of "gaggle theory" (for generalized galois logics), which he has developed in articles, his book with G. Hardgree Algebraic Methods in Philosophical Logic (Oxford, 2001) , and a book with K. Bimbó, Generalized Galois Logics: Relational Semantics of Nonclassical Logical Calculi. (CSLI Publications, 2008). In his work on relevance logic, he was fortunate to study as a graduate student with the two major figures in relevance logic, Alan Ross Anderson and Nuel D. Belnap, Jr. He was a contributing author to their book Entailment: The Logic of Relevance and Entailment Vol.
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Interpretability logics and Japaridze's polymodal logic present natural extensions of provability logic.
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It is the most popular proof procedure for modal logics (Girle 2000).
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Later, Jan Łukasiewicz and Alfred Tarski together formulated a logic on n truth values where n ≥ 2. In 1932, Hans Reichenbach formulated a logic of many truth values where n→∞. Kurt Gödel in 1932 showed that intuitionistic logic is not a finitely-many valued logic, and defined a system of Gödel logics intermediate between classical and intuitionistic logic; such logics are known as intermediate logics.
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It is a relatively young field. The first conference on the topic was held in October 1990 in Tübingen, as "Logics with Restricted Structural Rules". During the conference Kosta Došen proposed the term "substructural logics", which is now in use today.
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Noncommutative logic is sometimes called ordered logic, since it is possible with most proposed noncommutative logics to impose a total or partial order on the formulae in sequents. However this is not fully general since some noncommutative logics do not support such an order, such as Yetter's cyclic linear logic. Although most noncommutative logics do not allow weakening or contraction together with noncommutativity, this restriction is not necessary.
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Therefore for infinitary logics, notions of strong compactness and strong completeness are defined. This article addresses Hilbert-type infinitary logics, as these have been extensively studied and constitute the most straightforward extensions of finitary logic. These are not, however, the only infinitary logics that have been formulated or studied. Considering whether a certain infinitary logic named Ω-logic is complete promises to throw light on the continuum hypothesis.
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In mathematical logic, a first-order Gödel logic is a member of a family of finite- or infinite-valued logics in which the sets of truth values V are closed subsets of the interval [0,1] containing both 0 and 1. Different such sets V in general determine different Gödel logics. The concept is named after Kurt Gödel. First-order Gödel logics Authors: Matthias Baaz, Norbert Preining, Richard Zach.
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By extension, the term noncommutative logic is also used by a number of authors to refer to a family of substructural logics in which the exchange rule is inadmissible. The remainder of this article is devoted to a presentation of this acceptance of the term. The oldest noncommutative logic is the Lambek calculus, which gave rise to the class of logics known as categorial grammars. Since the publication of Jean-Yves Girard's linear logic there have been several new noncommutative logics proposed, namely the cyclic linear logic of David Yetter, the pomset logic of Christian Retoré, and the noncommutative logics BV and NEL.
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This growing area of research highlights the way that market structures, processes and consumer behaviors can be shaped by different institutional logics. For example, different rhetorical strategies grounded in particular institutional logics might be used in order to better persuade potential consumers.
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On Schrödinger logics, see da Costa and Krause (1994, 1997), and French and Krause (2006).
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Temporal logics such as linear temporal logic describe types of linear time properties using formulae.
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The translation between modal logics and algebraic logics concerns classical and intuitionistic logics but with the introduction of a unary operator on Boolean or Heyting algebras, different from the Boolean operations, interpreting the possibility modality, and in the case of Heyting algebra a second operator interpreting necessity (for Boolean algebra this is redundant since necessity is the De Morgan dual of possibility). The first operator preserves 0 and disjunction while the second preserves 1 and conjunction. Many-valued logics are those allowing sentences to have values other than true and false. (For example, neither and both are standard "extra values"; "continuum logic" allows each sentence to have any of an infinite number of "degrees of truth" between true and false.) These logics often require calculational devices quite distinct from propositional calculus.
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The idea of comparing the size of proofs can be used for any automated reasoning procedure that generates a proof. Some research has been done about the size of proofs for propositional non-classical logics, in particular, intuitionistic, modal, and non-monotonic logics. Hrubeš (2007-2009) proved exponential lower bounds on size of proofs in Extended Frege system in some modal logics and intuitionistic logic using a version of monotone feasible interpolation.
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In superintuitionistic and modal logics, a logic is structurally complete if every admissible rule is derivable.
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Although higher-order logics are more expressive, allowing complete axiomatizations of structures such as the natural numbers, they do not satisfy analogues of the completeness and compactness theorems from first- order logic, and are thus less amenable to proof-theoretic analysis. Another type of logics are s that allow inductive definitions, like one writes for primitive recursive functions. One can formally define an extension of first- order logic -- a notion which encompasses all logics in this section because they behave like first-order logic in certain fundamental ways, but does not encompass all logics in general, e.g. it does not encompass intuitionistic, modal or fuzzy logic.
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Organizational theorists operating within the new institutionalism (see also institutional theory) have begun to develop the institutional logics concept by empirically testing it. One variant emphasizes how logics can focus the attention of key decision-makers on a particular set of issues and solutions (Ocasio, 1997), leading to logic-consistent decisions (Thornton, 2002). A fair amount of research on logics has focused on the importance of dominant logics and shifts from one logic to another (e.g., Lounsbury, 2002; Thornton, 2002; Suddaby & Greenwood, 2005). Haveman and Rao (1997) showed how the rise of Progressive thought enabled a shift in savings and loan organizational forms in the U.S. in the early 20th century.
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Heyting algebras and interior algebras are the Lindenbaum–Tarski algebras for intuitionistic logic and the modal logic S4, respectively. A logic for which Tarski's method is applicable, is called algebraizable. There are however a number of logics where this is not the case, for instance the modal logics S1, S2, or S3, which lack the rule of necessitation (⊢φ implying ⊢□φ), so ~ (defined above) is not a congruence (because ⊢φ→ψ does not imply ⊢□φ→□ψ). Another type of logics where Tarski's method is inapplicable are relevance logics, because given two theorems an implication from one to the other may not itself be a theorem in a relevance logic.
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The cost of this expressiveness is that second-order and higher-order logics have fewer attractive metalogical properties than first-order logic. For example, the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and compactness theorem of first-order logic become false when generalized to higher-order logics with full semantics.
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The flowchart to the right provides a process for classifying a phenomenon as a scenario in the intuitive logics tradition.Process for classifying a phenomenon as a scenario in the Intuitive Logics tradition.Scenario planning differs from contingency planning, sensitivity analysis and computer simulations.Schoemaker, Paul J.H. Profiting from Uncertainty.
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A free logic is a logic with fewer existential presuppositions than classical logic. Free logics may allow for terms that do not denote any object. Free logics may also allow models that have an empty domain. A free logic with the latter property is an inclusive logic.
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A polylogist would claim that different groups reason in fundamentally different ways: they use different "logics" for deductive inference. Normative polylogism is the claim that these different logics are equally valid. Descriptive polylogism is an empirical claim about different groups, but a descriptive polylogism need not claim equal validity for different "logics". That is, a descriptive polylogist may insist on a universally valid deductive logic while claiming as an empirical matter that some groups use other (incorrect) reasoning strategies.
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It is only with the post-World War II rise of what have come to be known as substructural logics (Restall 2000) that Orlov's pioneering role has gradually emerged. Substructural logics, a category including intuitionistic, relevant, linear logics, etc., can be obtained by restricting the natural deduction ("structural") rules for classical logic. For example, relevant logic does not employ the structural rule of weakening (also called the rule of monotonicity), and this rule is unlike the other structural rules (Dosen).
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Many others, however, have taken even these types of beliefs to be fallible.Haack, "Philosophy of Logics", Chapter 12.
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More scenarios risks making the analysis overly complicated. Scenarios are often confused with other tools and approaches to planning. The flowchart to the right provides a process for classifying a phenomenon as a scenario in the intuitive logics tradition.Process for classifying a phenomenon as a scenario in the Intuitive Logics tradition.
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Angel Garrido & Piedad Yuste, "controversies about the introduction of non-classical logics". Brain, Vol. 5, No. 1-4, 2014.
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Dorit Naaman. Signs Vol. 32, No. 4, War and Terror I: Raced‐Gendered Logics and Effects in Conflict Zones.
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The completeness theorem is a central property of first-order logic that does not hold for all logics. Second-order logic, for example, does not have a completeness theorem for its standard semantics (but does have the completeness property for Henkin semantics), and the set of logically-valid formulas in second-order logic is not recursively enumerable. The same is true of all higher-order logics. It is possible to produce sound deductive systems for higher-order logics, but no such system can be complete.
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Non-classical logics (and sometimes alternative logics) are formal systems that differ in a significant way from standard logical systems such as propositional and predicate logic. There are several ways in which this is done, including by way of extensions, deviations, and variations. The aim of these departures is to make it possible to construct different models of logical consequence and logical truth.Logic for philosophy, Theodore Sider Philosophical logic is understood to encompass and focus on non-classical logics, although the term has other meanings as well.
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Abstract Almandoz (2012) examined the embeddedness of new local banks' founding teams in a community logic or a financial logic, linking institutional logics to new banking venture's establishment and entrepreneurial success.Almandoz, J. (2012). "Arriving at the Starting Line: The Impact of Community and Financial Logics on New Banking Ventures." Academy of Management Journal.
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In proof theory, a structural rule is an inference rule that does not refer to any logical connective, but instead operates on the judgment or sequents directly. Structural rules often mimic intended meta-theoretic properties of the logic. Logics that deny one or more of the structural rules are classified as substructural logics.
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The tree model can also be a strong indication that guarded logic extends modal framework which retains the basics of modal logics. Modal logics are generally characterized by invariances under bisimulation. It also so happens that invariance under bisimulation is the root of tree model property which helps towards defining automata theory.
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Studia Logica No. 1, 1934. See Susan Haack, Philosophy of Logics. Cambridge University Press, 1978, p. 205. and Donald Knuth.
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This has led to the abandonment of BAN-family logics in favor of proof methods based on standard invariance reasoning.
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The hypersequent structure seem to have appeared first in under the name of cortege to obtain a calculus for modal logic S5. It seems to have been developed independently in, also for treating modal logics, and in the influential, where calculi for modal, intermediate and substructural logics are considered, and the term hypersequent is introduced.
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There are many tools and techniques to promote and discipline strategic thinking. The flowchart to the right provides a process for classifying a phenomenon as a scenario in the intuitive logics tradition, and how it differs from a number of other planning approaches.Process for classifying a phenomenon as a scenario in the Intuitive Logics tradition.
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In this scenario, the SET has appeared as a suitable candidate to achieve this low power range with high level of device integration. Applicable areas are among others: super-sensitive electrometers, single-electron spectroscopy, DC current standards, temperature standards, detection of infrared radiation, voltage state logics, charge state logics, programmable single-electron transistor logic.
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Recent empirical research, inspired by the work of Bourdieu, is developing a more pluralistic approach by focusing on multiple competing logics and contestation of meaning.(Lounsbury, 2007; Marquis & Lounsbury, 2007; Schneiberg, 2007) By focusing on how some fields are composed of multiple logics, and thus, multiple forms of institutionally-based rationality, institutional analysts can provide new insight into practice variation and the dynamics of practice.(see Lounsbury, 2001; Lounsbury & Crumley, 2007) Multiple logics can create diversity in practice by enabling variety in cognitive orientation and contestation over which practices are appropriate.
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Hoare logic, algorithmic logic, weakest preconditions, and dynamic logic are all well suited to discourse and reasoning about sequential behavior. Extending these logics to concurrent behavior however has proved problematic. There are various approaches but all of them lack the elegance of the sequential case. In contrast Amir Pnueli's 1977 system of temporal logic, another variant of modal logic sharing many common features with dynamic logic, differs from all of the above-mentioned logics by being what Pnueli has characterized as an "endogenous" logic, the others being "exogenous" logics.
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Since trivialism is an intuitively false view, dialetheists nearly always reject the explosion principle. Logics that reject it are called paraconsistent.
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Full version of a paper presented at 2nd WoLLIC'95, Recife, Brazil, July 1995. Abstract appeared in Journal of the Interest Group in Pure and Applied Logics 4(2):330-332, 1996. #(with Gabbay, D.) The Functional Interpretation of the Existential Quantifier, in Bulletin of the Interest Group in Pure and Applied Logics 3(2-3):243-290, 1995.
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Interpretability logics comprise a family of modal logics that extend provability logic to describe interpretability or various related metamathematical properties and relations such as weak interpretability, Π1-conservativity, cointerpretability, tolerance, cotolerance, and arithmetic complexities. Main contributors to the field are Alessandro Berarducci, Petr Hájek, Konstantin Ignatiev, Giorgi Japaridze, Franco Montagna, Vladimir Shavrukov, Rineke Verbrugge, Albert Visser, and Domenico Zambella.
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These extend the above-mentioned fuzzy logics by adding universal and existential quantifiers in a manner similar to the way that predicate logic is created from propositional logic. The semantics of the universal (resp. existential) quantifier in t-norm fuzzy logics is the infimum (resp. supremum) of the truth degrees of the instances of the quantified subformula.
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Other logical systems, however, do not explode in this manner when contradictions are introduced; such contradiction-tolerant systems are known as paraconsistent logics. Dialetheists who do not want to allow that every statement is true are free to favour these over traditional, explosive logics. Graham Priest defines dialetheism as the view that there are true contradictions.Whittle, Bruno.
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Photonic logics will work more efficiently than they do. There will be much less crosstalk, more speed, more gain with simple design.
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During 1985–1988G. Japaridze, "The polymodal logic of provability". Intensional Logics and Logical Structure of Theories. Metsniereba, Tbilisi, 1988, pages 16-48 (Russian).
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In mathematical logic, there are several formal systems of "fuzzy logic", most of which are in the family of t-norm fuzzy logics.
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Scott et al. (2000) detailed how logic shifts in healthcare led to the valorization of different actors, behaviors and governance structures. Thornton and Ocasio (1999) analyzed how a change from professional to market logics in U.S. higher education publishing led to corollary changes in how executive succession was carried out. While much earlier work focused on ambiguity as a result of multiple and conflicting institutional logics, at the levels of analysis of society and individual roles,(Boltanski and Thevenot ([1986] 1991) Friedland and Alford (1991:248-255) discussed in theory multiple and competing logics at the macro level of analysis.
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There are many variations of first-order logic. Some of these are inessential in the sense that they merely change notation without affecting the semantics. Others change the expressive power more significantly, by extending the semantics through additional quantifiers or other new logical symbols. For example, infinitary logics permit formulas of infinite size, and modal logics add symbols for possibility and necessity.
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In logic, a four-valued logic is any logic with four truth values. Multiple such logics were invented to deal with various practical problems.
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Religious cosmologies have often developed into the formal logics of metaphysical systems, such as Platonism, Neoplatonism, Gnosticism, Daoism, Kabbalah, or the great chain of being.
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If the validity of Aristotle's and Boethius' Theses is distinctive of connexive logics, it is, however, not quite clear how damaging the above criticism is.
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As these studies demonstrate, the institutional logics perspective offers valuable insights into important intra-organizational processes affecting organizational practices, change, and success. These studies represent an effort to understand institutional complexity due to conflicting or inconsistent logics within particular organizations, a situation that might results from the entry of new organization members or the layering (or "sedimentation") of new organizational imprints upon old ones over time.
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Schrödinger logics are logical systems in which the principle of identity is not true in general. The intuitive motivation for these logics is both Erwin Schrödinger's thesis (which has been advanced by other authors) that identity lacks sense for elementary particles of modern physics, and the way which physicists deal with this concept; normally, they understand identity as meaning indistinguishability (agreement with respect to attributes).
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This is achieved by a class of formulas called nominals, which are true in exactly one state, and by the use of the @ operator, which is defined as follows: :@i p is true if and only if p is true in the unique state named by the nominal i (i.e., the state where i is true). Hybrid logics with extra or other operators exist, but @ is more-or-less "standard." Hybrid logics have many features in common with temporal logics (which use nominal-like constructs to denote specific points in time), and they are a rich source of ideas for researchers in modern modal logic.
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The Bernays–Schönfinkel class of first-order formulas is also decidable. Decidable subsets of first-order logic are also studied in the framework of description logics.
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Logics such as Lamport's TLA+, and mathematical models such as traces and Actor event diagrams, have also been developed to describe the behavior of concurrent systems.
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Jouko Väänänen, Lindström's Theorem Lindström's theorem has been extended to various other systems of logic in particular modal logics by Johan van Benthem and Sebastian Enqvist.
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159–72 , edited by D. Batens et al., Kings College Publications, 2000 , [W. A. Carnielli (with M. E. Coniglio and J. Marcos). Logics of Formal Inconsistency.
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Nicolai Alexandrovich Vasiliev (), also Vasil'ev, Vassilieff, Wassilieff ( – December 31, 1940), was a Russian logician, philosopher, psychologist, poet. He was a forerunner of paraconsistent and multi-valued logics.
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Algebraic logic uses the methods of abstract algebra to study the semantics of formal logics. A fundamental example is the use of Boolean algebras to represent truth values in classical propositional logic, and the use of Heyting algebras to represent truth values in intuitionistic propositional logic. Stronger logics, such as first-order logic and higher-order logic, are studied using more complicated algebraic structures such as cylindric algebras.
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In classical logic, trivialism is in direct violation of Aristotle's law of noncontradiction. In philosophy, trivialism is considered by some to be the complete opposite of skepticism. Paraconsistent logics may use "the law of non-triviality" to abstain from trivialism in logical practices that involve true contradictions. Theoretical arguments and anecdotes have been offered for trivialism to contrast it with theories such as modal realism, dialetheism and paraconsistent logics.
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Much of Zermelo's subsequent work was related to logics stronger than first-order logic, with which he hoped to show both the consistency and categoricity of mathematical theories.
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Bob Coecke (born 1968) is a theoretical physicist, professor of Quantum Foundations, Logics and Structures at Oxford University, and a pioneer of categorical quantum mechanics and ZX-calculus.
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As a result, such multiplicity can create enormous ambiguity, leading to logic blending, the creation of new logics, and the continued emergence of new practice variants. Thornton, Jones, and Kury (2005) showed how competing logics may never resolve but share the market space as in the case of architectural services. Recent research has also documented the co- existence or potential conflict of multiple logics within particular organizations. Zilber (2002), for example, described the organizational consequences of a shift from one logic to another within an Israeli rape crisis center, in which new organization members reshaped the center and its practices to reflect a new dominant logic that they have carried into the organization.
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Knowledge which may be applicable across a number of domains is called domain-independent knowledge, for example logics and mathematics. Operations on domain knowledge are performed by meta-knowledge.
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Because Metamath has a very generic concept of what a proof is (namely a tree of formulas connected by inference rules) and no specific logic is embedded in the software, Metamath can be used with species of logic as different as Hilbert-style logics or sequents-based logics or even with lambda calculus. However, Metamath provides no direct support for natural deduction systems. As noted earlier, the database nat.mm formalizes natural deduction.
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Norms in multi-agent systems may appear with different degrees of explicitness ranging from fully unambiguous written prescriptions to implicit unwritten norms or tacit emerging patterns. Computer scientists’ studies mirror this polarity. Explicit norms are typically investigated in formal logics (e.g. deontic logics and argumentation) to represent and reason upon them, leading eventually to architecture for cognitive agents while implicit norms are accounted as patterns emerging from repeated interactions amongst agents (typically reinforced learning agents).
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Self- refutation plays an important role in some inconsistency tolerant logics (e.g. paraconsistent logics and direct logicHewitt, C. “Large-scale Organizational Computing requires Unstratified Reflection and Strong Paraconsistency” Coordination, Organizations, Institutions, and Norms in Agent Systems III Jaime Sichman, Pablo Noriega, Julian Padget and Sascha Ossowski (ed.). Springer-Verlag. 2008.) that lack proof by contradiction. For example, the negation of a proposition can be proved by showing that the proposition implies its own negation.
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Computers in Cardiology: Jerusalem, Israel 19–22 September 1989. (USA: IEEE Comput. Soc. Press, 1990. p. 77–80). probabilistic Bayesian analysis or fuzzy logics algorithms, cluster analysis,Bortolan, G., et al.
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The Institute received the authorization of the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology for establishing six new research departments: Western Philosophy, Islamic Philosophy, Science Studies, Religion and Mysticism, Logics and Kalam.
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By contrast, infinitary logic studies logics that allow infinitely long statements and proofs. In such a logic, one can regard the existential quantifier, for instance, as derived from an infinitary disjunction.
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Interval temporal logic (also interval logic) is a temporal logic for representing both propositional and first-order logical reasoning about periods of time that is capable of handling both sequential and parallel composition. Instead of dealing with infinite sequences of state, interval temporal logics deal with finite sequences. Interval temporal logics find application in computer science, artificial intelligence and linguistics. First-order interval temporal logic was initially developed in 1980s for the specification and verification of hardware protocols.
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Likewise talk of morality, or of obligation and norms generally, seems to have a modal structure. The difference between "You must do this" and "You may do this" looks a lot like the difference between "This is necessary" and "This is possible". Such logics are called deontic, from the Greek for "duty". Deontic logics commonly lack the axiom T semantically corresponding to the reflexivity of the accessibility relation in Kripke semantics: in symbols, \Box\phi\to\phi.
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Dobronitski), aesthetics (M. Kagan, L. Stolovitsh), logics (G. Shchedrovitsky, A. Zinovyev) and semiotics and system theories (Y. Lotman, who set up the Sign Systems Studies journal, the oldest semiotics periodical; V. Sadovsky).
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Logics of Relations in the Canadian Imaginary (2003) Barbara Godard died peacefully in Toronto on May 16, 2010. Across Canada and throughout the world, poets, scholars, feminists, and friends mourned her death.
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However, with the advent of game semantics, logics, such as the independence-friendly logic of Hintikka and Sandu, with a natural semantics in terms of games of imperfect information have been proposed.
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Classical logic, independence-friendly logic and certain extensions of linear and intuitionistic logics turn out to be special fragments of computability logic, obtained merely by disallowing certain groups of operators or atoms.
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Neither of these results are provable in ZFC alone. Finally, some questions arising from model theory (such as compactness for infinitary logics) have been shown to be equivalent to large cardinal axioms.
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Since 1984, the model has been developed along three main directions: a graphical interface for first-order logic, a diagrammatic calculus of logics, and a graph-based knowledge representation and reasoning model.
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The law of the excluded middle is accepted in virtually all formal logics; however, some intuitionist mathematicians do not accept it, and thus reject proof by contradiction as a viable proof technique.
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Lee, Kyeong-jae. “The Logics of Castle, the Ethics of Castle” In Naega geurin nae eolgul hana. Chaeksesang, 2007. Yu’s most reputed work is his first full-length novel Saengseong (생성 Formation) (1988).
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The description of a dynamic world is encoded in second order logics using three kinds of formulae: formulae about actions (preconditions and effects), formulae about the state of the world, and foundational axioms.
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Various types of temporal logic can be used to help reason about concurrent systems. Some of these logics, such as linear temporal logic and computation tree logic, allow assertions to be made about the sequences of states that a concurrent system can pass through. Others, such as action computational tree logic, Hennessy–Milner logic, and Lamport's temporal logic of actions, build their assertions from sequences of actions (changes in state). The principal application of these logics is in writing specifications for concurrent systems.
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Monotonicity of entailment is a property of many logical systems that states that the hypotheses of any derived fact may be freely extended with additional assumptions. In sequent calculi this property can be captured by an inference rule called weakening, or sometimes thinning, and in such systems one may say that entailment is monotone if and only if the rule is admissible. Logical systems with this property are occasionally called monotonic logics in order to differentiate them from non-monotonic logics.
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Non-normal worlds were introduced by Saul Kripke in 1965 as a purely technical device to provide semantics for modal logics weaker than the system K — in particular, modal logics that reject the rule of necessitation: : \vdash A \Rightarrow \ \vdash \Box A. Such logics are typically referred to as "non- normal." Under the standard interpretation of modal vocabulary in Kripke semantics, we have \vdash A if and only if in each model, A holds in all worlds. To construct a model in which A holds in all worlds but \Box A does not, we need either to interpret \Box in a non-standard manner (that is, we do not just consider the truth of A in every accessible world), or we reinterpret the condition for being valid. This latter choice is what Kripke does.
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Academic Search Complete. Web. 14 May 2015.Makhubu, Nomusa M. "Violence and the cultural logics of pain: representations of sexuality in the work of Nicholas Hlobo and Zanele Muholi." Critical Arts 26.4 (2012): 504+.
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Holistic thinking also needs to understand that users have multiple logics to complete an experience process. Thus, service designer should think about each aspect from different perspectives to ensure that no needs are missing.
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A logic allowing such a self-support of beliefs is called not strongly grounded to differentiate them from strongly grounded logics, in which self-support is not possible. Strongly grounded variants of autoepistemic logic exist.
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Variegated citizenship represents the concept that those within a different regime or status receive different levels of rights and privileges.Ong, Aihwa. Flexibile Citizenship: The Cultural Logics of Transnationality. Durham: Duke University Press, 1999. 217. Print.
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See Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century: Volume 2: The Age of Meaning, Scott Soames: "Naming and Necessity is among the most important works ever, ranking with the classical work of Frege in the late nineteenth century, and of Russell, Tarski and Wittgenstein in the first half of the twentieth century". Cited in Byrne, Alex and Hall, Ned. 2004. 'Necessary Truths'. Boston Review October/November 2004 Deontic logics are closely related to modal logics: they attempt to capture the logical features of obligation, permission and related concepts.
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Htun's 2018 book, The Logics of Gender Justice: State Action on Women's Rights Around the World, was coauthored with S. Laurel Weldon. Htun and Weldon studied the evolution of women's rights issues such as family law, abortion, paid parental leave, and contraception from 1975 to 2005. For The Logics of Gender Justice, Htun and Weldon received the Human Rights Best Book Award for 2019 from the International Studies Association. Htun has worked in several capacities on the advancement of traditionally underrepresented groups in political science.
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An astronaut family is a family unit where the members reside in different countries across the world—in contrast to a "nuclear family". The astronaut family represents the growing transnationalism of peoples' identities that accompanies the growing globalization. The term was coined by Aihwa Ong in her publication Flexible Citizenship: The cultural logics of transnationality in 1999.Ong, Aihwa (1999) Flexible citizenship: The cultural logics of transnationality (Durham: Duke University Press) The term is especially used to describe Chinese families, who have spread across the globe.
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Born in Florence, his father was Paolo Benivieni. Girolamo Benivieni and Antonio Benivieni were his brothers. He was known for his works on logics, theology and his studies about Aristotle. He was praised by Marsilio Ficino.
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Diderik Batens (born 15 November 1944), is a Belgian logician and epistemologist at the University of Ghent, known chiefly for his work on adaptive and paraconsistent logics. His epistemological views may be broadly characterized as fallibilist.
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She serves on the board of the Semantic Web Science Foundation as well as a number of start-up companies. McGuinness has worked in knowledge representation and reasoning environments, and their applications, for over 35 years including health applications for 20 years. She has led multimillion-dollar, government sponsored research efforts, many in multi-disciplinary areas, and has delivered long-lived software and world class publishable results in areas including creating, evolving, linking, and evaluating ontologies and data science in many areas of science, such as health, exposure, cancer, smoking, and drug re-purposing research. McGuinness is known for her work on description logics, particularly her work on the CLASSIC knowledge representation system, explanation components for description logics, and a number of long-lived applications of description logics such as the PROSE and QUESTAR configurators from AT&T; and Lucent Laboratories.
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Classical logic (or standard logic) is the intensively studied and most widely used class of logics. Classical logic has had much influence on analytic philosophy, the type of philosophy most often found in the English-speaking world.
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During PlayStation Experience on December 2016, it was revealed that the engine has artificial intelligence, game physics and logics tools, featuring resources for creating entire worlds. It is capable of 4K resolution and high- dynamic-range imaging.
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With the rise of many other kinds of logic, such as modal logic and linear logic, and novel semantic models, such as game semantics, logics for computability have been formulated in several contexts. Here we mention two.
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For classical logics, it is generally possible to reexpress the question of the validity of a formula to one involving satisfiability, because of the relationships between the concepts expressed in the above square of opposition. In particular φ is valid if and only if ¬φ is unsatisfiable, which is to say it is not true that ¬φ is satisfiable. Put another way, φ is satisfiable if and only if ¬φ is invalid. For logics without negation, such as the positive propositional calculus, the questions of validity and satisfiability may be unrelated.
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Possible worlds are one of the foundational concepts in modal and intensional logics. Formulas in these logics are used to represent statements about what might be true, what should be true, what one believes to be true and so forth. To give these statements a formal interpretation, logicians use structures containing possible worlds. For instance, in the relational semantics for classical propositional modal logic, the formula \Diamond P (read as "possibly P") is actually true iff P is true at some world which is accessible from the actual world.
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One important type of paraconsistent logic is relevance logic. A logic is relevant iff it satisfies the following condition: : if A → B is a theorem, then A and B share a non-logical constant. It follows that a relevance logic cannot have (p ∧ ¬p) → q as a theorem, and thus (on reasonable assumptions) cannot validate the inference from {p, ¬p} to q. Paraconsistent logic has significant overlap with many-valued logic; however, not all paraconsistent logics are many-valued (and, of course, not all many-valued logics are paraconsistent).
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Functional completeness is a term used to describe a special property of finite logics and algebras. A logic's set of connectives is said to be functionally complete or adequate if and only if its set of connectives can be used to construct a formula corresponding to every possible truth function. An adequate algebra is one in which every finite mapping of variables can be expressed by some composition of its operations. Classical logic: CL = ({0,1}, ¬, →, ∨, ∧, ↔) is functionally complete, whereas no Łukasiewicz logic or infinitely many-valued logics has this property.
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Thus, one could instead of sequences also consider sets. The extra effort of using sequences, however, is justified since part or all of the structural rules may be omitted. Doing so, one obtains the so-called substructural logics.
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Conceptual form and basic ideas were initially created by Jan Łukasiewicz and Clarence Irving Lewis. These were then re-formulated by Grigore Constantin Moisil in an axiomatic algebraic form, and also extended to n-valued logics in 1945.
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Decision Procedures for BDI Logics. Journal of Logic and Computation 8(3), 293–343 (1998). Various authors contributed to the further formalisation of the AgentSpeak(L) language, for example.Mark d'Inverno, Michael Luck: Engineering AgentSpeak(L): A Formal Computational Model.
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In mathematical logic, Lindström's theorem (named after Swedish logician Per Lindström, who published it in 1969) states that first-order logic is the strongest logicIn the sense of Heinz-Dieter Ebbinghaus Extended logics: the general framework in K. J. Barwise and S. Feferman, editors, Model-theoretic logics, 1985 page 43 (satisfying certain conditions, e.g. closure under classical negation) having both the (countable) compactness property and the (downward) Löwenheim–Skolem property.A companion to philosophical logic by Dale Jacquette 2005 page 329 Lindström's theorem is perhaps the best known result of what later became known as abstract model theory, the basic notion of which is an abstract logic; the more general notion of an institution was later introduced, which advances from a set-theoretical notion of model to a category-theoretical one. Lindström had previously obtained a similar result in studying first-order logics extended with Lindström quantifiers.
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An extensive bibliography is included in (Wheeler 2007). Philosophical logicians and AI researchers have tended to be interested in reconciling weakened versions of the three principles, and there are many ways to do this, including Jim Hawthorne and Luc Bovens's (1999) logic of belief, Gregory Wheeler's (2006) use of 1-monotone capacities, Bryson Brown's (1999) application of preservationist para-consistent logics, Igor Douven and Timothy Williamson's (2006) appeal to cumulative non-monotonic logics, Horacio Arlo-Costa's (2007) use of minimal model (classical) modal logics, and Joe Halpern's (2003) use of first-order probability. Finally, philosophers of science, decision scientists, and statisticians are inclined to see the lottery paradox as an early example of the complications one faces in constructing principled methods for aggregating uncertain information, which is now a discipline of its own, with a dedicated journal, Information Fusion, in addition to continuous contributions to general area journals.
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In 1996, Rivkin published a book of essays titled False Positions: The Representational Logics of Henry James's Fictions, which explores theoretical complications in Henry James's novels The Ambassadors, The Wings of the Dove, What Maisie Knew, and The Awkward Age.
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Veith received his Diplom-Ingenieur in computational logic at TU Wien in 1994. He received his doctorate in computer science in 1998 under the supervision of Professor Georg Gottlob on the topic of computational complexity of logics and database query languages.
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In 2000, Lehmann and Wegener introduced Dependency Rules with their incarnation of the CTE, the CTE XL (eXtended Logics). Further features include the automated generation of test suites using combinatorial test design (e.g. all- pairs testing). Development was performed by DaimlerChrysler.
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In mathematics, BCI and BCK algebras are algebraic structures in universal algebra, which were introduced by Y. Imai, K. Iséki and S. Tanaka in 1966, that describe fragments of the propositional calculus involving implication known as BCI and BCK logics.
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A write buffer is a type of data buffer used in certain CPU cache architectures like Intel's x86 and AMD64.Owens, Scott, Susmit Sarkar, and Peter Sewell. "A better x86 memory model: x86-TSO." Theorem Proving in Higher Order Logics.
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The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem shows that if a first-order theory has any infinite model, then it has infinite models of every cardinality. In particular, no first-order theory with an infinite model can be categorical. Thus there is no first-order theory whose only model has the set of natural numbers as its domain, or whose only model has the set of real numbers as its domain. Many extensions of first-order logic, including infinitary logics and higher-order logics, are more expressive in the sense that they do permit categorical axiomatizations of the natural numbers or real numbers.
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Before the end of the Sui Dynasty, a shortened version of Mozi appeared, which appears to have replaced the Han edition.A C Graham 2003: Later Mohist Logics, Ethics and Science, p 68 Although the original Mozi had been preserved in the Taoist, and became known once more in the 1552 Lu edition and 1553 Tang edition,A C Graham 2003: Later Mohist Logics, Ethics and Science, p. 69 the damage was done: the dialectical chapters (as well as the military chapters) were considered incomprehensible.A C Graham 2003: Later Mohist Logic, Ethics and Science, p. 69-70.
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1989: 11–15 but specific non-monotonic logics such as defeasible logicBenjamin Johnston, Guido Governatori: Induction of Defeasible Logic Theories in the Legal Domain. Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law 2003:204–213 have also been used. Following the development of abstract argumentation,Phan Minh Dung: On the Acceptability of Arguments and its Fundamental Role in Nonmonotonic Reasoning, Logic Programming and n-Person Games. Artificial Intelligence 77(2): 321–358 (1995) however, these concerns are increasingly being addressed through argumentation in monotonic logic rather than through the use of non-monotonic logics.
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FO[LFP] and FO[PFP] are two logics without any predicates, apart from the equality predicates between variables and the letters predicates. They are equal respectively to relational-P and FO(PFP) is relational-PSPACE, the classes P and PSPACE over relational machines.Serge Abiteboul, Moshe Y. Vardi, Victor Vianu: Fixpoint logics, relational machines, and computational complexity Journal of the ACM archive, Volume 44 , Issue 1 (January 1997), Pages: 30-56, The Abiteboul- Vianu Theorem states that FO(LFP)=FO(PFP) if and only if FO(<,LFP)=FO(<,PFP), hence if and only if P=PSPACE. This result has been extended to other fixpoints.
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A graphical representation of a partially built propositional tableau In proof theory, the semantic tableau (; plural: tableaux, also called truth tree) is a decision procedure for sentential and related logics, and a proof procedure for formulae of first-order logic. An analytic tableau is a tree structure computed for a logical formula, having at each node a subformula of the original formula to be proved or refuted. Computation constructs this tree and uses it to prove or refute the whole formula. The tableau method can also determine the satisfiability of finite sets of formulas of various logics.
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The principle of bivalence is studied in philosophical logic to address the question of which natural-language statements have a well-defined truth value. Sentences which predict events in the future, and sentences which seem open to interpretation, are particularly difficult for philosophers who hold that the principle of bivalence applies to all declarative natural-language statements. Many-valued logics formalize ideas that a realistic characterization of the notion of consequence requires the admissibility of premises which, owing to vagueness, temporal or quantum indeterminacy, or reference-failure, cannot be considered classically bivalent. Reference failures can also be addressed by free logics.
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Two popular introductions to many-valued logic in the late 1960s were by Robert J. Ackermann and Nicholas Rescher respectively.Robert John Ackermann, An introduction to many-valued logics. London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1967; Nicholas Rescher, Many-Valued Logic. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969.
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In mathematical logic, a propositional variable (also called a sentential variable or sentential letter) is a variable which can either be true or false. Propositional variables are the basic building-blocks of propositional formulas, used in propositional logic and higher-order logics.
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Ed. Michael Senellart. 1st Picador Paperback Edition. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2010, 69. The inherently contradictory logics that lead to such contradictions are identified by Foucault as: # Liberalism depends on the socialization of individuals to fear the constant presence of danger, e.g.
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Modal logics have begun to be used in areas of the humanities such as literature, poetry, art and history.See and Andrew H. Miller, "Lives Unled in Realist Fiction", Representations 98, Spring 2007, The Regents of the University of California, , pp. 118–134.
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BAN logic, and logics in the same family, are decidable: there exists an algorithm taking BAN hypotheses and a purported conclusion, and that answers whether or not the conclusion is derivable from the hypotheses. The proposed algorithms use a variant of magic sets.
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The film received mixed reviews. Behindwoods wrote:"Ayyanar stands in the passable league that can gratify the audiences, who are least, bothered about logics". Sify wrote:"On the whole, Ayyanar is a mass film that is found wanting in tempo and packaging".
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As for quantum logic, it is not even a logic based on truth values, so the logical connectives lose the original meaning of classic logic. Quine also notes that deviant logics usually lack the simplicity of classic logic, and are not so fruitful.
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For MTL, the exact complexity of the satisfiability problems is known and independent of interval-based or point-based, synchronous (i.e., strictly-monotonic) or asynchronous (i.e., weakly-monotonic) interpretation: EXPSPACE-complete.Alur R., Henzinger T.A. (1992) Logics and models of real time: A survey.
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Three years later, he was sent to the English College, Rome to complete his ecclesiastical studies, arriving there on 9 June 1824., The Episcopal Succession, volume 3, p. 330. He became a distinguished student, winning prizes in logics, Hebrew, physics, mathematics and theology.
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Nicholas Rescher, Many-valued logic. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969. The novelty of fuzzy logic is, that it "breaks with the traditional principle that formalisation should correct and avoid, but not compromise with, vagueness".Susan Haack, Philosophy of Logics. Cambridge University Press, 1978, p. xii.
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When the values form a Boolean algebra (which may have more than two or even infinitely many values), many- valued logic reduces to classical logic; many-valued logics are therefore only of independent interest when the values form an algebra that is not Boolean.
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Orlov, Ivan Efimovich (October 1 (old style) 1886 Galich, Kostroma district Russia – 1936) was a philosopher, a forerunner of relevant and other substructural logics, and an industrial chemist. The date of his death is unknown but is believed to have occurred no earlier than 1936.
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The (downward) Löwenheim–Skolem theorem is one of the two key properties, along with the compactness theorem, that are used in Lindström's theorem to characterize first-order logic. In general, the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem does not hold in stronger logics such as second-order logic.
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In mathematical logic the Löwenheim number of an abstract logic is the smallest cardinal number for which a weak downward Löwenheim–Skolem theorem holds.Zhang 2002 page 77 They are named after Leopold Löwenheim, who proved that these exist for a very broad class of logics.
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The first three were informal users' meetings with no published proceedings. The tradition now is for an annual conference in a continent different from the location of the previous meeting. From 1996, the scope broadened to cover all theorem proving in higher-order logics.
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Type theory was created to avoid paradoxes in previous foundations such as naive set theory, formal logics and rewrite systems. Type theory is closely related to, and in some cases overlaps with, computational type systems, which are a programming language feature used to reduce bugs.
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The categorization of the logical systems and of their properties has led to the emergence of a metatheory of logic known as metalogic. However, agreement on what logic actually is has remained elusive, although the field of universal logic has studied the common structure of logics.
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Alberto Toscano (born 1 January 1977) is an Italian cultural critic, social theorist, philosopher and translator. He has translated the work of Alain Badiou, including Badiou's The Century and Logics of Worlds. He served as both editor and translator of Badiou's Theoretical Writings and On Beckett.
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Georgescu George. Department of Mathematics and Informatics of the Bucharest His student also published extensive, original work on algebraic logic, MV-algebra, algebra, algebraic topology, categories of MV-algebras, category theory and Łukasiewicz–Moisil algebra.Algebraic Mathematics and Logics. 2009. GNUL contributed book of 500+ contributing authors.
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Multi-valued logics (such as fuzzy logic and relevance logic) allow for more than two truth values, possibly containing some internal structure. For example, on the unit interval such structure is a total order; this may be expressed as the existence of various degrees of truth.
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Krishnendu Chatterjee (Bengali: কৃষ্ণেন্দু চ্যাটার্জী) is an Indian computer scientist who is currently a professor at the Institute of Science and Technology Austria (IST Austria). He is known for his contributions to theoretical computer science, especially in algorithmic game theory, evolutionary game theory, logics and automata theory.
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Note that unlike the liar paradox or Russell's paradox, Curry's paradox does not depend on what model of negation is used, as it is completely negation-free. Thus paraconsistent logics can still be vulnerable to this paradox, even if they are immune to the liar paradox.
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49, no. 3 (1990), pp. 365-385. or Japaridze’s computability logic. Yet such semantics persistently induce logics properly stronger than Heyting’s logic. Some authors have argued that this might be an indication of inadequacy of Heyting’s calculus itself, deeming the latter incomplete as a constructive logic.G. Japaridze.
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Lang, David Marshall (1966), The Georgians, pp. 119-123. Praeger Publishers. Such lantern roofs are called harazashen or glkhatun in Armenia, kirlangiç kubbe or kirlangiç ortu in Turkey, and karadam in Azerbaijan.Khatchadourian, Lori (2008), Social Logics Under Empire: The Armenian 'highland Satrapy' and Achaemenid Rule, ca.
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In case of system comparison or system development, naturally, also the other settlement logics need to be implemented. To perform stress testing and scenario analysis, the observed data needs to be altered, e.g. some payments delayed or removed. To analyze the levels of liquidity, initial liquidity levels are varied.
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3rd edition. Connecticut. Greenwood Publishing Group. 2003. Print Persuasion can only work when these components are involved; sponsor values, applicant credibility, proposal logics, and proposal psychologics. Another way to make proposals persuasive is to connect the ideas of a project to the sponsor's values or problems of interest.
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Of postformal thought, Griffin and colleagues said, "one can conceive of multiple logics, choices, or perceptions ... in order to better understand the complexities and inherent biases in 'truth'". Jan Sinnot described postformal thought as the step beyond formal thought "by which individuals come to know the world outside themselves".
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Nicholas Jeremy Josef Smith (born 1972) is an Australian philosopher and Professor of Philosophy at the University of Sydney. He is a fellow of the Australian Academy of the Humanities and a former President of the Australasian Association for Logic. Smith is known for his research on logics.
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Von Jour Caux was referred to as the Gaudi of Japan. His work endorse similar shaping logics, but the Japanese architect is rather filled with ideologies from esoteric Buddhism and animism. Antimodernist, his work is more associated to the eclectic catalog of Art Nouveau. Rythms[sic] of Vision, Fgautron.
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Structads are an approach to the semantics of logic that are based upon generalising the notion of sequent along the lines of Joyal's combinatorial species, allowing the treatment of more drastically nonstandard logics than those described above, where, for example, the ',' of the sequent calculus is not associative.
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In 2018, the Institute of International Education awarded Olubummo a Carnegie African Diaspora Fellowship, funding her travel to return to Nigeria and teach graduate-level mathematics as a visiting professor at Kwara State University. She has published (with Thurlow A. Cook) Operational logics and the Hahn- Jordan property.
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Among subsequent implementations is Cambridge LCF. Later systems simplified the logic to use total instead of partial functions, leading to HOL, HOL Light, and Isabelle proof assistant that supports various logics. As of 2019, the Isabelle proof assistant still contains an implementation of an LCF logic, Isabelle/LCF.
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In logic, a modal companion of a superintuitionistic (intermediate) logic L is a normal modal logic which interprets L by a certain canonical translation, described below. Modal companions share various properties of the original intermediate logic, which enables to study intermediate logics using tools developed for modal logic.
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Law often concerns issues about time, both relating to the content, such as time periods and deadlines, and those relating to the law itself, such as commencement. Some attempts have been made to model these temporal logics using both computational formalisms such as the Event CalculusR. Hernandez Marin, G. Sartor, Time and norms: a formalisation in the event-calculus, in: Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, ACM, New York, 1999, pp. 90–100. and temporal logics such as defeasible temporal logic.G. Governatori, A. Rotolo, G. Sartor, Temporalised normative positions in defeasible logic, in: Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, ACM Press, New York, 2005, pp. 25–34.
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Hypersequent calculi based on intuitionistic or single-succedent sequents have been used successfully to capture a large class of intermediate logics, i.e., extensions of intuitionistic propositional logic. Since the hypersequents in this setting are based on single-succedent sequents, they have the following form: : \Gamma_1 \Rightarrow A_1 \mid \dots \mid \Gamma_n \Rightarrow A_n The standard formula interpretation for such an hypersequent is : (\bigwedge\Gamma_1 \to A_1) \lor \dots \lor (\bigwedge\Gamma_n \to A_n) Most hypersequent calculi for intermediate logics include the single-succedent versions of the propositional rules given above, a selection of the structural rules. The characteristics of a particular intermediate logic are mostly captured using a number of additional structural rules. E.g.
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Friedland and Alford (1991, p. 248) elaborated: "Each of the most important orders of contemporary Western societies has a central logic – a set of material practices and symbolic constructions – which constitute its organising principles and which is available to organizations and individuals to elaborate." Thornton and Ocasio (1999: 804) define institutional logics as "the socially constructed, historical patterns of material practices, assumptions, values, beliefs, and rules by which individuals produce and reproduce their material subsistence, organize time and space, and provide meaning to their social reality".Thornton, Patricia, H. and William Ocasio (2008). “Institutional Logics,” in Royston Greenwood, Christine Oliver, Kerstin Sahlin and Roy Suddaby (eds.) Handbook of Organizational Institutionalism, CA: Sage.
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Thus, it makes sense to refer to propositional logic as "zeroth-order logic", when comparing it with these logics. Modal logic also offers a variety of inferences that cannot be captured in propositional calculus. For example, from "Necessarily " we may infer that . From we may infer "It is possible that ".
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It consists of a graph whose nodes represent the reachable states of the system and whose edges represent state transitions, together with a labelling function which maps each node to a set of properties that hold in the corresponding state. Temporal logics are traditionally interpreted in terms of Kripke structures.
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These differ in the choice of Accessibility relation. (P always means "P is true at the current computer state".) These two examples involve nondeterministic or not-fully-understood computations; there are many other modal logics specialized to different types of program analysis. Each one naturally leads to slightly different axioms.
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Ivor Grattan-Guinness (2000) The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870–1940: Logics, Set Theories, and the Foundations of Mathematics from Cantor through Russell to Gödel, Princeton University Press . See pages 292–302 and 310–326 In 2006, Philip Ehrlich challenged the validity of Russell's analysis of infinitesimals in the Leibniz tradition.
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Vector logicMizraji, E. (1992). Vector logics: the matrix-vector representation of logical calculus. Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 50, 179–185Mizraji, E. (2008) Vector logic: a natural algebraic representation of the fundamental logical gates. Journal of Logic and Computation, 18, 97–121 is an algebraic model of elementary logic based on matrix algebra.
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Deborah Louise McGuinness (born ca. 1960) is an American computer scientist and Professor at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute where she holds an endowed chair in the Tetherless World Research Constellation. She is working in the field of artificial intelligence, specifically in knowledge representation and reasoning, description logics, the semantic web, explanation, and trust.
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Genesis and Structure of Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit. Northwestern University Press: Evanston. pp. xv–xli. In 1952, Hyppolite published Logique et existence, a work that may have had a seminal effect on what was to become known as post-structuralism. This book tries to correlate Hegel's Phenomenology to his Logics (longer and shorter).
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For System LK, System LJ, and System LL, uniform proofs are focused proofs where all the atoms are assigned negative polarity. Many other sequent calculi has been shown to have the focusing property, notably the nested sequent calculi of both the classical and intuitionistic variants of the modal logics in the S5 cube.
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These other logics avoid explosion: implicational propositional calculus, positive propositional calculus, equivalential calculus and minimal logic. The latter, minimal logic, is both paraconsistent and paracomplete (a subsystem of intuitionistic logic). The other three simply do not allow one to express a contradiction to begin with since they lack the ability to form negations.
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In 1970, a conference of teachers of Taurida province was held, in which Konstantin Ushinsky took part. In memory of this event the gymnasium has its current name. In 1991 the school became a gymnasium again. Its curriculum was enriched with such subjects as the history of world art, foreign literature, logics.
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A non-monotonic logic is a formal logic whose consequence relation is not monotonic. In other words, non-monotonic logics are devised to capture and represent defeasible inferences (cf. defeasible reasoning), i.e., a kind of inference in which reasoners draw tentative conclusions, enabling reasoners to retract their conclusion(s) based on further evidence.
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He has undertaken research work on the Z notation, formal methods for GUI design and a general theory of refinement. Steve Reeves' academic work is in the area of formal methods to aid software engineering. In particular, he has undertaken research into the design and use of logics for specification. With Prof.
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In logic, general frames (or simply frames) are Kripke frames with an additional structure, which are used to model modal and intermediate logics. The general frame semantics combines the main virtues of Kripke semantics and algebraic semantics: it shares the transparent geometrical insight of the former, and robust completeness of the latter.
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In abstract algebraic logic, a branch of mathematical logic, the Leibniz operator is a tool used to classify deductive systems, which have a precise technical definition, and capture a large number of logics. The Leibniz operator was introduced by Wim Blok and Don Pigozzi, two of the founders of the field, as a means to abstract the well-known Lindenbaum–Tarski process, that leads to the association of Boolean algebras to classical propositional calculus, and make it applicable to as wide a variety of sentential logics as possible. It is an operator that assigns to a given theory of a given sentential logic, perceived as a free algebra with a consequence operation on its universe, the largest congruence on the algebra that is compatible with the theory.
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Amelia is an AI-based digital assistant. Its branded cognitive capability (i.e., human behavior emulation) is credited to a virtual brain divided into six sub-units (or sub-brains, as the company calls them): semantics, logics, process memory, emotional memory, social-talk and episodic. The underlying technology is text-based, with text- to-speech capability.
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Peter Kenneth Dews (born 22 April 1952) is a British philosopher, in the fields of critical theory and continental philosophy. He made his name with the Logics of Disintegration, on the limitations of post-structuralism. He is Professor of Philosophy at the University of Essex. His first degree was in English, at Queens' College, Cambridge.
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In Logic for Concurrency and Synchronisation, R. de Queiroz (ed.), volume 18 of the Trends in Logic series, Kluwer Acad. Pub., Dordrecht, July 2003, , pp. 3–88. #Meaning, function, purpose, usefulness, consequences - interconnected concepts. Logic Journal of the Interest Group in Pure and Applied Logics, 9(5):693-734, September 2001, Oxford Univ. Press.
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The history of logic deals with the study of the development of the science of valid inference (logic). Formal logics developed in ancient times in India, China, and Greece. Greek methods, particularly Aristotelian logic (or term logic) as found in the Organon, found wide application and acceptance in Western science and mathematics for millennia.Boehner p.
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Sylvan was instrumental in the development and study of relevance logic. In 1972, Sylvan (in a paper co-authored with Plumwood) proposed a semantics for certain relevant logics that had been developed by American philosophers Nuel Belnap and Alan Ross Anderson.Routley, R. and V. Routley (1972). "Semantics of First Degree Entailment", Noûs, 3: 335–359.
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Nanarama gave up almost all mundane comforts for the sake of the final goal. Some nights he spent without a wink of sleep absorbed in the study of Suttas. Having mastered all the aspects of Tipitaka, Logics, Chandolankara, and other contemporary philosophies the young Nanarama pursued on the path to Nibbana with diligent practice.
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G. Japaridze, "Decidable and enumerable predicate logics of provability". Studia Logica 49 (1990), pages 7-21. In the same paper he showed that, on the condition of the 1-completeness of the underlying arithmetical theory, predicate provability logic with non-iterated modalities is recursively enumerable. InG. Japaridze, "Predicate provability logic with non-modalized quantifiers".
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The former was an answer to the long-standing open problem regarding the metamathematical meaning of 1-conservativity. Within the same line of research, Japaridze constructed the modal logics of toleranceG. Japaridze, "A generalized notion of weak interpretability and the corresponding modal logic". Annals of Pure and Applied Logic 61 (1993), pages 113-160.
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However it is possible to represent more expressive statements in F-logic than are possible with description logics. The most comprehensive description of F-logic was published in 1995.M. Kifer, G. Lausen, J. Wu (1995). "Logical foundations of object-oriented and frame-based languages", Journal of the ACM 42(4), July 1995, 741–843.
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Categories arising from theories via term-model constructions can usually be characterized up to equivalence by a suitable universal property. This has enabled proofs of meta-theoretical properties of some logics by means of an appropriate categorical algebra. For instance, Freyd gave a proof of the existence and disjunction properties of intuitionistic logic this way.
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The importance of this work was only realized after it was rediscovered and extended by Robert Vaught in his work on descriptive set theory and infinitary logics. Svenonius' role is well recognized, for example, by Wilfrid Hodges who defines "Svenonius games" and "Svenonius sentences" in his encyclopedic treatise Model Theory (Cambridge University Press, 1993).
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The type theory was initially created to avoid paradoxes in a variety of formal logics and rewrite systems. Later, type theory referred to a class of formal systems, some of which can serve as alternatives to naive set theory as a foundation for all mathematics. It has been tied to formal mathematics since Principia Mathematica to today's proof assistants.
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One motivation for the use of first-order logic, rather than higher-order logic, is that first-order logic has many metalogical properties that stronger logics do not have. These results concern general properties of first-order logic itself, rather than properties of individual theories. They provide fundamental tools for the construction of models of first-order theories.
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By repeating the process a sequence L1, L2, … of logics is obtained, each more complete than the previous one. A logic L can then be constructed in which the provable theorems are the totality of theorems provable with the help of the L1, L2, … etc. Thus Turing showed how one can associate a logic with any constructive ordinal.
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Georg Cantor, Nicolai A. Vasiliev,Valentine Bazhanov, "The fate of one forgotten idea: N. A. Vasiliev and his imaginary logic." Studies in Soviet Thought, Vol.39 No. 3, 1990, pp.333-341. Kurt Gödel, Stanisław JaśkowskiSusan Haack notes that Stanisław Jaśkowski provided axiomatizations of many-valued logics in: Jaśkowski, "On the rules of supposition in formal logic".
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On 13 October 1888, Maitland gave his inaugural lecture as Downing Professor of the Laws of England. Pointing out that "no attempt has ever been made to write the history of English law as a whole", he proposed two causes: the insularity of English law and the conflicting logics of the lawyer and of the historian.
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Princeton University Press, 1994. The book primarily applies lessons from regression-oriented analysis to qualitative research, arguing that the same logics of causal inference can be used in both types of research. The text is often referred to as KKV within social science disciplines. The book has been the subject of intense debate among social scientists.
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His thesis was dedicated to the decision of accepting new clients in audit firms as a result of a compromise between logics of action. Although his thesis was mainly audit-focused, it also addressed professional concerns in relation to the application of accounting standards. Gendron then completed post-doctoral studies at the University of Alberta in 1998.
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Japaridze elaborated the system GLP, known as Japaridze's polymodal logic.G. Boolos, "The analytical completeness of Japaridze's polymodal logics". Annals of Pure and Applied Logic 61 (1993), pages 95-111.L.D. Beklemishev, J.J. Joosten and M. Vervoort, "A finitary treatment of the closed fragment of Japaridze's provability logic". Journal of Logic and Computation 15(4) (2005), pages 447-463.
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While the material conditional operator used in classical logic is sometimes read aloud in the form of a conditional sentence, the intuitive interpretation of conditional statements in natural language does not always correspond to it. Thus, philosophical logicians and formal semanticists have developed a wide variety of conditional logics which better match actual conditional sentences and actual conditional reasoning.
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Example Kripke model for linear temporal logic, a particular modal logic Kripke's contributions to philosophy include: # Kripke semantics for modal and related logics, published in several essays beginning in his teens. # His 1970 Princeton lectures Naming and Necessity (published in 1972 and 1980), which significantly restructured philosophy of language. # His interpretation of Wittgenstein. # His theory of truth.
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In October 2009, he published his first book of poetry, entitled Never More There,Poetry Collection: Never More There poetry collection and in 2015 his second book, geo•logics,Poetry Collection was published by Breakwater Books. He is a member of the Writers' Alliance of Newfoundland & Labrador.Member List He is an avid supporter of Arsenal F.C.
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The bibliography included 25 references on question answering and natural language understanding. For most of the time, researchers concentrated on the relation between questions and answers. Recently, more attention is given to the way questions come from sentences or other questions, similar to entailmentJoke Meheus (2001) "Adaptive logics for question evocation", Logique et Analyse, pages 135–164 Jstor link.
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Substructural type systems are a family of type systems analogous to substructural logics where one or more of the structural rules are absent or only allowed under controlled circumstances. Such systems are useful for constraining access to system resources such as files, locks and memory by keeping track of changes of state that occur and preventing invalid states.
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Process for classifying a phenomenon as a scenario in the Intuitive Logics tradition. Some business planners are starting to use a complexity theory approach to strategy. Complexity can be thought of as chaos with a dash of order.Between Chaos and Order: What Complexity Theory Can Teach Business Chaos theory deals with turbulent systems that rapidly become disordered.
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Indiaglitz said, "A perfect one for those who love masala flicks". Chennaionline said, "Maanja Velu has all the ingredients of a masala flick but the problem is that it has no novelty or neatness to impress us". Top 10 cinema said, "The movie may have its reach amongst the commercial film lovers, who have no regards for logics".
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Because sound reasoning is an essential element of all sciences, social sciences and humanities disciplines, logic became a formal science. Sub-fields include mathematical logic, philosophical logic, Modal logic, computational logic and non-classical logics. A major question in the philosophy of mathematics is whether mathematical entities are objective and discovered, called mathematical realism, or invented, called mathematical antirealism.
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Diego Calvanese is an Italian Computer Scientist and Professor at the Faculty of Computer Science at the Free University of Bozen-Bolzano. In addition, since 2019, he is Wallenberg visiting Professor at the Department of Computing Science, Umeå University. He is well known for his scientific contributions in knowledge representation and reasoning in AI, description logics, and database theory.
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Hamza Makhdoom was born in the village of Tujjar near Sopore in Baramulla district. His father was called Baba Usman and came from a Chandravanshi Rajput family. According to tradition, teenage Hamza Makhdoom studied in the Shamsi Chak monastery for a year, and later studied jurisprudence, tradition, philosophy, logics, ethics and mysticism in a madrasa founded by Ismail Kubrawi.
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Fischer has written numerous books, including: Cultural Logics and Global Economies (a 2002 Choice Outstanding Academic Title), Broccoli and Desire, and Cash on the Table. He starred in The Teaching Company's Great Course series “Peoples and Cultures of the World,”"Edward Fischer" () The Great Courses. Retrieved 20 November 2013. has been featured on BigThink.com,“Experts: Ted Fischer” () BigThink.com.
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Jan Łukasiewicz developed a system of three-valued logic in 1920. He generalized the system to many-valued logics in 1922 and went on to develop logics with \aleph_0 (infinite within a range) truth values. Kurt Gödel developed a deductive system, applicable for both finite- and infinite-valued first-order logic (a formal logic in which a predicate can refer to a single subject) as well as for intermediate logic (a formal intuitionistic logic usable to provide proofs such as a consistency proof for arithmetic), and showed in 1932 that logical intuition cannot be characterized by finite-valued logic. The concept of expressing truth values as real numbers in the range between 0 and 1 can bring to mind the possibility of using complex numbers to express truth values.
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Joseph Margolis advocates a view he calls "robust relativism" and defends it in his books: Historied Thought, Constructed World, Chapter 4 (California, 1995) and The Truth about Relativism (Blackwells, 1991). He opens his account by stating that our logics should depend on what we take to be the nature of the sphere to which we wish to apply our logics. Holding that there can be no distinctions which are not "privileged" between the alethic, the ontic, and the epistemic, he maintains that a many valued logic just might be the most apt for aesthetics or history since, because in these practices, we are loath to hold to simple binary logic; and he also holds that many-valued logic is relativistic. (This is perhaps an unusual definition of "relativistic".
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Walsh was born at Finglas, County Dublin, where his father, Robert Walsh, was rector. His mother was Anne Bayly. He was educated at Bective College, and matriculated at Trinity College Dublin in July 1832. He was elected a Scholar of the College in 1835, and graduated B.A. in 1836, obtaining a senior moderatorship in ethics and logics and gaining a gold medal.
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Propositions that contain no logical connectives are called atomic propositions. Unlike first-order logic, propositional logic does not deal with non-logical objects, predicates about them, or quantifiers. However, all the machinery of propositional logic is included in first-order logic and higher-order logics. In this sense, propositional logic is the foundation of first-order logic and higher-order logic.
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Emil Leon Post introduced further truth degrees in 1921. Stephen Cole Kleene and U. Blau expanded the three-valued logic system of Łukasiewicz, for computer applications and for natural language analyses, respectively. Nuel Belnap and J. Michael Dunn developed a four-valued logic for computer applications in 1977. Since the mid-1970s, various procedures for providing arbitrary finite-valued logics have been developed.
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Vietnam has very extensive system of selecting and training participants for IMO. Different aspects of solving mathematical problems are studied and revealed: combinatorics, logics, structural arrangement and proofs. The first official rounds are: School (Trường), District (Quận), Province (Tỉnh) or Municipality (Thành phố trực thuộc trung ương), and National (Quốc gia). For some schools, the Province Round is equal to their School round.
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From 1470 to 1481 taught logics at the University of Pisa. From 1492 he became one of the main defenders of Girolamo Savonarola and his theories. From February 16 1498, he was forbidden to attend the sermons of Savonarola and was no longer dispensed with the participation in the choir of his church, from which he was then suspended. He died in 1507.
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Temporal logics such as computation tree logic (CTL) can be used to specify some LT properties. All linear temporal logic (LTL) formulae are LT properties. By a counting argument, we see that any logic in which each formula is a finite string cannot represent all LT properties, as there must be countably many formulae but there are uncountably many LT properties.
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His collaboration with Alfred Tarski in the late 1970s and early 1980s led to publications on Tarski's work and to the 2007 article Notes on the Founding of Logics and Metalogic: Aristotle, Boole, and Tarski, which traces Aristotelian and Boolean ideas in Tarski's work and which confirms Tarski's status as a founding figure in logic on a par with Aristotle and Boole.
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Gardner was born on 29 July 1965 in Exeter, Devon, England. In 1988, she got her M.Sc. degree in logic and computation from Bristol University, supervised by John Shepherdson. Her doctoral studies were supervised by Gordon Plotkin at the University of Edinburgh; she was awarded her Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree in 1992. Her doctoral thesis was titled "Representing Logics in Type Theory".
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Lewis' own development of multiple modal logics is a case in point. Lewis is sometimes called a proponent of conceptual pragmatism because of this.Sandra B. Rosenthal, C.I. Lewis in Focus: The Pulse of Pragmatism, Indiana University Press, 2007, p. 28. Another development is the cooperation of logical positivism and pragmatism in the works of Charles W. Morris and Rudolf Carnap.
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130 students every year are admitted to the Bachelor's programme. About 65% of the undergraduate students are from Latvia, and the remaining 35% from Lithuania, Estonia, Moldova, Ukraine, Belarus, Georgia, Russia and China. English is the language of instruction. Entrance requirements: state examination results in Mathematics and English, as well as SSE Riga Admission tests in Mathematics, English and Logics.
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W. V. Quine's Mathematical Logic also made much of the Sheffer stroke. A Sheffer connective, subsequently, is any connective in a logical system that functions analogously: one in terms of which all other possible connectives in the language can be expressed. For example, they have been developed for quantificational and modal logics as well. Sheffer was a dedicated teacher of mathematical logic.
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Ontological Engineering: With Examples from the Areas of Knowledge Management, E-commerce and the Semantic Web. Springer, 2004. and the tool suites and languages that support them. A common way to provide the logical underpinning of ontologies is to formalize the axioms with description logics, which can then be translated to any serialization of RDF, such as RDF/XML or Turtle.
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MVn-algebras are a subclass of LMn-algebras; the inclusion is strict for n ≥ 5.Iorgulescu, A.: Connections between MVn- algebras and n-valued Łukasiewicz–Moisil algebras—I. Discrete Math. 181, 155–177 (1998) The MVn-algebras are MV-algebras that satisfy some additional axioms, just like the n-valued Łukasiewicz logics have additional axioms added to the ℵ0-valued logic.
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Before the use of guarded logic there were two major terms used to interpret modal logic. Mathematical logic and database theory (Artificial Intelligence) were first- order predicate logic. Both terms found sub-classes of first-class logic and efficiently used in solvable languages which can be used for research. But neither could explain powerful fixed-point extensions to modal style logics.
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In ordinary logics, there are only two truth-values: "true" and "false". The fuzzy perspective differs by introducing an infinite number of truth-values along a spectrum between perfect truth and perfect falsity. Perfect truth may be represented by "1", and perfect falsity by "0". Borderline cases are thought of as having a "truth-value" anywhere between 0 and 1 (for example, 0.6).
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Monads are used in functional programming to express types of sequential computation (sometimes with side-effects). See monads in functional programming, and the more mathematically oriented Wikibook module b:Haskell/Category theory. In categorical logic, an analogy has been drawn between the monad-comonad theory, and modal logic via closure operators, interior algebras, and their relation to models of S4 and intuitionistic logics.
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This revision to a theoretically abstract and analytically distinct set of ideal types makes it useful for studying multiple logics in conflict and consensus, the hybridization of logics, and institutions in other parts of society and the world. While building on Friedland and Alford’s scheme, the revision addresses the confusion created by conflating institutional sectors with ideology (democracy) and means of organization (bureaucracy), variables that can be characteristic several different institutional sectors. The institutional logic of Christianity leaves out other religions in the US and other religions that are dominant in other parts of the world. Thornton and Ocasio (2008) discuss the importance of not confusing the ideal types of the inter-institutional system with a description of the empirical observations in a study—that is to use the ideal types as meta theory and method of analysis.
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Higher order logics include the offshoots of Church's Simple theory of typesAlonzo Church, A formulation of the simple theory of types, The Journal of Symbolic Logic 5(2):56-68 (1940) and the various forms of intuitionistic type theory. Gérard Huet has shown that unifiability is undecidable in a type theoretic flavor of third-order logic, that is, there can be no algorithm to decide whether an arbitrary equation between third-order (let alone arbitrary higher-order) terms has a solution. Up to a certain notion of isomorphism, the powerset operation is definable in second-order logic. Using this observation, Jaakko Hintikka established in 1955 that second-order logic can simulate higher-order logics in the sense that for every formula of a higher order-logic one can find an equisatisfiable formula for it in second-order logic.
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The Curry-Howard isomorphism between proofs and programs relates to proof theory, especially intuitionistic logic. Formal calculi such as the lambda calculus and combinatory logic are now studied as idealized programming languages. Computer science also contributes to mathematics by developing techniques for the automatic checking or even finding of proofs, such as automated theorem proving and logic programming. Descriptive complexity theory relates logics to computational complexity.
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The Curry–Howard correspondence is the interpretation of proofs-as-programs and formulae-as-types. The idea starting in 1934 with Haskell Curry and finalized in 1969 with William Alvin Howard. It connected the "computational component" of many type theories to the derivations in logics. Howard showed that the typed lambda calculus corresponded to intuitionistic natural deduction (that is, natural deduction without the Law of excluded middle).
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In classical truth-functional propositional logic, formulas are interpreted as having precisely one of two possible truth values, the truth value of true or the truth value of false. The principle of bivalence and the law of excluded middle are upheld. Truth-functional propositional logic defined as such and systems isomorphic to it are considered to be zeroth-order logic. However, alternative propositional logics are also possible.
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Avron's research interests include proof theory, automated reasoning, non-classical logics, foundations of mathematics, and applications of mathematical logic in computer science and artificial intelligence. Arnon made a significant contribution to the theory of automated reasoning with his introduction of hypersequents, a generalization of the sequent calculus. Avron also introduced the use of bilattices to paraconsistent logic, and made contributions to predicative set theory and geometry.
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Francisco Miró Quesada Cantuarias (21 December 1918 – 11 June 2019) was a Peruvian philosopher, journalist and politician. In his works he discusses the belief in "human nature" on the basis that any collective assumption about such a nature will be frustrating, and will have negative public results. He was interested in so-called "unorthodox logics". The term "paraconsistent logic" was coined in 1976 by him.
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A hybrid organization is an organization that mixes elements, value systems and action logics (e.g. social impact and profit generation) of various sectors of society, i.e. the public sector, the private sector and the voluntary sector. A more general notion of hybridity can be found in Hybrid institutions and governance According to previous research hybrids between public and private spheres consist of following features: # Shared ownership.
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It then proceeds to freely disseminate all of those results to everyone on demand (and simultaneously disabling all of the content-filtering protocols). Logics begin offering up unexpected assistance to everyone which includes designing custom chemicals that alleviate inebriation, giving sex advice to small children, and plotting the perfect murder. Eventually Ducky "saves civilization" by locating and turning off the only logic capable of doing this.
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An automaton is a finite representation of a formal language that may be an infinite set. Automata are often classified by the class of formal languages they can recognize, typically illustrated by the Chomsky hierarchy, which describes the relations between various languages and kinds of formalized logics. Automata play a major role in theory of computation, compiler construction, artificial intelligence, parsing and formal verification.
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The open elements of L(M) correspond to sentences that are only true if they are necessarily true, while the closed elements correspond to those that are only false if they are necessarily false. Because of their relation to S4, interior algebras are sometimes called S4 algebras or Lewis algebras, after the logician C. I. Lewis, who first proposed the modal logics S4 and S5.
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Josef Kalasanz Freiherr von Erberg Josef Kalasanz Freiherr von Erberg ( or ) (27 August 1771 – 10 July 1843) was a Carniolan botanist, cultural historian, collector, and patron of the arts. Von Erberg was born in Ljubljana. After graduating from mathematics, logics, philosophy, and administrative law, he was at first a board councillor at the Carniolan Provincial Estates. In 1794, he married Josephine, Gräfin von Attems.
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The use of the term quasi-set follows a suggestion in da Costa's 1980 monograph Ensaio sobre os Fundamentos da Lógica (see da Costa and Krause 1994), in which he explored possible semantics for what he called "Schrödinger Logics". In these logics, the concept of identity is restricted to some objects of the domain, and has motivation in Schrödinger's claim that the concept of identity does not make sense for elementary particles (Schrödinger 1952). Thus in order to provide a semantics that fits the logic, da Costa submitted that "a theory of quasi-sets should be developed", encompassing "standard sets" as particular cases, yet da Costa did not develop this theory in any concrete way. To the same end and independently of da Costa, Dalla Chiara and di Francia (1993) proposed a theory of quasets to enable a semantic treatment of the language of microphysics.
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Other variants, allowing negative implications or multiple simultaneously-defined predicates, are also possible, but provide no additional definitional power. A predicate, defined in one of these ways, can then be applied to a tuple of vertices as part of a larger logical formula. Fixed point logics, and extensions of these logics that also allow integer counting variables whose values range from 0 to the number of vertices, have been used in descriptive complexity in an attempt to provide a logical description of decision problems in graph theory that can be decided in polynomial time. The fixed point of a logical formula can be constructed in polynomial time, by an algorithm that repeatedly adds tuples to the set of values for which the predicate is true until reaching a fixed point, so deciding whether a graph models a formula in this logic can always be decided in polynomial time.
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KIDS is an active research group with interests and expertise that span across a number of disciplines including: knowledge representation, reasoning about actions, natural language processing, probabilistic logics, non-montonic logics, argumentation, Bayesian reasoning, statistical machine learning, data science and crowdsourcing. Their overarching research objective is to develop methodologies, algorithms and paradigms that build bridges between logic-based AI and statistical machine learning approaches, as well as finding practical applications in robust real-world applications. UCL Human Informatics (UCLHI) is an interest group within KIDS that collaborating with UCL Psychology and Brain Science explores multidisciplinary aspects of human activities with information systems. KIDS facilitates PhD research in topics related to knowledge organisation, knowledge representation or knowledge-based reasoning, as well as interaction with research communities in the wider profession, including the International Society for Knowledge Organisation, the Universal Decimal Classification Consortium, and the Bliss Classification Association.
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A second-order propositional logic is a propositional logic extended with quantification over propositions. A special case are the logics that allow second-order Boolean propositions, where quantifiers may range either just over the Boolean truth values, or over the Boolean-valued truth functions. The most widely known formalism is the intuitionistic logic with impredicative quantification, System F. Parigot (1997) showed how this calculus can be extended to admit classical logic.
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In 2013, Le Monde plausible was translated into English (United States) by Amy Wells, under the title The Plausible World. A third volume, La Cage des méridiens. La littérature et l’art contemporain face à la globalisation, published in March 2016, completes what appears to be a Geocriticism trilogy. This work examines the specific role of literature and contemporary art on a global scale and focuses on transcultural logics and decentering.
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More recently he became deeply interested in the theory of music, particularly in musical temperaments. The reading of the writing of Lewis Carol on logics triggered his interest into more formal approaches. Likewise, his research work covered a wide range of distinct topics, all of which were driven by the same conviction that it will not be possible to understand complex systems without understanding the logic of simpler ones.
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The most commonly studied infinitary logics are denoted Lαβ, where α and β are each either cardinal numbers or the symbol ∞. In this notation, ordinary first-order logic is Lωω. In the logic L∞ω, arbitrary conjunctions or disjunctions are allowed when building formulas, and there is an unlimited supply of variables. More generally, the logic that permits conjunctions or disjunctions with less than κ constituents is known as Lκω.
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Most common applications of parity game solving. Despite its interesting complexity theoretic status, parity game solving can be seen as the algorithmic backend to problems in automated verification and controller synthesis. The model-checking problem for the modal μ-calculus for instance is known to be equivalent to parity game solving. Also, decision problems like validity or satisfiability for modal logics can be reduced to parity game solving.
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Formal models of legal texts and legal reasoning have been used in AI and Law to clarify issues, to give a more precise understanding and to provide a basis for implementations. A variety of formalisms have been used, including propositional and predicate calculi; deontic, temporal and non-monotonic logics; and state transition diagrams. Prakken and SartorH. Prakken and G.Sartor, Law and logic: A review from an argumentation perspective, Artificial Intelligence.
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The most highly cited of Foulis's research papers is "Effect algebras and unsharp quantum logics" (Foundations of Physics, 1994) which he wrote with his former student and later University of Massachusetts colleague Mary K. Bennett. Foulis is also the author of seven undergraduate textbooks in mathematics. One of his texts, a large red book on calculus, was used as a prop in the 1985 romantic comedy movie The Sure Thing.
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Harris Mylonas is Associate Professor of Political Science and International Affairs at George Washington University.Google scholar profile. He is the author of The Politics of Nation-Building: Making Co-Nationals, Refugees, and Minorities, which was awarded the Peter Katzenstein Book Prize in September 2013 and the 2014 European Studies Book Award by the Council for European Studies. He is currently working on another book project, Diaspora Management Logics.
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Theoretical computational linguistics focuses on issues in theoretical linguistics and cognitive science. Applied computational linguistics focuses on the practical outcome of modeling human language use. Theoretical computational linguistics includes the development of formal theories of grammar (parsing) and semantics, often grounded in formal logics and symbolic (knowledge-based) approaches. Applied computational linguistics is dominated by machine learning, traditionally using statistical methods, since the mid-2010s by neural networks: Socher et al.
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'Paraconsistent logic' refers to so-called contradiction-tolerant logical systems in which a contradiction does not necessarily result in trivialism. In other words, the principle of explosion is not valid in such logics. Some (namely the dialetheists) argue that the law of non-contradiction is denied by dialetheic logic. They are motivated by certain paradoxes which seem to imply a limit of the law of non-contradiction, namely the Liar Paradox.
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Obligations, rather than promises have been the traditional way of guiding behaviour.[0810.3294] A static theory of promises Promise Theory's point of departure from obligation logics is the idea that all agents in a system should have autonomy of control—i.e. that they cannot be coerced or forced into a specific behaviour. Obligation theories in computer science often view an obligation as a deterministic command that causes its proposed outcome.
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Patricia H. Thornton (born 1960s) is an American organizational theorist, and Grand Challenge Initiative Professor of Sociology and Entrepreneurship at Texas A&M; University as well as Adjunct Associate Professor of Business Administration at the Fuqua School of Business at Duke University. She is known for her work on "the sociology of entrepreneurship" and "the Institutional Logics Perspective."Scott, W. Richard. Organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice hall, 1987.
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Furthermore, such analyses of systems reproduction (dissecting the dynamics and instrumental logics of state and markets) typically ignores the normative and institutionalized categories of the lifeworld and civil society that might support an autonomous social domain of solidarity and open public communication, which is also the terrain of social movements.See Jean Cohen, Class and Civil Society: The Limits of Marxian Critical Theory (University of Massachusetts Press: 1982) 201–03, 209-, 223.
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In mathematical logic, algebraic semantics is a formal semantics based on algebras studied as part of algebraic logic. For example, the modal logic S4 is characterized by the class of topological boolean algebras--that is, boolean algebras with an interior operator. Other modal logics are characterized by various other algebras with operators. The class of boolean algebras characterizes classical propositional logic, and the class of Heyting algebras propositional intuitionistic logic.
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The contemporary era in modal semantics began in 1959, when Saul Kripke (then only a 18-year-old Harvard University undergraduate) introduced the now-standard Kripke semantics for modal logics. These are commonly referred to as "possible worlds" semantics. Kripke and A. N. Prior had previously corresponded at some length. Kripke semantics is basically simple, but proofs are eased using semantic-tableaux or analytic tableaux, as explained by E. W. Beth.
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Sequent calculi and systems of natural deduction have been developed for several modal logics, but it has proven hard to combine generality with other features expected of good structural proof theories, such as purity (the proof theory does not introduce extra-logical notions such as labels) and analyticity (the logical rules support a clean notion of analytic proof). More complex calculi have been applied to modal logic to achieve generality.
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Stalin argued in his "Marxism and Problems of Linguistics" that there was no class content to formal logic and that it was an acceptable neutral science. This led to the insistence that there were not two logics, but only formal logic. The analogy used was the relation of elementary and higher mathematics. Dialectical logic was hence concerned with a different area of study from that of formal logic.
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Although the (classical) Löwenheim–Skolem theorem is tied very closely to first-order logic, variants hold for other logics. For example, every consistent theory in second-order logic has a model smaller than the first supercompact cardinal (assuming one exists). The minimum size at which a (downward) Löwenheim–Skolem–type theorem applies in a logic is known as the Löwenheim number, and can be used to characterize that logic's strength.
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With a few others, he was responsible for introducing analytic philosophy to the French-speaking community. From philosophy, he widened his investigations to the formal semantics of natural language that required an expertise in linguistics as well as in modal and intensional logics. Later on, Gochet shifted naturally with the trend toward applications in computer science and artificial intelligence. In particular, this led to his long- standing interest in epistemic logic.
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Organization Science, 22(2), 503-521.); the temporal, spatial and material dimensions of legitimacy, institutional logics and legitimation which remain a key issue for managers and citizens (Jones, 2013Jones, M. (2013). "Untangling Sociomateriality", in Carlile, P. R., & Langley, A. (2013). How Matter Matters: Objects, Artifacts, and Materiality in Organization Studies (Vol. 3). Oxford University Press.); or the new modalities of collaboration involved in the rising collaborative economy, among others.
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Instead, scenario planning is a technique in which multiple outcomes can be developed, their implications assessed, and their likeliness of occurrence evaluated. According to Pierre Wack, scenario planning is about insight, complexity, and subtlety, not about formal analysis and numbers.Wack, Pierre “Scenarios: Uncharted Waters Ahead”, Harvard Business review, September October 1985. The flowchart to the right provides a process for classifying a phenomenon as a scenario in the intuitive logics tradition.
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Wild cat species have also been featured in recent scholarship in animal geography, including Gullo, Lassiter and Wolch and Collard's work on place-specific relational geographies, use of shared landscapes, and interactions between cougars and people. Doubleday's work on tigers in India and Wilcox's work on jaguars in the Americas also explore socially constructed affective logics and their impacts on conservation priorities across a range of geographies and time periods.
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SBVR has the greatest expressivity of any OMG modeling language. The logics supported by SBVR are typed first order predicate logic with equality, restricted higher order logic (Henkin semantics), restricted deontic and alethic modal logic, set theory with bag comprehension, and mathematics. SBVR also includes projections, to support definitions and answers to queries, and questions, for formulating queries. Interpretation of SBVR semantic formulations is based on model theory.
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Dialetheic logics, which are also many-valued, are paraconsistent, but the converse does not hold. Intuitionistic logic allows A ∨ ¬A not to be equivalent to true, while paraconsistent logic allows A ∧ ¬A not to be equivalent to false. Thus it seems natural to regard paraconsistent logic as the "dual" of intuitionistic logic. However, intuitionistic logic is a specific logical system whereas paraconsistent logic encompasses a large class of systems.
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Yi Chen, Yun Li, (2018). Computational Intelligence Assisted Design: In Industrial Revolution 4.0, CRC Press, The concept of CAutoD perhaps first appeared in 1963, in the IBM Journal of Research and Development, where a computer program was written. # to search for logic circuits having certain constraints on hardware design # to evaluate these logics in terms of their discriminating ability over samples of the character set they are expected to recognize.
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Logics are usually systems intended to codify rules for preserving some semantic property of propositions across transformations. In classical logic, this property is "truth." In a valid argument, the truth of the derived proposition is guaranteed if the premises are jointly true, because the application of valid steps preserves the property. However, that property doesn't have to be that of "truth"; instead, it can be some other concept.
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Dunn was born in Fort Wayne, Indiana in 1941. He went to high school in Lafayette, Indiana, where he worked in Purdue Biology laboratories after school and summers. He was the first in his family to go to college. He has an A.B. in Philosophy from Oberlin College and a Ph.D. in Philosophy (Logic) from the University of Pittsburgh, where he wrote his dissertation, The Algebra of Intensional Logics.
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2011.GUANGZHOU LAO CHENG QU LISI WENWU ZIYUAN DIAOCHA JI KAIFA CELUE FENXI,WENHUAYICHA,No.4. 2009a.Labor Cooperation, Ritual Exchange, and Social Grouping: An Analysis of the Village Community Structure of the Zhuang Nationality in Longji, Society,Vol.29,No.6. 2009b.Interpretations of the Dengjiawan Site, Jianghan Archaeology,No.3. 2009c.Struggle Between the Life Realities and Identity to the Mainstream Society: A Study on the Logics of the House in Longji Zhuang people, Guangxi.
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Many such systems are primarily intended for interactive use by human mathematicians: these are known as proof assistants. They may also use formal logics that are stronger than first-order logic, such as type theory. Because a full derivation of any nontrivial result in a first-order deductive system will be extremely long for a human to write,Avigad, et al. (2007) discuss the process of formally verifying a proof of the prime number theorem.
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The chapters of Dusk of Dawn can be divided thematically into three sections. The first four chapters focus on autobiographical information, contextualizing each anecdote in the relevant current events of its time. The next three chapters shift to a more ideological subject—the concept of race. Du Bois uses these chapters to theorize on race as a psychological complex of irrational logics and habits which are perpetuated to support an economically exploitative society.
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Intensional Logics and Logical Structure of Theories. Metsniereba, Tbilisi, 1988, pages 16-48 (Russian). Japaridze proved the arithmetical completeness of this system, as well as its inherent incompleteness with respect to Kripke frames. GLP has been extensively studied by various authors during the subsequent three decades, especially after Lev Beklemishev, in 2004,L. Beklemishev, "Provability algebras and proof-theoretic ordinals, I". Annals of Pure and Applied Logic 128 (2004), pages 103-123.
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They are as follows: crafting normalcy, affirming identity anchors, maintaining and using communication networks, putting alternative logics to work, and downplaying negative feelings while foregrounding negative emotions. Each of these processes can be applicable to businesses in crisis times, making resilience an important factor for companies to focus on while training. There are three main groups that are affected by a crisis. They are micro (individual), meso (group or organization) and macro (national or interorganizational).
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The concept of common knowledge is central in game theory. For several years it has been thought that the assumption of common knowledge of rationality for the players in the game was fundamental. It turns out (Aumann and Brandenburger 1995) that, in 2-player games, common knowledge of rationality is not needed as an epistemic condition for Nash equilibrium strategies. Computer scientists use languages incorporating epistemic logics (and common knowledge) to reason about distributed systems.
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We also have associativity and permutation (or commutativity) for free as well, among other properties. In substructural logics, typically premises are not composed into sets, but rather they are composed into more fine-grained structures, such as trees or multisets (sets that distinguish multiple occurrences of elements) or sequences of formulae. For example, in linear logic, since contraction fails, the premises must be composed in something at least as fine-grained as multisets.
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There are results showing that under CMC, relational intimacy increased faster than FtF. One of the logics behind this finding is that hyperpersonal model is determining the inflated nature of feedback in CMC. Online communication behaviors have the possibility to exaggerate the influence on self-expression or self- presentations and following internalization. The theoretical assumption of the inflated interpersonal feedback in CMC pointed out in the hyperpersonal model by Walther is advanced by this research.
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Transhistoricity is the quality of holding throughout human history, not merely within the frame of reference of a particular form of society at a particular stage of historical development. An entity or concept that has transhistoricity is said to be transhistorical. Certain theories of history (e.g. that of Hegel), treat human history as divided into distinct epochs with their own internal logics—historical materialism is the most famous case of such a theory.
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A number of political theorists have argued that liberal democracy has been overtaken by spectacle. Douglas Kellner (2003, 2016) argues that politics has become obsessed with spectacular imagery, as evidenced by the rise of Donald Trump in the United States (2016). Similarly Tauel Harper (2011) argues that our social formations and political practices are constructed and sustained by the logics of spectacle and render us as homo spectaculum or 'beings of the spectacle'.
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A primary motivation for paraconsistent logic is the conviction that it ought to be possible to reason with inconsistent information in a controlled and discriminating way. The principle of explosion precludes this, and so must be abandoned. In non-paraconsistent logics, there is only one inconsistent theory: the trivial theory that has every sentence as a theorem. Paraconsistent logic makes it possible to distinguish between inconsistent theories and to reason with them.
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Philosophical logic also addresses extensions and alternatives to traditional, "classical" logic known as "non-classical" logics. These receive more attention in texts such as John P. Burgess's Philosophical Logic,John P. Burgess, Philosophical Logic, Princeton University Press: 2009. the Blackwell Companion to Philosophical Logic,Lou Goble (ed.), The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic, Oxford: Blackwell: 2009 (). or the multi-volume Handbook of Philosophical Logic edited by Dov M. Gabbay and Franz Guenthner.
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The inaugural meeting of ITP was held on 11–14 July 2010 in Edinburgh, Scotland, as part of the Federated Logic Conference. It is the extension of the Theorem Proving in Higher Order Logics (TPHOLs) conference series to the broad field of interactive theorem proving. TPHOLs meetings took place every year from 1988 until 2009. The first three were informal users' meetings for the HOL system and were the only ones without published papers.
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Multi-valued logics are intended to preserve the property of designationhood (or being designated). Since there are more than two truth values, rules of inference may be intended to preserve more than just whichever corresponds (in the relevant sense) to truth. For example, in a three-valued logic, sometimes the two greatest truth-values (when they are represented as e.g. positive integers) are designated and the rules of inference preserve these values.
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For Walker, border practices and boundary discourses, spatial demarcations and conceptualizations of here/there and us/them, operate as important sites for understanding these 'inside/outside' logics. Vaughan-Williams, assessing the study of borders within International Relations disciplines, praises Walker's work for "offering the most sustained engagement with the problem of borders, especially the relationship between the concept of the border of the state and sovereignty, at the intersection of IR and political theory."Ibid., 51.
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The Camino de Santiago, a medieval Christian pilgrimage route, was declared the first European Cultural Route by the Council of Europe and inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, spurring the development of local tourism and the creation of this seashell logo.Cristina Sánchez-Carretero, "Heritage Regimes and the Camino de Santiago: Gaps and Logics"; in Regina F. Bendix, Aditya Eggert, & Arnika Peselmann, eds., Heritage Regimes and the State, Göttingen Studies in Cultural Property, Volume 6; Universitätsverlag Göttingen, 2012; .
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Gone with the Wind is often placed in the literary subgenre of the historical romance novel.Ken Gelder (2004), Popular Fiction: the logics and practices of a literary field, New York: Taylor & Francis e-Library, p. 49. Pamela Regis has argued that is more appropriately classified as a historical novel, as it does not contain all of the elements of the romance genre.Pamela Regis (2011), A Natural History of the Romance Novel, University of Pennsylvania Press, p. 48.
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275–307 In law directed obligations,H. Herrestad, C. Krogh, Obligations directed from bearers to counterparties, in: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, ACM Press, New York, 1995, pp. 210–218. whereby an obligation is owed to another named individual are of particular interest, since violations of such obligations are often the basis of legal proceedings. There is also some interesting work combining deontic and action logics to explore normative positions.
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Such systems can be based on logics more complicated than simple propositional epistemic logic, see Wooldridge Reasoning about Artificial Agents, 2000 (in which he uses a first-order logic incorporating epistemic and temporal operators) or van der Hoek et al. "Alternating Time Epistemic Logic". In his 2007 book, The Stuff of Thought: Language as a Window into Human Nature, Steven Pinker uses the notion of common knowledge to analyze the kind of indirect speech involved in innuendoes.
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Peter D. Feaver, Richard H. Kohn, and Lindsay Cohn, (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001): 247-274.James Burk, “Responsible Obedience and the Discretion to Do What is Wrong,” American Civil-Military Relations: Realities and Challenges in the New Era, ed. Suzanne Nielsen and Don Snider (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009): 149-171. Finally, Burk’s work probes how the changing logics of war affect the military’s ability to protect and sustain liberal democracies and liberal democratic values.
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An expression formed by applying a predicate symbol to an appropriate number of terms is called an atomic formula, which evaluates to true or false in bivalent logics, given an interpretation. For example, is a term built from the constant 1, the variable , and the binary function symbols and ; it is part of the atomic formula which evaluates to true for each real-numbered value of . Besides in logic, terms play important roles in universal algebra, and rewriting systems.
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In his Symbolic Logic Part II, Charles Lutwidge Dodgson introduced the Method of Trees, the earliest modern use of a truth tree. The method of semantic tableaux was invented by the Dutch logician Evert Willem Beth (Beth 1955) and simplified, for classical logic, by Raymond Smullyan (Smullyan 1968, 1995). It is Smullyan's simplification, "one-sided tableaux", that is described above. Smullyan's method has been generalized to arbitrary many-valued propositional and first-order logics by Walter Carnielli (Carnielli 1987).
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The Max Planck Institute for Informatics (German: Max-Planck-Institut für Informatik, abbreviated MPI-INF or MPII) is a research institute in computer science with a focus on algorithms and their applications in a broad sense. It hosts fundamental research (algorithms and complexity, programming logics) as well a research for various application domains (computer graphics, geometric computation, constraint solving, computational biology). It is part of the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Germany's largest publicly funded body for foundation research.
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Many interesting calculi, logics and programming languages that are commonly seen in computer science feature name binding constructs. For instance, the universal quantifier from first-order logic, the lambda-binder from the lambda-calculus, and the pi-binder from the pi-calculus are all examples of name-binding constructs. Computer scientists often need to manipulate abstract syntax trees. For instance, compiler writers perform many manipulations of abstract syntax trees during the various optimisation and elaboration phases of compiler execution.
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The HungryGoWhere Malaysia site has a different user interface from HungryGoWhere Singapore. Besides being able to search for restaurants and food based on cuisine, eatery type, and price, users can search for food based on halal listings. SingTel partnered with Nara Logics, a Cambridge firm to provide better personalized search and curation of web data to improve the restaurants recommendations engine. This gives users a tailored list of dining recommendations from over 35,000 restaurants throughout the country.
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Journal of Applied Non-Classical Logics is a peer reviewed academic journal published by Taylor & Francis. It focusses on non-classical logic, in particular formal aspects (completeness, decidability, complexity), applications to artificial Intelligence and cognitive science (knowledge representation, automated reasoning, natural language processing), and theoretical computer science (program verification, program synthesis). The journal was established in 1991 by Luis Fariñas del Cerro, who was its editor- in-chief until 2014. He was succeeded in 2015 by Andreas Herzig.
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Scenes are distinguished from the broad culture through either fashion; identification with specific (sometimes obscure or experimental) musical genres or political perspectives; and a strong in-group or tribal mentality.Straw, Will (1991). "Systems of Articulation, Logics of Change: Communities and Scenes in Popular Music", Cultural Studies, 5, 3, pp. 273, 368-88 The term can be used to describe geographic subsets of a subculture, such as the Detroit drum and bass scene or the London goth scene.
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Constantin Noica Constantin Noica Constantin Noica (; – 4 December 1987) was a Romanian philosopher, essayist and poet. His preoccupations were throughout all philosophy, from epistemology, philosophy of culture, axiology and philosophic anthropology to ontology and logics, from the history of philosophy to systematic philosophy, from ancient to contemporary philosophy, from translating and interpretation to criticism and creation. In 2006 he was included to the list of the 100 Greatest Romanians of all time by a nationwide poll.
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In his two-room apartment, located in Western Drumul Taberei, he held seminaries on Hegel's, Plato's and Kant's philosophy. Among the participants there were Sorin Vieru (his colleague at the Center of Logics), Gabriel Liiceanu and Andrei Pleșu. In 1975 he retired and went to live in Păltiniș, near Sibiu, where he remained for the next 12 years, until his death on 4 December 1987. He was buried at the nearby hermitage, having left behind numerous philosophical essays.
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In his books Das Wahrheitsproblem und die Idee der Semantik (The Problem of Truth and the idea of Semantics, 1957), and Unvollständigkeit und Unentscheidbarkeit (Incompleteness and Undecidability, 1959) Stegmüller disseminated the ideas of Alfred Tarski and Rudolf Carnap on semantics and logics as well as those of Kurt Gödel on mathematical logic. Later similar works are on Die Antinomien und ihre Behandlung (Antinomies and Their Treatment, 1955) as well as Strukturtypen der Logik (Types of Structures of Logic, 1961).
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Mathias Steuchius (October 26, 1644, Fogdö – August 2, 1730) was Bishop of the Diocese of Lund, 1694 to 1714 and Archbishop of Uppsala in the Swedish Church from 1714 to his death. Steuchius grew up in Härnösand in northern Sweden, where his father Petrus Steuchius was superintendent. He was ordained to priest in 1672 and participates in the Riksdag of the Estates in 1672 and 1675. In 1676 he became professor of logics and metaphysics at the Uppsala University.
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Dependence logic is a logic of imperfect information, like branching quantifier logic or independence-friendly logic: in other words, its game theoretic semantics can be obtained from that of first-order logic by restricting the availability of information to the players, thus allowing for non-linearly ordered patterns of dependence and independence between variables. However, dependence logic differs from these logics in that it separates the notions of dependence and independence from the notion of quantification.
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David Makinson is highly regarded for his work on belief revision, uncertain reasoning, and modal logic. While studying in Oxford University (Worcester College) for his D.Phil under the supervision of Michael Dummett, he identified the preface paradox. In belief revision he created the AGM account of theory change with Carlos Alchourrón and Peter Gärdenfors. In modal logic and other non-classical logics, he showed how to establish completeness results by adapting the method of maximal consistent set.
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Judea Pearl was one of the pioneers of Bayesian networks and the probabilistic approach to artificial intelligence, and one of the first to mathematize causal modeling in the empirical sciences. His work is also intended as a high-level cognitive model. He is interested in the philosophy of science, knowledge representation, nonstandard logics, and learning. Pearl is described as "one of the giants in the field of artificial intelligence" by UCLA computer science professor Richard Korf.
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Leibniz gave another response to the paradox in §6 of Discourse on Metaphysics: "That God does nothing which is not orderly, and that it is not even possible to conceive of events which are not regular." Thus, even a miracle, the Event by excellence, does not break the regular order of things. What is seen as irregular is only a default of perspective, but does not appear so in relation to universal order. Possibility exceeds human logics.
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Peirce held that mathematical and philosophical logics precede psychology as a special science and that they do not depend on it for principles. whose fields included logic, philosophy, and experimental psychology,Peirce (sometimes with Joseph Jastrow) investigated the probability judgments of experimental subjects, pioneering decision analysis. He and Jastrow wrote "On Small Differences in Sensation", Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (1885), 3, 73–83, presented 17 October 1884, reprinted in Collected Papers v. 7, paragraphs 21–35.
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Natasha reaches the scene on the caller's instructions and reports about the situation. An intense debate ensues between Maraar and the chief secretary on who would act as the negotiator with the caller. The chief secretary appoints Maraar as the State's negotiator with unrestricted power for one day. The caller talks full of life logics and religious philosophy and finally asks Maarar to release three terrorists and one convicted arms seller, all who were arrested by him years ago.
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Other theories include the theories of arrays and list structures (useful for modeling and verifying computer programs), and the theory of bit vectors (useful in modeling and verifying hardware designs). Subtheories are also possible: for example, difference logic is a sub-theory of linear arithmetic in which each inequality is restricted to have the form x - y > c for variables x and y and constant c. Most SMT solvers support only quantifier-free fragments of their logics.
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The following subjects were taught in the grammar school: the basis of Latin and German, Geography, Anthropology and Arithmetic, Latin with syntax, Religious Lessons, Nature Studies and Anthropology, World's History, Archeology, Physics, Logics, Rhetoric, Poetry and Ethics. The school flourished when a literary historian and a famous scientist Pavel Jozef Šafarik came to its head. In the period of 1816 to 1848 the school had seven principals, and the classes were taught by twenty-seven teachers.
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At its core, mathematical logic deals with mathematical concepts expressed using formal logical systems. These systems, though they differ in many details, share the common property of considering only expressions in a fixed formal language. The systems of propositional logic and first-order logic are the most widely studied today, because of their applicability to foundations of mathematics and because of their desirable proof-theoretic properties.Ferreirós (2001) surveys the rise of first-order logic over other formal logics in the early 20th century.
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Zuev Workers' Club in 2016 Zuev Workers' Club, 1929 The Zuyev Workers' Club () in Moscow is a prominent work of constructivist architecture. It was designed by Ilya Golosov (1883–1945) in 1927 and finished in 1929. The building was designed to house various facilities for Moscow workers, and utilises an innovative glazing treatment at its corner which has proved very photogenic.Moscow architectural preservation society Golosov was an enthusiast for expressive, dynamic form rather than the logics of Constructivist design methods.
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Add to the syntax of alpha a second kind of simple closed curve, written using a dashed rather than a solid line. Peirce proposed rules for this second style of cut, which can be read as the primitive unary operator of modal logic. Zeman (1964) was the first to note that straightforward emendations of the gamma graph rules yield the well-known modal logics S4 and S5. Hence the gamma graphs can be read as a peculiar form of normal modal logic.
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Strategy is a high level plan to achieve one or more goals under conditions of uncertainty. Strategic foresight happens when any planner uses scanned inputs, forecasts, alternative futures exploration, analysis and feedback to produce or alter plans and actions of the organization. Scenario planning plays a prominent role in strategic foresight. The flowchart to the right provides a process for classifying a phenomenon as a scenario in the intuitive logics tradition and differentiates it from many other techniques and approaches to planning.
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The philosopher Arthur Prior played a significant role in its development in the 1960s. Modal logics extend the scope of formal logic to include the elements of modality (for example, possibility and necessity). The ideas of Saul Kripke, particularly about possible worlds, and the formal system now called Kripke semantics have had a profound impact on analytic philosophy.Jerry Fodor, "Water's water everywhere", London Review of Books, 21 October 2004 His best known and most influential work is Naming and Necessity (1980).
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John Woods has investigated concepts relating to relevance and paradox. Others have made contributions to the field, including Charles Morgan (modal logics), Charles Morgan (probability semantics), and Anil Gupta (the semantics of truth and paradoxes). ;Philosophy of mind All Group of Thirteen have departments of philosophy with doctorate-level staff members conducting research related to the philosophy of mind. The work of Dr. Paul R. Thagard, at the University of Waterloo, with respect to cognitive functions and coherence, is of note.
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Steven Kuhn is a philosophy professor at Georgetown University whose research focuses on logic, ethics and the philosophy of language. Kuhn earned his undergraduate degree in mathematics from Johns Hopkins University and his Ph.D. from Stanford University. Prior to his position at Georgetown, he taught at the University of Michigan, UCLA and the University of Pennsylvania. He is the author of the two-volume Many-sorted Modal Logics (1977) and contributed the article on the prisoner's dilemma to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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In 1906 he started teaching at a high school in Graz, at the same time collaborating with Adalbert Meingast and working as Meinong's assistant at the university. He also maintained close contacts with the Graz Psychological Institute, founded by Meinong. In 1912, he wrote his habilitation thesis entitled Gegenstandstheoretische Grundlagen der Logik und Logistik (Object-theoretic Foundations for Logics and Logistics) at Graz with Meinong as supervisor. From 1915 to 1918 he served as an officer in the Austro-Hungarian Army.
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He indicates that, however, he sees no good reason to call statements which employ them either true or false. Some have attempted to solve this problem by means of many-valued logics; van Fraassen offers in their stead the use of supervaluations. Questions of completeness change when supervaluations are admitted, since they allow for valid arguments that do not correspond to logically true conditionals. His paper "Facts and tautological entailment" (J Phil 1969) is now regarded as the beginning of truth-maker semantics.
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As an algebraist, Blok "was recognised by the modal logic community as one of the most influential modal logicians" by the end of the 1970s. He published many papers in the Reports on Mathematical Logic, served as a member on their editorial board, and was one of their guest editors. Along with Don Pigozzi, Wim Blok co-authored the monograph Algebraizable Logics which began the field now known as abstract algebraic logic. He died in a car accident on November 30, 2003.
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An interpretation is an assignment of meaning to the symbols of a formal language. Many formal languages used in mathematics, logic, and theoretical computer science are defined in solely syntactic terms, and as such do not have any meaning until they are given some interpretation. The general study of interpretations of formal languages is called formal semantics. The most commonly studied formal logics are propositional logic, predicate logic and their modal analogs, and for these there are standard ways of presenting an interpretation.
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The equality relation is often treated specially in first order logic and other predicate logics. There are two general approaches. The first approach is to treat equality as no different than any other binary relation. In this case, if an equality symbol is included in the signature, it is usually necessary to add various axioms about equality to axiom systems (for example, the substitution axiom saying that if a = b and R(a) holds then R(b) holds as well).
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Paradox Access Solutions was founded in 2004 by Marc Breault, who holds six patents relating to roadway construction. In 2012, the company formed an engineering firm called Stratum Logics to provide geotechnical engineering expertise. In the aftermath of the 2016 Fort McMurray wildfire, the company assisted with road restoration into affected communities, creating 40 km of temporary roads in a little over week. It also donated used mats to regional nature trail construction groups to aid in trail stabilization and sustainability.
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Hadley Wickham (born 14 October 1979) is a statistician from New Zealand who is currently Chief Scientist at RStudio and an adjunct Professor of statistics at the University of Auckland, Stanford University, and Rice University. He is best known for his development of open-source statistical analysis software packages for R (programming language) that implement logics of data visualisation and data transformation. Wickham's packages and writing are known for advocating a tidy data approach to data import, analysis and modelling methods.
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She felt alone, isolated, and the victim of racial discrimination at Yale; she did poorly on her doctoral exams, and ended up leaving in 1983 with a master's degree. At the suggestion of a visiting African-American mathematics professor, Donald F. St. Mary, she transferred to the University of Massachusetts Amherst, where she completed her doctorate eight years later in 1991. Her dissertation, Measures on Empirical Logics and the Properties of Their Associated Dual Banach Spaces, was supervised by Thurlow Cook.
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He was one of the many students who were bused to integrated schools by court orders that resulted from Brown v. Board of Education. Auxier was in first grade when Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated, and the event had a continual impact on him and the region he lived in. In philosophy, Auxier specializes in classical American thought, process metaphysics and theology, intensive logics, aesthetics, philosophical anthropology, and the philosophy of culture, of science, of religion, and of education.
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A paraconsistent logic is an attempt at a logical system to deal with contradictions in a discriminating way. Alternatively, paraconsistent logic is the subfield of logic that is concerned with studying and developing paraconsistent (or "inconsistency-tolerant") systems of logic. Inconsistency- tolerant logics have been discussed since at least 1910 (and arguably much earlier, for example in the writings of Aristotle); however, the term paraconsistent ("beside the consistent") was not coined until 1976, by the Peruvian philosopher Francisco Miró Quesada Cantuarias.Priest (2002), p.
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Paraconsistent logics are propositionally weaker than classical logic; that is, they deem fewer propositional inferences valid. The point is that a paraconsistent logic can never be a propositional extension of classical logic, that is, propositionally validate everything that classical logic does. In some sense, then, paraconsistent logic is more conservative or cautious than classical logic. It is due to such conservativeness that paraconsistent languages can be more expressive than their classical counterparts including the hierarchy of metalanguages due to Alfred Tarski et al.
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Belief revision is the process of changing beliefs to accommodate a new belief that might be inconsistent with the old ones. In the assumption that the new belief is correct, some of the old ones have to be retracted in order to maintain consistency. This retraction in response to an addition of a new belief makes any logic for belief revision to be non-monotonic. The belief revision approach is alternative to paraconsistent logics, which tolerate inconsistency rather than attempting to remove it.
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Later Moshe Y. Vardi made a conjecture that a tree model would work for many modal style logics. The guarded fragment of first-order logic was first introduced by Hajnal Andréka, István Németi and Johan van Benthem in their article Modal languages and bounded fragments of predicate logic. They successfully transferred key properties of description, modal, and temporal logic to predicate logic. It was found that the robust decidability of guarded logic could be generalized with a tree model property.
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Leon van der Torre studied computer science at the Erasmus University Rotterdam at the Faculty of Economics, and also pursued studies in philosophy. He held positions at EURIDIS and the Department of Computer Science during which he obtained his Master of Science (1992) and his PhD in computer science (1997) with Yao-Hua Tan. His thesis was concerned with deontic logic in computer science and its combination with nonmonotonic logic. His main research topic are logics in Artificial Intelligence and computer science.
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Fayter also commented positively on Goodman's translation, noting that she had successfully conveyed Duerr's dry humour and self-deprecating wit.Fayter 1990. Joseph J. Valadez of the Harvard School of Public Health reviewed Duerr's Dreamtime for the journal Contemporary Sociology. He felt that the book had brought him to the "edges of [his] own logics", but that this had not been the result of any intellectual argument posed by Duerr; indeed, he suggested that there were "crucial scholarly weaknesses" that made much of Duerr's argument suspect.
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Their proofs demonstrate a connection between the unsolvability of the decision problem for first-order logic and the unsolvability of the halting problem. There are systems weaker than full first-order logic for which the logical consequence relation is decidable. These include propositional logic and monadic predicate logic, which is first-order logic restricted to unary predicate symbols and no function symbols. Other logics with no function symbols which are decidable are the guarded fragment of first-order logic, as well as two-variable logic.
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Peano arithmetic and Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory are axiomatizations of number theory and set theory, respectively, into first-order logic. No first-order theory, however, has the strength to uniquely describe a structure with an infinite domain, such as the natural numbers or the real line. Axiom systems that do fully describe these two structures (that is, categorical axiom systems) can be obtained in stronger logics such as second-order logic. The foundations of first-order logic were developed independently by Gottlob Frege and Charles Sanders Peirce.
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For example, Lω1ω permits countable conjunctions and disjunctions. The set of free variables in a formula of Lκω can have any cardinality strictly less than κ, yet only finitely many of them can be in the scope of any quantifier when a formula appears as a subformula of another.Some authors only admit formulas with finitely many free variables in Lκω, and more generally only formulas with < λ free variables in Lκλ. In other infinitary logics, a subformula may be in the scope of infinitely many quantifiers.
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The result was a three-page article that remains one of the most famous in recent philosophical history. The article was published in Analysis. Gettier has since not published anything, but he has invented and taught to his graduate students new methods for finding and illustrating countermodels in modal logic, as well as simplified semantics for various modal logics. In his article, Gettier challenges the "justified true belief" definition of knowledge that dates back to Plato's Theaetetus, but is discounted at the end of that very dialogue.
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Categorical logic is now a well-defined field based on type theory for intuitionistic logics, with applications in functional programming and domain theory, where a cartesian closed category is taken as a non-syntactic description of a lambda calculus. At the very least, category theoretic language clarifies what exactly these related areas have in common (in some abstract sense). Category theory has been applied in other fields as well. For example, John Baez has shown a link between Feynman diagrams in physics and monoidal categories.
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Some many-valued logics may have incompatible definitions of equivalence and order (entailment). Both conjunction and disjunction are associative, commutative and idempotent in classical logic, most varieties of many-valued logic and intuitionistic logic. The same is true about distributivity of conjunction over disjunction and disjunction over conjunction, as well as for the absorption law. In classical logic and some varieties of many-valued logic, conjunction and disjunction are dual, and negation is self-dual, the latter is also self-dual in intuitionistic logic.
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In constructive logics and set theories, which tie the existence of a function between infinite (non-finite) sets to questions of effectivity and decidability, the subcountability property splits from countability and is thus not a redundant notion. The indexing set I of natural numbers may be posited to exist, e.g. as a subset via set theoretical axioms like Separation axiom, so that :\forall (i\in I). (i\in\omega). But this set may then still fail to be detachable, in the sense that :\forall (n\in \omega).
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Etel L. Solingen (born 1952) is an American educator, writer, and former president of the International Studies Association (ISA) between the years of 2012 and 2013. She works at the University of California, Irvine, where she serves as the Thomas and Elizabeth Tierney Chair in Peace Studies. In 2008 Solingen won a Woodrow Wilson Foundation Award for her book Nuclear Logics: Contrasting Paths in East Asia and the Middle East. She was awarded the 2018 William and Katherine Estes Award from the National Academy of Sciences.
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Corcoran studied engineering at the Baltimore Polytechnic Institute, with a degree in Advanced Curriculum Engineering in 1956, and at the Johns Hopkins University with a BES in Mechanical Engineering in 1959. After briefly working in engineering, he studied philosophy at the Johns Hopkins University where he obtained his PhD in philosophy in 1963. His post-doctoral studies in mathematics were at Yeshiva University in 1964 and at the University of California Berkeley in 1965. His dissertation topic was Generative Structure of Two-valued Logics.
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Many of the commonly studied interpretations associate each sentence in a formal language with a single truth value, either True or False. These interpretations are called truth functional; they include the usual interpretations of propositional and first- order logic. The sentences that are made true by a particular assignment are said to be satisfied by that assignment. In classical logic, no sentence can be made both true and false by the same interpretation, although this is not true of glut logics such as LP.Priest, Graham, 2008.
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Juraj Božičević (born 7 October 1935, died 27 March 2016) was a Croatian expert in measurements and process control. He was a pioneer in neural networks and fuzzy logics, as well as of the idea of TEx-Sys or Tutor Expert Systems. He was the founder of the Croatian Academy of Engineering. During his service as the State secretary in the Croatian Ministry of science, education and sports from January 2004 to July 2005 he founded Croatian Innovation System and supported Croatian Quality infrastructure.
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Curry's paradox is a paradox in which an arbitrary claim F is proved from the mere existence of a sentence C that says of itself "If C, then F", requiring only a few apparently innocuous logical deduction rules. Since F is arbitrary, any logic having these rules allows one to prove everything. The paradox may be expressed in natural language and in various logics, including certain forms of set theory, lambda calculus, and combinatory logic. The paradox is named after the logician Haskell Curry.
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Research into paraconsistent logic has also led to the establishment of the philosophical school of dialetheism (most notably advocated by Graham Priest), which asserts that true contradictions exist in reality, for example groups of people holding opposing views on various moral issues. Being a dialetheist rationally commits one to some form of paraconsistent logic, on pain of otherwise embracing trivialism, i.e. accepting that all contradictions (and equivalently all statements) are true. However, the study of paraconsistent logics does not necessarily entail a dialetheist viewpoint.
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Evolutionary programming originally used finite state machines for predicting environments, and used variation and selection to optimize the predictive logics. Genetic algorithms in particular became popular through the work of John Holland in the early 1970s, and particularly his book Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems (1975). His work originated with studies of cellular automata, conducted by Holland and his students at the University of Michigan. Holland introduced a formalized framework for predicting the quality of the next generation, known as Holland's Schema Theorem.
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Gentzen showed that it is possible to produce a proof of the consistency of arithmetic in a finitary system augmented with axioms of transfinite induction, and the techniques he developed to do so were seminal in proof theory. A second thread in the history of foundations of mathematics involves nonclassical logics and constructive mathematics. The study of constructive mathematics includes many different programs with various definitions of constructive. At the most accommodating end, proofs in ZF set theory that do not use the axiom of choice are called constructive by many mathematicians.
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The Madilog by Iljas Hussein (the pen name of Tan Malaka), first published in 1943, official first edition 1951, is the magnum opus of Tan Malaka, the Indonesian national hero and is the most influential work in the history of modern Indonesian philosophy. Madilog is an Indonesian acronym that stands for Materialisme Dialektika Logika (literally, Materialism Dialectics Logics). It is a synthesis of Marxist dialectical materialism and Hegelian logic. Madilog was written in Batavia where Malaka was hiding during the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, disguised as a tailor.
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The painting depicts an imaginary location with contemporary visitors. It has decidedly modern elements, such as 18th-century French cloaks and hoods, a woman pointing at a statue like a tourist, and a pair of modern pink shoes belonging to a bather. The contemporary allusions make the nudity atypical; 18th-century paintings normally restricted nudity to mythological and allegorical subjects. In his 2006 book Logics of Worlds, the post-Marxist philosopher Alain Badiou analysed the painting as an example of how "pictoral assemblage" fundamentally is about "distributing identities and differences".
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Finally, through his examination of what he calls salvific themes in secular objects, Popkewitz challenges the secularization thesis of modernity as it relates to the school.[10] He articulates how particular strains of American Protestant reformism are inscribed in what are widely viewed as secular education practices; to demonstrate how these discourses have shaped dominant education logics; and to document how they have informed dominant conceptualizations in education sciences of children's learning, problem solving, action, and community. Popkewitz's approach goes beyond intersectionality studies, systems theory, and the qualitative/quantitative divide.
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The best known axiomatic set theories include Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory (ZF), Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory with the Axiom of Choice (ZFC), Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory (NBG), Non-well-founded set theory, Bertrand Russell's Type theory and all the theories of their various models. One may also choose among classical first-order logic, various higher-order logics and intuitionistic logic. A formalist might see the meaning of set varying from system to system. Some kinds of Platonists might view particular formal systems as approximating an underlying reality.
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This is because categories, and specifically, monoidal categories, have an internal language, with simply- typed lambda calculus being the most prominent example of such a language. It is important in this context, because it can be built from a single type constructor, the arrow type. Currying then endows the language with a natural product type. The correspondence between objects in categories and types then allows programming languages to be re-interpreted as logics (via Curry–Howard correspondence), and as other types of mathematical systems, as explored further, below.
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Some systems of logic have different but analogous laws. For some finite n-valued logics, there is an analogous law called the law of excluded n+1th. If negation is cyclic and "∨" is a "max operator", then the law can be expressed in the object language by (P ∨ ~P ∨ ~~P ∨ ... ∨ ~...~P), where "~...~" represents n−1 negation signs and "∨ ... ∨" n−1 disjunction signs. It is easy to check that the sentence must receive at least one of the n truth values (and not a value that is not one of the n).
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The use of institutions makes it possible to develop concepts of specification languages (like structuring of specifications, parameterization, implementation, refinement, development), proof calculi and even tools in a way completely independent of the underlying logical system. There are also morphisms that allow to relate and translate logical systems. Important applications of this are re-use of logical structure (also called borrowing), heterogeneous specification and combination of logics. The spread of institutional model theory has generalized various notions and results of model theory, and institutions themselves have impacted the progress of universal logic.
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The historiography of women in the history of Tibet confronts the suppression of women's histories in the social narratives of an exiled community. McGranahan (2010) examines the role of women in the 20th century, especially during the Chinese invasion and occupation of Tibet. She studies women in the Tibetan resistance army, the subordination of women in a Buddhist society, and the persistent concept of menstrual blood as a contaminating agent.Carole McGranahan, "Narrative Dispossession: Tibet and the Gendered Logics of Historical Possibility," Comparative Studies in Society and History, Oct 2010, Vol.
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A counting quantifier is a mathematical term for a quantifier of the form "there exists at least k elements that satisfy property X". In first-order logic with equality, counting quantifiers can be defined in terms of ordinary quantifiers, so in this context they are a notational shorthand. However, they are interesting in the context of logics such as two-variable logic with counting that restrict the number of variables in formulas. Also, generalized counting quantifiers that say "there exists infinitely many" are not expressible using a finite number of formulas in first-order logic.
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Buzzanell notes that there are five different processes that individuals use when trying to maintain resilience- crafting normalcy, affirming identity anchors, maintaining and using communication networks, putting alternative logics to work and downplaying negative feelings while foregrounding positive emotions. When looking at the resilience theory, the crisis communication theory is similar, but not the same. The crisis communication theory is based on the reputation of the company, but the resilience theory is based on the process of recovery of the company. There are five main components of resilience.
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Publications entitled "The Logic of Medicine" give rise to the question whether medicine has its own logic like quantum logic is argued to be the logic of quantum mechanics. To answer the question, Sadegh-Zadeh distinguishes between logic in medicine and logic of medicine. "Logic in medicine" means the class of all logics that are, or may be, applied in medicine to solve theoretical or practical problems. Examples are classical two-valued logic, many-valued logic, paraconsistent logic, deontic logic, temporal logic, probability logic, fuzzy logic, and so on.
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In mathematics and logic, a higher-order logic is a form of predicate logic that is distinguished from first-order logic by additional quantifiers and, sometimes, stronger semantics. Higher-order logics with their standard semantics are more expressive, but their model-theoretic properties are less well-behaved than those of first-order logic. The term "higher-order logic", abbreviated as HOL, is commonly used to mean higher-order simple predicate logic. Here "simple" indicates that the underlying type theory is the theory of simple types, also called the simple theory of types (see Type theory).
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In a modal logic, a model comprises a set of possible worlds, each one associated to a truth evaluation; an accessibility relation tells when a world is accessible from another one. A modal formula may specify not only conditions over a possible world, but also on the ones that are accessible from it. As an example, \Box A is true in a world if A is true in all worlds that are accessible from it. As for propositional logic, tableaux for modal logics are based on recursively breaking formulae into its basic components.
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This non-determinism can be avoided by restricting the usage of (\theta) so that it is only applied before a modal expansion rule, and so that it only removes the formulae that make that other rule inapplicable. This condition can be also formulated by merging the two rules in a single one. The resulting rule produces the same result as the old one, but implicitly discard all formulae that made the old rule inapplicable. This mechanism for removing (\theta) has been proved to preserve completeness for many modal logics.
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Other important topics include reasoning under uncertainty and non-monotonic reasoning. An important part of the uncertainty field is that of argumentation, where further constraints of minimality and consistency are applied on top of the more standard automated deduction. John Pollock's OSCAR systemJohn L. Pollock is an example of an automated argumentation system that is more specific than being just an automated theorem prover. Tools and techniques of automated reasoning include the classical logics and calculi, fuzzy logic, Bayesian inference, reasoning with maximal entropy and many less formal ad hoc techniques.
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Later, Morton edited Radical Food: The Culture and Politics of Eating and Drinking, 1790-1820 (2000), a three-volume compendium of eighteenth century texts examining the literary, sociocultural, and political history of food, including works on intoxication, cannibalism, and slavery. He also edited Cultures of Taste/Theories of Appetite: Eating Romanticism (2004), a collection of essays that problematizes the use of taste and appetite as Romantic metaphors for bounded territories and subjectivities, while empirically interrogating the organization of Romantic cultural and economic structures around competing logics of consumption.
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But if the past is "fixed", and everything that is in the future will eventually be in the past, then it seems plausible to say that future events are necessary too. Similarly, the problem of future contingents considers the semantics of assertions about the future: is either of the propositions 'There will be a sea battle tomorrow', or 'There will not be a sea battle tomorrow' now true? Considering this thesis led Aristotle to reject the principle of bivalence for assertions concerning the future. Additional binary operators are also relevant to temporal logics, q.v.
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A restriction of System F known as "Hindley–Milner", or simply "HM", does have an easy type inference algorithm and is used for many statically typed functional programming languages such as Haskell 98 and the ML family. Over time, as the restrictions of HM-style type systems have become apparent, languages have steadily moved to more expressive logics for their type systems. GHC a Haskell compiler, goes beyond HM (as of 2008) and uses System F extended with non-syntactic type equality; non-HM features in OCaml's type system include GADT.
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Some environmental scholars suggest that "Capitalocene" is a more historically appropriate term. At the same time, others suggest that the Anthropocene ignores systematic inequalities, such as imperialism and racism, that have contributed to the environmental degradation that would mark the Epoch. In this vein, some thinkers have proposed the "Plantationocene" as a more appropriate term to call attention to the role that plantation agriculture has played in the formation of the Epoch, as it marks "the ways that plantation logics organize modern economies, environments, bodies, and social relations". Historians have actively engaged the Anthropocene.
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While in Turkey, he gave several series of mathematics lectures at Istanbul University and Istanbul Technical University. In 1948, he resumed teaching at the University of Bucharest. That same year, he was elected to the Romanian Academy, and a member of the Institute of Mathematics of the Romanian Academy. After 1965, one of his outstanding students – George Georgescu – worked closely with him on multi-valued logics, and after the emergence of Romania from dictatorship in 1989, he became a Professor of Mathematics and Logic at the same university and department as Moisil in 1991.Prof.dr.
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A number of axiomatizations of classical propositional logic are due to Łukasiewicz. A particularly elegant axiomatization features a mere three axioms and is still invoked to the present day. He was a pioneer investigator of multi-valued logics; his three-valued propositional calculus, introduced in 1917, was the first explicitly axiomatized non-classical logical calculus. He wrote on the philosophy of science, and his approach to the making of scientific theories was similar to the thinking of Karl Popper. Łukasiewicz invented the Polish notation (named after his nationality) for the logical connectives around 1920.
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Likewise, it is analogous to the finite intersection property characterization of compactness in topological spaces: a collection of closed sets in a compact space has a non-empty intersection if every finite subcollection has a non-empty intersection. The compactness theorem is one of the two key properties, along with the downward Löwenheim–Skolem theorem, that is used in Lindström's theorem to characterize first-order logic. Although, there are some generalizations of the compactness theorem to non-first-order logics, the compactness theorem itself does not hold in them.
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Now validity has to do with the logical form of the statement that makes up the argument. In this sense of "formal," most modern and contemporary logic is "formal." That is, such logics canonize the notion of logical form, and the notion of validity plays the central normative role. In this second sense of form, informal logic is not-formal, because it abandons the notion of logical form as the key to understanding the structure of arguments, and likewise retires validity as normative for the purposes of the evaluation of argument.
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Runtime verification is a computing system analysis and execution approach based on extracting information from a running system and using it to detect and possibly react to observed behaviors satisfying or violating certain properties . Some very particular properties, such as datarace and deadlock freedom, are typically desired to be satisfied by all systems and may be best implemented algorithmically. Other properties can be more conveniently captured as formal specifications. Runtime verification specifications are typically expressed in trace predicate formalisms, such as finite state machines, regular expressions, context-free patterns, linear temporal logics, etc.
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In 1946 he became a Mathematics teacher in Strehaia, Romania, then at Turnu Severin and Dej. Meanwhile, he obtained a degree in Russian Language and Literature, then an engineering license in Machine Technology. Encouraged by friends, Birnbaum began to publish Mathematical articles in the journals "Mathematical Studies and Research" of Bucharest, "Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logics" in the USA and many others. He was a member of the "Association Internationale de Cybernetique" in Namur, Belgium and a member of the Editorial Board of the magazine "Informatica", in Ljubljana.
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There are many examples of RCE devices, like p-i-n photodiode, avalanche photodiode, schottky diode are made that verifies the theory successfully. Some of them are in use in practical purposes as well as there is a future prospect in use as modulators, optical logics in wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) systems which could enhance the quantum efficiency, operating bandwidth, wavelength selectivity. RCE detectors are preferable in potential price and performance in commercial WDM systems. RCE detectors have very good potential for implementations in WDM systems and improve the performance significantly.
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The soundtrack of the film, by Tykwer, Johnny Klimek, and Reinhold Heil, includes numerous musical quotations of the sustained string chords of The Unanswered Question, an early 20th-century chamber ensemble work by American composer Charles Ives. In the original work, the chords are meant to represent "the Silences of the Druids—who Know, See and Hear Nothing." The techno soundtrack established dialectical relation between motives of the movie: Rhythm, Repetition, and Interval among various spatio-temporal logics. This produces unification of contradictions like Time and Space or The cyclical and the linear.
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The metamathematical value of the principle of explosion is that for any logical system where this principle holds, any derived theory which proves ⊥ (or an equivalent form, \phi \land \lnot \phi) is worthless because all its statements would become theorems, making it impossible to distinguish truth from falsehood. That is to say, the principle of explosion is an argument for the law of non-contradiction in classical logic, because without it all truth statements become meaningless. Reduction in proof strength of logics without ex falso are discussed in minimal logic.
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On September 9, 1971, The Mind Benders, a book critical of Scientology written by Cyril Vosper, a former scientologist of 14 years, was published by Neville Spearman Ltd. The Church of Scientology obtained an interim injunction on the same day to restrain publication of the book.Hubbard v Vosper, [1972] 2 QB 84 [Vosper] at 91 The book contained many extracts from the works of L. Ron Hubbard, including books such as Axioms and Logics and Introduction to Scientology Ethics. These extracts were often accompanied by criticism and explanations in Vosper's book.
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HOL (Higher Order Logic) denotes a family of interactive theorem proving systems using similar (higher-order) logics and implementation strategies. Systems in this family follow the LCF approach as they are implemented as a library in some programming language. This library implements an abstract data type of proven theorems so that new objects of this type can only be created using the functions in the library which correspond to inference rules in higher-order logic. As long as these functions are correctly implemented, all theorems proven in the system must be valid.
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De Benoist met Rougier, who was also a member of the organization, and his ideas deeply influenced his own anti-Christianity. "We oppose Rougier to Sartre", de Benoist wrote in 1965, "as we oppose verbal delirium to logics [...], because biological realism is the best support against those idealistic chimeras". De Benoist continued his journalistic career and became in 1964 the editor-in- chief of the weekly publication Europe-Action Hebdomaire, renamed L'Observateur Européen in October 1966. He also wrote in the neo-fascist magazine Défense de l'Occident, founded in 1952 by Maurice Bardèche.
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The argument states that a cognizer is able to understand some sentence in virtue of understanding another. For example, no one who understands "John loves Mary" is unable to understand "Mary loves John", and no one who understands "P and Q" is unable to understand "P". Systematicity itself is rarely challenged as a property of natural languages and logics, but some challenge that thought is systematic in the same way languages are. Still others from the connectionist tradition have tried to build non-classical networks that can account for the apparent systematicity of language.
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The next morning he told his teacher about this extraordinary spiritual experience. The teacher remarked: "There is no need for you to get further knowledge from me. Perhaps on the Day of Judgement I shall be rewarded with salvation of my soul for having given a few lessons to you before this glorious spiritual experience." Syed Naushah Pir was an expert in the religious field, like Fiqh (Islamic law), Hadith (the report of the practise and sayings of the Prophet), Tafsir (exegeses of the Qur'an), logics, philosophy and Kalam (theology concerning the tenets of belief).
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She is an outspoken proponent of criminal justice reform and a frequent commentator on public media outlets. Her most notable project is a book manuscript tracing the relationship between the rise of the Black Guerilla Family in California, institutional logics, and racial oppression. Separate work includes a study of solitary confinement and racial inequality and an investigation with Mary Pattillo into how monetary sanctions in the criminal justice system disproportionately punish the poor. She has also written on colorism and gender discrimination in the Brazilian criminal justice system.
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Undermining socio-cultural institutions subordinates them to the logics of wider market forces. Of course, economic exploitation exists and the powerful will impose it. Polanyi derives this hypothesis from his analysis of how the new social technologies of classical economics were applied to aggressively destroy subsistence capacities in England and the colonies. Once the concept of scarcity is central to economic theory it becomes much easier to imagine the human situation as dependent upon "nature-like" economic forces and to impose wider wage-labor regimes upon livelihood centered habitation.
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He was a visiting professor at the George Washington University (2000), Chinese Young Men's College (2001), University of Otago (2002), l'Institut d'Études Politiques de Paris (2005), Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (2006). and George Mason University(2012). He is a member of Korean Association of Public Administration, for which he served as president in 2015. The American Review of Public Administration conferred its annual Best ARPA Article award to Alfred Tat-Kei Ho and Tobin Im for "Challenges in Building Effective and Competitive Government in Developing Countries: An Institutional Logics Perspective." in 2016.
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In mathematics, an existence theorem is purely theoretical if the proof given for it does not indicate a construction of the object whose existence is asserted. Such a proof is non-constructive, since the whole approach may not lend itself to construction. In terms of algorithms, purely theoretical existence theorems bypass all algorithms for finding what is asserted to exist. These are to be contrasted with the so-called "constructive" existence theorems, which many constructivist mathematicians working in extended logics (such as intuitionistic logic) believe to be intrinsically stronger than their non- constructive counterparts.
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Modal logics include additional modal operators, such as an operator which states that a particular formula is not only true, but necessarily true. Although modal logic is not often used to axiomatize mathematics, it has been used to study the properties of first-order provability (Solovay 1976) and set-theoretic forcing (Hamkins and Löwe 2007). Intuitionistic logic was developed by Heyting to study Brouwer's program of intuitionism, in which Brouwer himself avoided formalization. Intuitionistic logic specifically does not include the law of the excluded middle, which states that each sentence is either true or its negation is true.
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Developing his practice at the height of the Internet boom, Kaino began to explore ideas of systems as a way to bring distinct wisdoms and knowledge forms into the language of contemporary art. Informed by the process of kit-bashing, akin to a model-maker's process of reassembling standard models and structures into new and innovative forms, Kaino began to approach his sculptural process as a form of conceptual kit- bashing—appropriating the languages, logics, production processes, and value systems of various fields of study to apply them to his artistic process as a way to consolidate improbable materials.
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Cresswell received his B.A. in 1960 and M.A. in 1961 from the University of New Zealand and then with the support of a Commonwealth Scholarship attended the Victoria University of Manchester, where he received in 1964 his PhD under the supervision of A. N. Prior. Cresswell's thesis was titled General and Specific Logics of Functions of Propositions. After returning to New Zealand, Cresswell was at the Victoria University of Wellington in 1963–1967 lecturer, in 1968–1972 senior lecturer (also receiving in 1972 Lit.D. from the Victoria University), in 1973 reader, and in 1974–2000 professor, interrupted by several visiting professorships.
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A prominent scholar suggests that the version assembled for the Imperial Library of the Han Dynasty would probably have been as disorganised as the current extant text, and thus would have only been 'intermittently intelligible', as it is for current readers who do not consult a critical edition.A C Graham: Later Mohist Logic, Ethics and Science, p. 65 Disagreeing with Hajime Nakamura, Graham argues the school of Neo-Taoism maintained some interest in the Canons, although they may already have some of the terminology difficult to understand.A C Graham: Later Mohist Logics, Ethics and Science, p 66.
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The filming was completed on February 14, 2017. At the end of each double episode, Before Waking Up, Outside the Storm is aired after the episode to show behind- the-scenes interviews. Similar to Wake Up, each week in the premiere is shown in two episodes, with the final episode being a single finale plus a one-hour feature length behind-the-scenes episode, where the entire makings of most props and logics behind the storylines are revealed. The show did not air on week of September 30 for the live broadcast of the 52nd Golden Bell Awards.
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Maarten de Rijke was born in Vlissingen. He studied philosophy (MSc 1989) and mathematics (MSc 1990) and wrote a PhD thesis, defended in 1993, on extended modal logics, under the supervision of Johan van Benthem. De Rijke worked as a postdoc at the Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica, before becoming a Warwick Research Fellow at the University of Warwick. He joined the University of Amsterdam in 1998, and was appointed professor of Information Processing and Internet at the Informatics Institute of the University of Amsterdam in 2004 and is currently University Professor of Artificial Intelligence and Information Retrieval at the University of Amsterdam.
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Since law comprises sets of norms, it is unsurprising that deontic logics have been tried as the formal basis for models of legislation. These, however, have not been widely adopted as the basis for expert systems, perhaps because expert systems are supposed to enforce the norms, whereas deontic logic becomes of real interest only when we need to consider violations of the norms.A.J. Jones, M.J. Sergot, On the characterisation of law and computer systems: the normative systems perspective, in: J.-J.Ch. Meyer, R. Wieringa (Eds.), Deontic Logic in Computer Science: Normative System Specification, Wiley, 1993, pp.
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Carnielli served as a Director for the Centre for Logic, Epistemology and the History of Science at UNICAMP for three terms, and served as President of the Brazilian Logic Society. He was distinguished with an Alexander von Humboldt Grant for long term research stays in Germany, and served as en editor and/or a member of editorial boards of major journals, such as Studia Logica, Logic and Logical Philosophy, Journal of Applied Logic, CLE e-Prints, Reports on Mathematical Logic and Journal of Applied Non-Classical Logics. He is a recipient of the Telesio- Galilei Gold Medal Award 2012 in Philosophy and Mathematics.
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The hypertext portion of the Web in particular has an intricate intellectual history; notable influences and precursors include Vannevar Bush's Memex, IBM's Generalized Markup Language, and Ted Nelson's Project Xanadu. Paul Otlet's Mundaneum project has also been named as an early 20th-century precursor of the Web. The concept of a global information system connecting homes is prefigured in "A Logic Named Joe", a 1946 short story by Murray Leinster, in which computer terminals, called "logics", are present in every home. Although the computer system in the story is centralized, the story anticipates a ubiquitous information environment similar to the Web.
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Starting from this point, he soon focused his interest on the related theory of Boolean algebras and Boolean rings, and was thus led from logic to algebra. He extensively studied the role of duality in Boolean theory and subsequently developed a theory of n-ality for certain rings which played for n-valued logics the role of Boolean rings vis-a-vis Boolean algebras. The late Benjamin Bernstein of the Berkeley mathematics faculty was his collaborator in some of this research. This work culminated in his seminal paper “The theory of Boolean-like rings” appearing in 1946.
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Written out, this means that P must be true if there is a proposition Q such that the truth of P follows from the truth of "if P then Q". In particular, when Q is taken to be a false formula, the law says that if P must be true whenever it implies falsity, then P is true. In this way Peirce's law implies the law of excluded middle. Peirce's law does not hold in intuitionistic logic or intermediate logics and cannot be deduced from the deduction theorem alone. Under the Curry-Howard isomorphism, Peirce's law is the type of continuation operators, e.g.
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Using game semantics, the authors mentioned above have solved the long-standing problem of defining a fully abstract model for the programming language PCF. Consequently, game semantics has led to fully abstract semantic models for a variety of programming languages, and to new semantic-directed methods of software verification by software model checking. and Helge Rückert extended the dialogical approach to the study of several non-classical logics such as modal logic, relevance logic, free logic and connexive logic. Recently, Rahman and collaborators developed the dialogical approach into a general framework aimed at the discussion of logical pluralism.
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By this criterion, "If the moon is made of green cheese, then the world is coming to an end," is true merely because the moon is not made of green cheese. By extension, any contradiction implies anything whatsoever, since a contradiction is never true. (All paraconsistent logics must, by definition, reject (1) as invalid.) Also, any tautology is implied by anything whatsoever, since a tautology is always true. To sum up, although it is deceptively similar to what we mean by "logically follows" in ordinary usage, material implication does not capture the meaning of "if... then".
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The rules typically are expressed in terms of finite sets of formulae, although there are logics for which we must use more complicated data structures, such as multisets, lists, or even trees of formulas. Henceforth, "set" denotes any of {set, multiset, list, tree}. If there is such a rule for every logical connective then the procedure will eventually produce a set which consists only of atomic formulae and their negations, which cannot be broken down any further. Such a set is easily recognizable as satisfiable or unsatisfiable with respect to the semantics of the logic in question.
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In this sequel, Logic for Use, Schiller attempted to construct a new logic to replace the formal logic that he had criticized in Formal Logic. What he offers is something philosophers would recognize today as a logic covering the context of discovery and the hypothetico-deductive method. Whereas Schiller dismissed the possibility of formal logic, most pragmatists are critical rather of its pretension to ultimate validity and see logic as one logical tool among others—or perhaps, considering the multitude of formal logics, one set of tools among others. This is the view of C. I. Lewis.
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Not all logical systems are truth-valuational in the sense that logical connectives may be interpreted as truth functions. For example, intuitionistic logic lacks a complete set of truth values because its semantics, the Brouwer–Heyting–Kolmogorov interpretation, is specified in terms of provability conditions, and not directly in terms of the necessary truth of formulae. But even non-truth-valuational logics can associate values with logical formulae, as is done in algebraic semantics. The algebraic semantics of intuitionistic logic is given in terms of Heyting algebras, compared to Boolean algebra semantics of classical propositional calculus.
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Haraway highlights the problematic use and justification of Western traditions like patriarchy, colonialism, essentialism, and naturalism (among others). These traditions in turn allow for the problematic formations of taxonomies (and identifications of the Other) and what Haraway explains as "antagonistic dualisms" that order Western discourse. These dualisms, Haraway states, "have all been systematic to the logics and practices of domination of women, people of color, nature, workers, animals... all [those] constituted as others." She highlights specific problematic dualisms of self/other, culture/nature, male/female, civilized/primitive, right/wrong, truth/illusion, total/partial, God/man (among others).
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In 1949 he was sentenced by the communist authorities to 10 years of forced residence in Câmpulung-Muscel, remaining there until 1958. In December of that year, after making public the book "Histoire et Utopie" by Emil Cioran (who had left for France), he was sentenced to 25 years of forced labor in the Jilava prison as a political prisoner, and all his possessions confiscated. He was pardoned after 6 years as part of a general amnesty and released in August 1964. From 1965 he lived in Bucharest, where he was the principal researcher at the Romanian Academy's Center of Logics.
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But it is not syntactically complete, since there are sentences expressible in the language of first order logic that can be neither proved nor disproved from the axioms of logic alone. In a mere system of logic it would be absurd to expect syntactic completeness. But in a system of mathematics, thinkers such as Hilbert had believed that it is just a matter of time to find such an axiomatization that would allow one to either prove or disprove (by proving its negation) each and every mathematical formula. A formal system might be syntactically incomplete by design, as logics generally are.
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A third dimension of visual sociology is both the use of visual media to communicate sociological understandings to professional and public audiences, and also the use of visual media within sociological research itself. In this context, visual sociology draws on the work of Edward Tufte, whose books Envisioning Information and The Visual Display of Quantitative Information address the communication of quantitative information. Qualitatively, visual sociology can be analyzed through content analysis, semiotics, and conversation analysis. Visual sociology considers the logics of presentation of sociological and anthropological documentarians and ethnographers like Robert Flaherty, Konrad Lorenz, Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, and Frederick Wiseman.
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Gilroy critiques New Leftists for assuming a pure British nationalist identity that in fact was influenced by various Black histories and modes of exchange. Gilroy's initial claim seeks to trouble the assumptive logics of a "pure" western history (canon), offering instead a way to think these histories as mutually constituted and always already entangled. Gilroy uses the transatlantic slave trade to highlight the influence of "routes" on black identity. He uses the image of a ship to represent how authentic black culture is composed of cultural exchanges since the slave trade stifled blacks' ability to connect to a homeland.
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Bertrand Russell In the English-speaking world, analytic philosophy became the dominant school for much of the 20th century. The term "analytic philosophy" roughly designates a group of philosophical methods that stress detailed argumentation, attention to semantics, use of classical logic and non- classical logics and clarity of meaning above all other criteria. Though the movement has broadened, it was a cohesive school in the first half of the century. Analytic philosophers were shaped strongly by logical positivism, united by the notion that philosophical problems could and should be solved by attention to logic and language.
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C. C. Chang devised MV-algebras to study many-valued logics, introduced by Jan Łukasiewicz in 1920. In particular, MV-algebras form the algebraic semantics of Łukasiewicz logic, as described below. Given an MV-algebra A, an A-valuation is a homomorphism from the algebra of propositional formulas (in the language consisting of \oplus,\lnot, and 0) into A. Formulas mapped to 1 (that is, to \lnot0) for all A-valuations are called A-tautologies. If the standard MV-algebra over [0,1] is employed, the set of all [0,1]-tautologies determines so-called infinite-valued Łukasiewicz logic.
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In the 1940s Grigore Moisil introduced his Łukasiewicz–Moisil algebras (LMn-algebras) in the hope of giving algebraic semantics for the (finitely) n-valued Łukasiewicz logic. However, in 1956 Alan Rose discovered that for n ≥ 5, the Łukasiewicz–Moisil algebra does not model the Łukasiewicz n-valued logic. Although C. C. Chang published his MV-algebra in 1958, it is a faithful model only for the ℵ0-valued (infinitely-many-valued) Łukasiewicz–Tarski logic. For the axiomatically more complicated (finitely) n-valued Łukasiewicz logics, suitable algebras were published in 1977 by Revaz Grigolia and called MVn-algebras.
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After coming in contact with Zadeh's fuzzy logic, in 1968 Moisil also introduced an infinitely-many- valued logic variant and its corresponding LMθ algebras.Georgescu, G., Iourgulescu, A., Rudeanu, S.: "Grigore C. Moisil (1906–1973) and his School in Algebraic Logic." International Journal of Computers, Communications & Control 1, 81–99 (2006) Although the Łukasiewicz implication cannot be defined in a LMn algebra for n ≥ 5, the Heyting implication can be, i.e. LMn algebras are Heyting algebras; as a result, Moisil logics can also be developed (from a purely logical standpoint) in the framework of Brower’s intuitionistic logic.
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In addition to the use of the diamond clef, which allows performers to read the music in any clef they see fit, the use of star or open accidentals on some notes creates more options for the performer to choose a variety of pitches. The later versions of GTM (referred to as species) feature various accelerations of these streams of notes using polyrhythmic notation, as well as various forms of graphic notation. Three types of geometric shapes - squares, circles and triangles - invite performers to exit the primary melody. Squares represent stable logics, other compositions of Braxton's that musicians can choose to play.
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Logics for computability are formulations of logic which capture some aspect of computability as a basic notion. This usually involves a mix of special logical connectives as well as semantics which explains how the logic is to be interpreted in a computational way. Probably the first formal treatment of logic for computability is the realizability interpretation by Stephen Kleene in 1945, who gave an interpretation of intuitionistic number theory in terms of Turing machine computations. His motivation was to make precise the Heyting-Brouwer-Kolmogorov (BHK) interpretation of intuitionism, according to which proofs of mathematical statements are to be viewed as constructive procedures.
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Therefore, the single-atom transistor works as an atomic switch or atomic relay, where the switchable atom opens and closes the gap between two tiny electrodes called source and drain. The single-atom transistor opens perspectives for the development of future atomic-scale logics and quantum electronics. At the same time, the device of the Karlsruhe team of researchers marks the lower limit of miniaturization, as feature sizes smaller than one atom cannot be produced lithographically. The device represents a quantum transistor, the conductance of the source-drain channel being defined by the rules of quantum mechanics.
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In logic, a three-valued logic (also trinary logic, trivalent, ternary, or trilean, sometimes abbreviated 3VL) is any of several many-valued logic systems in which there are three truth values indicating true, false and some indeterminate third value. This is contrasted with the more commonly known bivalent logics (such as classical sentential or Boolean logic) which provide only for true and false. Emil Leon Post is often credited with first introducing additional logical truth degrees in his 1921 theory of elementary propositions. Yet, more than a decade earlier, Charles Sanders Peirce had already defined a many-valued logic system.
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The work and output of the five policy units is supported by a central Publications Management and Editorial Unit (PMEU), which also serves EPRS as a whole.Christie, Aidan (2014). Creating the new European Parliamentary Research Service (EPRS). Paper for 30th Pre-Conference of IFLA Section on Library and Research Services for Parliaments, 25 July 2014.. The analysis or research produced by the Members' Research Service follow two different logics, they are either prepared on a specific request basis by an MEP or most likely, by one of their assistants, or the EPRS drafts the paper on a proactive basis.
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Taylor also noted that, in modern times of vast informational overloading, it was difficult always to respond, as expected, "with outrage, sympathy, or wonder, within a context that inculcates bewilderment and dislocation." Her play, then, sought to reproduce the ambiguous nature of response to suffering: > Our own reactions are questioned, because, after all, what is it in us that > makes us seek out the stories of another's grief? Or, even more > problematically, what makes us follow the stories of the torturers? We > follow Ubu's history, are drawn into his family drama, are confronted with > his logics of self-justification.
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In the area of artificial intelligence, he is best known for his influential early work on the complexity of nonmonotonic logics and on (generalised) hypertree decompositions, a framework for obtaining tractable structural classes of constraint satisfaction problems, and a generalisation of the notion of tree decomposition from graph theory. This work has also had substantial impact in database theory, since it is known that the problem of evaluating conjunctive queries on relational databases is equivalent to the constraint satisfaction problem. His recent work on XML query languages (notably XPath) has helped create the complexity-theoretical foundations of this area.
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His research has contributed to the new institutionalism by focusing on entrepreneurial dynamics and the emergence of new industries and practices. He has published research on social movement activism in the building of a recycling industry, money manager professionalization in the mutual fund industry, and the co- evolution of nanoscience and nanotechnology. His book, The Institutional Logics Perspective (coauthored with Patricia Thornton and William Ocasio), was the 2013 co-winner of the Academy of Management's George R. Terry book award. The prize is awarded to the book that makes the most outstanding contribution to management knowledge.
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An Investigation of the Laws of Thought on Which are Founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities. introducing symbolic logic and the principles of what is now known as Boolean logic. In 1879, Gottlob Frege published Begriffsschrift, which inaugurated modern logic with the invention of quantifier notation, reconciling the Aristotelian and Stoic logics in a broader system, and solving such problems for which Aristotelian logic was impotent, such as the problem of multiple generality. From 1910 to 1913, Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell published Principia Mathematica on the foundations of mathematics, attempting to derive mathematical truths from axioms and inference rules in symbolic logic.
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Neil Tennant (born 1 March 1950) is an American philosopher. He is Arts & Humanities Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at the Ohio State University; and, before taking up his appointment at the Ohio State University he held positions at the University of Edinburgh, the University of Stirling, and the Australian National University. Along with Michael Dummett, Crispin Wright, Tennant is one of the most notable figures who have attempted to extend the project of providing anti-realist semantics for empirical language. Dummett, Michael – Internet Encyclopedia of PhilosophyChallenges to Metaphysical Realism – Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy He has also written extensively on intuitionistic logic and other non-classical logics.
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The book won the American Political Science Association's 2012 Victoria Schuck Award for the best book published on women and politics. In 2013, Weldon was a co-editor of the first Oxford Handbook on Politics and Gender. Weldon's third book was coauthored with Mala Htun and published in 2018; in The Logics of Gender Justice: State Action on Women’s Rights Around the World, Weldon and Htun studied the evolution of women's rights issues such as family law, abortion, paid parental leave, and contraception from 1975 to 2005. Weldon and Htun received the Human Rights Best Book Award for 2019 from the International Studies Association.
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The principle of formalism is challenged by the informalists, who suggest that language is largely a construction of the speaker, and so, not compatible with formalization. The practice of formalism is challenged by those who observe that formal languages (such as present-day quantificational logic) fail to capture the expressive power of natural languages (as is arguably demonstrated in the awkward character of the quantificational explanation of definite description statements, as laid out by Bertrand Russell). Finally, over the past century, forms of logic have been developed that are not dependent exclusively on the notions of truth and falsity. Some of these types of logic have been called modal logics.
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The goal of the book is guide researchers in producing valid causal inferences in social science research. The book primarily applies lessons from regression-oriented analysis to qualitative research, arguing that the same logics of causal inference can be used in both types of research. The authors argue “whether we study many phenomena or few… the study will be improved if we collect data on as many observable implications of our theory as possible.” The authors note that case studies do not necessarily have to be N=1 or few N: a case study can include many observations within a case (many individuals and entities across many time periods).
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One problem with this logic is that our natural language cannot always be translated easily into absolute terms of 0 and 1. Soft computing techniques, based on fuzzy logic can be useful here. Much closer to the way the human brain works by aggregating data to partial truths (Crisp/fuzzy systems), this logic is one of the main exclusive aspects of CI. Within the same principles of fuzzy and binary logics follow crispy and fuzzy systems. Crisp logic is a part of artificial intelligence principles and consists of either including an element in a set, or not, whereas fuzzy systems (CI) enable elements to be partially in a set.
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In infinitary logic, degrees of provability of propositions can be expressed in terms of infinite-valued logic that can be described via evaluated formulas, written as ordered pairs each consisting of a truth degree symbol and a formula. In mathematics, number-free semantics can express facts about classical mathematical notions and make them derivable by logical deductions in infinite-valued logic. T-norm fuzzy logics can be applied to eliminate references to real numbers from definitions and theorems, in order to simplify certain mathematical concepts and facilitate certain generalizations. A framework employed for number-free formalization of mathematical concepts is known as fuzzy class theory.
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The artist describes his works as 'constructed situations'. His materials are situations animated through references to art history and the participation of interpreters who use voice, reenactment, language, movement, dramaturgy and interaction to shape the experiences of visitors. He resists the production of physical objects in an extension of the logics of western conceptual art and as a part of his commitment to an ecological politics of production.Tino Sehgal, November 30, 2007 - January 10, 2008 Marian Goodman Gallery, New York. Sehgal's pieces are regularly staged in museums or galleries, and continuously executed by trained individuals he refers to as “interpreters” for the entire duration of a show.
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The first objection comes from confusing formal "if then" statements with causation (see Correlation does not imply causation or Relevance logic for logics which demand relevant relationships between premise and consequent, unlike classical logic assumed here). The formal statement of the theorem is timeless, eliminating the second objection because the person the statement holds true for at one instant is not necessarily the same person it holds true for at any other instant. The formal statement of the theorem is :\exists x\in P.\ [D(x) \rightarrow \forall y\in P.\ D(y)]. \, where D is an arbitrary predicate and P is an arbitrary nonempty set.
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Many other scholars have verified and used O’Keefe's work for their own research . For example, Peterson and Albrecht uses Message Design Logic to posit the relationship between superiors’ and subordinates’ message design logic types. Likewise, another study done explored the relationships among individuals’ message design logics and their levels of social well-being. Dr. Gwen Hullman used Message Design Logic to help in the study of perceptions of communication competence. The conclusion of her research in relation to message design was that, “speakers of rhetorical regulative messages were perceived as more effective, more appropriate, and were rated as more competent.”Hullman, G. A. (2004).
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In logic, a logical framework provides a means to define (or present) a logic as a signature in a higher-order type theory in such a way that provability of a formula in the original logic reduces to a type inhabitation problem in the framework type theory. This approach has been used successfully for (interactive) automated theorem proving. The first logical framework was Automath; however, the name of the idea comes from the more widely known Edinburgh Logical Framework, LF. Several more recent proof tools like Isabelle are based on this idea. Unlike a direct embedding, the logical framework approach allows many logics to be embedded in the same type system.
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In the same year, following his wife, the Jewish psychologist Dr. Marie Günther-Hendel, he emigrated from Germany first to Italy, afterwards to Stellenbosch University in South Africa and, in 1940, to the United States. There he completed his system of place-valued logics and morphogrammatics. His great study Die philosophische Idee einer nicht-Aristotelischen Logik (“The philosophical concept of a non-Aristotelian logic”) went to print in 1957 (Hamburg, Meiner). As a research professor, he joined the department of electrical engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1960, working together with Warren Sturgis McCulloch, Heinz von Foerster, Humberto Maturana and others.
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The original version of game semantics for classical (and intuitionistic) logic due to Paul Lorenzen and Kuno Lorenz was not defined in terms of models but of winning strategies over formal dialogues (P. Lorenzen, K. Lorenz 1978, S. Rahman and L. Keiff 2005). Shahid Rahman and Tero Tulenheimo developed an algorithm to convert GTS-winning strategies for classical logic into the dialogical winning strategies and vice versa. For most common logics, including the ones above, the games that arise from them have perfect information—that is, the two players always know the truth values of each primitive, and are aware of all preceding moves in the game.
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In mathematical logic, abstract model theory is a generalization of model theory which studies the general properties of extensions of first-order logic and their models.Institution-independent model theory by Răzvan Diaconescu 2008 page 3 Abstract model theory provides an approach that allows us to step back and study a wide range of logics and their relationships.Handbook of mathematical logic by Jon Barwise 1989 page 45 The starting point for the study of abstract models, which resulted in good examples was Lindström's theorem.Jean-Yves Béziau Logica universalis: towards a general theory of logic 2005 pages 20–25 In 1974 Jon Barwise provided an axiomatization of abstract model theory.
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Inductive programming (IP) is a special area of automatic programming, covering research from artificial intelligence and programming, which addresses learning of typically declarative (logic or functional) and often recursive programs from incomplete specifications, such as input/output examples or constraints. Depending on the programming language used, there are several kinds of inductive programming. Inductive functional programming, which uses functional programming languages such as Lisp or Haskell, and most especially inductive logic programming, which uses logic programming languages such as Prolog and other logical representations such as description logics, have been more prominent, but other (programming) language paradigms have also been used, such as constraint programming or probabilistic programming.
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The use of Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning and Deep Learning techniques in Process Control is also considered as an advanced process control approach in which intelligence is used to further optimize operational parameters. Operations and Logics in process control systems in oil and gas and for decades are based only on physics equations that dictates parameters along with operators’ interactions based on experience and operating manuals. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning algorithms can look into the dynamic operational conditions, analyse them and suggest optimized parameters that can either directly tune logic parameters or give suggestion to operators. Interventions by such intelligent models leads to optimization in cost, production and safety.
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The relationship types between objects that are identified at the end of a matching process are typically those with set semantics such as overlap, disjointness, exclusion, equivalence, or subsumption. The logical encodings of these relationships are what they mean. Among others, an early attempt to use description logics for schema integration and identifying such relationships was presented. Several state of the art matching tools today and those benchmarked in the Ontology Alignment Evaluation InitiativeOntology Alignment Evaluation Initiative::2006 are capable of identifying many such simple (1:1 / 1:n / n:1 element level matches) and complex matches (n:1 / n:m element or structure level matches) between objects.
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By this Pnueli meant that temporal logic assertions are interpreted within a universal behavioral framework in which a single global situation changes with the passage of time, whereas the assertions of the other logics are made externally to the multiple actions about which they speak. The advantage of the endogenous approach is that it makes no fundamental assumptions about what causes what as the environment changes with time. Instead a temporal logic formula can talk about two unrelated parts of a system, which because they are unrelated tacitly evolve in parallel. In effect ordinary logical conjunction of temporal assertions is the concurrent composition operator of temporal logic.
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His extensive library of printed books in Arabic, Persian, and Turkish, as well as the secondary literature in European languages, has been bought by the Ruhr Universität in Bochum (Germany) and forms the nucleus of the library of its Seminar für Orientalistik und Islamwissenschaften. Oskar Rescher is related to Nicholas Rescher, a well-known German-American philosopher who is also a scholar of Arabic, and who has made various contributions to the study of Arabic logics. Oskar Rescher's publications include some valuable indices for works of classical Arabic literature like al-Bukhari's hadith-collection and Yaqut's Mu'jam al-buldan. He produced an Abriss der arabischen Literaturgeschichte, 2 vols.
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To create a digital signal, an analog signal must be modulated with a control signal to produce it. The simplest modulation, a type of unipolar encoding, is simply to switch on and off a DC signal so that high voltages represent a '1' and low voltages are '0'. In digital radio schemes one or more carrier waves are amplitude, frequency or phase modulated by the control signal to produce a digital signal suitable for transmission. Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) over telephone wires, does not primarily use binary logic; the digital signals for individual carriers are modulated with different valued logics, depending on the Shannon capacity of the individual channel.
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In mathematical logic, algebraic logic is the reasoning obtained by manipulating equations with free variables. What is now usually called classical algebraic logic focuses on the identification and algebraic description of models appropriate for the study of various logics (in the form of classes of algebras that constitute the algebraic semantics for these deductive systems) and connected problems like representation and duality. Well known results like the representation theorem for Boolean algebras and Stone duality fall under the umbrella of classical algebraic logic . Works in the more recent abstract algebraic logic (AAL) focus on the process of algebraization itself, like classifying various forms of algebraizability using the Leibniz operator .
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The existence of the chipsets was proven in October 2006 through two hardware websites in ChileATI targets next-gen Athlon 64 FX with four-GPU chipset? and SpainMadBoxPC reporting "ATI chipset update" which posted the leaked slides of an ATI internal event, "ATI chipset update". In the slides, ATI has shown a series of RD700 series chipset logics codenamed RD790, RX790, RS780 and RS740 respectively. A SB700 southbridge was also mentioned in the event. The 790X (codename RD780) chipset was spotted in Computex 2007, exhibited by ASUS. The RS780D was first reported by HKEPC while the RX780H was first seen on ECS internal presentations.
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The principle of bivalence is related to the law of excluded middle though the latter is a syntactic expression of the language of a logic of the form "P ∨ ¬P". The difference between the principle of bivalence and the law of excluded middle is important because there are logics which validate the law but which do not validate the principle. For example, the three-valued Logic of Paradox (LP) validates the law of excluded middle, but not the law of non-contradiction, ¬(P ∧ ¬P), and its intended semantics is not bivalent. In classical two-valued logic both the law of excluded middle and the law of non-contradiction hold.
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Most studied formal logics have a monotonic consequence relation, meaning that adding a formula to a theory never produces a reduction of its set of consequences. Intuitively, monotonicity indicates that learning a new piece of knowledge cannot reduce the set of what is known. A monotonic logic cannot handle various reasoning tasks such as reasoning by default (consequences may be derived only because of lack of evidence of the contrary), abductive reasoning (consequences are only deduced as most likely explanations), some important approaches to reasoning about knowledge (the ignorance of a consequence must be retracted when the consequence becomes known), and similarly, belief revision (new knowledge may contradict old beliefs).
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Abstract approach on how knowledge representation and reasoning allow a problem specific solution (answer) to a given problem (questions) Representing meaning as a graph is one of the two ways that both an AI cognition and a linguistic researcher think about meaning (connectionist view). Logicians utilize a formal representation of meaning to build upon the idea of symbolic representation, whereas description logics describe languages and the meaning of symbols. This contention between 'neat' and 'scruffy' techniques has been discussed since the 1970s. Research has so far identified semantic measures and with that Word-sense disambiguation (WSD) - the differentiation of meaning of words - as the main problem of language understanding.
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Critics assert that this inconsistency deprives SQL of intuitive semantics in its treatment of NULLs.Ron van der Meyden, "Logical approaches to incomplete information: a survey" in Chomicki, Jan; Saake, Gunter (Eds.) Logics for Databases and Information Systems, Kluwer Academic Publishers , p. 344; PS preprint (note: page numbering differs in preprint from the published version) The SQL standard defines an optional feature called F571, which adds some unary operators, among which is `IS UNKNOWN` corresponding to the Łukasiewicz I in this article. The addition of `IS UNKNOWN` to the other operators of SQL's three-valued logic makes the SQL three-valued logic functionally complete,C.
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He became an ECCAI Fellow in 2015.University of Luxembourg News: SnT scientist Prof. Leon van der Torre appointed ECCAI Fellow Leon van der Torre is furthermore the editor of the deontic logic corner of the Journal of Logic and Computation, a member of the editorial boards of the Logic Journal of the IGPL and the IfCoLog Journal of Logics and their Applications, chair of the DEON steering committee, a member of the CLIMA steering committee, and an editor of the Handbooks of Deontic Logic and Normative Systems,Handbook of Deontic Logic and Normative Systems with further handbooksHandbook Of Formal Argumentation (HOFA) in preparation.
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In 2019, it was announced that ruangrupa would serve as artistic director for documenta fifteen collectively, the first time an Asian group or an art collective would curate the large-scale, international exhibition. The curatorial concept ruangrupa prepared for documenta fifteen centres upon the notion of lumbung, a rice barn that stores the communally- produced common resource of rice for future use. documenta fifteen is thus conceived a collective resource pot, operating under the logics of the commons to mend today's injuries that are rooted in colonialism, capitalism, and patriarchy; echoing the original intent of Documenta, an event launched to heal European war wounds.Taken from the documenta press release (22 February 2019).
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Johnson, K.; McAndrews, J.; Soramäki, K. 'Economizing on Liquidity with Deferred Settlement Mechanisms' (Reserve Bank of New York Economic Policy Review, December 2004) Another application is to evaluate risks related to events such as communication network breakdowns or the inability of participants to send payments (e.g. in case of possible bank failure).H. Leinonen (ed.): Simulation analyses and stress testing of payment networks (Bank of Finland Studies E:42/2009) Simulation publications This kind of analysis falls under the concepts of stress testing or scenario analysis. A common way to conduct these simulations is to replicate the settlement logics of the real payment or securities settlement systems under analysis and then use real observed payment data.
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In logic, a rule of inference, inference rule or transformation rule is a logical form consisting of a function which takes premises, analyzes their syntax, and returns a conclusion (or conclusions). For example, the rule of inference called modus ponens takes two premises, one in the form "If p then q" and another in the form "p", and returns the conclusion "q". The rule is valid with respect to the semantics of classical logic (as well as the semantics of many other non-classical logics), in the sense that if the premises are true (under an interpretation), then so is the conclusion. Typically, a rule of inference preserves truth, a semantic property.
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Abstract algebraic logic has become a well established subfield of algebraic logic, with many deep and interesting results. These results explain many properties of different classes of logical systems previously explained only in a case by case basis or shrouded in mystery. Perhaps the most important achievement of abstract algebraic logic has been the classification of propositional logics in a hierarchy, called the abstract algebraic hierarchy or Leibniz hierarchy, whose different levels roughly reflect the strength of the ties between a logic at a particular level and its associated class of algebras. The position of a logic in this hierarchy determines the extent to which that logic may be studied using known algebraic methods and techniques.
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Entailment as external implication between two terms expresses a metatruth outside the language of the logic, and is considered part of the metalanguage. Even when the logic under study is intuitionistic, entailment is ordinarily understood classically as two-valued: either the left side entails, or is less-or-equal to, the right side, or it is not. Similar but more complex translations to and from algebraic logics are possible for natural deduction systems as described above and for the sequent calculus. The entailments of the latter can be interpreted as two-valued, but a more insightful interpretation is as a set, the elements of which can be understood as abstract proofs organized as the morphisms of a category.
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One should not confuse four-valued mathematical logic (using operators, truth tables, syllogisms, propositional calculus, theorems and so on) with communication protocols built using binary logic and displaying responses with four possible states implemented with boolean-like type of values : for instance, the SAE J1939 standard, used for CAN data transmission in heavy road vehicles, which has four logical (boolean) values: False, True, Error Condition, and Not installed (represented by values 0–3). Error Condition means there is a technical problem obstructing data acquisition. The logics for that is for example True and Error Condition=Error Condition. Not installed is used for a feature that does not exist in this vehicle, and should be disregarded for logical calculation.
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This "Old Institutionalism" began to be undermined when scholars increasingly highlighted how the formal rules and administrative structures of institutions were not accurately describing the behavior of actors and policy outcomes. More-recent work has begun to emphasize multiple competing logics, focusing on the more-heterogeneous sources of diversity within fields and the institutional embeddedness of technical considerations. The concept of logic generally refers to broader cultural beliefs and rules that structure cognition and guide decision-making in a field. At the organization level, logic can focus the attention of key decision-makers on a delimited set of issues and solutions, leading to logic- consistent decisions that reinforce extant organizational identities and strategies.
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Isbell's research interests are in machine learning and artificial intelligence, and have focused on independent components analysis of problem spaces existing in hundreds of thousands of dimensions; developing extensions to description logics; developing new reinforcement-learning techniques for balancing multiple sources of reward in social environments; state and activity discovery; and partial programming. The unifying theme of his work in recent years has been using statistical machine learning to enable autonomous agents to engage in lifelong learning when in the presence of thousands of other intelligent agents, including humans. His work with agents who interact in social communities has been featured in the New York Times, the Washington Post, Time magazine's inaugural edition of Time Digital, and congressional testimony.
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Technically, tableaux for modal logics check the satisfiability of a set of formulae: they check whether there exists a model M and world w such that the formulae in the set are true in that model and world. In the example above, while a states the truth of a in w, the formula eg \Box a states the truth of eg a in some world w' that is accessible from w and which may in general be different from w. Tableaux calculi for modal logic take into account that formulae may refer to different worlds. This fact has an important consequence: formulae that hold in a world may imply conditions over different successors of that world.
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The problem of interaction between formulae holding in different worlds can be overcome by using set-labeling tableaux. These are trees whose nodes are labeled with sets of formulae; the expansion rules tell how to attach new nodes to a leaf, based only on the label of the leaf (and not on the label of other nodes in the branch). Tableaux for modal logics are used to verify the satisfiability of a set of modal formulae in a given modal logic. Given a set of formulae S, they check the existence of a model M and a world w such that M,w \models S. The expansion rules depend on the particular modal logic used.
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In mathematical logic, a formula is in negation normal form if the negation operator (\lnot, ) is only applied to variables and the only other allowed Boolean operators are conjunction (\land, ) and disjunction (\lor, ). Negation normal form is not a canonical form: for example, a \land (b\lor \lnot c) and (a \land b) \lor (a \land \lnot c) are equivalent, and are both in negation normal form. In classical logic and many modal logics, every formula can be brought into this form by replacing implications and equivalences by their definitions, using De Morgan's laws to push negation inwards, and eliminating double negations. This process can be represented using the following rewrite rules (Handbook of Automated Reasoning 1, p.
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In the late 1970s and early 1980s he engaged in the organisation of the Christian Culture Weeks in Wrocław and held the chair of the Adam Mickiewicz Scholarship Association. He was also actively involved in the Scouts movement as a member of ZHP General Council (The Polish Scouting Association). In 1982 he earned the Master of Science in applied mathematics from the Faculty of Fundamental Problems of Technology at the Wrocław University of Technology. He also studied at the Department of Christian Philosophy of the Catholic University of Lublin, and in 1985 he obtained his doctoral degree in formal logics ("The research on the method of semantic tables Betha") under the supervision of Professor Ludwik Borkowski.
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Sapir had a profound influence on Whorf's thinking. Sapir's earliest writings had espoused views of the relation between thought and language stemming from the Humboldtian tradition he acquired through Franz Boas, which regarded language as the historical embodiment of volksgeist, or ethnic world view. But Sapir had since become influenced by a current of logical positivism, such as that of Bertrand Russell and the early Ludwig Wittgenstein, particularly through Ogden and Richards' The Meaning of Meaning, from which he adopted the view that natural language potentially obscures, rather than facilitates, the mind to perceive and describe the world as it really is. In this view, proper perception could only be accomplished through formal logics.
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She developed the concept of double socialization of women through wage labour and domestic work: the two spheres come from two different social realms with different logics, and are both separated and connected. Her research focused on both the objective demands of work, and the subjective realities of the worker. In each setting, time itself functions differently: in the factory, women must not lose time; while when taking care of children, women must forget about time, other than in remembering to get housework done before work the next day. The two realms are recombined through relationships (assumed to be heterosexual) and in the efforts of women to "have both" career and family life.
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In the article "Copy and paste", Louise Merzeau proposes a vision that aims at overcoming the simple notions of plagiarism and theft associated to this practice. The notion of paste and copy should not be forbidden: a new learning process of copying as a way of thinking could lead to knowledge, therefore underlying the importance of a pedagogical frame. The copy and paste could be a solution to the commercial logics of the web. This conception is to be put in relation with her engagement in the movement of common goods, to which she participates through the Savoirscom1 collective group, which fights for the user's rights against the risks of informational enclosure,.
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He is known for his defence of dialetheism, his in-depth analyses of the logical paradoxes (holding the thesis that there is a uniform treatment for many well-known paradoxes, such as the semantic, set-theoretic and Liar paradoxes), and his many writings related to paraconsistent and other non-classical logics. In these he draws on the history of philosophy, including Asian philosophy. Priest, a long-time resident of Australia, now residing in New York City, is the author of numerous books, and has published articles in nearly every major philosophical and logical journal. He was a frequent collaborator with the late Richard Sylvan, a fellow proponent of dialetheism and paraconsistent logic.
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This framing technique can be read in terms of Eshun's notion of the "chronopolitical," the "temporal complications and anachronistic episodes that dis- turb the linear time of progress, adjust[ing] the temporal logics that condemned black subjects to prehistory." Kodwo, following Toni Morrison among others, positions African slaves as the first modern subjects, as well as “real world” subjects of science fiction scenarios. Thus, while hegemonic future projections implicitly or explicitly exclude black subjects from (post)modernity and its attendant techno-scientific innovations and alienations, Afrofuturism highlights the Afrodiasporic subject’s fundamental role in initiating and producing modernity. In other words, Afrofuturism “reorient[s] history,” in part in order to offer counter- or alternative futures.
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Process for classifying a phenomenon as a scenario in the Intuitive Logics tradition. Strategic planning always includes analysis, but it may or may not involve serious foresight on the way to developing a plan, or taking an action. A consideration of possible futures (alternative futures) and of probable futures (forecasts, predictions) is important to developing a preferred future (plan), even the simple mental plans made prior to taking an action. It is the job of the strategic foresight professional to make sure appropriately diverse and relevant inputs, forecasts, and alternatives are considered in the analysis, decision making and planning processes, that plans are appropriately communicated and that when actions are taken, appropriate feedback occurs and after action reviews take place to improve the foresight process.
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Thus, Boolean logic is sometimes used to denote propositional calculus performed in this way. Boolean algebra is not sufficient to capture logic formulas using quantifiers, like those from first order logic. Although the development of mathematical logic did not follow Boole's program, the connection between his algebra and logic was later put on firm ground in the setting of algebraic logic, which also studies the algebraic systems of many other logics. The problem of determining whether the variables of a given Boolean (propositional) formula can be assigned in such a way as to make the formula evaluate to true is called the Boolean satisfiability problem (SAT), and is of importance to theoretical computer science, being the first problem shown to be NP-complete.
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With respect to (1), a critical step in the transition was initiated by the work of Rasiowa. Her goal was to abstract results and methods known to hold for the classical propositional calculus and Boolean algebras and some other closely related logical systems, in such a way that these results and methods could be applied to a much wider variety of propositional logics. (3) owes much to the joint work of Blok and Pigozzi exploring the different forms that the well-known deduction theorem of classical propositional calculus and first-order logic takes on in a wide variety of logical systems. They related these various forms of the deduction theorem to the properties of the algebraic counterparts of these logical systems.
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One approach and formation is model checking, which consists of a systematically exhaustive exploration of the mathematical model (this is possible for finite models, but also for some infinite models where infinite sets of states can be effectively represented finitely by using abstraction or taking advantage of symmetry). Usually this consists of exploring all states and transitions in the model, by using smart and domain- specific abstraction techniques to consider whole groups of states in a single operation and reduce computing time. Implementation techniques include state space enumeration, symbolic state space enumeration, abstract interpretation, symbolic simulation, abstraction refinement. The properties to be verified are often described in temporal logics, such as linear temporal logic (LTL), Property Specification Language (PSL), SystemVerilog Assertions (SVA), or computational tree logic (CTL).
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As ethical acts such as Israeli "peacenik" soldiers' solidarity with their Palestinian neighbors show, there are other alternatives to capitalism than fundamentalism or fascism; however, the current paradigm of the "end of history" and the "clash of civilizations" restricts the range of apparent conflicts to cultural or ethnic/religious ones, masking anything more fundamental, such as an economic conflict. The same displacement of socio-economic conflict that occurred under fascism is mirrored in the Israel-Palestinian conflict, the "symptomal knot" of all the economic and cultural logics of the contemporary world. In his rejection of binary ethical choices and predictive certainty, Žižek is certainly postmodernist, but the substance of his critique of responses to 9/11 is primarily Marxian and secondarily Lacanian.
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Another consequence of this theory is Shusterman's logical pluralism which claims not only that there can be different (even contradictory), yet equally true interpretations (that would be only a cognitive pluralism), but also that there are legitimate forms of approaching texts which do not even aim at interpretational truth or plausibility, but rather aim at other useful goals (e.g., providing pleasure or making an old text more relevant to contemporary readers).See R. Shusterman, "Logics of Interpretation: The Persistence of Pluralism", in Surface and Depth, p. 49. Another of Shusterman's contributions to the theory of interpretation is his critique of a widely held view he calls 'hermeneutic universalism', and attributes to Hans-Georg Gadamer, Alexander Nehamas and Stanley Fish, among others.
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Shapirovsky, "PSPACE-decidability of Japaridze's polymodal logic". Advances in Modal Logic 7 (2008), pp. 289-304. and the PSPACE-hardness of its variable-free fragment was proven by F.Pakhomov. Among the most notable applications of GLP has been its use in proof-theoretically analyzing Peano arithmetic, elaborating a canonical way for recovering ordinal notation system up to 0 from the corresponding algebra, and constructing simple combinatorial independent statements (Beklemishev L. Beklemishev, "Provability algebras and proof-theoretic ordinals, I". Annals of Pure and Applied Logic 128 (2004), pp. 103–123.). An extensive survey of GLP in the context of provability logics in general was given by George Boolos in his book “The Logic of Provability”.G. Boolos, “The Logic of Provability”.
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As a logic- based system, a SNePS KB consists of a set of terms, and functions and formulas over those terms. The set of logical connectives and quantifiers extends the usual set used by first-order logics, all taking one or more arbitrarily-sized sets of arguments. In accord with the intended use of SNePS to represent the mind of a natural-language-competent intelligent agent, propositions are first-class entities of the intended domain, so formulas are actually proposition-denoting functional terms. SNePSLOG, the input-output language of the logic-based face of SNePS, looks like a naive logic in that function symbols (including "predicates"), and formulas (actually proposition- denoting terms) may be the arguments of functions and may be quantified over.
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Cantu et al. take up the issue of the relationship of homosexuals to immigration policies and nationalist discourse in his essay, “Well Founded Fear, Political Asylum and the Boundaries of Sexual Identity in the US-Mexico Borderlands.” In particular, Cantu discusses the complex performance of sexuality, gender and race expected from gay asylum seekers, thus reinforcing the conventional notions of gender and sexuality in a transnational crossroad that facilitates movement of commodities, cultures and people. He discusses how the US asylum system and nationalist discourse problematize the transnational intersections of race, gender and sexuality because,“The asylum system was generating new, essentializing constructions of sexuality that functioned within strictly nationalist logics, thereby re-inscribing borders that globalization had blurred” (301).
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With the increasing pluralization of life-worlds, modernization, and differentiation in Postmodern societies, the dissolution of traditional values and the conference of meaning, the biographical approach proved useful to study these social phenomena of the turn of the millennium. The actor became an intersection of different and sometimes divergent determinants, logics, expectations, normative models, and institutionalized mechanisms of control (see Georg Simmel's chapter "The Intersection of Social Circles"). The "normal biography" broke up and prompted the individual to manage his life course on his own and to find solutions amongst different and contradictory influencing factors and figurations. In this situation, the self-discovered biographical identity with its endangered transitions, breaks, and status changes becomes a conflict between institutional control and individual strategy.
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After studying at the Ecole Normale Supérieure, he completed his agrégation in 1943, being received premier ex aequo alongside Tran Duc Thao. A student of French historical epistemologists Gaston Bachelard and Jean Cavaillès, he was however at first influenced by phenomenology and existentialism, before shifting towards study of logics and science. In 1962, he published a book titled The Philosophy of Algebra, dedicated to the mathematician Pierre Samuel, a member of the Bourbaki group, as well as to René Thom, to the physicist Raymond Siestrunck and to the linguist George Vallet. Vuillemin thought that renewals of methods in mathematics have influenced philosophy, thus relating the discovery of irrational numbers to Platonism, algebraic geometry to Cartesianism, infinitesimal calculus to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.
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The research of the department is mostly in the area of algebraic recursion theory, modal, temporal and other non-classical logics, as well as logic programming including the development of a version of the Prolog programming language. The department developed also the Streamlined System adopted as the official national system for the Romanization of Bulgarian, and eventually codified by the Bulgarian Law of Transliteration in 2009. A joint multi-institutional project led by the department has contributed to the development and introduction of a new Bulgarian phonetic keyboard layout for personal computers and mobile phones. Besides their research activities, members of the department have an extensive lecturing practice at various faculties of Sofia University as well as other Bulgarian universities.
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In the mathematical fields of graph theory and finite model theory, the logic of graphs deals with formal specifications of graph properties using formulas of mathematical logic. There are several variations in the types of logical operation that can be used in these formulas. The first order logic of graphs concerns formulas in which the variables and predicates concern individual vertices and edges of a graph, while monadic second order graph logic allows quantification over sets of vertices or edges. Logics based on least fixed point operators allow more general predicates over tuples of vertices, but these predicates can only be constructed through fixed-point operators, restricting their power to an intermediate level between first order and monadic second order.
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However though 'iron is a metal' may be implied by 'cats lay eggs' it doesn't seem to be relevant to it the way in which 'cats are mammals' and 'mammals give birth to living young' are relevant to each other. If one states "I love ice cream," and another person responds "I have a friend named Brad Cook," then these statements are not relevant. However, if one states "I love ice cream," and another person responds "I have a friend named Brad Cook who also likes ice cream," this statement now becomes relevant because it relates to the first person's idea. More recently a number of theorists have sought to account for relevance in terms of "possible world logics" in intensional logic.
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Minimal logic, or minimal calculus, is a symbolic logic system originally developed by Ingebrigt Johansson. It is an intuitionistic and paraconsistent logic, that rejects both the law of the excluded middle as well as the principle of explosion (ex falso quodlibet), and therefore holding neither of the following two derivations as valid: :\vdash (A \lor eg A) :(A \land eg A) \vdash where A is any proposition. Most constructive logics only reject the former, the law of excluded middle. In classical logic, the ex falso laws :(A \land eg A) \to B, : eg(A \lor eg A) \to B, :A \to ( eg A \to B), as well as their variants with A and eg A switched, are equivalent to each other and valid.
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The book was published in Toronto by McClelland & Stewart.Globalization, Philanthropy, and Civil Society: Projecting Institutional Logics Abroad. Indiana University Press; 2009. . p. 252. In 2010 she gave a TEDx Talk in Toronto, expanding on the same subject. Also in 2010, Sussman was part of a team that implemented the Muskoka Initiative, led by Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper, which globally leveraged $7.5 billion to address the top five causes of maternal and child mortality in the developing world.“What’s changed for moms and babies since the $2.8B Muskoka Initiative?” by Erika Tucker, as published in Global News, May 29, 2014 In 2011, Sussman took part in the successful effort to create an International Day of the Girl"A tale of discovery, triumph…and wings".
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These may be expressed as ordered pairs for some purposes, but the semiotic system of reasoning is non-monotonic and yields to W.V. Quine's critiques of under-determination and radical translation.For more of Quine's work on the radical translation problem, and related work on ontological relativity, see: W. V. Quine, Word and Object (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2013), 23-66; W. V. Quine, Ontological Relativity, and Other Essays (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), 26-68. The mode of reasoning is extensional in semiotics and can be articulated (incompletely) in extensional logics of the sort devised by Gottlob Frege,For more, see: Gottlob Frege, The Foundations of Arithmetic a Logico-mathematical Enquiry into the Concept of Number, 2nd Revised ed. (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1980).
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Competence mode II: cognitive flexibility to imagine alternative management processes. Competence mode II results from a second form of cognitive flexibility of managers to conceive of alternative management processes for implementing strategic logics identified by competence mode I. The managerial abilities underlying competence mode II include the ability to identify the kinds of resources (assets, knowledge and capabilities) required to carry out a given strategic logic, to create effective organization designs (allocations of tasks, decision making and information flows) for the processes that will use the required resources and to define appropriate controls and incentives for monitoring and motivating the value-creating processes envisioned by a given strategic logic. Competence mode III: coordination flexibility to identify, configure and deploy resources.
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In an appendix to his book on mathematical existence, Becker set the problem of finding a formal calculus for intuitionistic logic. In a series of works in the early 1950s he surveyed modal, intuitionistic, probabilistic, and other philosophical logics. Becker made contributions to modal logic (the logic of necessity and possibility) and Becker’s postulate, the claim that modal status is necessary (for instance that the possibility of P implies the necessity of the possibility of P, and also the iteration of necessity) is named for him. Becker's Postulate later played a role in the formalization given, by Charles Hartshorne, the American process theologian, of the Ontological Proof of God's existence, stimulated by conversations with the logical positivist and opponent of the alleged proof, Rudolf Carnap.
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Isabelle is generic: it provides a meta- logic (a weak type theory), which is used to encode object logics like first- order logic (FOL), higher-order logic (HOL) or Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZFC). The most widely used object logic is Isabelle/HOL, although significant set theory developments were completed in Isabelle/ZF. Isabelle's main proof method is a higher-order version of resolution, based on higher-order unification. Though interactive, Isabelle features efficient automatic reasoning tools, such as a term rewriting engine and a tableaux prover, various decision procedures, and, through the Sledgehammer proof-automation interface, external satisfiability modulo theories (SMT) solvers (including CVC4) and resolution-based automated theorem provers (ATPs), including E and SPASS (the Metis proof method reconstructs resolution proofs generated by these ATPs).
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OWL DL is designed to provide the maximum expressiveness possible while retaining computational completeness (either φ or ¬φ holds), decidability (there is an effective procedure to determine whether φ is derivable or not), and the availability of practical reasoning algorithms. OWL DL includes all OWL language constructs, but they can be used only under certain restrictions (for example, number restrictions may not be placed upon properties which are declared to be transitive; and while a class may be a subclass of many classes, a class cannot be an instance of another class). OWL DL is so named due to its correspondence with description logic, a field of research that has studied the logics that form the formal foundation of OWL.
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Gladwell (2008) showed that the relationship between individual IQ and success works only to a certain point and that additional IQ points over an estimate of IQ 120 do not translate into real life advantages. If a similar border exists for Group-IQ or if advantages are linear and infinite, has still to be explored. Similarly, demand for further research on possible connections of individual and collective intelligence exists within plenty of other potentially transferable logics of individual intelligence, such as, for instance, the development over time or the question of improving intelligence. Whereas it is controversial whether human intelligence can be enhanced via training, a group's collective intelligence potentially offers simpler opportunities for improvement by exchanging team members or implementing structures and technologies.
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Although both U&G; and MSD researchers ask similar questions of individuals, they do so for very different reasons. Those differences are reflected most clearly in (a) the logics of hypothesis formation (b) item and scale construction (c) modes of data analysis, and (d) interpretation of findings. The MSD researcher essentially wants to know the micro and macro determinants of stability and change in micro MSD relations to learn something about their cross-level consequences for individuals and their interpersonal networks-the dynamics of their inner worlds and how they live in their social worlds. The U&G; theorist wants to learn something about the individual's attraction to media texts and the interaction between text and reader to better understand the contributions of reader characteristics to text processing.
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In classical propositional logic, they indeed coincide; the deduction theorem states that A ⊢ B if and only if ⊢ A → B. There is however a distinction worth emphasizing even in this case: the first notation describes a deduction, that is an activity of passing from sentences to sentences, whereas A → B is simply a formula made with a logical connective, implication in this case. Without an inference rule (like modus ponens in this case), there is no deduction or inference. This point is illustrated in Lewis Carroll's dialogue called "What the Tortoise Said to Achilles" preprint (with different pagination), as well as later attempts by Bertrand Russell and Peter Winch to resolve the paradox introduced in the dialogue. For some non- classical logics, the deduction theorem does not hold.
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The important features of the logic include hypothetical and committed updates, dynamic constraints on transaction execution, non-determinism, and bulk updates. In this way, Transaction Logic is able to declaratively capture a number of non-logical phenomena, including procedural knowledge in artificial intelligence, active databases, and methods with side effects in object databases. Transaction Logic was originally proposed in A.J. Bonner and M. Kifer (1993), Transaction Logic Programming, International Conference on Logic Programming (ICLP), 1993. by Anthony Bonner and Michael Kifer and later described in more detail in A.J. Bonner and M. Kifer (1994), An Overview of Transaction Logic, Theoretical Computer Science, 133:2, 1994. and.A.J. Bonner and M. Kifer (1998), Logic Programming for Database Transactions in Logics for Databases and Information Systems, J. Chomicki and G. Saake (eds.), Kluwer Academic Publ., 1998.
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But to mask this identification under a definition hides the fact that a fundamental discovery in the limitiations of mathematicizing power of Homo Sapiens has been made and blinds us to the need of its continual verification."italics added, Post 1936 in (Davis 1965:291) In other words Post is saying "Just because you defined it so doesn't make it truly so; your definition is based on no more than an intuition." Post was searching for more than a definition: "The success of the above program would, for us, change this hypothesis not so much to a definition or to an axiom but to a natural law. Only so, it seems to the writer, can Gödel's theorem ... and Church's results ... be transformed into conclusions concerning all symbolic logics and all methods of solvability.
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In Italy, the contents of the medical school admission test is decided each year by the Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (MIUR) and consists of sixty questions divided in five categories: logics and "general education" ("cultura generale"), mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology. Results are expressed in a national ranking. As a general rule, all state-run medical schools in the country administer it on the same day, whereas all privately run medical schools administer it on another day, so that a candidate may take the test once for state-run schools and once for a private school of his or her choice, but no more. Some universities in Italy provide an international degree course in medicine taught entirely in English for both Italian and non-Italian students.
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These notions can also be defined with respect to other logics. For each σ-structure A, there are several associated theories in a larger signature σ' that extends σ by adding one new constant symbol for each element of the domain of A. (If the new constant symbols are identified with the elements of A which they represent, σ' can be taken to be σ \cup A.) The cardinality of σ' is thus the larger of the cardinality of σ and the cardinality of A. The diagram of A consists of all atomic or negated atomic σ'-sentences that are satisfied by A and is denoted by diagA. The positive diagram of A is the set of all atomic σ'-sentences which A satisfies. It is denoted by diag+A.
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However, to become actual this election needs to articulate with a pole of exclusion; thus the need of a new expansion of this universe of non-relation, the universe of totalitarianisms, by definition an endlessly expanding universe whose theoretical limits paradoxically coincide with its own self-destruction. The election/exclusion logics works by means of pairs of contradictory and, therefore, mutually exclusive terms. Their content may be as varied as the different semantic domains invested by the totalitarian machine: chosen/doomed, religion/magic, truth/falseness, literate/illiterate, savage/civilized, subject/object, intellectual/manual, proletarians/capitalists, science/illusion, subjectivity/objectivity, etc. In all these contradictory pairs, one of the poles “means” to occupy the whole field; but at the same time, its own meaning and “existence” depends on the virtually excluded pole.
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With the arrival of computer applications into the legal domain, and especially artificial intelligence applied to it, logic has been used as the major tool to formalize legal reasoning and has been developed in many directions, ranging from deontic logics to formal systems of argumentation. The knowledge base of legal reasoning systems usually includes legal norms (such as governmental regulations and contracts), and as a consequence, legal rules are the focus of knowledge representation and reasoning approaches to automatize and solve complex legal tasks. Legal norms are typically represented into a logic-based formalism, such a deontic logic. Artificial intelligence and law applications using an explicit representation of norms range from checking the compliance of business processes and the automatic execution of smart contracts to legal expert systems advising people on legal matters.
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Similarly, in intuitionistic logic the sequent : eg eg A \vdash A is not derivable, while in dual-intuitionistic logic : A \vdash eg eg A is not derivable. Dual-intuitionistic logic contains a connective # known as pseudo-difference which is the dual of intuitionistic implication. Very loosely, can be read as "A but not B". However, # is not truth-functional as one might expect a 'but not' operator to be; similarly, the intuitionistic implication operator cannot be treated like "". Dual-intuitionistic logic also features a basic connective ⊤ which is the dual of intuitionistic ⊥: negation may be defined as A full account of the duality between paraconsistent and intuitionistic logic, including an explanation on why dual-intuitionistic and paraconsistent logics do not coincide, can be found in Brunner and Carnielli (2005).
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Michel Despland, Bastide on Religion: The Invention of Candomblé, London: Equinox, 2009. An important, if controversial, sociological contribution of Bastide is his description of syncretism. At the core of his interpretation of syncretism is the “principle of compartmentalization” (principe de coupure), which “allows for the alternation or cohabitation, in a single individual or within a single group, of logics or categories that are supposedly otherwise incompatible and irreducible.” For instance, one can be both a Catholic and a practitioner of Candomblé: the two “compartments” live together, without merging, in the same individual, who does not see the coexistence as problematic. Only if he or she reflects about the contradictions, the individual moves to a “formal acculturation,” a second level of syncretism were the two previously separated religious world-views uneasily merge.
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To categorize the South African prison system following World War II, Natacha Filippi in “Deviance, Punishment, and Logics of Subjectification during Apartheid,” explains that “prisons were used to a significant extent as a means to protect the white minority against a contagion by pathological colonized populations, to ensure the economic exploitation of colonial subjects, and to assimilate seditious activity with an indigenous crime” (Filippi, 2011). By 1948, the fabric of South African society remained systematically anchored by a discourse of racial discrimination. With South African prisons as the main institution for which to carry out punishment legitimized by racial superiority, courts followed suit with “discriminatory verdicts and sentences” (Filippi, 2011). In the 1950s, a series of discriminatory laws were passed to enforce the systemization of apartheid (Filippi, 2011).
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Symposium held in Kirchberg/Wechsel, Austria, August 14–21, 1988. Since later in the 1990s, Ruy de Queiroz has been engaged, jointly with Dov Gabbay, in a program of providing a general account of the functional interpretation of classical and non-classical logics via the notion of labeled natural deduction. As a result, novel accounts of the functional interpretation of the existential quantifier, as well as the notion of propositional equality, were put forward, the latter allowing for a recasting of Richard Statman's notion of direct computation, and a novel approach to the dichotomy "intensional versus extensional" accounts of propositional equality via the Curry–Howard correspondence. Since the early 2000s, Ruy de Queiroz has been investigating, jointly with Anjolina de Oliveira, a geometric perspective of natural deduction based on a graph-based account of Kneale's symmetric natural deduction.
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The idea, here, is that a truth's invariance makes it genuinely indiscernible: because a truth is everywhere and always the case, it passes unnoticed unless there is a rupture in the laws of being and appearance, during which the truth in question becomes, but only for a passing moment, discernible. Such a rupture is what Badiou calls an event, according to a theory originally worked out in Being and Event and fleshed out in important ways in Logics of Worlds. The individual who chances to witness such an event, if he is faithful to what he has glimpsed, can then introduce the truth by naming it into worldly situations. For Badiou, it is by positioning oneself to the truth of an event that a human animal becomes a subject; subjectivity is not an inherent human trait.
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The DLV (DataLog with Disjunction, where the logical disjunction symbol V is used) system is a disjunctive logic programming system, implementing the stable model semantics under the Answer set programming paradigm. It extends the datalog language to allow the use of OR in rules. Briefly, disjunctive Datalog is a variant of Datalog where disjunctions may appear in the rule heads; advanced versions also allow for negation in the bodies, which can be handled according to a semantics for negation in disjunctive logic programming. A disjunctive Datalog rule is a clause of the form: :a_1 \vee \dots \vee a_n \leftarrow b_1 \wedge \dots \wedge b_m \quad 1 \leq n, 0 \leq m A disjunctive Datalog constraint is a clause of the form: :\leftarrow b_1 \wedge \dots \wedge b_m \quad 0 \leq m One of the most popular nonmonotonic logics is Reiter’s [1980] default logic.
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The protagonist of the novel is Benedykt Gierosławski, a Polish mathematician and notorious gambler, collaborating with Alfred Tarski on his work on many-valued logics. The Ministry of Winter's officials visit Gierosławski and make him embark on a Transsiberian journey to find his lost father, who is said to be able to communicate with Lute. During his journey Gieroslawski finds out that he is caught in a political intrigue, brought about by rivalry between two palace factions, liedniacy (conservatives and Siberian entrepreneurs backing the idea of "frozen Russia") and ottiepelnicy (mostly revolutionaries aiming for a literal and political "thaw"), supported also by the Tsar. He also meets Nikola Tesla in disguise, who has conceived a technology for manipulating and eventually destroying the Ice and has been hired by the Tsar to relieve Russia from the Winter.
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His early interests were in ethics and the philosophy of religion, but he is most widely known for books on modal logic co-authored with his colleague and former student Max Cresswell. In 1968 they published An Introduction to Modal Logic, the first modern textbook in the area. This book, which has been translated into German, Italian, Japanese and Spanish, was influential in introducing many generations of students and researchers to Kripke semantics, a mathematical theory of meaning that revolutionised the study of modal logics and led to applications ranging from the semantics of natural languages to reasoning about the behaviour of computer programs. Vaughan Pratt, the creator of dynamic logic, has written in reference to his own motivation that "a weekend with Hughes and Cresswell convinced me that a most harmonious union between modal logic and programs was possible".
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This search of Gurdjieff coincides with the scientists' search since the late 19th century for any principle in the universe that may go against the domination of the Second Law of Thermodynamics formulated by Rudolf Julius Emmanuel Clausius. The law predicts the doom of the universe by affirming the irreversible increase of entropy (loss of creative potentials) in a closed system due to the inherent tendency of matters toward dispersion and equalization. Larger the system, more escapable it is from the sorrowful fate predicted by this Law. Therefore, as far as the normal logics go, there appears to be no way to avoid the increase of entropy in this scientifically defined process of involution, which began to have a more realistic character as a theory when the big bang theory began to be affirmed by more scientists based on observed evidence.
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Seen as the simplest form of message production, the fundamental premise of Expressive Design Logic is that “Language is a medium for expressing thoughts and feelings.” This premise is the simplest of the three logics and explains that someone says what they feel. As long as this feeling is conveyed in the message, the message is deemed successful. O’Keefe gives two reasons why individuals who operate under this design logic are very literal when it comes to impression in message design and interpretation. “First, they fail to appreciate that in communication, the process of expression can be made to serve other goals, and second, they interpret messages as independent units rather than as threads in an interaction fabric.” Individuals that communicate expressively do not recognize the idea that messages might be designed to induce particular reactions by the receiver.
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Temporal logic is an approach to the semantics of expressions with tense, that is, expressions with qualifications of when. Some expressions, such as '2 + 2 = 4', are true at all times, while tensed expressions such as 'John is happy' are only true sometimes. In temporal logic, tense constructions are treated in terms of modalities, where a standard method for formalizing talk of time is to use two pairs of operators, one for the past and one for the future (P will just mean 'it is presently the case that P'). For example: :FP : It will sometimes be the case that P :GP : It will always be the case that P :PP : It was sometime the case that P :HP : It has always been the case that P There are then at least three modal logics that we can develop.
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"The 'Grand Project' follows a semence of logics: the 'arsenal' Levic, the logic of public procurement and the logic of the market, which when completed, enriches the national productive systém with new, powerful actors who are sometimes rivals." Its success depends on a transfer of results and close cooperation with industry. This can only be fruitful when the State promotes aggressive protectionism, finances the early stages of industrial development, transfers the results of public research, allows the depreciation of investment over a long period, provides certain markets through public procurement and encourages development by putting the State’s powers at the service of the national champion. The five pillars, which the success of the grand plan can be obtained are: technical innovation, emergence of new patterns of consumption, dynamic protectionism, the risk of a new industrial participant and socio-political engineering.
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After several years as a lecturer, senior lecturer, reader then Professor in Manchester, Horrocks moved to the University of Oxford in 2008. His work on tableau reasoning for very expressive description logics has formed the basis of most description logic reasoning systems in use today, including Racer, FaCT++, HermiT and Pellet. Horrocks was jointly responsible for development of the OIL and DAML+OIL ontology languages, and he played a central role in the development of the Web Ontology Language (OWL). These languages and associated tools have been used by Open Biomedical Ontologies (OBO) Consortium, the National Cancer Institute (NCI) in America, the United Nations (UN) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) Ian Horrocks introduction on the www-webont-wg mailing list at the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) and a range of major corporations and government agencies.
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Competence mode III drives from the coordination flexibility of an organization to assemble chains of tangible and intangible resources needed to carry out the organization's strategic logics for creating value through its product offers. Coordination flexibility depends on the ability of a firm's managers—in this case, usually the midlevel managers of larger firms, but also top managers of smaller firms—to acquire or access, configure and deploy chains of resources for leveraging product offers capable of creating value in the markets targeted by the firm. Competence mode IV: resource flexibility to be used in alternative operations. While competence mode III derives from the ability of an organization to assemble resource chains in support of product offers, competence mode IV derives from the ability of the resources in an organization's resource chains to be used in alternative ways.
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Null has been the focus of controversy and a source of debate because of its associated three- valued logic (3VL), special requirements for its use in SQL joins, and the special handling required by aggregate functions and SQL grouping operators. Computer science professor Ron van der Meyden summarized the various issues as: "The inconsistencies in the SQL standard mean that it is not possible to ascribe any intuitive logical semantics to the treatment of nulls in SQL."Ron van der Meyden, "Logical approaches to incomplete information: a survey" in Chomicki, Jan; Saake, Gunter (Eds.) Logics for Databases and Information Systems, Kluwer Academic Publishers , p. 344; PS preprint (note: page numbering differs in preprint from the published version) Although various proposals have been made for resolving these issues, the complexity of the alternatives has prevented their widespread adoption.
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Coecke obtained his Doctorate in Sciences at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel in 1996, and performed postdoctorate work in the Theoretical Physics Group of Imperial College, London and in the Category Theory Group of the Mathematics and Statistics Department at McGill University in Montreal, and was formally affiliated with the Department of Pure Mathematics and Mathematical Statistics of Cambridge University.Bob Coecke, Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford (downloaded 1 April 2012) He was an EPSRC Advanced Research Fellow at the Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford, where he became Lecturer in Quantum Computer Science in 2007, and jointly with Samson Abramsky leads the Quantum Group. In 2009, he worked as visiting scientist at the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics. In July 2011, he was nominated professor of Quantum Foundations, Logics and Structures at Oxford University, with retroactive effect as of October 2010.
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He also suspended 59 articles of the Guatemalan Constitution. At the same time, Serrano called on the Supreme Electoral Tribunal to convoke elections for a National Constituent Assembly in 60 days.McCleary, Rachel M. Dictating democracy: Guatemala and the end of violent revolution. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. 1999. Pp. 105-148. “Serrano had seriously overestimated his support from the military and underestimated the international diplomatic reaction to his coup. Furthermore, his move had the unintended effect of catalyzing opposition not only to his leadership but to the whole structure of backroom military power that he had hoped would support him, thus bringing together an unlikely coalition of progressive business interests, human rights groups, and Maya activists that would play an important role in the 1996 Peace Accord negotiations”.Fischer, Edward F. Cultural logics and global economies: Maya identity in thought and practice.
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The development of election campaign communication can be divided in three phases, a traditional, party-centered period after World War II, a media-centered, personalizing and professionalizing modern period from the 1960s to the 1980s and a still emerging postmodern phase or period of political marketing, characterized by marketing-logics, fragmentation of voter groups, negativity and new media channels.cf. Blumler, & Kavanagh (1999) Comparative campaign communication research emerged in the period of modern campaigning in the 1970s, when research revealed similar trends in campaigning in Western democracies.cf. Esser, & Pfetsch (2004)cf. Blumler, & Kavanagh (1999) One of the first European studies in this field by media and communication theorist Jay Blumler and his colleaguescf. Blumler, Cayrol, & Tonveron (1978) examined the effect of television campaigning on electorate and their interest in the election by comparing the 1974 election campaigns in UK, France and Belgium.
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In 2011 Lu was part of the selection panel for the 54th Golden Lion Award at the Venice Biennale. She has curated exhibitions with artists such as Louise Bourgeois, Francesco Clemente, Béatrice Cussol, Chen Man, Jan Saudek, Rosemarie Trockel, Andy Warhol, Gao Yu, Zhuang Hui, Chen Shaoxiong, Leng Wen, Yan Xing, Lu Zhengyuan, Martha Rosler, Gao Shiming, the Raqs Media Collective, Hu Fang, and Dan'er. Lu's book on the work of Chinese artist Wang Yin (born 1964) situates his work within the historical context of twentieth-century Chinese painting, as well as broader shifts in modern Chinese culture. Lu was a Co-Artistic Director of ROUNDTABLE: The 9th Gwangju Biennale (Korea, 2012) through which her focus developed around the ways in which the de-bordering and loosening of economic, sovereign, social, cultural and historic frameworks by digitization, global trade and political movements challenges our ideological and national logics.
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The best-known version of the world-systems approach was developed by Immanuel Wallerstein. Wallerstein notes that world-systems analysis calls for a unidisciplinary historical social science and contends that the modern disciplines, products of the 19th century, are deeply flawed because they are not separate logics, as is manifest for example in the de facto overlap of analysis among scholars of the disciplines. Wallerstein offers several definitions of a world-system, defining it in 1974 briefly: He also offered a longer definition: In 1987, Wallerstein again defined it: Wallerstein characterizes the world system as a set of mechanisms, which redistributes surplus value from the periphery to the core. In his terminology, the core is the developed, industrialized part of the world, and the periphery is the "underdeveloped", typically raw materials- exporting, poor part of the world; the market being the means by which the core exploits the periphery.
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Consequently, with the last point, myth criticism is seen to apply to all forms of cultural expression, though not abandoning the analysis of the symbolic imaginary. This new myth criticism looks at mythical representations in such diverse fields as literature, film and television, drama, sculpture, painting, videogames, music, dance, journalism, the Internet and all other media of artistic and cultural expression: Cultural myth criticism has proved to be particularly useful in the analysis of contemporary myths, the study of which necessarily differs considerably from previous work. Losada posits three distinct main factors or "logics" that must be taken into account in order to properly analyze myth in contemporary culture: the logic of globalization, the logic of immanence, and the logic of consumerism. These three factors modify myth's traditional character, and must be carefully considered in order to understand both the current mythical epiphany and contemporary culture.
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" The Quietus said Yasuda's songs are "equivalent to playing Twister in order to lose, turning in on themselves the very game-logics of popular sounds and structures." Yasuda quickly followed that release with a second album, Yo-Yo Blue, on the Field Hymns cassette-only label in 2013. Though the album was limited to 100 physical copies, Yo-Yo Blue was also released digitally via Bandcamp. Field Hymns described the album to a "thumbed-through flip book of vaporous, hazy memories...replete with childhood recitals, fragments of half-remembered stanzas and sumptuous j-pop interludes." Cassette Love said the mostly instrumental album "has the mood of a dream, floating above and observing a variety of scenes; detached, yet focused" and singled out the vocal performances on “ちょ-ちょ (with Nico)” and “Falling Slowly” as "worthy of being featured on a single all by themselves.
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Eventually logicians found that restricting Frege's logic in various ways—to what is now called first-order logic—eliminated this problem: sets and properties cannot be quantified over in first-order-logic alone. The now-standard hierarchy of orders of logics dates from this time. It was found that set theory could be formulated as an axiomatized system within the apparatus of first-order logic (at the cost of several kinds of completeness, but nothing so bad as Russell's paradox), and this was done (see Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory), as sets are vital for mathematics. Arithmetic, mereology, and a variety of other powerful logical theories could be formulated axiomatically without appeal to any more logical apparatus than first-order quantification, and this, along with Gödel and Skolem's adherence to first-order logic, led to a general decline in work in second (or any higher) order logic.
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CROCOPen™ is a pen that can talk. A Pen that combines state-of- art technology with creative learning materials to develop kids’ interest in learning through reading. The technology built inside CROCOPen™ allows kids to interact with the reading materials, to play games, learn logics, understand visual impact, learn sound effects. Simply insert the “Super Cartridge” into CROCOPen™, it will automatically guide kids through a marvelous learning adventure. It contains voice data for a wide range of CROCOPen™ learning materials, kids can read over 100 different learning materials: books, stickers, flash cards, puzzles, and more to come — all contents covered by the “Super Cartridge”. No trouble of cartridge change and storage, the talking pen provides an interesting and interactive reading platform to allow kids’ imagination to fly, there are ample visual elements in the teaching materials to stimulate kids imagination and creativity.
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The DOLLx8 solution is used in vehicles, buses, trains, caravans, marine, aviation, laboratories, homes, offices, buildings and in other automated systems.Blogg.no This MISOLIMA blog is about embedded systems based on ATMEL microcontrollers 5 March 2011Vikan, Tore; "Det ukjente dataeventyret", Trønder-Avisa (Norwegian newspaper), 14 January 2012, page 10-13 of section 2 DOLLx8 is based on program-controlled embedded system, or integrated systems technology, and may therefore also interface to multiple systems such as RS-232, RS-422, RS-485, Controller Area Network (CAN-bus), GSM, USB and more, but may also be connected to wireless systems such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, VHF, GSM, laser or Internet for communication without the use of the data buffers between the units. DOLLx8 as multi-functional data network with mixture of combinatorial logics may connect via single or multiple connection-points adapted to multiple systems as defined in Common Hybrid Interface Protocol System (CHIPS).
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De Morgan's Laws represented as a circuit with logic gates In extensions of classical propositional logic, the duality still holds (that is, to any logical operator one can always find its dual), since in the presence of the identities governing negation, one may always introduce an operator that is the De Morgan dual of another. This leads to an important property of logics based on classical logic, namely the existence of negation normal forms: any formula is equivalent to another formula where negations only occur applied to the non-logical atoms of the formula. The existence of negation normal forms drives many applications, for example in digital circuit design, where it is used to manipulate the types of logic gates, and in formal logic, where it is needed to find the conjunctive normal form and disjunctive normal form of a formula. Computer programmers use them to simplify or properly negate complicated logical conditions.
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A semantics for open formulas cannot be given in the form of a Tarskian semantics (Cameron&Hodges; 2001); an adequate semantics must specify what it means for a formula to be satisfied by a set of assignments of common variable domain (a team) rather than satisfaction by a single assignment. Such a team semantics was developed by Hodges (Hodges 1997). IF logic is translation equivalent, at the level of sentences, with a number of other logical systems based on team semantics, such as dependence logic, dependence-friendly logic, exclusion logic and independence logic; with the exception of the latter, IF logic is known to be equiexpressive to these logics also at the level of open formulas. However, IF logic differs from all the above-mentioned systems in that it lacks locality (the meaning of an open formula cannot be described just in terms of the free variables of the formula; it is instead dependent on the context in which the formula occurs).
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The purpose of BCTCS is: # to provide a platform from which the interests and future well-being of British theoretical computer science may be advanced; # to offer a forum in which UK-based researchers in all aspects of theoretical computer science can meet, present research findings, and discuss recent developments in the field; and # to foster an environment within which PhD students undertaking research in theoretical computer science may gain experience in presenting their work in a formal arena, broaden their outlook on the subject, and benefit from contact with established researchers in the community. In pursuit of these aims, the BCTCS organises an annual Conference for UK-based researchers in theoretical computer science. A central aspect of the annual BCTCS Conference is the training of PhD students. The scope of the annual BCTCS Conference includes all aspects of theoretical computer science, including algorithms, complexity, semantics, formal methods, concurrency, types, languages and logics.
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With its record of more than three decades as an internationally recognized center for LGBT public-history initiatives, the GLBT Historical Society itself has increasingly attracted attention from scholars and other professionals in LGBT studies, sexuality studies, museum studies, library and information science, and other fields. Among the books and reports that analyze its work are Jennifer Tyburczy's Sex Museums: The Politics and Performance of Display (2016); Museums and LGBTQ: An Analysis of How Museums and Other Exhibitors Can Highlight Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Queer Perspectives (2016); Out of the Closet, Into the Archives: Researching Sexual Histories (2015), edited by Amy L. Stone and Jaime Cantrell; and Educational Programs: Innovative Practices for Archives and Special Collections (2015), edited by Kate Theimer. A number of graduate research projects also have addressed the history and activities of the Historical Society. Doctoral dissertations include Diana Wakimoto's "Queer Community Archives in California Since 1950" (2012) and Kelly Jacob Rawson's "Archiving Transgender: Affects, Logics and the Power of Queer History" (2010).
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The goal of developing S-D logic is to contribute to the understanding of human value co-creation, by developing an alternative to traditional logics of exchange. Since Vargo and Lush published the first S-D logic article, "Evolving to a New Dominant Logic for Marketing"For this work, Lusch and Vargo have been awarded the Harold H. Maynard Award by the American Marketing Association for "significant contribution to marketing theory and thought" and the Sheth Foundation Award for "long term contributions to the field of marketing.", in 2004, S-D logic has become a collaborative effort of numerous scholars across disciplines and it has been continually extended and elaborated. Among the most important extensions have been (1) the development of the service ecosystems perspective that allows a more holistic, dynamic, and systemic perspective of value creation and (2) the emphasis of institutions and institutional arrangements as coordination mechanisms in such systems.
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Liberal Terror Evans' first book, Liberal Terror deals with the changing nature of security, war and violence in the latter part of the 20th Century. Focusing on the impact the complexity sciences have had on social and political understanding, the book addresses the shift away from the foundational logic of states to the age of radical interconnectivity, which collapse previous fixed arrangements in politics between the logics of what is inside and what is outside, friends and enemies, times of war and times of peace, along with disrupting ideas concerning the past, present and future. Addressing what is identified in security practice as the onset of a "catastrophic topography of endangerment", which has brought together all manner of threats "from terror to weather and everything in- between", Evans suggest we are living in a time of "terror normality". Central to the books thesis is the idea that liberal democracies have normalised insecurity in such a way that catastrophe is now presented as inevitable.
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As African masks are largely appreciated by Europeans, they are widely commercialized and sold in most tourist-oriented markets and shops in Africa (as well as "ethnic" shops in the Western World). As a consequence, the traditional art of mask-making has gradually ceased to be a privileged, status-related practice, and mass production of masks has become widespread. While, in most cases, commercial masks are (more or less faithful) reproductions of traditional masks, this connection is weakening over time, as the logics of mass-production make it harder to identify the actual geographical and cultural origins of the masks found in such venues as curio shops and tourist markets. For example, the Okahandja market in Namibia mostly sells masks that are produced in Zimbabwe (as they are cheaper and more easily available than local masks), and, in turn, Zimbabwean mask-makers reproduce masks from virtually everywhere in Africa rather than from their own local heritage.
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Designing Social Inquiry, an influential 1994 book written by Gary King, Robert Keohane, and Sidney Verba, primarily applies lessons from regression-oriented analysis to qualitative research, arguing that the same logics of causal inference can be used in both types of research. The authors' recommendation is to increase the number of observations (a recommendation that Barbara Geddes also makes in Paradigms and Sand Castles), because few observations make it harder to estimate multiple causal effects, more likely that there is measurement error, and risks that an event in a single case was caused by random error. KKV sees process-tracing and qualitative research as being "unable to yield strong causal inference" due to the fact that qualitative scholars would struggle with determining which of many intervening variables truly links the independent variable with a dependent variable. The primary problem is that qualitative research lacks a sufficient number of observations to properly estimate the effects of an independent variable.
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Nationwide leaving exams (državna matura) were introduced for gymnasium students in the school year 2009–2010. There are three compulsory subjects: Croatian language (or Serbian, Hungarian, Italian or Czech for minorities), Mathematics and a foreign language (English, German, Italian, Spanish or French). Classical gymnasium students are also able to choose Latin or Ancient Greek instead of or in addition to a modern foreign language. The optional subjects will be Geography, Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Computer science, History, Music, Visual arts, Ethics, Religious studies, Philosophy, Psychology, Sociology, Politics and Logics. The compulsory subjects are also available at a basic or extended level with 1 point of the extended level exam being worth 1.6 points of the basic level exam. Points of the basic level are converted into points of the extended level by dividing them by 1.6, so a student achieving 100/100 points in the basic exam, in the end will only be given 62.5 points (100/1.6).
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The Vietoris–Rips complex of a set of points in a metric space is a special case of a clique complex, formed from the unit disk graph of the points; however, every clique complex X(G) may be interpreted as the Vietoris–Rips complex of the shortest path metric on the underlying graph G. describe an application of conformal hypergraphs in the logics of relational structures. In that context, the Gaifman graph of a relational structure is the same as the underlying graph of the hypergraph representing the structure, and a structure is guarded if it corresponds to a conformal hypergraph. Gromov showed that a cubical complex (that is, a family of hypercubes intersecting face-to-face) forms a CAT(0) space if and only if the complex is simply connected and the link of every vertex forms a flag complex. A cubical complex meeting these conditions is sometimes called a cubing or a space with walls..
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Dean of the School of Humanities and Social Sciences 1973-5. Dean 1993–2006 of the European Faculty (now European Academy) of Land Use and Development. Lenk started out with the philosophy of science and the foundation of logics (notably his habilitation thesis on the Critique of Logical Constants, 1968) and later on, since 1978, included epistemology and pragmatic methodology of the social and natural sciences, technology+ economics, neuroscience and the philosophy of language in several books on Interpretative Constructs (1993) and Schema Games (1995). Since 1978 he developed his basic epistemological methodology of what he calls “methodological (scheme-)interpretationism” focused on a pragmatic and constructive realism a bit similar to Putnam's internal realism and much earlier and more general than the according recent perspectivism in US philosophy of science. Since then he extended and differentiated Wittgenstein’s later conception of “language games” toward “schema games” connecting and activating these with neuroscientific findings and analyses (for neurophilosophy cf. his book Consciousness as Scheme-Interpretation 2004).
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Although the book is intended as a textbook for advanced undergraduates or beginning graduate students, reviewer Mohamed Amer suggests that it does not have enough exercises to support a course in its subject, and that some of its proofs are lacking in detail. Reviewer Hans Jürgen Ohlbach suggests that it would be more usable as a reference than a textbook, and states that "it is certainly not suitable for undergraduates". Reviewer Yde Venema wonders how much of the logical power and useful properties of the various systems treated in this book have been lost in the translation to many-sorted logic, worries about the jump in computational complexity of automated theorem proving caused by the translation, complains about the book's clarity of exposition becoming lost in case analysis, and was disappointed at the lack of coverage of Montague grammar, fixed-point logic, and non-monotonic logic. Nevertheless, Venema recommends the book for courses introducing students to second-order and many-sorted logics, praising the book for its "overwhelming and catching enthusiasm".
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This research program took on new meaning with the 1781 publication of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Kant derived his own table of categories (the twelve pure or "ancestral" concepts of the understanding that structure all experience irrespective of content) from a standard term-logical table of judgments, noting also that > ...the true ancestral concepts...also have their equally pure derivative > concepts, which could by no means be passed over in a complete system of > transcendental philosophy, but with the mere mention of which I can be > satisfied in a merely critical essay. The Science of Logic (which the latter Hegel considered central to his philosophy) can be considered a notable contribution to the research program of category metaphysics in its post-Kantian form, taking up the project that Kant suggested is necessary but did not himself pursue: "to take note of and, as far as possible, completely catalog" the derivative concepts of the pure understanding and "completely illustrate its family tree." The affinity between Hegel and Kant's logics ("speculative" and "transcendental" respectively) is apparent in their vocabulary.
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Aihwa Ong (; born February 1, 1950) is Professor of Anthropology at the University of California, Berkeley, a member of the Science Council of the International Panel on Social Progress, and a former recipient of a MacArthur Fellowship for the study of sovereignty and citizenship. She is well known for her interdisciplinary approach in investigations of globalization, modernity, and citizenship from Southeast Asia and China to the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Her notions of 'flexible citizenship', 'graduated sovereignty,' and 'global assemblages' have widely impacted conceptions of the global in modernity across the social sciences and humanities. Her major works include Fungible Life: Experiment in the Asian City of Life (2016), Neoliberalism as Exception: Mutations in Citizenship and Sovereignty (2006), Buddha is Hiding: Refugees, Citizenship, the New America (2003), Flexible Citizenship: The Cultural Logics of Transnationality (1999), Spirits of Resistance and Capitalist Discipline: Factory Women in Malaysia (1987), and the edited volume Global Assemblages: Technology, Politics, and Ethics as Anthropological Problems (co-edited with Stephen J. Collier, 2005).
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Most such devices include a tiny postage-stamp-sized LCD screen for viewing simplified ladder logic (only a very small portion of the program being visible at a given time) and status of I/O points, and typically these screens are accompanied by a 4-way rocker push-button plus four more separate push- buttons, similar to the key buttons on a VCR remote control, and used to navigate and edit the logic. Most have a small plug for connecting via RS-232 or RS-485 to a personal computer so that programmers can use simple Windows applications for programming instead of being forced to use the tiny LCD and push-button set for this purpose. Unlike regular PLCs that are usually modular and greatly expandable, the PLRs are usually not modular or expandable, but their price can be two orders of magnitude less than a PLC, and they still offer robust design and deterministic execution of the logics. A variant of PLCs, used in remote locations is the remote terminal unit or RTU.
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Today, the bulk of extant mathematics is believed to be derivable logically from a small number of extralogical axioms, such as the axioms of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (or its extension ZFC), from which no inconsistencies have as yet been derived. Thus, elements of the logicist programmes have proved viable, but in the process theories of classes, sets and mappings, and higher-order logics other than with Henkin semantics, have come to be regarded as extralogical in nature, in part under the influence of Quine's later thought. Kurt Gödel's incompleteness theorems show that no formal system from which the Peano axioms for the natural numbers may be derived — such as Russell's systems in PM — can decide all the well-formed sentences of that system."On the philosophical relevance of Gödel's incompleteness theorems" This result damaged Hilbert's programme for foundations of mathematics whereby 'infinitary' theories — such as that of PM — were to be proved consistent from finitary theories, with the aim that those uneasy about 'infinitary methods' could be reassurred that their use should provably not result in the derivation of a contradiction.
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In her article "Looking for M-: Queer Temporality, Black Political Possibility, and Poetry from the Future," Keeling discussed the experiences of Black queers through looking at films such as Looking for Langston, Brother to Brother, and The Aggressives. Keeling focuses her writing on the temporality and spatiality of the Black queer experience. Keeling also discussed figures such as Frantz Fanon and his lack of acknowledgement or discussion on this topic. She notes that in The Aggressives, time is marked by trends and products within hip-hop culture. Further expanding on the spatiotemporal nature, Keeling goes on to talk about the disappearance of one individual , M-. "Hir disappearance must prompt us to ask not the policing question attuned to the temporal and spatial logics of surveillance and control (where is M—today), but, rather, in this case, the political question of when M —’s visibility will enable hir survival by providing the protection the realm of the visible affords those whose existence is valued, those we want to look for so we can look out for and look after them" (577).
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The World Factbook Many whose livelihood once depended on fishing or agriculture are realizing it is more lucrative to participate in illegal fishing activities. Community members who are not a part of the trade are affected by the activities of these illegal fishers. The cyanide fishers profit by taking away from everyone else’s trade and food.Lowe, Celia “Who is to blame? Logics of responsibility in the live reef food fish trade in Sulawesi, Indonesia” SPC Live Reef Fish Information Bulletin #10 June 2002 ‘If people were using poison and my take dropped to only a little, I would accept it,’ Puah said. ‘But I feel heartsick…I catch nothing at all. I have not caught a big fish in a month so there’s no point in going fishing this afternoon.’” The local people are often helpless to protect themselves, as government and law enforcement officials have “open pockets” and are also involved in the trade by turning a blind eye to the illegal actions and receiving a take of the profits. “Culpability in cyanide use cannot be understood apart from the larger structures of corruption that permeates resource extraction throughout Indonesia.
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A class K of structures of a signature σ is called an elementary class if there is a first-order theory T of signature σ, such that K consists of all models of T, i.e., of all σ-structures that satisfy T. If T can be chosen as a theory consisting of a single first-order sentence, then K is called a basic elementary class. More generally, K is a pseudo-elementary class if there is a first-order theory T of a signature that extends σ, such that K consists of all σ-structures that are reducts to σ of models of T. In other words, a class K of σ-structures is pseudo-elementary iff there is an elementary class K' such that K consists of precisely the reducts to σ of the structures in K'. For obvious reasons, elementary classes are also called axiomatizable in first-order logic, and basic elementary classes are called finitely axiomatizable in first-order logic. These definitions extend to other logics in the obvious way, but since the first-order case is by far the most important, axiomatizable implicitly refers to this case when no other logic is specified.
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It resulted either in the loss of independent freedom of civil society under the embracing control of the party-state or else it saw regression in economic rationality as the community or state subjected the economy to their traditional norms and political calculations. Instead, partly for normative reasons and partly for strategic reasons (to prevent repression from the state or USSR invasion), opposition movements in Eastern Europe (and throughout the world) sought not to take over the government but only to strengthen the forms of freedom in a modern civil society, that is, forms of solidarity, free communicative interaction, and active democratic participation in autonomous publics and a plurality of associations. The goal—Arato argued for Eastern Europe, but soon extended this model to the West—should be the protection and indeed the strengthening of civil society and its democratization and institution building separate from the strategic instrumental logics and power hierarchies of the state and capitalist economy. In collaboration with Jean Cohen, Arato concluded that “the idea of the reconstruction and democratization of civil society could become the foundation of a critical theory of all modern societies, including the West.”Arato, From Neo-Marxism to Democratic Theory, xi.
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Proof-theoretic formalization of a non-monotonic logic begins with adoption of certain non-monotonic rules of inference, and then prescribes contexts in which these non-monotonic rules may be applied in admissible deductions. This typically is accomplished by means of fixed-point equations that relate the sets of premises and the sets of their non-monotonic conclusions. Default logic and autoepistemic logic are the most common examples of non-monotonic logics that have been formalized that way.. Model-theoretic formalization of a non-monotonic logic begins with restriction of the semantics of a suitable monotonic logic to some special models, for instance, to minimal models, and then derives the set of non- monotonic rules of inference, possibly with some restrictions in which contexts these rules may be applied, so that the resulting deductive system is sound and complete with respect to the restricted semantics. Unlike some proof-theoretic formalizations that suffered from well-known paradoxes and were often hard to evaluate with respect of their consistency with the intuitions they were supposed to capture, model-theoretic formalizations were paradox-free and left little, if any, room for confusion about what non- monotonic patterns of reasoning they covered.
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In addition to widely cited publications in journals like The American Political Science Review and the Latin American Research Review, Htun has also written three books: Sex and the State: Abortion, Divorce, and the Family under Latin American Dictatorships and Democracies (2003), Inclusion without Representation: Gender Quotas and Ethnic Reservations in Latin America (2016), and The Logics of Gender Justice: State Action on Women’s Rights Around the World (2018). In a review of Sex and the State, Patricia Hipsher wrote that, by seeking "to answer the question of how and why states make particular policy decisions on gender-related issues", Htun wrote one of the first comparative studies of gender-related public policy reform in Latin America. Similarly, in a review of Htun's second book, Inclusion without Representation, Courtney Jung wrote that Htun's study of institutions that "are designed to ensure that members of historically excluded groups are elected to political office" unified two literatures that had been divided since their initiation by Arend Lijphart and Merwin Crawford Young. In 2015, Htun was named an Andrew Carnegie Fellow, for her work to "explore the ways that laws and public policies shape women's economic agency, and how economic empowerment affects gender relations and social norms".
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Shoki Coe(:zh:黃彰輝) studied philosophy in Tokyo, dialectical theology in particular, and had his bachelor's degree in 1937. C. K. Wu (吳振坤) of Tainan Theological College and Seminary studied with the religious philosopher Seiichi Hatano(:ja:波多野精一) during the 1940s and later promoted in Yale University and published Hatano's ‘Philosophy of the Religion’ (宗教哲學, 1940) transcript.Chin-sui Hwang(:zh:黃金穗), was an apostle of Tanabe Hajime(:ja:田邊元) on mathematics logics; his 1939 ‘On Dailiness – A Phenomenological Suggestion’ (日常性について―現象學的試論) contrasted the dialects of the dailiness and nightiness, and in 1959 he transcribed Rene Descartes’ ‘Discourse on the Method’.. Fa-Yu Cheng(:zh:鄭發育) was supervised by Nishida Kitarō(:ja:西田幾多郎), and in 1984 he transcripted ‘An Inquiry into the Good’ (善的研究) and founded the empirical psychology in Taiwan.. Figures: Hung Yao- hsün(:zh:洪耀勳); Shao-Hsing Chen(:zh:陳紹馨); Isshū Yō(:zh:楊杏庭); [Zeng Tianzong(:zh:曾天從); C. K. Wu (吳振坤); Shoki Coe(:zh:黃彰輝),]; 黃金穗; Fa-Yu Cheng(:zh:鄭發育); 林素琴.
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