Either that or he thinks we're all androids, and he's trying to overload our logic circuits.
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Who's doing itUniversities, national labs, and companies like IBM, Google, Microsoft and Intel are pursuing qubits set-ups in logic circuits similar to regular bits, all with less than 20 qubits so far.
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And rather than rely on quantum logic circuits like the rest of the pack, their computer solves one type of problem—optimization problems, like finding the best solution from a range of okay solutions, or finding the best taxi route from point A to point B staying as far as possible from other taxis.
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Race conditions can occur especially in logic circuits, multithreaded or distributed software programs.
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In logic circuits, it decreases the noise immunity; in power applications, it increases the dissipated power.
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Racetrack problems can occur in electronics systems, especially logic circuits, and in computer software, especially multithreaded or distributed programs.
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A similar approach can be used to program digital logic circuits. In this case, fuses are blown by the laser, enabling or disabling various logic circuits. An example of this is the IBM POWER4 microprocessor where the chip contains five banks of cache memory but only requires four banks for full operation. During testing, each cache bank is exercised.
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The term is not used for logic circuits producing complementary outputs, nor applied to differential amplifiers that have balanced inputs and outputs.
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The GE device was the first erasable PLD ever developed, predating the Altera EPLD by over a decade. GE obtained several early patents on programmable logic devices.Greer, David L. Electrically Programmable Logic Circuits US Patent 3,818,452. Assignee: General Electric, Filed: April 28, 1972, Granted: June 18, 1974Greer, David L. Multiple Level Associative Logic Circuits US Patent 3,816,725. Assignee: General Electric, Filed: April 28, 1972, Granted: June 11, 1974Greer, David L. Segmented Associative Logic Circuits US Patent 3,849,638. Assignee: General Electric, Filed: July 18, 1973, Granted: November 19, 1974 In 1973 National Semiconductor introduced a mask-programmable PLA device (DM7575) with 14 inputs and 8 outputs with no memory registers.
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They are an abstraction that omits many aspects relevant to designing real digital logic circuits, such as metastability, fanout, glitches, power consumption, and propagation delay variability.
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Nanocrafter is a game about assembling pieces of DNA into structures with functional properties, such as logic circuits, to solve problems. Like Foldit, it is developed at the University of Washington.
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These logic circuits are known as computer memory. They vary in performance, based on factors of speed, complexity, and reliability of storage, and many different types of designs are used based on the application.
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Appendix G. This high mobility allows the fabrication of higher-speed P-channel field effect transistors, which are required for CMOS logic. Because they lack a fast CMOS structure, GaAs circuits must use logic styles which have much higher power consumption; this has made GaAs logic circuits unable to compete with silicon logic circuits. For manufacturing solar cells, silicon has relatively low absorptivity for sunlight, meaning about 100 micrometers of Si is needed to absorb most sunlight. Such a layer is relatively robust and easy to handle.
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In integrated circuit design, dynamic logic (or sometimes clocked logic) is a design methodology in combinatory logic circuits, particularly those implemented in MOS technology. It is distinguished from the so-called static logic by exploiting temporary storage of information in stray and gate capacitances. It was popular in the 1970s and has seen a recent resurgence in the design of high speed digital electronics, particularly computer CPUs. Dynamic logic circuits are usually faster than static counterparts, and require less surface area, but are more difficult to design.
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Logic circuits can be constructed with the aid of transmission gates instead of traditional CMOS pull-up and pull-down networks. Such circuits can often be made more compact, which can be an important consideration in silicon implementations.
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For example in logic circuits, a common arrangement is ~100 nF ceramic per logic IC (multiple ones for complex ICs), combined with electrolytic or tantalum capacitor(s) up to a few hundred μF per board or board section.
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Sharp QT-8D Micro Compet front view The Sharp QT-8D Micro Compet, a small electronic desktop calculator, was the first mass-produced calculator to have its logic circuitry entirely implemented with LSI (large-scale integration) integrated circuits (ICs) based on MOS (metal-oxide-semiconductor) technology. When it was introduced in late 1969, it was one of the smallest electronic calculators ever produced commercially. Previous electronic calculators had been about the size of a typewriter and had logic circuits built from numerous discrete transistors and diodes or small- to medium-scale ICs. The QT-8D's logic circuits were packed into just four LSI ICs.
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Rajchman emigrated to America in 1935. He joined RCA Laboratory directed by Vladimir K. Zworykin in January 1936. He was a prolific inventor with 107 US patents among others logic circuits for arithmetic. He conceived the first read-only memory, which was widely used in early computers.
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Digital sequential logic circuits are divided into synchronous and asynchronous types. In synchronous sequential circuits, the state of the device changes only at discrete times in response to a clock signal. In asynchronous circuits the state of the device can change at any time in response to changing inputs.
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The control interface is an interface between operator and machine to monitor operations of the system. It is constructed by logic circuits to send to operators the information of machine status and welding parameters. Depending on different laser modes, the control interface will vary the parameters allowable to change.
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In addition, computers controlled and monitored the gas turbine engines (the same engines installed on DC-10 aircraft) and electrical generators. Digital electronic logic circuits and remotely operated valves were monitored in Central Control Station which initiated engine start and resulted in a "ready to go" status in less than ten minutes.
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By the late 1980s, the Sublogic business started to decline because the 8-bit market shifted to a 16-bit market so Artwick decided to pursue other things and left Sublogic. The name Sublogic came from logic circuits Artwick built for the PDP-11 in the University of Illinois' Digital Computer Laboratory (DCL).
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The Atanasoff–Berry Computer used resistor-coupled vacuum tube logic circuits similar to RTL. Several early transistorized computers (e.g., IBM 1620, 1959) used RTL, where it was implemented using discrete components. A family of simple resistor–transistor logic integrated circuits was developed at Fairchild Semiconductor for the Apollo Guidance Computer in 1962.
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The GIM engineers who had worked on the project were encouraged by CDC to form their own company to provide five new custom circuits. This resulted in the formation of LSI Computer Systems, Inc. (LSI/CSI) in 1969. The new chips were power-efficient Random Logic circuits with extremely high circuit densities.
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The fact that interval graphs are perfect graphs. implies that the number of colors needed, in an optimal arrangement of this type, is the same as the clique number of the interval completion of the net graph. Gate matrix layout. is a specific style of CMOS VLSI layout for Boolean logic circuits.
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The SPARC64 V consisted of 191 million transistors, of which 19 million are contained in logic circuits."A 1.3GHz Fifth Generation SPARC64 Microprocessor", p. 702. It was fabricated in a 0.13 μm,"Fujitsu's SPARC64 V IS Real Deal", p. 3 eight- layer copper metallization, complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) silicon on insulator (SOI) process.
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PALs and GALs are available only in small sizes, equivalent to a few hundred logic gates. For bigger logic circuits, complex PLDs or CPLDs can be used. These contain the equivalent of several PALs linked by programmable interconnections, all in one integrated circuit. CPLDs can replace thousands, or even hundreds of thousands, of logic gates.
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Eckert and Mauchly were uncertain about the reliability of digital logic circuits and little was known about them at the time. The UNIVAC I was designed with parallel computation circuits and result comparison. In practice, only failing components yielded comparison faults as their circuit designs were very reliable. Tricks were used to manage the reliability of tubes.
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In late 1951, Dudley Buck proposed computer circuits that used neither vacuum tubes, nor the recently invented transistor. It is possible to make all computer logic circuits, including shift registers, counters, and accumulators using only magnetic cores, wire and diodes. Magnetic logic was used in the KW-26 cryptographic communications system, and in the BOGART computer.
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Verbauwhede is an inventor on several patents in the domains of logic circuits, and digital signal processing, security e.g., Advanced Encryption System (AES) architecture. She is the author of the book Secure Integrated Circuits and Systems (). She also co-authored the book titled Lattice-Based Public-Key Cryptography in Hardware (Computer Architecture and Design Methodologies) () with Sujoy Sinha Roy.
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LTspice does not generate printed circuit board (PCB) layouts, but netlists can be exported to PCB layout software. While LTspice does support simple logic gate simulation, it is not designed specifically for simulating logic circuits. It is used by many users in fields including radio frequency electronics, power electronics, audio electronics, digital electronics, and other disciplines.
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In production both proved to be less developed than hoped. The SB-100 was unreliable, and even working versions varied so widely in performance that the Transac logic circuits were unusable. Making matters worse, in late 1955 the Navy was forced to cancel development of the transistorized DATAR, placing the entire development cost on the Post Office budget.
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On the other hand, many cryptographic algorithms lend themselves to fast implementation in hardware, i.e. networks of logic circuits, also known as gates. Integrated circuits (ICs) are constructed of these gates and often can execute cryptographic algorithms hundreds of times faster than a general purpose computer. Each IC can contain large numbers of gates (hundreds of millions in 2005).
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The usual use of a clock signal is to synchronize transitions in sequential logic circuits. For most implementations of combinational logic, a clock signal is not even needed. The static/dynamic terminology used to refer to combinatorial circuits should not be confused with how the same adjectives are used to distinguish memory devices, e.g. static RAM from dynamic RAM.
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Mark Tilden in September 2006 Mark W. Tilden is a robotics physicist who produces complex robotic movements from simple analog logic circuits, often with discrete electronic components, and usually without a microprocessor. He is controversial because of his libertarian Tilden's Laws of Robotics, and is known for his invention of BEAM robotics and the WowWee Robosapien humanoid robot.
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In 1999, Pomeranz was elected as a Fellow of the IEEE "for contributions to the area of test generation for digital logic circuits". In 2016, the International Test Conference selected one of her papers, "Preferred Fill: A Scalable Method to Reduce Capture Power for Scan Based Design", as "the most significant paper published ten years before".
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NAND and NOR DTL logic circuits as used on IBM 608 cards. The PNP and NPN transistor symbols are those used by IBM.IBM Customer Manual of Instruction: Transistor Component Circuits, p. 20, IBM, 1960. Up until 1952, IBM manufactured transistors by modifying off-the-shelf germanium diodes, after which they had their own alloy-junction transistor manufacturing plant at Poughkeepsie.
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60-61, Springer Science & Business Media, 2007 . In the mid 1950s diode logic was used in the IBM 608 which was the first all- transistorized computer in the world. The image on the right shows two basic logic circuits used on 608 cards. A single card would hold four two-way circuits or three three-way or one eight-way.
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Reilly 2003, p. 164. Another influence was Lord Kelvin's tide-predicting machine, an analog computer completed in 1873.Reilly 2003, p. 164. Steele hired Donald Eckdahl, Hrant (Harold) Sarkinssian, and Richard Sprague to work on the MADIDDA's germanium diode logic circuits and also to do magnetic recording.Reilly 2003, p. 164. Together, this group developed the MADIDDA prototype between 1946 and 1949.
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The self-resonant frequency is the lowest frequency at which the impedance passes through a minimum. For any AC application the self-resonant frequency is the highest frequency at which capacitors can be used as a capacitive component. This is critically important for decoupling high-speed logic circuits from the power supply. The decoupling capacitor supplies transient current to the chip.
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To live up to its name, a topological quantum computer must provide the unique computation properties promised by a conventional quantum computer design, which uses trapped quantum particles. Fortunately in 2000, Michael H. Freedman, Alexei Kitaev, Michael J. Larsen, and Zhenghan Wang proved that a topological quantum computer can, in principle, perform any computation that a conventional quantum computer can do, and vice versa. They found that a conventional quantum computer device, given an error-free operation of its logic circuits, will give a solution with an absolute level of accuracy, whereas a topological quantum computing device with flawless operation will give the solution with only a finite level of accuracy. However, any level of precision for the answer can be obtained by adding more braid twists (logic circuits) to the topological quantum computer, in a simple linear relationship.
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VHDL is generally used to write text models that describe a logic circuit. Such a model is processed by a synthesis program, only if it is part of the logic design. A simulation program is used to test the logic design using simulation models to represent the logic circuits that interface to the design. This collection of simulation models is commonly called a testbench.
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However, two-level logic circuits are of limited importance in a very-large-scale integration (VLSI) design; most designs use multiple levels of logic. As a matter of fact, almost any circuit representation in RTL or Behavioural Description is a multi-level representation. An early system that was used to design multilevel circuits was LSS from IBM. It used local transformations to simplify logic.
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Designing a chip used to be a much simpler task. In the early days of VLSI, a chip consisted of a few thousand logic circuits that performed a simple function at speeds of a few MHz. Design closure was simple: if all of the necessary circuits and wires "fit", the chip would perform the desired function. Modern design closure has grown orders of magnitude more complex.
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The 6100 was available to military specification, and since it was dual sourced by Intersil and Harris, it was used in some military products as a low power alternative to the 8080, 6800 etc. Although it had a very simple instruction set and architecture, it was eminently suitable for use in embedded systems that had previously used discrete logic circuits and even Ledex motorised rotary switches or relay-based logic controllers.
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The process of analysing computer architecture and various logic circuits. This involves looking at low level computer processes at bit level computation. This is an in-depth look into the hardware processing of a computational system, involving looking at the basic structure of a computer and designing such systems. This can also involve evaluating complex circuit diagrams, and being able to construct these to solve a main problem.
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The missile detects the reflected signal from the target with a high gain antenna in a similar fashion and steers the entire missile toward closure with the target. The missile guidance also samples a portion of the illuminating signal via rearward pointing waveguides. The comparison of these two signals enabled logic circuits to determine the true target reflection signal, even if the target were to eject radar-reflecting chaff.
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Yi Chen, Yun Li, (2018). Computational Intelligence Assisted Design: In Industrial Revolution 4.0, CRC Press, The concept of CAutoD perhaps first appeared in 1963, in the IBM Journal of Research and Development, where a computer program was written. # to search for logic circuits having certain constraints on hardware design # to evaluate these logics in terms of their discriminating ability over samples of the character set they are expected to recognize.
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Most digital logic is synchronous because it is easier to create and verify a synchronous design. However, asynchronous logic has the advantage of its speed not being constrained by an arbitrary clock; instead, it runs at the maximum speed of its logic gates. Building an asynchronous system using faster parts makes the circuit faster. Nevertheless, most systems need to accept external unsynchronized signals into their synchronous logic circuits.
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As an outgrowth of the Digital Revolution characterized by "the mass production and widespread use of digital logic circuits, and its derived technologies, including the computer, digital cellular phone, and the Internet," key elements of digital health include wireless devices, hardware sensors and software sensing technologies, microprocessors and integrated circuits, the Internet, social networking, mobile/cellular networks and body area networks, health information technology, genomics, and personal genetic information. Elements of digital health.
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For clocked- logic circuits, clock gating technique is used, to avoid changing the state of functional blocks that are not required for a given operation. As a more-extreme alternative, the asynchronous logic approach implements circuits in such a way that a specific externally supplied clock is not required. While both of these techniques are used to different extents in integrated circuit design, the limit of practical applicability for each appears to have been reached.
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He obtained his PhD from the University of Utah. Wanlass invented CMOS (complementary MOS) logic circuits with Chih-Tang Sah in 1963, while working at Fairchild Semiconductor. Wanlass was given U.S. patent #3,356,858 for "Low Stand-By Power Complementary Field Effect Circuitry" in 1967.IC Knowledge - History of the Integrated Circuit - 1960s In 1963, while studying MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) structures, he noted the movement of charge through oxide onto a gate.
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This arrangement required diode clamping the collector to the design logic level. This method was also applied to discrete DTL (diode–transistor logic). Another method that was familiar in discrete- device logic circuits used a diode and a resistor, a germanium and a silicon diode, or three diodes in a negative feedback arrangement. These diode networks known as various Baker clamps reduced the voltage applied to the base as the collector approached saturation.
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Example Boolean circuit. The \wedge nodes are AND gates, the \vee nodes are OR gates, and the eg nodes are NOT gates In computational complexity theory and circuit complexity, a Boolean circuit is a mathematical model for combinational digital logic circuits. A formal language can be decided by a family of Boolean circuits, one circuit for each possible input length. Boolean circuits are also used as a formal model for combinational logic in digital electronics.
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The transfer functions usually have a sigmoid shape, but they may also take the form of other non-linear functions, piecewise linear functions, or step functions. They are also often monotonically increasing, continuous, differentiable and bounded. The thresholding function has inspired building logic gates referred to as threshold logic; applicable to building logic circuits resembling brain processing. For example, new devices such as memristors have been extensively used to develop such logic in recent times.
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Current can flow throughout both branches and is controlled by a third branch that turns the voltage on or off. This new breakthrough can now allow for nanocircuits to hold completely to their name as they can be made entirely from nanotubes. Before this discovery, logic circuits used nanotubes, but needed metal gates to be able to control the flow of electric current. Arguably the biggest potential application of nanocircuits deals with computers and electronics.
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Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) is a non- volatile medium. It is used in microprocessors, microcontrollers, static RAM, and other digital logic circuits. Memory is read through the use of a combination of p-type and n-type metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). In CMOS logic, a collection of n-type MOSFETs are arranged in a pull-down network between the output node and the lower-voltage power supply rail, named Vss, which often has ground potential.
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Geomagnetic storms occasionally damage electronic components on spacecraft. Miniaturization and digitization of electronics and logic circuits have made satellites more vulnerable to radiation, as the total electric charge in these circuits is now small enough so as to be comparable with the charge of incoming ions. Electronics on satellites must be hardened against radiation to operate reliably. The Hubble Space Telescope, among other satellites, often has its sensors turned off when passing through regions of intense radiation.
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On February 12, 1960, Jay T. Last, Robert Norman, and Isy Haas reported on the first integrated circuits at the IRE Solid State Conference in a paper entitled Solid-State Micrologic Elements. They described hybrid silicon integrated circuits that they had developed, including a flip-flop, a gate, an adder, and a shift register. They also discussed the feasibility of creating miniaturized, integrated logic circuits. However, they still faced many challenges in improving and commercially producing them.
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Circuit representation of Toffoli gate In logic circuits, the Toffoli gate (also CCNOT gate), invented by Tommaso Toffoli, is a universal reversible logic gate, which means that any reversible circuit can be constructed from Toffoli gates. It is also known as the "controlled-controlled-not" gate, which describes its action. It has 3-bit inputs and outputs; if the first two bits are both set to 1, it inverts the third bit, otherwise all bits stay the same.
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Square array of DRAM memory cells being read Logic circuits without memory cells or feedback paths are called combinational, their outputs values depend only on the current value of their input values. They do not have memory. But memory is a key element of digital systems. In computers, it allows to store both programs and data and memory cells are also used for temporary storage of the output of combinational circuits to be used later by digital systems.
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The first mainframe computers, using firstly vacuum tubes and later transistors in the logic circuits, appeared in the 1940s and 1950s. This technology was to provide a stepping stone to the development of electronic calculators. The Casio Computer Company, in Japan, released the Model 14-A calculator in 1957, which was the world's first all-electric (relatively) compact calculator. It did not use electronic logic but was based on relay technology, and was built into a desk.
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In 1931, Gödel raised serious problems with the foundationalist program and logic ceased to focus on such issues. The development of logic since Frege, Russell, and Wittgenstein had a profound influence on the practice of philosophy and the perceived nature of philosophical problems (see analytic philosophy) and philosophy of mathematics. Logic, especially sentential logic, is implemented in computer logic circuits and is fundamental to computer science. Logic is commonly taught by university philosophy, sociology, advertising and literature departments, often as a compulsory discipline.
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The first MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor) using SiSn as a channel material was shown in 2013. This study proved that SiSn can be used as semiconductor for MOSFET fabrication, and that there may be certain applications where the use of SiSn instead of silicon may be more advantageous. In particular, the off current of SiSn transistors is much lower than that of silicon transistors. Thus, logic circuits based on SiSn MOSFETs consume lower static power compared to silicon-based circuits.
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While the T52a/b and T52c were cryptologically weak, the last two were more advanced devices; the movement of the wheels was intermittent, the decision on whether or not to advance them being controlled by logic circuits which took as input data from the wheels themselves. In addition, a number of conceptual flaws (including very subtle ones) had been eliminated. One such flaw was the ability to reset the keystream to a fixed point, which led to key reuse by undisciplined machine operators.
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Reduced voltages can bring control signals below the threshold at which logic circuits can reliably detect which state is being represented. As the voltage returns to normal levels the logic can latch at an incorrect state; even can't happen states become possible. The seriousness of this effect and whether steps need to be taken by the designer to prevent it depends on the nature of the equipment being controlled; for instance, a brownout may cause a motor to begin running backwards.
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In wire-wrapping, electronic design automation can design the board, and optimize the order in which wires are placed. Some systems have been able to accept high-level logic designs written in a design language similar to VHDL or Verilog and compile the designs to automatically generate a schematic and bill of materials. These usually allow simulation and debugging of logic designs before logic circuits are actually constructed. CAD for wire-wrap requires that a schematic be encoded into a netlist.
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Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space. Transistors greatly reduced computers' size, initial cost, and operating cost. Typically, second- generation computers were composed of large numbers of printed circuit boards such as the IBM Standard Modular System, each carrying one to four logic gates or flip-flops. At the University of Manchester, a team under the leadership of Tom Kilburn designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves.
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The logic circuits of the KDF9 were entirely solid-state. The KDF9 used transformer-coupled diode–transistor logic, built from germanium diodes, about 20,000 transistors, and about 2,000 toroid pulse transformers (magnetic amplifiers)."The KDF9 Computer - 30 Years On" They ran on a 1 MHz clock that delivered two pulses of 250 ns separated by 500 ns, in each clock cycle. The maximum configuration incorporated 32K words of 48-bit core storage (192K bytes) with a cycle time of 6 microseconds.
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For example, in an induction type electromechanical relay, the time delay for the switching action can be adjusted by adjusting the distance traveled by the disc, whereas in a static relay the delay can be set by adjusting the value of the resistance in an R-C time delay circuit. Static relays may be based on analog solid state circuits, digital logic circuits, or microprocessor-based designs. Some authors use the term "static relay" to refer only to solid state relays.
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Before the Crash, pp. 1–2Replay, pp. 1–9 This, along with the lack of electronic logic circuits, keeps the device from being considered the first video game. Around the same time as the device was invented, the earliest known written computer game was developed by Alan Turing and David Champernowne in 1948, a chess simulation called Turochamp, though it was never actually implemented on a computer as the code was too complicated to run on the machines of the time.
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To regulate all the power supply voltages and prevent surges and dips from the power grid from affecting computer operation, power was derived from a motor-generator set that improved the stability and regulation of power supply voltages. Two broad types of logic circuits were used in construction of vacuum tube computers. The "asynchronous" or direct, DC coupled type used only resistors to connect between logic gates and within the gates themselves. Logic levels were represented by two widely separated voltages.
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When the decision was made to use MAgnetic Drum memory (MAD) for the DIDA, the name was lengthened to MADDIDA (pronounced "Mad Ida"). Steele drew influence from the analog computer invented in 1927 by Vannevar Bush, which had digital components. Another influence to the MADDIDA's design was Lord Kelvin's Tide Predicting Machine, an analog computer completed in 1873. Steele hired Donald Eckdahl, Hrant (Harold) Sarkinssian, and Richard Sprague to work on the MADIDDA's germanium diode logic circuits and also to do magnetic recording.
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14-18 for low frequency applications such as flashing warning lights, stroboscopes tone generators in electronic organs, and as time bases and deflection oscillators in early cathode ray oscilloscopes. Neon bulbs can also be bistable, and were even used to build digital logic circuits such as logic gates, flip-flop, binary memories, and digital counters.GE Glow Lamp Manual 1965 , p.35-36, 41-66 These applications were sufficiently common that manufacturers made neon bulbs specifically for this use, sometimes called "circuit-component" lamps.
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During the 1960s the use of tunnel diodes in logic circuits was an active research topic. When compared to transistor logic gates of the time, the tunnel diode offered much higher speeds. Unlike other diode types, the tunnel diode offered the possibility of amplification of signals at each stage. The operating principles of a tunnel diode logic rely on biasing of the tunnel diode and supply of current from inputs over a threshold current, to switch the diode between two states.
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After p-n junctions were built with nanowires, the next logical step was to build logic gates. By connecting several p-n junctions together, researchers have been able to create the basis of all logic circuits: the AND, OR, and NOT gates have all been built from semiconductor nanowire crossings. In August 2012, researchers reported constructing the first NAND gate from undoped silicon nanowires. This avoids the problem of how to achieve precision doping of complementary nanocircuits, which is unsolved.
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Dynamic logic has a higher toggle rate than static logic but the capacitive loads being toggled are smaller so the overall power consumption of dynamic logic may be higher or lower depending on various tradeoffs. When referring to a particular logic family, the dynamic adjective usually suffices to distinguish the design methodology, e.g. dynamic CMOS or dynamic SOI design. Dynamic logic is distinguished from so-called static logic in that dynamics logic uses a clock signal in its implementation of combinational logic circuits.
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Triple Modular Redundancy. Three identical logic circuits (logic gates) are used to compute the specified Boolean function. The set of data at the input of the first circuit are identical to the input of the second and third gates. NAND gates In computing, triple modular redundancy, sometimes called triple- mode redundancy, (TMR) is a fault-tolerant form of N-modular redundancy, in which three systems perform a process and that result is processed by a majority-voting system to produce a single output.
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When the switch is open the voltage of the gate input is pulled up to the level of Vin. When the switch is closed, the input voltage at the gate goes to ground. In electronic logic circuits, a pull-up resistor or pull-down resistor is a resistor used to ensure a known state for a signal. It is typically used in combination with components such as switches and transistors, which physically interrupt the connection of subsequent components to ground or to VCC.
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He and his colleagues have developed simple genetic networks in bacteria that act like clocks or logic circuits. A 2000 experiment with Michael Elowitz is considered one of the key results in synthetic biology.Editorial: Ten years of synergy, Nature 463, 269-270 (21 January 2010), doi:10.1038/463269b They built a synthetic network to implement a particular function in E. coli, namely a negative feedback system of gene regulation, and were able to monitor the system using fluorescent dye proteins.
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In theoretical computer science, a circuit is a model of computation in which input values proceed through a sequence of gates, each of which computes a function. Circuits of this kind provide a generalization of Boolean circuits and a mathematical model for digital logic circuits. Circuits are defined by the gates they contain and the values the gates can produce. For example, the values in a Boolean circuit are boolean values, and the circuit includes conjunction, disjunction, and negation gates.
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Scientists have also devised a large number of nanowire compositions with controlled length, diameter, doping, and surface structure by using vapor and solution phase strategies. These oriented single crystals are being used in semiconductor nanowire devices such as diodes, transistors, logic circuits, lasers and sensors. Since nanowires have one dimensional structure meaning large surface to volume ratio, the diffusion resistance decreases. In addition, their efficiency in electron transport which is due to the quantum confinement effect, make their electrical properties be influenced by minor perturbation.
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Instrumentation is used to monitor and control the process plant in the oil, gas and petrochemical industries. Instrumentation comprises sensor elements, signal transmitters, controllers, indicators and alarms, actuated valves, logic circuits and operator interfaces. An outline of key instrumentation is shown on Process Flow Diagrams (PFD) which indicate the principal equipment and the flow of fluids in the plant. Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&ID;) provide details of all the equipment (vessels, pumps, etc), piping and instrumentation on the plant in a symbolic and diagrammatic form.
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A voltage divider can be used as a crude logic level shifter to interface two circuits that use different operating voltages. For example, some logic circuits operate at 5V whereas others operate at 3.3V. Directly interfacing a 5V logic output to a 3.3V input may cause permanent damage to the 3.3V circuit. In this case, a voltage divider with an output ratio of 3.3/5 might be used to reduce the 5V signal to 3.3V, to allow the circuits to interoperate without damaging the 3.3V circuit.
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CMOS logic dissipates less power than NMOS logic circuits because CMOS dissipates power only when switching ("dynamic power"). On a typical ASIC in a modern 90 nanometer process, switching the output might take 120 picoseconds, and happens once every ten nanoseconds. NMOS logic dissipates power whenever the transistor is on, because there is a current path from Vdd to Vss through the load resistor and the n-type network. Static CMOS gates are very power efficient because they dissipate nearly zero power when idle.
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Logic circuits that use memory cells are called sequential circuits. Its output depends not only on the present value of its inputs, but also on the circuits previous state, as determined by the values stored on its memory cells. These circuits require a timing generator or clock for their operation. Computer memory used in most contemporary computer systems is built mainly out of DRAM cells; since the layout is much smaller than SRAM, it can be more densely packed yielding cheaper memory with greater capacity.
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Junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer, indefinite, service life. Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space. However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass- production basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications. At the University of Manchester, a team under the leadership of Tom Kilburn designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves.
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Singleton studied under Dr. Olle I. Elgerd, a professor of Engineering at the University of Florida and author in the fields of electrical engineering and cryptography error correction. Dr. Elgerd encouraged him to accept a position at Bell Laboratories. Singleton accepted the offer to join Bell Telephone Laboratories, Murray Hill, NJ as member of the technical staff in 1959. He was hired directly by William Keister, a pioneer in the field of logic circuits. Singleton’s work was primarily on digital computing devices including magnetic logic and semiconductors.
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Antifuses are widely used to permanently program integrated circuits (ICs). Certain programmable logic devices (PLDs), such as structured ASICs, use fuse technology to configure logic circuits and create a customized design from a standard IC design. Antifuse PLDs are one time programmable in contrast to other PLDs that are SRAM-based and which may be reprogrammed to fix logic bugs or add new functions. Antifuse PLDs have advantages over SRAM based PLDs in that like ASICs, they do not need to be configured each time power is applied.
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ANITA Mk VIII. The ANITA Mark VII and ANITA Mark VIII calculators were launched simultaneously in late 1961 as the world's first all-electronic desktop calculators. Designed and built by the Bell Punch Co. in Britain, and marketed through its Sumlock Comptometer division, they used vacuum tubes and cold-cathode switching tubes in their logic circuits and nixie tubes for their numerical displays. They were the first of a series of desktop and hand-held electronic calculators that the company was to develop and sell under the ANITA name into the mid-1970s.
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In modern circuit engineering settings, there is little need to consider other Boolean algebras, thus "switching algebra" and "Boolean algebra" are often used interchangeably., online sample Efficient implementation of Boolean functions is a fundamental problem in the design of combinational logic circuits. Modern electronic design automation tools for VLSI circuits often rely on an efficient representation of Boolean functions known as (reduced ordered) binary decision diagrams (BDD) for logic synthesis and formal verification. Logic sentences that can be expressed in classical propositional calculus have an equivalent expression in Boolean algebra.
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Jacob Millman, Microelectronics: Digital and Analog Circuits and Systems, McGraw-Hill, 1979 , pp. 106–107Douglas J. Hamilton, William G Howard, Basic Integrated Circuit Engineering, McGraw Hill, 1975, , pp. 457–467 cross section and symbol of a simple NPN bipolar transistor cross section and symbol of a multiple emitter NPN bipolar transistor Logic gate use of multiple-emitter transistors was patented in 1961 in the UK and in the US in 1962.B. A. Boulter, The Multiple Emitter Transistor In Low Power Logic Circuits in Edward Keonjian (ed) Micropower Electronics, Elsevier, 2013, , p.
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The BINAC, which was the first stored program computer hardware wise, worked successfully. BINAC was purchased by Northrop Aircraft to guide the Snark missile, but the BINAC proved to be too large for their purposes. However, according to a Northrop Aircraft programmer, despite claims that the BINAC didn't work once it was moved to Northrop Aircraft were erroneous and the BINAC was working well into the mid-1950s. Besides, BINAC, Jean's more important work involved her responsibilities in designing the UNIVAC's logic circuits among other UNIVAC programming and design tasks.
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The rotation of the cylinder blocks can then be tapped for electrical power generation or directly for hydraulic pressure. The computer system that enables the machines to move and operate fluidly are called Optical Neural Networks, or ONNets for short. They are learning computers that work, in many ways, similarly to an organic brain and are trained to perform advanced tasks instead of being programmed with software. They operate using light instead of electricity, and use microscopic crystals to form logic circuits for the light to pass through.
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Timing closure is the process by which a logic design consisting of primitive elements such as combinatorial logic gates (`and`, `or`, `not`, `nand`, `nor`, etc.) and sequential logic gates (flip flops, latches, memories) is modified to meet its timing requirements. Unlike in a computer program where there is no explicit delay to perform a calculation, logic circuits have intrinsic and well defined delays to propagate inputs to outputs. In simple cases, the user can compute the path delay between elements manually. If the design is more than a dozen or so elements this is impractical.
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Considered a nuisance in logic design, this floating body effect can be used for data storage. This gives 1T DRAM cells the greatest density as well as allowing easier integration with high-performance logic circuits since they are constructed with the same SOI process technologies. Refreshing of cells remains necessary, but unlike with 1T1C DRAM, reads in 1T DRAM are non- destructive; the stored charge causes a detectable shift in the threshold voltage of the transistor. Performance-wise, access times are significantly better than capacitor-based DRAMs, but slightly worse than SRAM.
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Nuclear electronics is a subfield of electronics concerned with the design and use of high-speed electronic systems for nuclear physics and elementary particle physics research, and for industrial and medical use. Essential elements of such systems include fast detectors for charged particles, discriminators for separating them by energy, counters for counting the pulses produced by individual particles, fast logic circuits (including coincidence and veto gates), for identification of particular types of complex particle events, and pulse height analyzers (PHAs) for sorting and counting gamma rays or particle interactions by energy, for spectral analysis.
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These electromechanical systems used relay logic circuits of increasing complexity to control the speed, position and door operation of an elevator or bank of elevators. The Otis Autotronic system of the early 1950s brought the earliest predictive systems which could anticipate traffic patterns within a building to deploy elevator movement in the most efficient manner. Relay-controlled elevator systems remained common until the 1980s and their gradual replacement with solid-state, microprocessor-based controls are now the industry standard. Most older, manually-operated elevators have been retrofitted with automatic or semi-automatic controls.
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White's early electronic art consisted mostly of gridded installations of light bulbs controlled by contemporary-vintage digital logic circuits. Like most of his art, these displays were concerned more with communicating internal rules and behaviours than simple visual appeal. For example, White's first major electronic work, "First Tighten Up on the Drums" (1969), generated shimmering light patterns through the unpredictable interaction of many interconnected circuits computing simple logical questions independently. The work illustrated how complex behaviours - for example, patterns akin to swirling clouds or rain on a window pane - can emerge from simple principles.
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These experiments are crucial to understanding domain wall nucleation and propagation which would be necessary for the creation of complex logic circuits based on domain wall mechanics. Many properties of domain walls are still not fully understood and one particularly outstanding issue is of the magnitude and size of the resistance associated with current passing through domain walls. Both positive and negative values of domain wall resistance have been reported, leaving this an open area for future research. An example of a simple device that utilizes pinned domain walls is provided by reference.
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Ferrite logic circuits are inherently more stable than vacuum tubes and transistors, draw no power when unused, and are impervious to electromagnetic interference. In 1959, Crane introduced the all-magnetic logic approach at the Fall Joint Computer Conference, eventually leading to a demonstration of the world's first all- magnetic computer in 1961. The technology was soon commercialized by Aircraft Marine Products (AMP) Inc., under license from SRI, and used primarily in the rapid transit system of New York City and at railroad switching yards, where electro-magnetic interference made electronic computers unfeasible.
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The operation and performance of the EL-8 are identical to its predecessor calculators, the QT-8D and QT-8B, because its logic circuits use the same set of four Rockwell-manufactured large-scale integrated circuits. Likewise, its keyboard has the same layout, including the combined key, and it also uses magnetic reed switches. The display, like that of the QT-8D, is an 8-digit vacuum fluorescent display with nine individual tubes: eight digit tubes and a single extra tube for the minus sign and overflow indicator.
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The article by Buck includes descriptions of several logic circuits implemented using cryotrons, including: one stage of a binary adder, carry network, binary accumulator stage, and two stages of a cryotron stepping register. A planar cryotron using thin films of lead and tin was developed in 1957 by John Bremer at General Electric's General Engineering Lab in Schenectady, New York. This was one of the first integrated circuits, although using superconductors rather than semiconductors. In the next few years, a demonstration computer was made and arrays with 2000 devices operated.
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Transient load decoupling as described above is needed when there is a large load that gets switched quickly. The parasitic inductance in every (decoupling) capacitor may limit the suitable capacity and influence appropriate type if switching occurs very fast. Logic circuits tend to do sudden switching (an ideal logic circuit would switch from low voltage to high voltage instantaneously, with no middle voltage ever observable). So logic circuit boards often have a decoupling capacitor close to each logic IC connected from each power supply connection to a nearby ground.
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A linear circuit is one that has no nonlinear electronic components in it. Examples of linear circuits are amplifiers, differentiators, and integrators, linear electronic filters, or any circuit composed exclusively of ideal resistors, capacitors, inductors, op-amps (in the "non-saturated" region), and other "linear" circuit elements. Some examples of nonlinear electronic components are: diodes, transistors, and iron core inductors and transformers when the core is saturated. Some examples of circuits that operate in a nonlinear way are mixers, modulators, rectifiers, radio receiver detectors and digital logic circuits.
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Frederick Viehe applied for various patents on the use of transformers for building digital logic circuits in place of relay logic beginning in 1947. A fully developed core system was patented in 1947, and later purchased by IBM in 1956. This development was little-known, however, and the mainstream development of core is normally associated with three independent teams. Substantial work in the field was carried out by the Shanghai-born American physicists An Wang and Way-Dong Woo, who created the pulse transfer controlling device in 1949.
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RS-422 line receivers are commonly used to receive signals from encoders that have differential outputs. This type of receiver rejects common-mode noise and converts the incoming differential signals to the single-ended form required by downstream logic circuits. In mission-critical systems, an encoder interface may be required to detect loss of input signals due to encoder power loss, signal driver failure, cable fault or cable disconnect. This is usually accomplished by using enhanced RS-422 line receivers which detect the absence of valid input signals and report this condition via a "signal lost" status output.
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Simple logic circuits interpret the relative timing to indicate which direction the wheel is rotating. This incremental rotary encoder scheme is sometimes called quadrature encoding of the wheel rotation, as the two optical sensors produce signals that are in approximately quadrature phase. The mouse sends these signals to the computer system via the mouse cable, directly as logic signals in very old mice such as the Xerox mice, and via a data-formatting IC in modern mice. The driver software in the system converts the signals into motion of the mouse cursor along X and Y axes on the computer screen.
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Edward Westbrook Veitch (4 November 1924 – 23 December 2013) was an American computer scientist. He graduated from Harvard University in 1946 with a degree in Physics, followed by graduate degrees from Harvard in Physics and Applied Physics in 1948 and 1949 respectively. In his 1952 paper "A Chart Method for Simplifying Truth Functions", Veitch described a graphical procedure for the optimization of logic circuits, which is being referred to as Veitch chart. A year later (in 1953), the method was refined in a paper by Maurice Karnaugh into what became known as Karnaugh map (K-map) or Karnaugh–Veitch map (KV- map).
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The Bandai Super Vision 8000 is a home video game console released by Bandai in 1979 belonging to the second generation. The console can be directly connected to a TV. This console was the last of the Bandai TV Jack console series but was completely different from the other consoles of the series. The Super Vision 8000 had a central CPU. The other consoles belonged to the first generation: they didn't feature a microprocessor, and were based on custom codeless state machine computers consisting of discrete logic circuits comprising each element of the game itself (Pong-style console).
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Garys engineering plant is computer-controlled and monitored, reducing the number of watchstanders required in the engineering spaces themselves. Two marine gas turbine engines provide propulsion. Digital electronic logic circuits and remotely operated valves are monitored in a central control station and make Gary capable of getting ready to get underway in less than ten minutes rather than the eight hours required by steam-powered ships. One of the U.S. Navy's premiere anti-submarine warfare platforms, Gary routinely deploys for bilateral anti-submarine exercises and real-world contingency operations in the western Pacific and Indian Oceans.
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The body was made of glass-filled polysulfone, a rigid plastic which was plated with a thin layer of copper-nickel-chromium alloy to give a metallic appearance. Models 2 & 3 used ABS in either Ebony or Ivory color. The film pack contained a flat, 6-volt "PolaPulse" battery to power the camera electronics, drive motor and flash. The original flash system, a disposable "Flash Bar" of 10 bulbs (five on each side, with the user rotating the bar half way through) from General Electric, used logic circuits to detect and fire the next unused flash.
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These particles are mainly protons and heavier ions that can cause radiation damage, disruption to logic circuits, and even hazards to astronauts. Crewed missions to return to the Moon or to travel to Mars will have to deal with the major problems presented by solar particle events to radiation safety, in addition to the important contribution to doses from the low-level background cosmic rays. In near-Earth orbits, the Earth's geomagnetic field screens spacecraft from a large part of these hazards - a process called geomagnetic shielding. Space debris and meteoroids can impact spacecraft at high speeds, causing mechanical or electrical damage.
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PLA schematic example A programmable logic array (PLA) is a kind of programmable logic device used to implement combinational logic circuits. The PLA has a set of programmable AND gate planes, which link to a set of programmable OR gate planes, which can then be conditionally complemented to produce an output. It has 2N AND Gates for N input variables, and for M outputs from PLA, there should be M OR Gates, each with programmable inputs from all of the AND gates. This layout allows for many logic functions to be synthesized in the sum of products canonical forms.
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A T52d on display at the Imperial War Museum, London. Siemens produced several and mostly incompatible versions of the T52: the T52a and T52b, which differed only in their electrical noise suppression, and the T52c, T52d and T52e. While the T52a/b and T52c were cryptologically weak, the last two were more advanced devices; the movement of the wheels was intermittent, the decision on whether or not to advance them being controlled by logic circuits which took as input data from the wheels themselves. In addition, a number of conceptual flaws, including very subtle ones, had been eliminated.
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A dynamic hazard is the possibility of an output changing more than once as a result of a single input change. Dynamic hazards often occur in larger logic circuits where there are different routes to the output (from the input). If each route has a different delay, then it quickly becomes clear that there is the potential for changing output values that differ from the required / expected output. E.g. A logic circuit is meant to change output state from 1 to 0, but instead changes from 1 to 0 then 1 and finally rests at the correct value 0.
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Consequently, tunnel diode logic circuits required a means to reset the diode after each logical operation. A simple tunnel diode gate offered little isolation between inputs and outputs and had low fan in and fan out. More complex gates, with additional tunnel diodes and bias power supplies, overcame some of these limitations. Tunnel Diodes for Switching and Microwave Applications Technical Manual TD-30, RCA 1963, (3rd Chapter) Switching Advances in discrete and integrated circuit transistor speed and the more nearly unilateral nature of transistor amplifiers overtook the tunnel diode gate and it is no longer used in modern computers.
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Prior to the use of schematic capture at ETA, designers used textual netlists to describe the interconnection of the logic circuits. However, CMOS circuitry at that time was significantly slower than that of bipolar circuitry, especially the emitter-coupled logic that was widely used in vector supercomputer CPUs at the time. To compensate for this, the CPU was immersed in -196.15 °C liquid nitrogen for cooling. Although such cooling could potentially speed up the CMOS logic by a factor of four, in practice the liquid nitrogen cooling yielded an approximately twofold speed increase over air-cooled systems.
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It is fast and has fixed output impedance R. The R–2R ladder operates as a string of current dividers, whose output accuracy is solely dependent on how well each resistor is matched to the others. Small inaccuracies in the MSB resistors can entirely overwhelm the contribution of the LSB resistors. This may result in non-monotonic behavior at major crossings, such as from 011112 to 100002. Depending on the type of logic gates used and design of the logic circuits, there may be transitional voltage spikes at such major crossings even with perfect resistor values.
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Thus, the majority gate output is guaranteed to be correct as long as no more than one of the three identical logic circuits has failed.Dilip V. Sarwate, Lecture Notes for ECE 413 – Probability with Engineering Applications, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering (ECE), UIUC College of Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign For a TMR system with a single voter of reliability (probability of working) and three components of reliability , the probability of it being correct can be shown to be . TMR systems should use data scrubbing – rewrite flip-flops periodically – in order to avoid accumulation of errors.
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Later, the player finds that he can use all of the game's objects, including AND gates, OR gates, NOT gates, and flip-flops, in an open- ended area to design his own logic circuits and "games." This is why many do not actually consider this as a game, but more of a visual design engine. The colors of orange and white were used to show the binary logic states of 1 and 0. As the circuits operated, the signals could be seen slowly propagating through the circuits, as if the electricity was liquid orange fire flowing through transparent pipes.
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There are several important principles that are shared by all of these low-power adiabatic systems. These include only turning switches on when there is no potential difference across them, only turning switches off when no current is flowing through them, and using a power supply that is capable of recovering or recycling energy in the form of electric charge. To achieve this, in general, the power supplies of adiabatic logic circuits have used constant current charging (or an approximation thereto), in contrast to more traditional non-adiabatic systems that have generally used constant voltage charging from a fixed-voltage power supply.
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The power supplies of adiabatic logic circuits have also used circuit elements capable of storing energy. This is often done using inductors, which store the energy by converting it to magnetic flux. There are a number of synonyms that have been used by other authors to refer to adiabatic logic type systems, these include: "charge recovery logic", "charge recycling logic", "clock-powered logic", "energy recovery logic" and "energy recycling logic". Because of the reversibility requirements for a system to be fully adiabatic, most of these synonyms actually refer to, and can be used inter-changeably, to describe quasi-adiabatic systems.
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At its founding, Intel was distinguished by its ability to make logic circuits using semiconductor devices. The founders' goal was the semiconductor memory market, widely predicted to replace magnetic-core memory. Its first product, a quick entry into the small, high-speed memory market in 1969, was the 3101 Schottky TTL bipolar 64-bit static random-access memory (SRAM), which was nearly twice as fast as earlier Schottky diode implementations by Fairchild and the Electrotechnical Laboratory in Tsukuba, Japan.1969 – Schottky-Barrier Diode Doubles the Speed of TTL Memory & Logic Computer History Museum. Retrieved September 23, 2011.
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Consequently, in addition to synchronizing signals, a phase-locked loop can track an input frequency, or it can generate a frequency that is a multiple of the input frequency. These properties are used for computer clock synchronization, demodulation, and frequency synthesis. Phase-locked loops are widely employed in radio, telecommunications, computers and other electronic applications. They can be used to demodulate a signal, recover a signal from a noisy communication channel, generate a stable frequency at multiples of an input frequency (frequency synthesis), or distribute precisely timed clock pulses in digital logic circuits such as microprocessors.
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Shannon's thesis became the foundation of practical digital circuit design when it became widely known among the electrical engineering community during and after World War II. At the time, the methods employed to design logic circuits were ad hoc in nature and lacked the theoretical discipline that Shannon's paper supplied to later projects. Psychologist Howard Gardner described Shannon's thesis as "possibly the most important, and also the most famous, master's thesis of the century". A version of the paper was published in the 1938 issue of the Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, and in 1940, it earned Shannon the Alfred Noble American Institute of American Engineers Award.
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J. Theoretical Biology 222, 3 (2003), 323-330. Other approaches to cellular computing include developing an in vivo programmable and autonomous finite-state automaton with E. coli,Nakagawa, H., Sakamoto, K., Sakakibara, Y. Development of an in vivo computer based on Escherichia Coli. In LNCS 3892, pages 203-212, Springer, 2006 designing and constructing in vivo cellular logic gates and genetic circuits that harness the cell's existing biochemical processes (see for example Zabet NR, Hone ANW, Chu DF Design principles of transcriptional logic circuits . In Artificial Life XII Proceedings of the Twelfth International Conference on the Synthesis and Simulation of Living Systems, pages 186-193.
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It was the first practical AND circuit, precursor of the AND logic circuits of electronic computers. To detect the voltage pulse produced by the coincidence circuit when a coincidence event occurred, Rossi first used earphones and counted the ‘clicks’, and soon an electro-mechanical register to count the coincidence pulses automatically. Rossi used a triple-coincidence version of his circuit with various configurations of Geiger counters in a series of experiments during the period from 1930 to 1943 that laid an essential part of the foundations of cosmic-ray and particle physics. About the same time, and independently of Rossi, Bothe devised a less practical electronic coincidence device.
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In 2007, the idea of using microfluidic bubbles as logic (rather than memory) was proposed by MIT researchers. The bubble logic would use nanotechnology and has been demonstrated to have access times of 7 ms, which is faster than the 10 ms access times that present hard drives have, though it is slower than the access time of traditional RAM and of traditional logic circuits, making the proposal not commercially practical at present.Manu Prakash and Neil Gershenfeld, "Microfluidic Bubble Logic", Science, Volume 315 (9 February 2007) IBM's recent work on racetrack memory is essentially a 1-dimensional version of bubble, bearing an even closer relationship to the original serial twistor concept.
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ATLAS This computer was long, wide, weighed about (16,000 lbs + 17,400 lbs ) / 2 = ' and used 2700 vacuum tubes for its logic circuits. Its drum memory was in diameter, rotated at 3500 rpm, had 200 read-write heads, and held 16,384 24-bit words (a memory size equivalent to 48 kB) with access time between 32 microseconds and 17 milliseconds. Instructions were 24 bits long, with six bits for the opcode, four bits for the "skip" value (telling how many memory locations to skip to get to the next instruction in program sequence), and 14 bits for the memory address. Numbers were binary with negative values in ones' complement.
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One major problem that early computer video hardware had to overcome was the video bus arbitration problem. The problem was to give the video hardware (VDU) continuous read access to the video RAM, while at the same time the CPU also had to access the same RAM. The obvious solution, using interleaving time slots for the VDU and RAM was hard to implement because the logic circuits and video memory chips of the time did not have the switching speed they have now. For higher resolutions the logic and the memory chips were barely fast enough to support reading the display data, let alone for dedicating half the available time for the slow 8-bit CPU.
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An illustration of metastability in a synchronizer, where data crosses between clock domains. In the worst case, depending on timing, the metastable condition at Ds can propagate to Dout and through the following logic into more of the system, causing undefined and inconsistent behavior. Metastability in electronics is the ability of a digital electronics system to persist for an unbounded time in an unstable equilibrium or metastable state. In digital logic circuits, a digital signal is required to be within certain voltage or current limits to represent a '0' or '1' logic level for correct circuit operation; if the signal is within a forbidden intermediate range it may cause faulty behavior in logic gates the signal is applied to.
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Sharp EL-8 of 1971 Sharp EL-8 of December 1970 The Sharp EL-8, also known as the ELSI-8, was one of the earliest mass-produced hand-held electronic calculators and the first hand-held calculator to be made by Sharp. Introduced around the start of 1971, it was based on Sharp's preceding QT-8D and QT-8B compact desktop calculators and used the same logic circuits, but it was redesigned to fit in a much smaller case. Most electronic calculators before the EL-8 were intended for desktop use. Sharp's predecessor to the EL-8, the battery-powered QT-8B, was just a portable version of a compact desk calculator.
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Open world games that feature the ability for players to construct environments from an array of building blocks have often been used by more advanced players to construct logic circuits and more advanced programs from the fundamental blocks. Minecraft is one such example, as while the game provides a limited set of blocks that mimic switches and electric circuits, users have been able to create basic functional computers within the virtual world, and at least one modification is aimed to teach children how to program on the virtual computer in a simplistic language. Several sites, such as Codecademy, help to teach real-world programming languages through gamification, where video game principles are used to motivate the user.
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If the intervening logic contains state elements, then the issue of an exponentially exploding state space and state transition sequencing creates an unsolvable problem for test generation. To simplify test generation, DFT addresses the accessibility problem by removing the need for complicated state transition sequences when trying to control and/or observe what's happening at some internal circuit element. Depending on the DFT choices made during circuit design/implementation, the generation of Structural tests for complex logic circuits can be more or less automated or self-automated. One key objective of DFT methodologies, hence, is to allow designers to make trade-offs between the amount and type of DFT and the cost/benefit (time, effort, quality) of the test generation task.
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Oleg Borisovich Lupanov (; June 2, 1932 – May 3, 2006) was a Soviet and Russian mathematician, dean of the Moscow State University's Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics (1980–2006), head of the Chair of Discrete Mathematics of the Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics (1981–2006).Oleg Borisovich Lupanov, a Russian Wikipedia entry Together with his graduate school advisor, Sergey Vsevolodovich Yablonsky, he is considered one of the founders of the Soviet school of Mathematical Cybernetics. In particular he authored pioneering works on synthesis and complexity of Boolean circuits, and of control systems in general (), the term used in the USSR and Russia for a generalization of finite state automata, Boolean circuits and multi-valued logic circuits. Ingo Wegener, in his book The Complexity of Boolean Functions,I.
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With amplification, logic gates can be cascaded in the same way that Boolean functions can be composed, allowing the construction of a physical model of all of Boolean logic, and therefore, all of the algorithms and mathematics that can be described with Boolean logic. Logic circuits include such devices as multiplexers, registers, arithmetic logic units (ALUs), and computer memory, all the way up through complete microprocessors, which may contain more than 100 million gates. In modern practice, most gates are made from MOSFETs (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors). Compound logic gates AND-OR-Invert (AOI) and OR-AND-Invert (OAI) are often employed in circuit design because their construction using MOSFETs is simpler and more efficient than the sum of the individual gates.
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In computer engineering, a hardware description language (HDL) is a specialized computer language used to describe the structure and behavior of electronic circuits, and most commonly, digital logic circuits. A hardware description language enables a precise, formal description of an electronic circuit that allows for the automated analysis and simulation of an electronic circuit. It also allows for the synthesis of an HDL description into a netlist (a specification of physical electronic components and how they are connected together), which can then be placed and routed to produce the set of masks used to create an integrated circuit. A hardware description language looks much like a programming language such as C or ALGOL; it is a textual description consisting of expressions, statements and control structures.
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The success of DNA nanotechnology in constructing artificially designed nanostructures out of nucleic acids such as DNA, combined with the demonstration of systems for DNA computing, has led to speculation that artificial nucleic acid nanodevices can be used to target drug delivery based upon directly sensing its environment. These methods make use of DNA solely as a structural material and a chemical, and do not make use of its biological role as the carrier of genetic information. Nucleic acid logic circuits that could potentially be used as the core of a system that releases a drug only in response to a stimulus such as a specific mRNA have been demonstrated. In addition, a DNA "box" with a controllable lid has been synthesized using the DNA origami method.
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Before PALs were introduced, designers of digital logic circuits would use small-scale integration (SSI) components, such as those in the 7400 series TTL (transistor-transistor logic) family; the 7400 family included a variety of logic building blocks, such as gates (NOT, NAND, NOR, AND, OR), multiplexers (MUXes) and demultiplexers (DEMUXes), flip flops (D-type, JK, etc.) and others. One PAL device would typically replace dozens of such "discrete" logic packages, so the SSI business declined as the PAL business took off. PALs were used advantageously in many products, such as minicomputers, as documented in Tracy Kidder's best-selling book The Soul of a New Machine. PALs were not the first commercial programmable logic devices; Signetics had been selling its field programmable logic array (FPLA) since 1975.
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Sera then appears in the form of a robot to Mega Man and states that she did not execute the Carbon Reinitialization Program but has, instead, been waiting for Mega Man's arrival to challenge him in hopes that by defeating him she would prove that their master liked her more. In battle, Gatz tries to aid Mega Man by attacking Sera's logic circuits, but dies in the attempt. As Mega Man defeats Sera, Yuna arrives at the scene reminding Sera that it is not their Master's wish for her to die. Sera awakes in Yuna's real body and decides to help Yuna protect the Carbons from the machines that are being activated in Terra due to an old system Master tried to stop.
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NOT logic gate) Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS), also known as complementary-symmetry metal–oxide–semiconductor (COS-MOS), is a type of metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) fabrication process that uses complementary and symmetrical pairs of p-type and n-type MOSFETs for logic functions. CMOS technology is used for constructing integrated circuit (IC) chips, including microprocessors, microcontrollers, memory chips (including CMOS BIOS), and other digital logic circuits. CMOS technology is also used for analog circuits such as image sensors (CMOS sensors), data converters, RF circuits (RF CMOS), and highly integrated transceivers for many types of communication. Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng invented the MOSFET at Bell Labs in 1959, and then demonstrated the PMOS (p-type MOS) and NMOS (n-type MOS) fabrication processes in 1960.
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Y. T. Yen (1968) "A Mathematical Model Characterizing Four-Phase MOS Circuits for Logic Simulation" IEEE Transactions on Computers: C-17 September 1968 Y. T. Yen (1968) "Intermittent Failure Problems of Four-Phase MOS Circuits" IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits: SC-4 No. 3 June. 1969 Other papers followed shortly. Hatt R. J., Jackets A. E. & Jarvis D. B. of Associated Semiconductor Manufacturers "Four-phase Logic Circuits using Integrated m-o-s Transistors" Mullard Technical Communication: No 99 May 1969 Boysel recalls that four-phase dynamic logic allowed him to achieve 10X the packing density, 10X the speed, and 1/10 the power, compared to other MOS techniques being used at the time (metal-gate saturated-load PMOS logic), using the first-generation MOS process at Fairchild.
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Because the pull-up resistor is external and does not need to be connected to the chip supply voltage, a lower or higher voltage than the chip supply voltage can be used instead (providing it does not exceed the absolute maximum rating of the chip's output). Open collector circuits are therefore sometimes used to interface different families of devices that have different operating voltage levels. The open- collector transistor can be rated to withstand a higher voltage than the chip supply voltage. This technique is commonly used by logic circuits operating at 5 V or lower to drive devices such as motors, 12 V relays, 50 V vacuum fluorescent displays, or Nixie tubes requiring more than 100 V. Another advantage is that more than one open-collector output can be connected to a single line.
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Harley H. McAdams (born 1938, Liberty, Texas) is an American physicist, microbial geneticist, and developmental biologist. McAdams and his collaborators have published foundational insights on the nature of genetic regulatory logic, the molecular basis for inevitable random variation levels of protein production between different cells, and genetic logic circuits that control the bacterial cell cycle. McAdams is married to Lucy Shapiro. They were jointly awarded the 2009 John Scott Medal for “bringing the methods of electrical circuit analysis to the description of genetic networks of the simple bacterium Caulobacter.” McAdams, a professor emeritus in the Department of Developmental Biology in the Stanford University School of Medicine, holds undergraduate and graduate degrees in physics from Texas A&M; University (BS), the University of Illinois (Urbana) (MS), and Rice University (MA, PhD).
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Many early PLCs were not capable of graphical representation of the logic, and so it was instead represented as a series of logic expressions in some kind of Boolean format, similar to Boolean algebra. As programming terminals evolved, it became more common for ladder logic to be used, because it was a familiar format used for electro-mechanical control panels. Newer formats, such as state logic and Function Block (which is similar to the way logic is depicted when using digital integrated logic circuits) exist, but they are still not as popular as ladder logic. A primary reason for this is that PLCs solve the logic in a predictable and repeating sequence, and ladder logic allows the person writing the logic to see any issues with the timing of the logic sequence more easily than would be possible in other formats.
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Karnaugh studied mathematics and physics at City College of New York (1944 to 1948) and transferred to Yale University to complete his B.Sc. (1949), M.Sc. (1950) and Ph.D. in physics with a thesis on The Theory of Magnetic Resonance and Lambda-Type Doubling in Nitric-Oxide (1952). Karnaugh worked at Bell Labs (1952 to 1966), developing the Karnaugh map (1954) as well as patents for PCM encoding and magnetic logic circuits and coding. He later worked at IBM's Federal Systems Division in Gaithersburg (1966 to 1970) and at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center (1970 to 1989), studying multistage interconnection networks. Karnaugh was elected an IEEE Fellow in 1976, and held an adjunct position at Polytechnic University of New York (now New York University Tandon School of Engineering) at the Westchester campus from 1980 to 1999.
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Encyclopedia of Video Games, p. XV Today the term "video game" has completely shed its purely technical definition and encompasses a wider range of technology. While still rather ill-defined, the term "video game" now generally encompasses any game played on hardware built with electronic logic circuits that incorporates an element of interactivity and outputs the results of the player's actions to a display.Encyclopedia of Video Games, p. 3–7 Going by this broader definition, the first video games appeared in the early 1950s; they were tied largely to research projects at universities and large corporations, though, and had little influence on each other due to their primary purpose as academic and promotional devices rather than entertainment games. The ancestors to these games include the cathode-ray tube amusement device, the earliest known interactive electronic game as well as the first to incorporate a cathode-ray tube screen.The Video Game Debate, p.
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Sergey Vsevolodovich Yablonsky (Russian: Серге́й Все́володович Ябло́нский, 6 December 1924 - 26 May 1998) was a Soviet and Russian mathematician, one of the founders of the Soviet school of mathematical cybernetics and discrete mathematics. He is the author of a number of classic results on synthesis, reliability, and classification of control systems (), the term used in the USSR and Russia for a generalization of finite state automata, Boolean circuits and multi-valued logic circuits. (The term is ambiguous, since conventionally in the West control systems is understood as an engineering discipline. The ambiguity stems from the fact that the names of the two disciplines that differ in Russian, namely Системы управления and Управляющие системы, are both translated into English as control systems.) Yablonsky is credited for helping to overcome the pressure from Soviet ideologists against the term and the discipline of cybernetics and establishing what in the Soviet Union was called mathematical cybernetics as a separate field of mathematics.
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Rajchmans ran a social salon who hosted many Polish artists of their times, in particular Eliza Orzeszkowa, Maria Konopnicka, and Zenon Pietkiewicz. His older sister a Polish independence activist and historian of education Helena Radlińska was the founder of Polish social pedagogy, his older brother a physician and bacteriologist Ludwik Rajchman was the world leader in social medicine and director of the League of Nations Health Organization, the founder of the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) and its first Chairman in the years 1946-1950. His nephew a Polish-American electrical engineer Jan A. Rajchman was a computer pioneer who invented logic circuits for arithmetic and magnetic-core memory to result in development of high-speed computer memory systems and whose son John Rajchman is a noted American philosopher of art history, architecture, and continental philosophy. His first cousin a microbiologist and serologist Ludwik Hirszfeld co- discovered the heritability of ABO blood group type and foreseen the serological conflict between mother and child.
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Depletion-load NMOS logic refers to the logic family that became dominant in silicon VLSI in the latter half of the 1970s; the process supported both enhancement-mode and depletion-mode transistors, and typical logic circuits used enhancement-mode devices as pull- down switches and depletion-mode devices as loads, or pull-ups. Logic families built in older processes that did not support depletion-mode transistors were retrospectively referred to as enhancement-load logic, or as saturated-load logic, since the enhancement-mode transistors were typically connected with gate to the VDD supply and operated in the saturation region (sometimes the gates are biased to a higher VGG voltage and operated in the linear region, for a better power–delay product (PDP), but the loads then take more area). Alternatively, rather than static logic gates, dynamic logic such as four- phase logic was sometimes used in processes that did not have depletion-mode transistors available. For example, the 1971 Intel 4004 used enhancement-load silicon-gate PMOS logic, and the 1976 Zilog Z80 used depletion-load silicon- gate NMOS.
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DIP-16 package The die of a MAX232 MAX232 pinout: Red: power, Blue: outputs, Green: inputs, Yellow: capacitors The MAX232 is an integrated circuit first created in 1987 by Maxim Integrated Products that converts signals from a TIA-232 (RS-232) serial port to signals suitable for use in TTL-compatible digital logic circuits. The MAX232 is a dual transmitter / dual receiver that typically is used to convert the RX, TX, CTS, RTS signals. The drivers provide TIA-232 voltage level outputs (about ±7.5 volts) from a single 5-volt supply by on-chip charge pumps and external capacitors. This makes it useful for implementing TIA-232 in devices that otherwise do not need any other voltages. The receivers reduce TIA-232 inputs, which may be as high as ±25 volts, to standard 5 volt TTL levels. These receivers have a typical threshold of 1.3 volts and a typical hysteresis of 0.5 volts. The MAX232 replaced an older pair of chips MC1488 and MC1489 that performed similar RS-232 translation. The MC1488 quad transmitter chip required 12 volt and -12 volt power,MC1488 (MC1488, SN55188, SN75188) product webpage; Texas Instruments.
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