Hungary and Bulgaria are similarly raising their legations here to embassy status.
|
|
Since then, though, everything's gotten upgraded and homogenized, and there aren't any American legations to speak of — there are embassies everywhere.
|
|
One passenger was Henry W. Antheil Jr., an American diplomat who was carrying diplomatic pouches from US legations in Estonia and Latvia.
|
|
That sent hundreds to crowd outside the Thai Embassy in London and legations in other cities, according to witnesses and social media posts.
|
|
WASHINGTON — The United States built more "bridges" to Eastern Europe today by elevating its legations in Hungary and Bulgaria to the rank of embassies.
|
|
I also direct that the flag shall be flown at half‑staff for the same period at all United States embassies, legations, consular offices, and other facilities abroad, including all military facilities and naval vessels and stations.
|
|
I also direct that the flag shall be flown at half-staff for the same length of time at all United States embassies, legations, consular offices, and other facilities abroad, including all military facilities and naval vessels and stations.
|
|
It was by its shores that the sumptuous royal district was built in the 248th century and, although Thailand is one of the few Asian countries never to be colonized, where European powers erected their legations and warehouses in the 2340th.
|
|
By 1990, the three Baltic legations were the only remaining legations on the U.S. State Department's Diplomatic List. The Estonian legation in London was maintained until 1989, when financial pressure forced its sale. The Latvian and Lithuanian legations continued their work. The Baltic legations in Paris were transferred de facto to the Soviet Embassy.
|
|
In 1893, the United States followed the French precedent and began sending ambassadors, upgrading its legations to embassies. The last remaining American legations, in Bulgaria and Hungary, were upgraded to embassies in 1966. The last legations in the world were the Baltic legations, which were upgraded to embassies in 1991 after the Baltic states reestablished their independence from the Soviet Union.
|
|
By 1990, the Baltic legations were the last remaining legations in Washington, D.C. In 1991, an independent Lithuania finally upgraded its legation to an embassy.
|
|
Between 600 and 612, the Japanese Emperor sent four legations to the Court of the Chinese Sui Dynasty. Between 630 and 838, the Japanese court sent fifteen more legations to the court of the Tang Dynasty. These legations, with more than five hundred members each, included diplomats, scholars, students, Buddhist monks, and translators. They brought back Chinese writing, art objects, and detailed descriptions of Chinese gardens.
|
|
In 1899–1900, Boxer attacks against foreigners in China intensified, resulting in the siege of the diplomatic legations in Beijing. An international force consisting of British, French, Russian, German, Italian, Austro-Hungarian, American, and Japanese troops was eventually assembled to relieve the legations. The Japanese provided the largest contingent of troops, 20,840, as well as 18 warships. A small, hastily assembled, vanguard force of about 2,000 troops, under the command of British Admiral Edward Seymour, departed by rail, from Tianjin, for the legations in early June.
|
|
Menotti was executed, and the idea of a revolution centered in Modena faded. At the same time, other insurrections arose in the Papal Legations of Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, Forlì, Ancona and Perugia. These successful revolutions, which adopted the tricolore in place of the Papal flag, quickly spread to cover all the Papal Legations, and their newly installed local governments proclaimed the creation of a united Italian nation. The revolts in Modena and the Papal Legations inspired similar activity in the Duchy of Parma, where the tricolore flag was adopted.
|
|
At the same time, other insurrections arose in the Papal Legations of Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, Forlì, Ancona and Perugia. These successful revolutions, which adopted the tricolore in favour of the Papal flag, quickly spread to cover all the Papal Legations, and their newly installed local governments proclaimed the creation of a united Italian nation. The revolts in Modena and the Papal Legations inspired similar activity in the Duchy of Parma, where the tricolore flag was adopted. The Parmese duchess Marie Louise left the city during the political upheaval.
|
|
The Imperial Court was divided into anti-foreign and pro-foreign factions, with the pro-foreign faction led by Ronglu and Prince Qing hampering any military effort by the anti-foreign faction led by Prince Duan and Dong Fuxiang. The Qing Empress Dowager ordered all diplomatic ties to be cut off and all foreigners to leave the legations in Beijing to go to Tianjin. The foreigners refused to leave. Fueled by entirely false reports that the foreigners in the legations were massacred, the Eight-Nation Alliance decided to launch an expedition on Beijing to reach the legations but they underestimated the Qing military.
|
|
The general Ronglu deliberately sabotaged the performance of the imperial army during the rebellion. Dong Fuxiang's Muslim troops (the "Kansu Braves") were able and eager to destroy the foreign military forces in the legations, but Ronglu stopped them from doing so. The Manchu prince Zaiyi was xenophobic and friendly with Dong Fuxiang. Zaiyi wanted artillery for Dong's troops to destroy the legations.
|
|
The soldiers at the British Embassy and German Legations shot and killed several Boxers,Morrison, p. 270 alienating the Chinese population of the city and nudging the Qing government towards support of the Boxers. The Muslim Gansu braves and Boxers, along with other Chinese then attacked and killed Chinese Christians around the legations in revenge for foreign attacks on Chinese.
|
|
In 1920, both nations officially established diplomatic relations. Diplomatic relations, however, were disrupted when Germany invaded Poland in September 1939. At the end of World War II diplomatic relations between both nations were re-established on 20 June 1946 and both nations opened diplomatic legations in each other's capitals, respectively. In 1964, both nations upgraded their diplomatic legations to embassies.
|
|
Frank Gamewell (second from left, standing) and the "Fighting Parsons" built fortifications to protect the British Legation from Chinese attacks. The British, American, French, German, Japanese, and Russian military guards each took responsibility for the defense of their respective legations. The Austrians and Italians abandoned their isolated legations. The Austrians joined the French and the Italians collaborated with the Japanese.
|
|
Of the three Baltic states, only Estonia established a formal government in exile. In the cases of Latvia and Lithuania, sovereign authority had been vested in their diplomatic legations. Even with regard to Estonia, the legations were the primary instrument for the conduct of diplomacy and for administering the daily matters of state (such as issuing passports). Estonia's primary legation was the consulate in New York City.
|
|
The Baltic Legations were the missions of the exiled Baltic diplomatic services from 1940 to 1991. After the Soviet occupation of the Baltic states in 1940, the Baltic states instructed their diplomats to maintain their countries' legations in several Western capitals. Members of the Estonian diplomatic service, the Latvian diplomatic service and the Lithuanian diplomatic service continued to be recognised as the diplomatic representatives of the independent pre-World War II states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, whose annexation by the Soviet Union was not recognised by the United States, the United Kingdom, or France. The legations provided consular services to exiled citizens of the Baltic states from 1940 to 1991.
|
|
Caprara was particularly interested in that treaty, since it had surrendered the Three Legations of the Papal States, including Caprara's native Bologna, to the French. During the Conclave, in early January, he approached the Austrian representative, Cardinal František Hrzán z Harras, with the observation that the choice of a person who was not recommended by the Austrian Court (as was Mattei), would make a better impression during negotiations for the return of the Legations. Hrzan replied that the Legations had been detached from the Papal States by a solemn treaty which had been signed by the Pope, and that they had been conquered by Austrian troops from the Cisalpine Republic. Conquest was a more solid claim.Duerm, p. 84. Three months after the conclusion of the Conclave, Napoleon won the Battle of Marengo (14 June 1800), and took from Austria by conquest not only the Three Legations but Lombardy as well.
|
|
After World War II, the legation was replaced by the embassy as the standard form of diplomatic mission. However, Lithuania could not receive a U.S. ambassador since its territory was controlled by the Soviet Union. Therefore, the Lithuanian legation remained in the form of a legation until the end of the Cold War. By 1990, the three Baltic legations were the only legations remaining on the U.S. State Department's Diplomatic List.
|
|
He continued in that position until 1898, when he established an independent architectural practice in Washington D.C., which he continued until his demise. He was the architect for many public buildings in that city and drew plans for ten legations and embassy buildings, including the Turkish, Polish, Belgian, Norwegian, Spanish, Swedish, and Danish legations, and the former French embassy. He was an advisor when the U.S. Capitol Building was remodelled.
|
|
However, to satisfy the conservatives in the imperial court, Ronglu's men also fired on the legations and let off firecrackers to give the impression that they, too, were attacking the foreigners. Inside the legations and out of communication with the outside world, the foreigners simply fired on any targets that presented themselves, including messengers from the imperial court, civilians and besiegers of all persuasions. Dong Fuxiang was denied artillery held by Ronglu which stopped him from leveling the legations, and when he complained to Empress Dowager Cixi on 23 June, she dismissively said that "Your tail is becoming too heavy to wag." The Alliance discovered large amounts of unused Chinese Krupp artillery and shells after the siege was lifted.
|
|
The xenophobic Prince Duan, who was a close friend of Dong Fuxiang, wanted Dong's forces to be equipped with artillery to destroy the legations. Ronglu blocked the transfer of artillery to Dong Fuxiang, preventing him from destroying the legations. When artillery was finally supplied to the Qing imperial forces and Boxers, it was only done so in limited quantities. Ronglu also kept Nie Shicheng from finding out about an imperial decree that ordered him to stop fighting the Boxers.
|
|
All three legations maintained at least one diplomatic property in the United States until the end of the Cold War. Latvia and Lithuania maintained their original legations in Washington, D.C., while Estonia maintained a consulate in New York City. After World War II, the legation died out as a form of diplomatic representation, as countries upgraded them to embassies. However, the Baltic states did not control their own territory and could not receive a U.S. ambassador.
|
|
The Japanese and Italian force established defense lines in the Fu – a large mansion and park where most of the estimated 2,812 Chinese Christians taking refuge were housed. The American and German Marines held positions on the Tartar Wall behind their legations. The 409 guards had the job of defending a line that snaked through of urban terrain.Ingram, James H., M.D. "The Defense of the Legations in Peking I". The Independent. Dec 13, 1900, p. 2979-2984.
|
|
The Buchanan Administration, upon the recommendation of Tennessee's governor Andrew Johnson, appointed Williams as Minister Resident (Ambassador) to the Ottoman Empire on January 14, 1858. Williams presented his credentials in Constantinople on May 27, 1858. Prior to 1893, the United States appointed ministers to head legations rather than ambassadors to head embassies. An ambassador was considered the exclusive representative of a reigning monarch abroad whereas a republic (like the United States) sent ministers and established legations.
|
|
Until the first decades of the 20th century, most diplomatic missions were legations headed by diplomats of the envoy rank. Ambassadors were only exchanged between great powers, close allies, and related monarchies.
|
|
It was principal in providing an impromptu safe haven for western troops retreating from a failed rescue attempt (Seymour Relief Expedition) of the Beijing foreign legations during the 1900 Boxer Rebellion in China.
|
|
During the Boxer Rebellion, she contributed men to Seymour's expedition that attempted and failed to relieve the besieged International Legations in Peking, capital of China, between 10 and 28 June 1900. Jellicoe served as Seymour's flag-captain during the expedition and was badly wounded on the 21st.Seymour, pp. 343, 349 In addition, the ship put landing parties ashore which joined other forces in storming the Taku forts on 16–17 June and in relieving the foreign legations at Tientsin on 13–14 July.
|
|
In 1856, the diplomatic mission at the Holy See and Paris were again raised to embassies, followed by London in 1860 and St. Petersburg in 1874. Between 1867 and 1909, six legations were raised from legations to embassies: Constantinople (1867), Berlin (1871), Rome (1877), Washington D.C. (1903) and Tokyo (1908). It can also be noted that in 1914, there were twenty-two ministers who were accredited to thirty-nine countries, most of them side accreditations to various German principalities.Godsey, op. cit.
|
|
In 1900, after the Boxer Rebellion had broken out, Prince Duan and others initially convinced Empress Dowager Cixi to support the Boxers to counter foreigners. Dong Fuxiang led his Gansu Army to attack the foreign legations in Beijing but was unable to conquer the legations despite a few months of siege. Ronglu was unable to stop him. Prince Duan and his followers continued to press the attacks against foreigners and kill any official in the imperial court who opposed them.
|
|
They were made out of 5,000 cavalry with the most modern repeating rifles. Some of them went on horseback. The Kansu Braves and Boxers combined their forces to attack the foreigners and the legations. In contrast to other units besieging the legations, like Ronglu's troops who let supplies and letters slip through to the besieged foreigners, the "sullen and suspicious" Kansu braves seriously pressed the siege and refused to let anything through, shooting at foreigners trying to smuggle things through their lines.
|
|
1–3; 1899–1903). He was also an initiator of publication Stanislai Hosii epistolae, orationes, legationes [Letters, speeches, legations of Stanislaus Hosius] (vol. 1–2; in: Acta historica res gestas Poloniae illustrantia; 1879–1888).
|
|
Robert Machray, "London's Legations from the Far East" The Royal Magazine (1901): 144. Misao Gamo, Countess Hayashi, fascinated the British press in her own right. Newspapers and magazines reported on her dress and her hospitality.
|
|
Erwin Matsch, Der Auswärtige Dienst von Österreich-Ungarn 1720-1920, Vienna, Böhlau, 1986, p. 105. The last diplomatic mission was established in 1917 in Christiania (now Oslo). Furthermore, it needs to be highlighted that before World War II there was a division between embassies and legations based on the system of diplomatic ranks established by the Congress of Vienna of 1815. Until the mid-20th century, most diplomatic representations were still legations as embassies were reserved for a few of the major world powers or close allies.
|
|
Ronglu and Prince Qing sent food to the legations, and used their Manchu Bannermen to attack the Muslim Gansu Braves ("Kansu Braves" in the spelling of the time) of Dong Fuxiang and the Boxers who were besieging the foreigners. They issued edicts ordering the foreigners to be protected, but the Gansu warriors ignored it, and fought against Bannermen who tried to force them away from the legations. The Boxers also took commands from Dong Fuxiang. Ronglu also deliberately hid an Imperial Decree from General Nie Shicheng.
|
|
Communication between the foreign legations and the outside world had been cut off, and the personnel there were falsely presumed slaughtered, but Hay realized that Minister Wu could get a message in, and Hay was able to establish communication. Hay suggested to the Chinese government that it now cooperate for its own good. When the foreign relief force, principally Japanese but including 2,000 Americans, relieved the legations and sacked Peking, China was made to pay a huge indemnity but there was no cession of land.
|
|
However, the Marine Legation Guard, which used the 6mm Lee in the defense of the foreign legations in Peking during the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, together with Marines and navy bluejackets serving in the expedition relieving the besieged legations, apparently had no such criticisms.Simmons, Edward H. and Moskin, J. Robert,The Marine, Hong Kong: Marine Corps Heritage Foundation, Hugh Lauter Levin Associates Inc., (1998), p. 158 However, the high velocity 6 mm round was ahead of its time in terms of powder technology and barrel steel metallurgy.
|
|
For example, in the waning years of the Second French Empire, the North German Confederation had an embassy in Paris, while Bavaria and the United States had legations. The practice of establishing legations gradually fell from favor as the embassy became the standard form of diplomatic mission. The establishment of the French Third Republic and the continued growth of the United States meant that two of the Great Powers were now republics. The French Republic continued the French Empire's practice of sending and receiving ambassadors.
|
|
He stayed in London for nineteen years acting as a secretary to legations and diplomatic affairs for Chile and Colombia. In his free time he was involved in study, teaching and journalism."Bello, Andrés." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
|
|
Older Boxers were sent outside Beijing to halt the approaching foreign armies, while younger men were absorbed into the Muslim Gansu army. With conflicting allegiances and priorities motivating the various forces inside Beijing, the situation in the city became increasingly confused. The foreign legations continued to be surrounded by both Qing imperial and Gansu forces. While Dong Fuxiang's Gansu army, now swollen by the addition of the Boxers, wished to press the siege, Ronglu's imperial forces seem to have largely attempted to follow Empress Dowager Cixi's decree and protect the legations.
|
|
The Qing government was divided towards how to react to the Boxer's activities. The conservative element of the court was in favour of them. Prince Duan, a fervent supporter of their cause, arranged a meeting between Cao and Empress Dowager Ci Xi. At the meeting, the crown prince even wore a Boxer uniform to show support. At the beginning of June 1900, about 450 men of the Eight-Nation Alliance arrived in Beijing to protect the foreign legations under siege by the Boxers and Imperial Army, in what was the Siege of the International Legations.
|
|
On May 30, the diplomats, led by British Minister Claude Maxwell MacDonald, requested that foreign soldiers come to Beijing to defend the legations and the citizens of their countries. The Chinese government reluctantly acquiesced, and the next day more than 400 soldiers from eight countries disembarked from warships and traveled by train to Beijing from Tianjin. They set up defensive perimeters around their respective missions.Morrison, Dr. George E. "The Siege of the Peking Legations" The Living Age, Nov 17, 24 and Dec 1, 8, and 15, 1900, p.475.
|
|
Eastlake, Elizabeth Rigby (1895); Journals & Correspondence of Lady Eastlake, edited C. E. Smith, London, Volume 2, p. 98. Reprinted BiblioBazaar (2012). Portrait of a Young Knight, National Gallery No. 299 The same year, a description of the Legation was given by the wife of the secretary to the Prussian Minister at Turin who had heard of the richness of Hudson's home; she compared it favourably to other Turin legations, mentioning "beautiful things" and Hudson's devotion to paintings.de Brunsen, Mary Isabell (1909); In Three Legations, Charles Scribner's Sons, pp.
|
|
Most of her life since was spent in foreign legations. Besides her native tongue she spoke three other languages and was a good English scholar. Their two sons at the ages of nine and eleven, spoke four languages.
|
|
Pope Paul III made him Cardinal-bishop of Palestrina in 1536 and employed him in several important legations, notably as papal legate and first president of the Council of Trent (1545/47) and then at Bologna (1547/48).
|
|
The Militia Templi through Preceptories or Magistral Legations, is currently present in the following countries: Italy, Australia, Austria, Canada, Germany, Switzerland, United Kingdom, Ireland, Poland, Romania, Spain, United States of America, Puerto Rico(1 Knight, 2 Novices), and Hungary.
|
|
The governor, however, had achieved his goal of Macanese independence from China: for the legations of Spain, the United Kingdom and the United States accredited to China had chosen to stay in Macau while awaiting permission to enter China.
|
|
Shiba's role in the Boxer Rebellion is often highlighted in Western accounts of the conflict. In the 1963 film 55 Days at Peking about the siege of international legations he is a supporting character, played by future director Juzo Itami.
|
|
CITED: p. 100. In 1870 the first permanent Ottoman diplomatic mission opened in London. The Ottoman Empire began classifying missions as great embassies, as legations/first class embassies, second class embassies, and third class embassies, beginning in 1886.İhsanoğlu, Ekmeleddin.
|
|
Han Chinese general Nie Shicheng, who fought both the Boxers and the Allies The Manchu General Ronglu concluded that it was futile to fight all of the powers simultaneously, and declined to press home the siege. The Manchu Zaiyi (Prince Duan), an anti-foreign friend of Dong Fuxiang, wanted artillery for Dong's troops to destroy the legations. Ronglu blocked the transfer of artillery to Zaiyi and Dong, preventing them from attacking. Ronglu forced Dong Fuxiang and his troops to pull back from completing the siege and destroying the legations, thereby saving the foreigners and making diplomatic concessions.
|
|
The United Provinces of Central Italy, also known as Confederation of Central Italy or General Government of Central Italy, was a short-lived military government established by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. It was formed by a union of the former Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Duchy of Parma, Duchy of Modena, and the Papal Legations, after their monarchs were ousted by popular revolutions. Since August 1859, the pro-Piedmontese regimes of Tuscany, Parma, Modena and the Papal Legations agreed to several military treaties. On 7 November 1859, they elected Eugenio Emanuele di Savoia-Carignano as their regent.
|
|
Tan, p. 75 The next morning, diplomats from the besieged legations met to discuss the Empress's offer. The majority quickly agreed that they could not trust the Chinese army. Fearing that they would be killed, they agreed to refuse the Empress's demand.
|
|
Governments in exile - with legations in London - were recognised by a number of Western governments throughout the Cold War. With the reestablishment of independence by the Soviet Republics leaving the USSR, these governments in exile were integrated into the new governing establishments.
|
|
Map of the Legation Quarter, showing the defensive lines. Most civilians took refuge in the British Legation. The Legation Quarter was approximately long and wide. It was located in the area of the city designated by the Qing government for foreign legations.
|
|
The Gaselee Expedition was a successful relief by a multi-national military force to march to Beijing and protect the diplomatic legations and foreign nationals in the city from attacks in 1900. The expedition was part of the war of the Boxer Rebellion.
|
|
In July1900, 15,000 Japanese troops landed at Shanhai Pass, prior to marching on Peking to relieve the siege of the legations by the Boxers. A pre-landing bombardment of the area was unnecessary as few Chinese troops were present.Straits Times, 18 July 1900, p.
|
|
Following his appointment as titular bishop, Caprara was named Apostolic Nuncio to Cologne on 18 December 1766. He served until 1775.The papal government maintained three permanent legations in German territory, Cologne, Lucerne and Vienna. Caprara held all three, in order of their importance.
|
|
They set up defensive perimeters around their respective missions. On 5 June 1900, the railway line to Tianjin was cut by Boxers in the countryside and Beijing was isolated. On 11 June, at Yongding gate, the secretary of the Japanese legation, Sugiyama Akira, was attacked and killed by the soldiers of general Dong Fuxiang, who were guarding the southern part of the Beijing walled city. Armed with Mauser rifles but wearing traditional uniforms, Dong's troops had threatened the foreign Legations in the fall of 1898 soon after arriving in Beijing, so much that United States Marines had been called to Beijing to guard the legations.
|
|
Han Chinese general Dong Fuxiang was overtly hostile to foreigners and his "Gansu Braves" relentlessly attacked the besieged legations. Reflecting this vacillation, some Chinese soldiers were quite liberally firing at foreigners under siege from its very onset. Cixi did not personally order imperial troops to conduct a siege, and on the contrary had ordered them to protect the foreigners in the legations. Prince Duan led the Boxers to loot his enemies within the imperial court and the foreigners, although imperial authorities expelled Boxers after they were let into the city and went on a looting rampage against both the foreign and the Qing imperial forces.
|
|
Haiti was the first Latin-American nation to gain independence in 1804. This result inspired several nations in the region in their struggle for independence. In 1928, Brazil and Haiti established diplomatic relations.Brazil-Haiti That same year, both nations opened diplomatic legations in their respective capitals.
|
|
The new regent found his authority undermined not only by the still living but paralyzed Emperor Menelik, but also by the Empress. For example, she insisted that questions from the foreign legations in Addis Ababa be directed to her, not to Tessema.Marcus, Menelik II, p. 243.
|
|
Oliphant, Nigel, A Diary of the Siege of the Legations in Peking. London: Longman, Greens, 1901, pp 78–80 The Chinese did not attempt to advance their positions on the Tartar Wall for the remainder of the siege.Martin, W.A.P. The Siege in Peking. New York:Fleming H. Revell, 1900, p.
|
|
In 1900 she was at the mission during the Boxer Rebellion when she and other missionaries were trapped in the foreign Legations. They were eventually rescued by a combined international force of troops and she returned to America, but never fully recovered from this experience and died in 1911.
|
|
89 The besieged foreigners in the legations in Beijing, unaware of the defeat of Seymour's forces, still thought that Seymour was almost there and that they would be saved. Even the Chinese government at the time did not know either that their own forces had turned Seymour's armies back.
|
|
The division between legations and embassies changed after World War II when it was no longer considered appropriate to treat states differently in line with the United Nations principle of equality of sovereign states, enshrined in the UN Charter. In 1914, Austria-Hungary had thirty-four diplomatic missions of which ten were embassies, twenty-two were legations and two were diplomatic agencies. Of the ten embassies, only two, the ones in the United States and Japan were outside Europe and these had also been the last missions that had been raised to an embassy.William D. Godsey, Aristocratic Redoubt: The Austro-Hungarian Foreign Office on the Eve of the First World War, West Lafayette, Purdue University Press, 1999, p. 13f.
|
|
Despite declaring neutrality the Baltic states were secretly assigned to the Soviet Sphere of influence via the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact and subsequently occupied by the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. Diplomatic legations continued to represent the Baltic states throughout the period. The United States never recognized control by Germans or USSR.
|
|
In 1897, the German empire took advantage of the murder of two German missionaries to invade Qingdao and founded the Jiaozhou Bay colony. In 1900, Germany took part in the Eight-Nation Alliance that was sent to relieve the Siege of the International Legations in Beijing during the Boxer Uprising.
|
|
Ethiopia–India relations have existed for almost two millennia. Modern diplomatic relations between India and Ethiopia were established at the level of legations in July 1948, after the independence of India. The relationship was raised to the ambassadorial level in 1952. India maintains an embassy in Addis Ababa and Ethiopia in New Delhi.
|
|
However, states gave Baltic legations and consulates to the Soviet Union. With some of transfers were stated that the process did not involve legal title.Ziemele (2005). p. 88. At the end of the Second World War, the building housing the Estonian Legation in Berlin was placed under guardianship by the German authorities.
|
|
Russian Cossacks formed part of the Eight Nation Alliance relief forces during the Seymour and Gaselee expeditions while Russian forces were also present inside the legations during the sieges in Beijing and Tianjin. These forces operated separately from those involved in the invasion of Manchuria, with the entire operation exclusively directed by Russians.
|
|
Future American Chancery building on the far right, on Pariser Platz Embassy building on Bendlerstraße, 1928 Brandenburg Gate (left) next to the Blücher Palace (far right) The U.S. Embassy in Berlin probably began with the 1797 appointment of John Quincy Adams to the then capital of Prussia, Berlin. At the time these missions in Berlin, Prussia were called legations, and there were other American legations in other parts of what would later become a unified German state. There were breaks in these formative years of German-American diplomatic relations where there was no official American diplomatic presence in Berlin. After the late 19th century the term embassy would be used to describe the American mission to the new unified German empire.
|
|
The Eight-Nation Alliance was an international military coalition set up in response to the Boxer Rebellion in the Qing Empire of China. The eight nations were the Empire of Japan, the Russian Empire, the British Empire, the French Third Republic, the United States, the German Empire, the Kingdom of Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In the summer of 1900, when the extra-jurisdictional international legations in Beijing came under attack by Boxer rebels supported by the Qing government, the coalition dispatched their armed forces, in the name of "humanitarian intervention", to defend their respective nations' citizens, as well as a number of Chinese Christians who had taken shelter in the legations. The incident ended with a coalition victory and the signing of the Boxer Protocol.
|
|
Zenta joined the international fleet that assembled as part of the Eight-Nation Alliance off the Taku Forts on 2 June; she operated there for the next twenty days. On 3 June, a landing party led by the ship's captain, Eduard von Montalmar, that consisted of one officer, two officer cadets, and thirty enlisted men went ashore to relieve the Legations; they helped to guard the embassies there during the siege of the Legations for the next two months. Another party, consisting of an officer, three cadets, and seventy-three men joined the force that stormed the Taku Forts on 17 June. Von Montalmar and three sailors were killed during the war with another four sailors later dying of their wounds.
|
|
Mining, engineering, flooding and simultaneous attacks were employed by Chinese troops. The Chinese also employed pincer movements, ambushes and sniper tactics with some success against the foreigners. Tientsin in 1900 News arrived on 18 June regarding attacks on foreign legations. Seymour decided to continue advancing, this time along the Beihe river, toward Tongzhou, from Beijing.
|
|
The British even offered to guarantee Texas's borders with both the United States and Mexico. Texas was a tactical ally of Britain acting as a counterweight to the United States. Nonetheless an independent Texas was probably inviable for financial reasons, and when the Republic became a state in 1845 the legations were shut down.
|
|
We wrote to judges, lawyers and hundreds of times to the Department of Justice. Never once did we receive an answer from a Congressman. The Swedish and Swiss Legations stopped answering our letters. The Department of Justice invariably replied that it regretted exceedingly not to be able to release us 'in the immediate future.
|
|
Francis Dunlap Gamewell (b. Aug 31, 1857, Camden, South Carolina; d. Aug 14, 1950, Clifton Springs, New York) was a Methodist missionary in China. He was the Chief of the Fortifications Committee in the Siege of the Legations during the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 and was acclaimed as one of the heroes of the siege.
|
|
Edwin Hurd Conger (March 7, 1843 - May 18, 1907) was an American Civil War soldier, lawyer, banker, Iowa congressman, and United States diplomat. As the United States' minister to China during the Boxer Rebellion, Conger, his family, and other western diplomatic legations were under siege in Beijing until rescued by the China Relief Expedition.
|
|
Octav George Lecca, Familiile boerești române, p. 70. Bucharest: Editura Minerva, 1899. There, he served as prosecutor and judge for the Ilfov County tribunal and also worked as a French teacher. Entering the diplomatic service in 1872, he was secretary at the legations in Vienna and London, arriving in the latter city in 1882.
|
|
Sardinia annexed Lombardy from Austria; it later occupied and annexed the United Provinces of Central Italy, consisting of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Parma, the Duchy of Modena and Reggio and the Papal Legations on 22 March 1860. Sardinia handed Savoy and Nice over to France at the Treaty of Turin on 24 March 1860.
|
|
The Hushenying () were a unit of 10,000 Manchu Bannermen under the command of Zaiyi during the Boxer Rebellion. Zaiyi himself created the unit in 1899, but it was decimated at the Battle of Peking in 1900 when the Eight-Nation Alliance captured Beijing to lift the Chinese siege of the foreign legations during the Boxer Uprising.
|
|
In 1960, both nations upgraded their legations to embassies. In 1948, the South African government implemented Apartheid in the country. Initially, the Argentine government protested against apartheid and lowered diplomatic relations with South Africa, however, Argentina never broke diplomatic relations with South Africa and both nations maintained strong military and economic ties, thus creating an ambiguous relationship.
|
|
It was only in 1939 when the legations from Belgrade and Bucharest became embassies. However, a gradual cut-off of international relations between Romania and Serbia (in that time Yugoslavia) happened in May 1941, after Romania recognized the independence of the German-controlled Independent State of Croatia, due to Romania still being in the Axis in that time.
|
|
About the same time, envoys were also sent to Persia by King Ferdinand, in the person of Pietro da Negro and Simon de Lillis, without success. Other legations were sent in 1532 and 1533. These exchanges were effectively followed however by the long Ottoman-Safavid War (1532–1555).The Cambridge history of Islam by Peter Malcolm Holt p.
|
|
Born in Nice, France, he served in the Franco-Prussian War, and at the conclusion of the war entered the diplomatic service of the Third Republic, being appointed successively attaché to the legations in the Ottoman Empire and Egypt, then secretary to the embassy in Saint Petersburg.Gosse, Edmund (1913). "Eugène Melchior de Vogué." In: Portraits and Sketches.
|
|
One month later the Chinese managed to burn down the Austrian, Dutch and Italian legations. The sailors stood their ground with American and French Marines until the arrival of reinforcements on . During the seven weeks of the siege, three men from Sissoi Veliky were killed in action, one died of disease, and twelve were wounded.Bogdanov, p. 60.
|
|
Boxer Rebellion and Eight-Nation Alliance, China 1900-1901 The Seymour Expedition was an attempt by a multi-national military force to march to Beijing and protect the diplomatic legations and foreign nationals in the city from attacks by Boxers in 1900. The Chinese army defeated the Seymour expedition and forced it to return to Tianjin (Tientsin).
|
|
Fortunately, an old cannon barrel and ammunition was found in the Legation Quarter and from it a serviceable artillery piece was constructed that the Americans called "Betsy" and others called "the International".Allen, Rev. Roland The Siege of the Peking Legations. London: Smith, Elder, 1901, 187 The foreigners ransacked the Legation Quarter for food and other supplies.
|
|
In mid-June 1900, allied forces in northern China were vastly outnumbered. In Beijing there were 450 soldiers and marines from eight countries protecting the diplomatic legations. Somewhere between Tianjin and Beijing were the 2,000 men in the Seymour Expedition attempting to get to Beijing to reinforce the legation guards. In Tianjin were 2,400 Allied soldiers, mostly Russians.
|
|
As a result, diplomatic relations between Brazil and Hungary were severed. During the war (and soon afterwards), many Hungarians immigrated to Brazil, particularly Hungarians of Jewish origin. Relations between both nations were re-established in 1961 and in 1962, Brazil re-opened its diplomatic legation in Budapest. In 1974, both nations elevated their legations to embassies.
|
|
A map of the foreign concessions in Tientsin in 1912 showing the . The adjacent was added to the Italian after World War I. Map of the Italian concession During the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, the Beijing Legation Quarter became the center of an international incident during the Siege of the International Legations by the Boxers for several months. After the siege had been broken by the Eight- Nation Alliance (that included Italy) at the end of the Battle of Peking, the foreign powers obtained the right to station troops to protect their legations under the terms of the Boxer Protocol. In addition, Italy obtained the concession in Tientsin, southeast of Beijing. On 7 September 1901, a concession in Tientsin was ceded to the Kingdom of Italy by the Qing Dynasty of China.
|
|
French-Romanian relations are bilateral foreign relations between France and Romania. Diplomatic relations between the two countries date back to 1880, when mutual legations were opened, although contacts between France and Romania's precursor states stretch into the Middle Ages. Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union. Since 1993, Romania is a member in the Francophonie.
|
|
In 1869, Gobineau was appointed the French minister to Brazil. At the time, France and Brazil did not have diplomatic relations at an ambassadorial level, only legations headed by ministers. Gobineau was unhappy the Quai d'Orsay had sent him to Brazil, which he viewed as an insufficiently grand posting. Gobineau landed in Rio de Janeiro during the riotously sensual Carnival, which disgusted him.
|
|
He travelled extensively during the following 15 months, returning first to Peking, then on to Korea, Assam, England, Australia, Japan and back to Peking via Korea. The Boxer Uprising broke out soon after and, during the siege of the legations from June to August, Morrison, an acting-lieutenant, showed great courage, always ready to volunteer in the face of danger.
|
|
On August 4, 1900, the soldiers of the Eight-Nation Alliance left the city of Tianjin to march to Beijing to relieve the Siege of the Legations. The army consisted of approximately 20,000 troops from the following countries: United States, 2,000; Japan, 10,000; Russia, 4,000; Britain, 3,000; France, 800; Germany, 200; Austria and Italy, 100.War Department. Adjutant General’s Office.
|
|
Although the King technically remained the only person able to receive diplomatic legations and conclude treaties, the government in exile was able to do both during the war independently. On the return to Belgium, the issue of the monarch remained contentious and on 20 September 1944, shortly after the liberation, Leopold's brother Charles, Duke of Flanders was declared prince regent.
|
|
In January 1933, he was designated minister to the United States once again. He presented his credentials in February 1933. In July 1935, after the United States and the Republic of China agreed to raise their diplomatic missions from legations to embassies, Sze became the first Chinese ambassador to the United States. He was succeeded by C.T. Wang in 1937.
|
|
On June 19, an ultimatum was delivered to the diplomats in the Legation Quarter in Beijing informing them that they had 24 hours to depart the capital. When the foreigners refused to leave, fearing for their safety, the Siege of the Legations began on June 20. The Taku forts remained in foreign hands for the remainder of the Boxer Rebellion.Thompson, p.
|
|
His opponent subsequently brought charges against Sfez, charging him with insulting Islam, a capital offense under Maliki law. There were plenty of witnesses who had heard Sfez curse his opponent and his religion. A notary investigated and took sworn statements. The court considered the matter for some time, while Shamama tried to muster support from the British and French legations.
|
|
Napoleon had no intention of complying with the Pope's demands. The second principal point had to do with the restoration of territories of the Papal States which had been seized by the French armies during the wars in Italy. These included the Three Legations, which Napoleon intended to form a major part of his Italian Republic.Haussonville, I, pp. 167-171.
|
|
Foreign trade was to be limited to Zhenjiang, pledged to be opened within the year, and a further three ports to be opened after the suppression of the Taipings. This clause was later used to establish treaty ports at Wuhan and Jiujiang. # The four nations gained the right to station permanent diplomatic legations in Beijing,. which had previously been a closed city.
|
|
He thus participated in the Napoleonic wars and fought in Austria (Battle of Wagram), Russia (where he was presented with the Légion d'Honneur by the emperor), Germany (where he was wounded during the battle of Leipzig), and finally at Waterloo. Back in Rome following Napoleon's defeat and the European Restoration, he joined again the Papal States' Army as a cavalry officer and was employed in police duties in the Papal Legations of Ferrara, Bologna and Romagna, where Carbonari were uprising. In 1825, with the rank of colonel of the Dragoons, he headed all the military forces deployed in the Legations, but refrained from taking too severe measures against the insurgents, rather seeking pacification by diplomatic means. In 1832 he was promoted general and assigned to administrative duties, and in 1841 he was appointed head of the Roman Civic Guard.
|
|
The Chinese government immediately condemned the riot. Foreign gunboats were sent to restore order to the legations of Tianjin, with reparations and reprisals demanded by the European governments. Chinese negotiations to mitigate the damage were led by the aging statesman Zeng Guofan. The situation was more complex than Zeng originally thought; he interrogated the orphans, who denied they had been kidnapped, and proclaimed the nuns innocent.
|
|
Dupuy de Lôme had large diplomatic experience, having represented his country in London, Paris, Berlin and Brussels. At all the legations, he was accompanied by his wife. Sons of Enrique Dupuy de Lôme She was a typical Spanish woman, with dark penetrating eyes, abundant dark hair, and a tall, well-formed figure. She was Vidiella of Cadiz and was married when she was seventeen years of age.
|
|
Edward Seymour in its attempt to march to Beijing during the Seymour Expedition and reinforce the Legations.Fleming, Peter. The Siege at Peking. New York: Harper, 1959, pp. 80–83 On June 19 the Empress Dowager sent a diplomatic note to each of the legations in Beijing informing them of the attack on Dagu and ordering all foreigners to depart Beijing for Tianjin within 24 hours.
|
|
Oliphant, Nigel, A Diary of the Siege of the Legations in Peking. London: Longman, Greens, 1901, pp 78–80 The capture of Chinese positions on the Wall was hailed as the "pivot of our destiny" by one of the besieged. The Chinese did not attempt to regain or advance their positions on the Tartar Wall for the remainder of the siege.Martin, W.A.P. The Siege in Peking.
|
|
In June 1900, the Boxer Rebellion broke out in China. Chaffee was sent to China in July as the commander of the U.S. Army's China Relief Expedition. The Expedition was a part of the international force sent to rescue Western citizens and put down the rebellion. Chaffee participated in the Gaselee Expedition and subsequently the Battle of Peking, in which the legations were relieved.
|
|
The Hôtel Bataille de Francès, place Vendôme in Paris, housed the Embassy of the Republic of Texas France was the only nation to attempt to begin the steps toward official recognition of Texas on September 25, 1839. In 1841 The French opened a legation in Austin, and Texas opened an embassy in Paris. A legation is the equivalent of an embassy; monarchies only sent legations to republics.
|
|
Japanese-Peruvians- Reviled and Respected: The Paradoxial Place of Peru's Nikkei Diplomatic relations between Ecuador and Japan were re-established in 1954.Japan-Ecuador Relations (Basic Data) In 1961, both nations upgraded their resident diplomatic legations to embassies. In 1979, the Japanese Association in Quito and the Japanese International School were established in Ecuador. In 1990, the Japan International Cooperation Agency established a presence in Ecuador.
|
|
Realizing that Addis Ababa would soon fall to the Italians, Ethiopian administrators met to discuss a possible evacuation of the government to the west. After several days, they decided that they should relocate to Gore, though actual preparations for their departure were postponed. Addis Ababa became crowded with retreating soldiers from the front while its foreign residents sought refuge at various European legations. Selassie reached the capital on 30 April.
|
|
After finishing his studies, Lavalle entered the Diplomatic Service in 1851. He was subsequently attaché to the Peruvian legations in Washington, D.C. (1851), Rome (1852) and Madrid (1853), before he was promoted to Second Secretary to the legation in Chile (1854). Then, he retired from the service and married Mariana Pardo y Lavalle, his cousin and a daughter of the writer Felipe Pardo. In 1860, Lavalle was elected Deputy for Lima.
|
|
Sanders was ordained a priest in Rome, and afterwards received the degree of Doctor of Divinity. Even before the end of 1550 had been mentioned as a likely cardinal. In 1560 he wrote a "Report on the State of England" for Cardinal Morone. He attended the Council of Trent as a theologian of Cardinal Hosius and afterwards accompanied him and Cardinal Commendone in legations to Poland, Prussia, and Lithuania.
|
|
That summer, under pressure from the foreign legations and in response to revolts in the Yangtze River valley that were targeting Christian missionaries, the emperor issued an edict ordering Christians to be placed under state protection.Seagrave, Sterling Dragon Lady: the Life and Legend of the Last Empress of China (Knopf, 1992), pg. 291 The Guangxu Emperor, while growing up, apparently had been instilled with the importance of frugality.
|
|
The United States declined to join with France and the United Kingdom in this statement. Even though President John Tyler had verbally recognized Hawaiian independence, it was not until 1849 that the United States did formally. November 28, Lā Kūʻokoʻa (Independence Day), became a national holiday to celebrate the recognition of Hawaii's independence. The Hawaiian Kingdom entered into treaties with most major countries and established over 90 legations and consulates.
|
|
Hsu, The Rise of Modern China pp. 393–398. They were called the Mutual Protection of Southeast China. The legations of the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Spain, Belgium, the Netherlands, the United States, Russia and Japan were located in the Beijing Legation Quarter south of the Forbidden City. The Chinese army and Boxer irregulars besieged the Legation Quarter from 20 June to 14 August 1900.
|
|
Soviet bombers shoot down a Finnish passenger airplane Kaleva flying from Tallinn to Helsinki and carrying three diplomatic pouches from the U.S. legations in Tallinn, Riga and Helsinki. :15: Eight-hour ultimatum to surrender is given to Lithuania by the Soviets. President Smetona escapes from the country so the takeover is not possible to do in a formally legal way. Soviet troops enter Lithuania and attack Latvian border guards.
|
|
Apollonius Freiherr von Maltitz (June 11, 1795 – March 2, 1870) was a German writer and diplomat. Von Maltitz was born in Gera. He became a diplomat in the service of the Russian Empire from 1811, representing it in various cities, mostly in Germany. He was successively attache in the Russian legations in Karlsruhe, Stuttgart, Vienna, Berlin, and Rio de Janeiro; in 1836 he became a secretary (Legationsrat and Gesandtschaftssekretär) in Munich.
|
|
In 1900, there were 11 legations located in the quarter as well as a number of foreign businesses and banks. Ethnic Chinese-occupied houses and businesses were also scattered about the quarter. The 12 or so Christian missionary organizations in Beijing were not located in the Legation Quarter, but rather dispersed around the city. In total, there were about 500 citizens of Western countries and Japan residing in the city.
|
|
New York: Moffat, Yard, 1911, p.. 161 On the other side of the question were anti-foreign officials who advised cooperation with the Boxers. "The Court appears to be in a dilemma," said Sir Robert Hart. "If the Boxers are not suppressed, the Legations threaten to take action—if the attempt to suppress them is made, this intensely patriotic organization will be converted into an anti-dynastic movement."Seagrave, Sterling.
|
|
The great majority of foreign civilians took refuge in the British Embassy, the largest and most defensible of the diplomatic legations. A census of civilians counted 473 people: 245 men, 149 women, and 79 children. About 150 of the men volunteered to participate, to a greater or lesser extent, in the defense. The civilians included at least 19 nationalities of which British and Americans were the most numerous.
|
|
However, it was the British who won the race to relieve the siege of the legations. They entered the city through an unguarded gate and proceeded with virtually no opposition.Fleming, 208 At 3:00 pm the British passed through a drainage ditch—the "water gate"—under the Tartar Wall. Sikh and Rajput soldiers from India and their British officers had the honor of being the first to enter the Legation Quarter.
|
|
Some Canadian-Japanese contacts predate this mutual establishment of permanent legations. The first known Japanese immigrant to Canada, Manzo Nagano, landed in New Westminster, British Columbia in 1877.Ambassade du Japon au Canada: 80 années d'histoire, Contact initial'. A number of Canadian missionaries working in Japan during the Meiji period played significant roles in both the development of local Japanese Christian churches as well as the modernization of Japan's educational system.
|
|
The Old Korean Legation Museum in Washington, D.C. A legation was a diplomatic representative office of lower rank than an embassy. Where an embassy was headed by an ambassador, a legation was headed by a minister. Ambassadors outranked ministers and had precedence at official events. Legations were originally the most common form of diplomatic mission, but they fell out of favor after World War II and were upgraded to embassies.
|
|
The new regent-designate found his authority undermined not only by the still living but paralyzed Emperor Menelik, but also by the Empress. For example, she insisted that questions from the foreign legations in Addis Ababa be directed to her, not to Tessema.Marcus, Menelik II, p. 243. Furthermore, Tessema himself suffered from an illness, which left him appearing helpless and apathetic and would take his life within a year.
|
|
Ambassadors outranked ministers and had precedence at official events. Legations were originally the most common form of diplomatic mission, but they fell out of favor after World War II and were upgraded to embassies. A consulate headed by an Honorary Consul is a diplomatic mission headed by an Honorary Consul which provides only a limited range of services. The head of an embassy is known as an ambassador or high commissioner.
|
|
In April 1900, Callaghan became commander of a naval brigade sent ashore to form an element of a larger expedition under Lieutenant-General Sir Alfred Gaselee as part of the British response to the Boxer Rebellion. The expedition entered Peking and successfully rescued the legations which had been held hostage there. Callaghan was mentioned in dispatches and appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath on 9 November 1900.
|
|
Carlos Sampaio Garrido the Portuguese Ambassador who resisted the Hungarian political police when the police raided his home arresting his guests. The Ambassador physically resisted the police and was also arrested but managed to have his guests released by invoking the extraterritorial legal rights of diplomatic legations; five of the guests were members of the famous Gabor family. Stones placed in a memorial behind the Dohány Street Synagogue in Budapest, Hungary.
|
|
Jonušauskas (2003), p. 253, 257 All legations and consulates cut salaries and other expenses, reducing their budgets 3–4 times.Jonušauskas (2003), p. 255 In August 1940, diplomats envisioned creation of a special fund, supported by donations of Lithuanian diaspora, particularly Lithuanian Americans.Jonušauskas (2003), p. 253 However, the solution was not ideal as the diplomatic service would have become dependent on various political groups of Lithuanian Americans.Jonušauskas (2003), p.
|
|
Charles Daniel Tenney (June 29, 1857 – March 14, 1930) was an American educator and diplomat to China. He was the first President of Peiyang University in Tientsin (Tianjin), China from 1895 through 1906 and acted as Secretary of the Tientsin Provisional Government from 1900 to 1902. After ending his service to the Chinese Government, Tenney served as Secretary to the American Legations in Peking (Beijing) and Nanking (Nanjing).
|
|
MFA hails celebration of 85 years of Romanian-Argentine diplomatic relations During World War II, the arrival of the largest number of Romanian migrants to Argentina took place due to Nazi persecution and Soviet communist ideology in Romania. In March 1964, both nations resident diplomatic legations were upgraded to embassies. In March 1974, Romanian President Nicolae Ceaușescu paid an official visit to Argentina and met with President Juan Perón.
|
|
In April 1900, was ordered to sail to Japan and then to Taku, China as part of the multinational China Relief Expedition being mobilized to rescue the foreign legations in Peking that were then besieged by the Boxers, a movement that opposed the growing influence of European business interests and Christian missionaries in China. The joint naval force was under the command of Vice Admiral Edward Hobart Seymour, Royal Navy with Captain Bowman H. McCalla, USN of the , second in command. As a naval cadet member of the multinational landing force that came to be known as the Seymour Relief Expedition Taussig served alongside and began a long and fraternal professional association with Royal Navy officers Captain John Jellicoe and Lieutenant David Beatty who later advanced to First Sea Lords of the Royal Navy. On June 7, 1900, the 2,100 strong Seymour Relief Expedition set out from Tientsin by train with the destination Peking and the objective the release of the besieged foreign legations.
|
|
Julián Ayesta (1919–1996) was a Spanish playwright and novelist.Bio Born in Gijon, he pursued a diplomatic career after his studies. He served in Spanish legations in Beirut, Bogota, Amsterdam, Vienna and the former Yugoslavia, where he was the Spanish ambassador before the country's final disintegration. Primarily a playwright, he is best known today for his short novel Helena o el mar del verano (1952), an evocative memoir of summer holidays, childhood and first love.
|
|
In 1923–26 it was leased to the Costa Rican and Salvadorean Legations. Like many mansions in Northwest Washington, D.C., it was then divided into apartments during the Great Depression and rented as a boarding house. In the early 1960s it was owned by Oscar Sydney Cox, who in 1940–41 had been instrumental in drafting and administering the Lend-Lease Act. In 1984 the building was renovated by its then-owner, Scott McLeod.
|
|
Troops of the Eight-Nation Alliance in 1900. Left to right: Britain, United States, Australia, India, Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Japan. The Russians and the Japanese both contributed troops to the eight-member international force sent in 1900 to quell the Boxer Rebellion and to relieve the international legations under siege in the Chinese capital, Beijing. Russia had already sent 177,000 soldiers to Manchuria, nominally to protect its railways under construction.
|
|
Russell was the second son of Lord Arthur Russell. He was educated privately and at Balliol College, Oxford. He joined the Diplomatic Service in 1897 and served in British embassies or legations in Turkey, Egypt, China, France, Russia, Morocco, Argentina, Paraguay, Spain, Greece, and in the Foreign Office. At the outbreak of the First World War he was released from the Foreign Office to serve in the Bedfordshire Yeomanry, rising to the rank of major.
|
|
Promoted to captain on 1 January 1897, Jellicoe became a member of the Admiralty's Ordnance Committee. He served as Captain of the battleship and chief of staff to Vice Admiral Sir Edward Seymour during the Seymour Expedition to relieve the legations at Peking during the Boxer Rebellion in June 1900. He was badly wounded during the Battle of Beicang and told he would die but confounded the attending doctor and chaplain by living.Bacon, p.
|
|
The Alliance had defeated the Chinese at both Beicang and Yangcun. Although still intact and barely weakened, the Chinese army did not challenge the Alliance again, and the Alliance troops continued their march, mostly unopposed, to Beijing. On August 14 they forced their way into the city, raised the Siege of the Legations and occupied the city and the surrounding countryside, wiping out the last vestiges of the Boxer movement.Thompson, Larry Clinton.
|
|
Nie Shicheng continued to fight the Boxers and killed many of them. Ronglu also ordered Nie Shicheng to protect foreigners and protect the railway from attacks by the Boxers. Ronglu had effectively derailed Prince Duan's efforts to capture the legations, and as a result, saved the foreigners inside. He was shocked that he was not welcome after the war; however, the foreign powers did not demand that he, unlike Dong Fuxiang, be punished.
|
|
Starvation, widespread in China, is affecting more than 100 million peasants by the summer of 1900. Approximately a thousand foreigners from various western industrialized countries have exploited their positions inside Peking's legations, seeking control of the weakened nation. The Boxers oppose the westerners and their Christian religion and are planning to drive them out. The turmoil in China worsens as the Boxer secret societies gain tacit approval from the Dowager Empress Cixi.
|
|
G.G. Florescu, "Agențiile diplomatice de la București și Belgrad (1863–1866)", în Romanoslavica XI/1965, pp. 126–131. In 1879, as a consequence of the independent state status, the diplomatic agencies from Belgrade and Bucharest became legations and the diplomatic agents, resident ministers. Thus on 14/26 April 1879 the Romanian diplomatic agency in Belgrade became legation, having Lascăr Catargiu as its first resident minister.A. A. Căpușan, Diplomați români de elită, vol.
|
|
Approximately 50 Irish men and women joined the French Resistance, such as Irish writer Samuel Beckett. After the war, both nations upgraded their diplomatic legations to embassies. In 1969, French President Charles de Gaulle paid an official visit to Ireland and met with Irish President Éamon de Valera. Since the establishment of diplomatic relations, relations between France and Ireland have been close and both nations have worked together within the European Union.
|
|
Bill would continue his career by spending the majority of his life abroad. In the forties and fifties he served at the Swedish legations in Ankara, Prague and Bonn. In Prague, he experienced the rise of communist influence in Eastern Europe and in Bonn he saw the development of Western European cooperation. His first position as ambassador came when Bill was offered to head the installation of a new embassy in Bangkok.
|
|
Map of the Italian Peninsula in 1796, showing the Papal States before the Napoleonic wars changed the face of the peninsula. The French Revolution affected the temporal territories of the Papacy as well as the Roman Church in general. In 1791 Revolutionary France annexed the Comtat Venaissin and Avignon. Later, with the French invasion of Italy in 1796, the Legations (the Papal States' northern territories) were seized and became part of the Cisalpine Republic.
|
|
Details were vague, Clause II of the Treaty simply stating "it may consist of Tuscany...or the three Roman legations or of any other continental provinces of Italy which form a rounded state." Urquijo insisted Spain would hand over Louisiana and the ships only once France confirmed which Italian territories it would receive in return. Finally, the terms reaffirmed the alliance between France and Spain agreed upon in the 1796 Second Treaty of San Ildefonso.
|
|
A multinational army, the Eight-Nation Alliance, rescued foreigners besieged by the Boxers and Chinese Army in Tianjin and Beijing. (See Battle of Tientsin and Siege of the International Legations), but not until January 1901 did German soldiers reach Shanxi and learn the fate of the Oberlin Band and other missionaries in the province. A memorial service was held for the slain in Taiyuan on July 9, one year after the Taiyuan massacre.Brandt, 1994, p.
|
|
Most Western governments maintained that Baltic sovereignty had not been legitimately overridden and thus continued to recognise the Baltic states as sovereign political entities represented by the legations—appointed by the pre-1940 Baltic states—which functioned in Washington and elsewhere. The Baltic states recovered de facto independence in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Russia started to withdraw its troops from the Baltics (starting from Lithuania) in August 1993.
|
|
Keyes 1939, p. 243–258 Keyes was one of the first men to climb over the Peking walls, to break through to the besieged diplomatic legations and to free them. For this he was promoted to commander on 9 November 1900. Keyes later recalled about the sack of Beijing: "Every Chinaman...was treated as a Boxer by the Russian and French troops, and the slaughter of men, women, and children in retaliation was revolting".
|
|
However, envoys did not serve as the personal representative of their country's head of state. Until the first decades of the 20th century, most diplomatic missions were legations headed by diplomats of the envoy rank. Ambassadors were only exchanged between great powers, close allies, and related monarchies. After World War II it was no longer considered acceptable to treat some nations as inferior to others, given the United Nations doctrine of equality of sovereign states.
|
|
Gong Xinzhan was born in Hefei, Anhui. He was a student of the Guozijian Imperial Academy and went to study in Great Britain after graduating. He entered the Imperial Chinese diplomatic service and due to his language ability served as attendant at the Chinese legations in Japan, United States, France, Italy and the Philippines. Later he returned to China, he was appointed to governor of a prefecture () and then acting Provincial Judge of Guangdong Province.
|
|
The Boxers killed a few missionaries and many Chinese Christians, and eventually besieged the embassies in Beijing. An eight-nation alliance -- Germany, France, Italy, Russia, Great Britain, the United States, Austria-Hungary and Japan -- sent a force up from Tianjin to rescue the legations. The Qing had to accept foreign troops permanently posted in Beijing and pay a large indemnity as a result. In addition, Shanghai was divided among China and the eight nations.
|
|
The republic tried unsuccessfully to gather international recognition to foreign legations in Hakodate, including the Americans, French, and Russians. The Naval Battle of Hakodate was fought from 4 to 10 May 1869, between the remnants of the Tokugawa shogunate navy and the newly formed Imperial Japanese Navy. It was a decisive victory for the Imperial Japanese Navy. On 14 June 1868, Hakodate was designated as an urban prefecture (府 fu), one of the first two, the other being Kyoto.
|
|
Uanna (third from right) at Marine Security Guard Graduation, c. 1958 In 1953 the State Department's physical security was split between foreign and domestic branches. Uanna reorganized these into one group called the Division of Physical Security, consisting of four branches, and took over as its new chief. He then published the Protection of Dignitaries Manual and developed the handbook used at the training school for Marine Security Guards assigned to U. S. embassies, legations and consulates overseas.
|
|
Locally, Evans' patience was "dangerously tested", but it held. One inflammatory incident occurred when Chilean torpedo boats bore down on Evans' ship, turning their helms hard over at the last possible instant to avoid a collision. On another occasion, a group of locals threw rocks at Evans and his gig as it lay at the foot of a jetty. After a month at Valparaíso, Yorktown took on refugees from the American, Spanish, and Italian legations in mid- January 1892.
|
|
Baroness Sigrid von Laffert (18 January 1916 – 8 September 2002) was a German aristocrat. She accompanied Adolf Hitler to the German Opera House in Berlin, Germany in December 1935. She was rumored to be a romantic companion of Hitler during the time he neglected his companion Eva Braun, between early March and late May 1935. Von Laffert was also a relative of Viktoria von Dirksen, the widow of Willibald von Dirksen, secret legations counsel for Kaiser Wilhelm.
|
|
Specifically, he was charged with supplying military, political, and economic information to Western legations; he denied the accusations, calling them "lies from first to last." Returning to the United States, he accused the Romanians of terrorism, insisting, "Our interest was solely the welfare of 3,000,000 Catholic people in Romania." On July 12, 1950, O'Hara was given the personal title of Archbishop by Pope Pius XII. Shortly afterwards, he was appointed Apostolic Nuncio to Ireland on November 27, 1951.
|
|
He finished his secondary school in 1905, and graduated from the University of Kristiania with the cand.jur. degree in 1909. He was hired in the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1911, worked with international law and was a delegate to the League of Nations from 1921 to 1924. He was a counsellor at the Norwegian legations in Berlin from 1925 to 1931, in The Hague from 1931 to 1933, and in Stockholm from 1934 to 1938.
|
|
One was that after they attacked the Foreign Legations, the Red Lanterns spread the slogan of killing "a dragon, a tiger, and three hundred rams." The dragon was the emperor, the tiger was Prince Qing, and the three hundred rams were the officials of the central government.Ono, pp. 52–53. Another such legend concerned Azure Cloud, a young village woman who was said to be able to jump ten feet in the air as an expert in martial arts.
|
|
During the first decade of the 20th century, the two countries started opening legations in Tokyo and Stockholm, then promoted to embassies in 1957. Japan is Sweden's second largest trading partner in Asia, and some Swedish policies on welfare, population ageing and international affairs like peacekeeping and official development assistance have been taken concern, or even example of, by Japan. The bilateral relations are also strengthened through state visits, royal visits, cultural or academic exchanges from both side.
|
|
During World War I, Brazil declared war on the Central powers.Brazil in the First World War At the end of war, Brazil partook in the Treaty of Versailles which saw the creation of an independent Poland. Poland achieved its independence in 1918 and Brazil became the first nation in Latin America to recognize Poland on 17 August 1918. On 27 May 1920, both nations established diplomatic relations and diplomatic legations were opened in each nations capitals, respectively.
|
|
Since 1898, Peter Damian has rested in a chapel dedicated to the saint in the cathedral of Faenza. No formal canonization ever took place, but his cult has existed since his death at Faenza, at Fonte- Avellana, at Monte Cassino, and at Cluny. The saint is represented in art as a cardinal bearing a knotted rope (the disciplina) in his hand; also sometimes he is depicted as a pilgrim holding a papal Bull, to signify his many legations.
|
|
After the war, Mexico returned to having a resident diplomatic legation in Brussels and in 1954, both nations raised their diplomatic legations to embassies. That same year, Belgium opened its embassy in Mexico on June 5, 1954. In 1980, Mexican protesters peacefully occupied both the Belgian and Danish embassies to demand freedom for political prisoners and better living conditions for Mexicans. In 2018, the Brussels' Flower Carpet featured cultural elements from the state of Guanajuato, Mexico.
|
|
Boxer bands advanced on Beijing in May and June 1900. The Qing dynasty was ambivalent about the Boxers, fearing that they might become anti- Qing. The Boxers became a serious threat to Western and Japanese citizens, as well as to Chinese Christians living in northern China. The diplomatic legations in Beijing requested that guards be sent to protect them. As such, more than 400 marines and naval troops from eight countries arrived in Beijing on May 31.
|
|
Subsequently, he served as an honorary attaché at British legations in Bulgaria and Egypt in 1939 and 1940, and Conservative member of Parliament for Argyll from 1940 to 1958. He was known as a successful breeder of pedigree Highland cattle and was a member of the Highlands and Islands Advisory Panel from 1947. He received a knighthood in 1955. In 1925, McCallum married Violet Mary, daughter of J. L. A. Hope, and widow of Captain E. A. Hume.
|
|
As such, Foster replaced James Gillespie Blaine, who had succumbed to Bright's disease, of which he later died. As Secretary of State, Foster "helped direct the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy." After leaving public office, Foster remained in Washington and invented a new type of legal practice, lobbying for large "corporations seeking favors in Washington and chances to expand abroad." Foster also used his government and political contacts to secure legal fees as counsel to several foreign legations.
|
|
He served in the Niger Campaign in 1871. During the Boxer Rebellion, Rear-Admiral Bruce was second in command of British fleet on the China Station. His flagship was the battleship Barfleur, and his flag captain was George Warrender. Barfleur took part in Allied operations in north China in 1899 and 1900, and between 31 May 1900 and September 1900 supported the storming of the Peking forts and the relief of the foreign legations at Tientsin.
|
|
He entered the diplomatic service in 1850, eventually becoming attaché in Paris. In 1866, he took part in the Austro-Prussian War as a Prussian army officer. After the war, he managed the business of various legations and in 1872 he became a legation councilor. In 1873, he was appointed embassy councilor in Constantinople and in 1875, he became German Consul-General in Belgrade, followed by Consul- General and diplomatic agent to Egypt and based in Alexandria in 1879.
|
|
For his success and loyalty, he was granted landholdings beyond the Drava river. According to the royal charter of 1248, he was sent to foreign courts in several occasions as an envoy and representative of the Hungarian king throughout in the 1230s. He acted in this capacity primarily on behalf of princes Coloman then Rostislav, pretender to the Principality of Halych. It is possible, that he was involved in Hungarian legations to the Polish and Bohemian realms too.
|
|
He was born at Cabra, in the province of Córdoba, and was educated at Málaga and at the University of Granada, where he took his degree in law, and then entered upon a diplomatic career (1847). Over the next five decades, Valera filled a number of positions in a variety of places. He accompanied the Spanish Ambassador to Naples. Afterwards, he was a member of the Spanish legations at Lisbon (1850), Rio de Janeiro (1851–53), Dresden and St. Petersburg (1854–57).
|
|
On 1 October 1898, Barfleur became the flagship of the station's second-in-command, Rear-Admiral Charles FitzGerald. On 26 October 1899 Captain Sir George Warrender was appointed in command of the ship. FitzGerald was relieved by Rear-Admiral Sir James Bruce on 23 December 1899. During the Boxer Rebellion, the ship put landing parties ashore which joined other forces in storming the Taku forts on 16–17 June 1900 and in relieving the foreign legations at Tientsin on 13–14 July 1900.
|
|
Garibaldi and Mazzini once again fled into exile—in 1850 Garibaldi went to New York City. Meanwhile, the Austrians besieged Venice, which was defended by a volunteer army led by Daniele Manin and Guglielmo Pepe, who were forced to surrender on 24 August. Pro-independence fighters were hanged en masse in Belfiore, while the Austrians moved to restore order in central Italy, restoring the princes who had been expelled and establishing their control over the Papal Legations. The revolutions were thus completely crushed.
|
|
Lewis and Sir Arthur succeed in their mission to blow up a sizable Chinese ammunition dump. As the foreign defenders conserve food and water, while trying to save hungry children, the Empress continues plotting with the Boxers by supplying aid from her Chinese troops. Eventually, a foreign relief force from the Eight-Nation Alliance arrives and puts down the Boxer's rebellion. The troops reach Peking on the 55th day and, following the Battle of Peking, lift the siege of the foreign legations.
|
|
The Sixth Conference and Congress of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance took place in the banquet hall of the Grand Hotel, Stockholm, 12–17 June 1911. The coming of Carrie Chapman Catt, president of the Alliance, had been widely heralded. She had been received in Copenhagen with national honors by cabinet ministers and foreign legations. In Christiania, she was met with a greeting from a former Prime Minister and an official address of welcome from the Government and was received by King Haakon.
|
|
The ambassador, who physically resisted the police, was also arrested, but managed to have his guests released on the grounds of extraterritoriality of diplomatic legations. In 2010, Garrido was recognised as Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem. Other Portuguese who deserve credit for saving Jews during the war include Professor Francisco Paula Leite Pinto and Moisés Bensabat Amzalak. A devoted Jew, and a supporter of Salazar, Amzalak headed the Lisbon Jewish community for 52 years, from 1926 until 1978.
|
|
The Hanlin Academy in 1744, after a renovation under the Qianlong Emperor The Beijing Hanlin Academy and its library were severely damaged in a fire during the siege of the Foreign Legations in Peking (now known as Beijing) in 1900 by the Kansu Braves while fighting against the Eight-Nation Alliance. On June 24, the fire spread to the Academy: Many ancient texts were destroyed by the flames. The Academy operated continuously until its closure during the 1911 Xinhai Revolution.
|
|
The ambassador, who physically resisted the police, was also arrested, but managed to have his guests released on the grounds of extraterritoriality of diplomatic legations. In 2010, Garrido was recognised as Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem. Other Portuguese who deserve credit for saving Jews during the war include Professor Francisco Paula Leite Pinto and Moisés Bensabat Amzalak. A devoted Jew and a supporter of Salazar, Amzalak headed the Lisbon Jewish community for 52 years, from 1926 until 1978.
|
|
He was immediately replaced by the "reactionary" Zaiyi as the leader of the Zongli Yamen (the foreign affairs ministry). Qing imperial forces and Boxers, acting under Zaiyi's command, defeated Seymour's first expedition. Yikuang even wrote letters to foreigners, inviting them to take shelter in the Zongli Yamen during the Siege of the International Legations, when Zaiyi's men besieged the Beijing Legation Quarter. Another pro-foreign general, Ronglu, offered to provide escorts to the foreigners when his soldiers were supposed to be killing foreigners.
|
|
The rank of envoy gradually became obsolete as countries upgraded their relations to the ambassadorial rank. The envoy rank still existed in 1961, when the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations was signed, but it did not outlive the decade. The last remaining American legations, in the Warsaw Pact countries of Bulgaria and Hungary, were upgraded to embassies in 1966.An envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary, usually known as a minister, was a diplomatic head of mission who was ranked below ambassador.
|
|
He supported Carl Lutz with the rescue of Jews under Swiss protection. Feller worked closely with the other neutral legations in constantly pressuring the Horthy and Sztójay governments to end the persecution and deportations of Jews. Feller protected members of the Swedish legation, who were targeted by the Arrow Cross Party, by giving them false Swiss passports and providing shelter. Toward the end of the war, Feller hid dozens of Jews in the basement of his consular residence in Budapest.
|
|
Chinese officialdom was split between those supporting the Boxers and those favoring conciliation, led by Prince Qing. The supreme commander of the Chinese forces, the Manchu General Ronglu (Junglu), later claimed he acted to protect the foreigners. Officials in the Mutual Protection of Southeast China ignored the imperial order to fight against foreigners. The Eight-Nation Alliance, after being initially turned back, brought 20,000 armed troops to China, defeated the Imperial Army, and arrived at Peking on August14, relieving the siege of the Legations.
|
|
Boxers burned Christian churches, killed Chinese Christians and intimidated Chinese officials who stood in their way. American Minister Edwin H. Conger cabled Washington, "the whole country is swarming with hungry, discontented, hopeless idlers." On 30 May the diplomats, led by British Minister Claude Maxwell MacDonald, requested that foreign soldiers come to Beijing to defend the legations. The Chinese government reluctantly acquiesced, and the next day a multinational force of 435 navy troops from eight countries debarked from warships and travelled by train from Dagu (Taku) to Beijing.
|
|
However, King Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy, who was allied to France which claimed a counterpart, refused to endorse the election, and sent Carlo Bon Compagni instead as the Governor General of Italy Central, who was responsible for the diplomatic and military affairs of the states. On 8 December 1859, Parma, Modena and the Papal Legations were incorporated into the Provinces Royal of Emilia. After plebiscites were held during March 1860, and France was granted Nice and Savoy, the territory was annexed formally to Piedmont-Sardinia.
|
|
These rumours implicated both the western powers that were present in Korea at the time, as well as the Japanese. These riots saw Koreans gathering outside hospitals, schools and churches run by foreigners to rail against the 'baby-snatchers' inside. Many in the foreign community were alarmed by the ferocity of the riots and made preparations to leave Korea, and diplomatic representatives of the foreign legations pressed the Joseon government to repudiate the rumours, which they did reluctantly.Larsen, Kirk W. Traditions, Treaties and Trade.
|
|
The Soviet military blockade of Estonia went into effect while the world's attention was focused on the fall of Paris to Nazi Germany. Two Soviet bombers downed the Finnish passenger airplane "Kaleva" flying from Tallinn to Helsinki carrying three diplomatic pouches from the U.S. legations in Tallinn, Riga and Helsinki. The US Foreign Service employee Henry W. Antheil Jr. was killed in the crash.The Last Flight from Tallinn at American Foreign Service Association 1941 Soviet internal-passport issued in occupied Latvia, shortly before the German invasion.
|
|
The Siege of the International Legations occurred in 1900 in Peking, the capital of the Qing Empire, during the Boxer Rebellion. Menaced by the Boxers, an anti-Christian, anti-foreign peasant movement, 900 soldiers, marines, and civilians, largely from Europe, Japan, and the United States, and about 2,800 Chinese Christians took refuge in the Peking Legation Quarter. The Qing government took the side of the Boxers. The foreigners and Chinese Christians in the Legation Quarter survived a 55-day siege by the Qing Army and Boxers.
|
|
Through the 19th century and the early years of the 20th century, most diplomatic missions were legations. An ambassador was considered the personal representative of his monarch, so only a major power that was a monarchy would send an ambassador, and only to another major power that was also a monarchy. A republic or a smaller monarchy would only send a minister and establish a legation. Because of diplomatic reciprocity, even a major monarchy would only establish a legation in a republic or a smaller monarchy.
|
|
Upon returning to Transylvania, now a part of Romania, he contributed to the Romanian press, being the editor of the magazines Culture in Cluj and The Banat in Lugoj. In 1926, he became involved in Romanian diplomacy, occupying successive posts at Romania's legations in Warsaw, Prague, Lisbon, Bern and Vienna. His political protector was the famous poet Octavian Goga, who was briefly a prime minister; Blaga was a relative of his wife. He was elected a titular member of the Romanian Academy in 1936.
|
|
On 17 June 1911 Gelderland left Rotterdam for England. On board was Prince Henry of the Netherlands who traveled to the United Kingdom to attend the coronation of George V. For the last part of the journey Gelderland was escorted by four British torpedo boats. Gelderland was sent to Constantinople on 11 November 1912 because of rising political tension and a direct war threat. A landing party of 100 men was put ashore and took position in the legations section of the city on 18 November 1912.
|
|
Established in 1872 by the missionary Sisters of the Holy Infant Jesus from the Saint Maur Rue in Paris, France, led by Mother Mathilde Raclot. Saint Maur began with "direct support received from over 15 legations, such as the United Kingdom, the United States of America, France, Austria, Holland, and Germany." Although it is a Catholic school, the school emphasizes the philosophy and approach of "acceptance of all." In 1884, the buildings were devastated by a typhoon and in 1894, an earthquake demolished the school.
|
|
These stamps were mounted in folders and circulated amongst the various German embassies and legations in existence at the time. The artists include the following: M Bystydzieński, Henyk Oderfeld, Nikodem Romanus, Józef Tom, Apoloniusz Kędzierski, Ludwik Gardowski, Ludwik Sokołowski, Zygmunt Beniulis, Jan Ogorkiewicz, Edmund John, Edward Trojanowski and Mieczysław Neufeld. When in 1918 Poland became independent, two of the artists, who took part in the 1917 competition, Edward Trojanowski and Edmund Bartłomiejczyk, were asked to modify their designs for use by the new Republic of Poland.
|
|
The Gansu Braves under Dong Fuxiang, which some sources described as "ill disciplined", were armed with modern weapons but were not trained according to Western drill and wore traditional Chinese uniforms. They led the defeat of the Alliance at Langfang in the Seymour Expedition and were the most ferocious in besieging the Legations in Beijing. Some Banner forces were given modernised weapons and Western training, becoming the Metropolitan Banner forces, which were decimated in the fighting. Among the Manchu dead was the father of the writer Lao She.
|
|
The history of the 3rd Army Corps begins after the second Italian war of independence. Following the Italian-French victory over the Austrian Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia annexed the Papal Legations in present-day Emilia Romagna. Thus on 1 April 1860 the 3rd Higher Military Command was activated as a territorial command in Parma and tasked to defend the newly acquired territory between the Trebbia and Panaro rivers, an area roughly corresponding with the historic Emilia region. The command consisted of the 5th, 8th and 12th division of the Line.
|
|
As Rhodesia House it housed of the High Commission of Southern Rhodesia from 1923 until the Rhodesian UDI on 11 November 1965. Rhodesia was unique in being the only British colony to have a High Commission, as only dominions (and later, independent Commonwealth members) were represented by such legations. After the UDI, Rhodesia's High Commissioner, Brigadier Andrew Skeen was declared persona non-grata by the British Government and ordered to leave the country. However, because of concerns over diplomatic property under international law, Rhodesia House was not seized by the British Government.
|
|
Stadden, p. 52 The Royal Marines wore dark blue serge jackets in the Anglo-Egyptian Campaign of 1882 with embroidered badges on their collars - bugle horns for the RMLI and grenades for the RMA. During the subsequent Sudan Campaign a light grey field uniform was adopted.Stadden, p. 68 During the siege of the Peking Legations in 1900 the RMLI wore their usual hot weather ship-board working dress of blue field service cap, blue tunic and white trousers. Khaki or all white tropical uniforms were worn subsequent to the relief of the Legations.Stadden, p.
|
|
The German Imperial Envoy, Baron Klemens Freiherr von Ketteler, was infuriated with the actions of the Chinese army troops and determined to take his complaints to the royal court. Against the advice of the fellow foreigners, the baron left the legations with a single aide and a team of porters to carry his sedan chair. On his way to the palace, von Ketteler was killed on the streets of Beijing by a Manchu captain. His aide managed to escape the attack and carried word of the baron's death back to the diplomatic compound.
|
|
He was awarded the China War Medal and clasp for his role in the defence of western embassies during the Boxer Rebellion in 1900. and provided a lively eye-witness account of life in the Legations during the sieges, for example from Monday 25 June 1900: 'These people are the most shockingly bad shots fortunately for us. If a quarter of their shots and shells came anywhere near our walls and buildings we should all have been in suitable resting-places long ago. They must be utter rotters.
|
|
USS Newark (1890) The Newark had been sent during the China Relief Expedition to help relieve Allied forces fighting in the Boxer Rebellion. On 13 and 20, 21, and 22 June and 12 July, in Beijing (then known to Americans as "Peking"), he volunteered to carry messages between the American and British legations despite heavy fire,Health.mil - Military Health System & Defense Health Agency, Hospital Apprentice Robert Stanley "Chinese snipers were everywhere and Boxer militants fought viciously." For these actions, he was awarded the Medal of Honor a year later, on 19 July 1901.
|
|
Article II, section 2 of the US Constitution authorized the President to appoint, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, "Ambassadors, other public Ministers, and Consuls." From 1789 to 1924, the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce and assisting distressed American sailors, developed separately. With small appropriations from Congress, overseas service could not be sustained based on salary alone. Diplomatic and consular service appointments fell on those with the financial means to sustain their work abroad.
|
|
Israel and Australia have enjoyed official diplomatic relations since the Australian government of Ben Chifley recognised Israel on 28 January 1949. The first Australian representative was Osmond Charles Fuhrman who was appointed as the Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Australian legation in Tel Aviv in October 1949. Orsmond presented his credentials to President Chaim Weizmann on 4 January 1950. In October 1960 the legations of Israel in Canberra and of Australia in Tel Aviv were raised to Embassy status and the Australian Minister John McMillan became the first Ambassador.
|
|
92-93 Over the following year, he coordinated efforts to have the act recognized by all European states, and stated that his government's policies were centered on "as rapid as possible, the transformation of foreign diplomatic agencies and consulates in Bucharest into legations".Alexandre Davier, "Sinuozitățile relațiilor franco-române" (part I), in Magazin Istoric, March 2000, p.60 Late in 1877, he traveled to Austria-Hungary and met Austrian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy. He recorded a mood of opposition to the Romanian military effort, but received guarantees of border security.
|
|
Hedin was born in Sunne, Sweden, the son of merchant Nathanael Hedin and Anna Palm. He was a business student in Stockholm in 1942 and served at the Swedish consulate in Prague from 1942 to 1944 and at the Swedish legation in Mexico City in 1944. Hedin studied at the Stockholm University College from 1947 to 1951 and served at the Ministry for Foreign Affairs in 1948 before becoming an attaché in 1949. He served at the Swedish legations in Madrid in 1951 and in Oslo in 1953.
|
|
Though Romania back then had some American ambassadors or politicians in its own territories, the movements of those Americans were severely restricted by the Romanian government. Foreign diplomats were not allowed to travel around the country without special permission or to go near the Black Sea coast. The Romanian government ruthlessly harassed people who had contact with American delegates. The government actually murdered a person, part of the local staff, by pumping too much Sodium pentothal, the truth drug, into her as a punishment for being associated with the American legations.
|
|
In June 1898, he led the invasion of Guantánamo Bay. While in command of Newark during the Boxer Rebellion two years later, he was cited for conspicuous gallantry in battle as he led a force of sailors from Tientsin to Peking. McCalla's force of 112 men spearheaded an international column, under British Admiral Sir Edward Seymour, which was attempting to fight its way to the aid of foreign legations under siege at Peking. In the course of the battle at Hsiku Arsenal, McCalla, along with 25 of his force, was wounded; five were killed.
|
|
Also, a new Polish government-in-exile was formed in Paris and began to rebuild the armed forces in France. The government, headed now by general Władysław Sikorski, took control of the entire property of the Polish State abroad, including the network of its diplomatic missions. After the German invasion of France the government moved to London, from where it continued to fight the Germans. In the continental part of Western Europe, the Polish government-in-exile was represented by the legations in Switzerland, Portugal, Spain and Sweden.
|
|
For several days after June 20—the official beginning of the siege—neither the foreigners inside the Legation Quarter nor the Chinese soldiers outside it had any coherent plan for defense or attack. The number of Chinese soldiers ringing the legations is uncertain, but certainly numbered in the thousands. On the west were the Gansu Muslim soldiers of Dong Fuxiang and on the east were units of the Peking Field Army. The overall commander of the Chinese forces was Ronglu—who was anti-Boxer and disapproved of the siege.
|
|
After World War I, Lithuania became independent from the Russian Empire and opened legations to establish independent diplomatic representation. At the time, the legation was the standard form of diplomatic mission, and only Great Powers established embassies in each other's capitals. Although Lithuania was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1940, its prewar government had instructed its diplomats to maintain an independent presence in exile. After the war, the embassy became the standard form of diplomatic representation, but Lithuania could not receive a U.S. Ambassador since its territory was controlled by the Soviet Union.
|
|
Among the critics were famous Americans such as Booker T. Washington, W.E.B. Du Bois, and Mark Twain (who attacked Leopold directly in an inflammatory pamphlet entitled King Leopold's Soliloquy). In 1908, forced to respond to this international outcry, the Belgian government rescinded Leopold's private rule over the Congo Free State and annexed the territory, making the Congo Free State into the Belgian Congo, a full-fledged colony of Belgium. U.S. and Belgian soldiers fought together during the Siege of the International Legations in 1900, part of the larger Boxer Rebellion in China (1899-1901).
|
|
Alger in 1900, in a portrait by Percy Ives. On March 5, 1897, Alger was appointed Secretary of War in the Cabinet of U.S. President William McKinley. As Secretary, Alger recommended pay increases for military personnel serving at foreign embassies and legations, legislation to authorize a Second Assistant Secretary of War, and a constabulary force for Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. He was criticized for the inadequate preparation and inefficient operation of the department during the Spanish–American War, especially for his appointment of William R. Shafter as leader of the Cuban expedition.
|
|
The missionary William Scott Ament rescued Smith, 22 other American missionaries and about 100 Chinese Christians in Tongzhou and escorted them to Peking. They took refuge in the Legation Quarter during the siege of the legations from June20 to August14, 1900.Thompson, Larry Clinton. William Scott Ament and the Boxer Rebellion: Heroism, Hubris, and the Ideal Missionary. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2009, 47 Smith’s role in the siege was a minor one as a gate guard, but he gathered material for his book, China in Convulsion, which is the most detailed account of the Boxer Rebellion.
|
|
The opening of these posts prompted New Zealand to establish its own foreign ministry, the Department of External Affairs. Created by the External Affairs Act in June 1943, the new Department incorporated an older office of the same name (dealing with island territories) and those sections of the Prime Minister's office which had previously co-ordinated diplomacy. In 1947, a resident trade representative was appointed in Japan, followed by the establishment of legations in Paris (1949) and The Hague (1950). By the late 1950s, these three posts, along with Washington, had been upgraded to embassies --.
|
|
Ma Fuxiang had served under the Chinese Muslim general Dong Fuxiang, and fought against the foreigners during the Boxer Rebellion.Lipman, Familiar Strangers, p. 169 The Muslim unit he served in was noted for being anti-foreign, being involved in shooting a Westerner and a Japanese to death before the Boxer Rebellion broke out. It was reported that the Muslim troops were going to wipe out the foreigners to return a golden age for China, and the Muslims repeatedly attacked foreign churches, railways, and legations, before hostilities even started.
|
|
OCLC 40298151 Kilbourne served in the Philippine-American War as a second lieutenant in the campaign which captured Manila and included operations in Cavite, Laguna and Bulacan Provinces. He served in the Boxer Rebellion in China and the relief of the Allied legations in Peking and in operations in South Sulu. Kilbourne had five tours of duty in the Philippines. He was responsible for much of the military development of the island fortress of Corregidor. During his third assignment there, from 1908 to 1913, he established the first artillery garrison on Corregidor.
|
|
He was also involved in taking newly constructed river gunboats from the Thames Iron Works to Romania via European waterways. During the First World War he was Romanian Navy liaison officer on the Russian cruiser Rostislav, acting as a shore bombardment director along the Black Sea coast.Ghyka, Matila - The World Mine Oyster, Heinemann, 1961, pp. 184-204 He had joined the diplomatic service in 1909, being stationed at the Romanian Legations in Rome, Berlin, London, Madrid, Paris, Vienna, Stockholm (as Minister Plenipotentiary) and twice again in London between 1936-1938 and between 1939 and 1940.
|
|
Admiral of the Fleet Roger John Brownlow Keyes, 1st Baron Keyes, (4 October 1872 – 26 December 1945) was a Royal Navy officer. As a junior officer he served in a corvette operating from Zanzibar on slavery suppression missions. Early in the Boxer Rebellion, he led a mission to capture a flotilla of four Chinese destroyers moored to a wharf on the Peiho River. He was one of the first men to climb over the Peking walls, to break through to the besieged diplomatic legations and to free them.
|
|
Keats 1965, pp. 201–202. It was simply a matter of diplomatic honor that no one in either the German, Italian or other legations, who knew Parsons' true citizenship status, exposed his masquerade to the Japanese.Keats 1965, pp. 201–202. Their role, as Smith and Parsons immediately explained to Fertig, was to verify that he was actually leading a resistance movement and, if so, was it worth the risk of men and supplies to support him.Keats 1965, pp. 200–203. At the same time, Parsons and Smith brought Fertig some unpleasant orders from MacArthur's headquarters.
|
|
Rights that come with obtaining international legal personality include the right to enter into treaties, right to immunity, right to send and receive legations, and the right to bring international claims to obtain reparation for damages. Those who have international legal personality can sue and be sued, can enter into contracts, can incur debt, and pay various taxes. NGOs with personality are able to participate directly with international bodies and organizations created by legislation and treaties. They are given the ability to fund a cause rather than ask for funding for a cause.
|
|
Gummeré, Chadwick, and his aide, Marine Captain Jerome, tire of the Sultan's perfidy and the meddling of the European powers. They decide to engage in "military intervention" to force a negotiation by seizing the actual seat of power, the Bashaw's palace in Tangier. Jerome's company of Marines, supported by a detachment of sailors, march through the streets of Tangier, much to the surprise of the European legations, whose forces are with the Sultan at distant Fez. They overwhelm the Bashaw's palace guard, taking the Bashaw hostage and forcing him to negotiate.
|
|
That suggested to Werner another connection to Prentice, and a possible motive for the killing. Throughout 1938 and into 1939, Werner continued his investigations. His repeated efforts to get British officials to reopen the case, which many of them saw merely as a pretext to attack them personally over old grudges or what he perceived as their initial failures in the investigation, led to such strain on his relations with them that they ultimately banned him from the Legation Quarter. Despite this, he was able to work with some of the other legations.
|
|
Picture of Muslim soldierpicture of general dong fuxiang On 18 June, Wuwei Rear Division troops stationed at Hunting park in southern Beijing, attacked at the Battle of Langfang. The troops were cavalry – about 5,000 men – armed with new, modern magazine rifles.(Original from Harvard University) Russian marines in the legations were subjected to a massive attack on 23 June by Dong and his Kansu Muslim troops, who had merged with the Boxers. A German marine was killed and the next day on 24 June an American marine was also killed.
|
|
Prior to 1949, the Beijing Legation Quarter was the center of diplomatic activity in the capital. After the foundation of the People's Republic of China, the government wanted to move the diplomatic district outside the inner city. Sanlitun was chosen as the area where foreign legations and embassies were to be reallocated in the late 1950s. The area was called Sanlitun to designate its location from Dongzhimen gate (), with tun meaning 'locality' and san li meanings 'three li' (a li is 0.5 km), so that the name means "locality 1.5 km away (from Dongzhimen Gate)".
|
|
Despite their efforts, they were not able to repel the rebels and had to retreat to first the French and later the British legation. In the meantime, the Belgian legation, which was located in an isolated corner in the Legation Quarter, was plundered and set on fire. On 20 June 1901, the rebels sieged, in collaboration with Imperial Chinese Army, the Legation Quarter and with this act the so-called Siege of the International Legations was put in place. Shortly after the rebels sieged the Legation Quarter, the foreign powers gathered their forces and formed the Eight-Nation Alliance to crush the rebellion '.
|
|
On May 20, 1900, the , a United States Navy protected cruiser and the first modern cruiser in the U.S. fleet, sailed for China to help land reinforcements to relieve the legations under siege by the Boxers at Peking in what is known as the Boxer Rebellion. The Newark arrived at Tientsin on May, 22. On May, 31, Captain John T. Myers, USMC, arrived in Peking in overall command of two ship detachments of U.S. Marines. This newly formed Legation Guard consisted of twenty-five Marines from the along with twenty-three Marines and five sailors from the USS Newark.
|
|
In 1927 he retired on his 50th birthday with the rank of lieutenant colonel. He was attached to the 7th Lancers as part of the No. 57 Native Field Hospital, during the Boxer Rebellion and received the China War Medal for his part in the Siege of the International Legations in Peking, for which he also received the Military Order of the Dragon from the Chinese Government. His scientific work included research on quinine and its salts and he was Surgeon-Naturalist on board R.I.M.S. Investigator. His other scientific interest was the decapod crustaceans of the Indian Ocean.
|
|
The governmental hall of the Republic of Ezo at Goryōkaku, formerly the offices of the Hakodate bugyō On January 27, 1869 (New Style), the independent "Republic of Ezo" was proclaimed, with a government organisation based on that of the United States, with Enomoto elected as its first president (sosai). Voting rights were limited to the samurai class. This was the first election ever held in Japan, where a feudal structure under an Emperor with military warlords was the norm. Through Hakodate Magistrate Nagai Naoyuki, attempts were made to reach out to foreign legations present in Hakodate to obtain international diplomatic recognition.
|
|
Luther Carrington Goodrich was born on September 21, 1894, in Tongzhou, a southeastern suburb of Beijing, where his parents were serving as Protestant missionaries. His father, Chauncey Goodrich (b.1836), had published A Pocket Dictionary (Chinese-English) and Pekingese Syllabary in 1891 and among the nephews of Chauncey's great-grandfather Josiah (born 1731) were a US Senator and US Representative. As a young child, he lived through the Siege of the International Legations in Beijing; he was able to remember some of these events even in his old age, when he must have been one of the last survivors.
|
|
However, the two empresses dowager stuck by the intended date of February 23, 1873.Seagrave, Sterling Dragon Lady: the Life and Legend of the Last Empress of China (Knopf, 1992), pp. 130–131 The day after the Tongzhi Emperor took up the reins of power, the foreign powers requested an audience with the teenage emperor. The request precipitated a sharp disagreement between the ministers at the foreign legations, who made it clear that they would not perform the ritual kowtow to the emperor, and the Zongli Yamen (foreign affairs ministry), regarding the protocol to be observed.
|
|
He was superficially wounded in July but was erroneously reported as killed and the subject of a highly laudatory obituary notice occupying two columns of The Times on 17 July 1900. After a siege of 55 days, the legations were relieved on 14 August 1900 by an army of various nationalities under General Alfred Gaselee. The army then ransacked much of the palaces in Peking, with Morrison taking part in the looting, making off with silks, furs, porcelain and bronzes. When the Russo-Japanese War broke out on 10 February 1904, Morrison became a correspondent with the Japanese army.
|
|
Locations of foreign diplomatic legations and front lines in Beijing during the siege Capture of the Forts at Taku [a.k.a. Dagu], by Fritz Neumann On 15 June, Qing imperial forces deployed electric mines in the River Beihe (Peiho) to prevent the Eight-Nation Alliance from sending ships to attack. With a difficult military situation in Tianjin and a total breakdown of communications between Tianjin and Beijing, the allied nations took steps to reinforce their military presence significantly. On 17 June they took the Dagu Forts commanding the approaches to Tianjin, and from there brought increasing numbers of troops on shore.
|
|
At this news, the other diplomats feared they also would be murdered if they left the legation quarter and they chose to continue to defy the Chinese order to depart Beijing. The legations were hurriedly fortified. Most of the foreign civilians, which included a large number of missionaries and businessmen, took refuge in the British legation, the largest of the diplomatic compounds.Diana Preston, page 87, "A Brief History of the Boxer Rebellion", Chinese Christians were primarily housed in the adjacent palace (Fu) of Prince Su who was forced to abandon his property by the foreign soldiers.
|
|
He help posts in the Prussian Legations at Copenhagen, Mainz, Stockholm, and St Petersburg. In 1807 at the Peace of Tilsit when Napoleon refused to negotiate with Karl August von Hardenberg and demanded his retirement, Goltz signed the treaty in place of Hardenberg and the next year became Minister of Foreign Affairs. Goltz represented Prussia at the Congress of Erfurt in 1808. He was head of the Corporate Governance in Berlin and after the Paris Peace of 1814 he became Oberhofmarschal to the Prussian court, in 1816 the courts representative to the Bundestag, in 1817 member of council of state.
|
|
Nasrollah Entezam was born in Tehran in 1900, he graduated in law and political science at the University of Tehran and the Sorbonne. Like his elder brother, Abdullah Entezam, he joined the Ministry of Foreign Affairs upon completion of his education at the German Technical School and the School of Political Science. Between 1926 and 1929, he was Secretary to the Iranian Legations in Paris, Warsaw, and London. He represented his Government at the World Economic Conference in London in 1933, and at the League of Nations; from 1934 to 1938 he was Iran's Chargé d'Affaires at Berne.
|
|
The Braves, who wore traditional uniforms but were armed with modern rifles and artillery, played an important role in 1900 during the Boxer Rebellion. After helping to repel the Seymour Expedition, a multinational foreign force sent from Tianjin to relieve the Beijing Legation Quarter in early June, the Muslim troops were the fiercest attackers during the siege of the legations from 20 June to 14 August. They suffered heavy casualties at the Battle of Peking, in which the Eight-Nation Alliance relieved the siege. The Kansu Braves then guarded the Imperial Court on their journey to Xi'an.
|
|
That same year, both nations opened resident diplomatic legations in each countries capitals, respectively. During the early years of their diplomatic relations, Mexico and France were not always on friendly terms, particularly with the beginning of the Pastry War (November 1838 - March 1839), known also as the First French intervention in Mexico; where France invaded Mexico in order to collect re- compensation for property damaged and or looted by Mexican forces. During the war, France (with the assistance of the United States) blockaded Mexican ports thus crippling the economy. Three months later, Mexico agreed to pay France 600,000 pesos in compensation.
|
|
Many civilians fled in anticipation of a battle, though Minister of Commerce Muhammad Bakhit declared that they had to return within two days or have their property "reallocated". Most of the students at Makerere University went to their family homes outside the city. Kampala District Commissioner Wahib Muhammed claimed that a week before the Tanzanian attack Amin ordered all soldiers in the Kampala garrison to evacuate their families, and that most of the army subsequently withdrew "with a lot of discipline". On 8 April the Soviet Union's diplomats evacuated to Kenya in a convoy, accompanied by the personnel of other Eastern bloc legations.
|
|
Bloomsbury Publishing USA, 2000, , pg. 370. This and the contrasting lease-in-perpetuity of Kowloon created some problems in the negotiations for the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration. In 1899 MacDonald was the author of a diplomatic note which proposed a new delineation of the border between China and British India in the Karakoram and Aksai Chin areas, which has come to be called the Macartney–MacDonald Line. As a military man, MacDonald led the defence of the foreign legations in 1900 which were under siege during the Boxer Rebellion, and he worked well with the Anglophile Japanese Colonel Shiba Goro.
|
|
The Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd could pursue its expansionist policy by British arms supplies because of its close relations with the United Kingdom. Under Ibn Saud, the Hejaz withdrew from the League of Nations. In 1926, the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd was recognised by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, followed by the United States of America in 1931. By 1932, the United Kingdom, the USSR, Turkey, the Imperial State of Iran and The Netherlands maintained legations in Jeddah; The French Third Republic, the Kingdom of Italy and the Kingdom of Egypt maintained unofficial consular representatives.
|
|
Coste entered the Romanian diplomatic service in 1933 and was secretary and later counsellor for the Romanian legations in Paris and London. Subsequently, he was chargé d'affaires in Washington and Lisbon. Between 1940 and 1947 he reported regularly to Romania on the position concerning the funds of the Romanian National Bank in the United States and the activities of the Swedish legation in Washington who looked after Romanian interest in the U.S. during the Second World War and immediately afterwards. In 1945, when the communists came to power in Romania after the end of the war, Coste did not support the new regime.
|
|
Barton entered the Diplomatic Service in the Chinese Consular Service on 16 September 1895 and was posted to the legation in Peking as a student interpreter. From 1899 to 1901 he was posted on special service to the British territory of Weihaiwei. When the Boxer Rebellion erupted in 1900 culminating in the siege of the foreign legations, Barton took part in the Eight-Nation Alliance relief efforts as an interpreter and assistant political officer and was awarded the China War Medal for his actions. On 14 November 1901 he was appointed Vice-Consul to the Consul in Tienstin, Lionel Charles Hopkins.
|
|
Seymour commandeered five trains in Tianjin and departed for Beijing with his entire force on the morning of June 10. On the first day, the soldiers travelled 25 miles without incident, crossing a bridge at Yancun over the Hai River unopposed; although Chinese Gen. Nie Shicheng and thousands of his soldiers were camped there, Nie's soldiers were friendly and did not attack. Nie had let Seymour's army slip past because he had deliberately been issued contradictory orders by Ronglu, a Manchu political and military leader who was working to derail the efforts to capture the legations.
|
|
Hakim Workneh returned to Ethiopia towards the end of 1908, serving as the medical officer to the British legation at Addis Ababa. Upon his return, he found the elderly emperor in poor health, and "attended to by competing doctors who reflected the rival interests of their legations." Following the dismissal of the German physician, Dr. Zintgraff, who had been accused of attempting to poison the Emperor, Hakim Workneh became Menelik's attending physician at the request of the monarch August 1909, and remained in his service until a year before Menelik's death in 1913.Bahru Zewde, Pioneers, p.
|
|
The "Winds Code" is a confused military intelligence episode relating to the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, especially the advance-knowledge debate claiming that the attack was expected. The Winds Code was an instruction from Tokyo to Japanese legations worldwide that diplomatic relations were in danger of being ruptured. While the code was set up, the problem is whether the code was ever transmitted or not. Amid all the other indicators of approaching conflict, it seems likely that the message was never sent, or at least never recorded at a high level in the US command structure.
|
|
In 1864, a memorandum for the foreign settlement at Yokohama was signed by the Tokugawa shogunate with the legations of the main trading nations permitting the extension of the cemetery area to the top of the Bluff opposite the Anglican Christ Church. On the weekends of the spring, summer and fall (from noon to 4:00 p.m.), the cemetery is opened up to the public for a small donation to help with the upkeep of the premises. Visitors will get a small pamphlet showing graves of interest, and they can also view the museum at the site.
|
|
He recruited Baránszki to help protect Jews at risk of being sent to the death camps. Rotta provided Baránszki with letters of protection, baptismal, and immigration certificates, and over the next 70 days Baránszki used them to save thousands of Jews in imminent danger of being sent to their death. Two weeks later, Rotta appointed Baránszki as the executive secretary of the Vatican's Jewish Protection Movement in Hungary, serving as a direct emissary of the Papal Nuncio. As head of the Jewish Protection Movement, he soon met other neutral legations at Gresham Palace near the Chain Bridge.
|
|
Fleming Duncan Cheshire Fleming Duncan Cheshire (March 4, 1849 – June 13, 1922), also known as Fleming D. Cheshire, was an American businessman, foreign language interpreter and Consul-General of the United States to China. As the Chinese Secretary to legation during the Boxer Rebellion, Cheshire and other western diplomatic legations were under siege in Beijing until rescued by the China Relief Expedition. In the rebellion's aftermath, Cheshire was instrumental in the adoption of America's first educational exchange program with ChinaU.S.- China Educational Exchange: State, Society, and Intercultural Relations, 1905-1950 by Hongshan Li, Rutgers University Press, 2008 p.
|
|
The Treaty of Tientsin, now also known as the Treaty of Tianjin, is a collective name for several documents signed at Tianjin (then romanized as Tientsin) in June 1858. They ended the first phase of the Second Opium War, which had begun in 1856. The Qing, Russian, and Second French Empires, the Great Britain, and the United States were the parties involved. These treaties, counted by the Chinese among the so-called unequal treaties, opened more Chinese ports to foreign trade, permitted foreign legations in the Chinese capital Beijing, allowed Christian missionary activity, and effectively legalized the import of opium.
|
|
Edgardo Levi Mortara, the sixth of eight children born to Salomone "Momolo" Mortara, a Jewish merchant, and his wife Marianna (née Padovani), was born on 27 August 1851 in Bologna, one of the Papal Legations in the pontifical state's far north. The family had moved in 1850 from the Duchy of Modena, just west of Bologna. Bologna's Jewish population of about 900 had been expelled in 1593 by Pope Clement VIII. Some Jews, mostly merchants like Edgardo's father, had started to settle in Bologna again during the 1790s, and by 1858 there was a Jewish community of about 200 in the city.
|
|
However, with the retreat of the Germans in 1944–1945, Soviet hegemony was re-established and continued for forty-five years. As a result, many western countries continued to recognize Lithuania as an independent, sovereign de jure state subject to international law, represented by the legations appointed by the pre-1940 Baltic states, which functioned in various places through the Lithuanian Diplomatic Service. On 18 May 1989, the Lithuanian SSR declared itself to be a sovereign state, though still part of the USSR. On 11 March 1990, the Republic of Lithuania was re-established as an independent state.
|
|
In 1900, Li once more played a major diplomatic role in negotiating a settlement with the Eight-Nation Alliance forces which had invaded Beijing to put down the Boxer Rebellion. His early position was that the Qing Empire was making a mistake by supporting the Boxers against the foreign powers. During the Siege of the International Legations, Sheng Xuanhuai and other provincial officials suggested that the Qing imperial court give Li full diplomatic power to negotiate with foreign powers. Li telegraphed back to Sheng Xuanhuai on 25 June, describing the declaration of war a "false edict".
|
|
The famous castrato Farinelli caricatured in one of his female roles Until the late 17th century in England and the late 18th century in the Papal StatesThe ban on women performing on stage was imposed by Pope Sixtus V in 1588. It was never legally enforceable in the Legations (Bologna, Ferrara and the Romagna) and was occasionally disapplied in Rome too, in particular from 1669 (during the papacy of erstwhile librettist Clement IX) to 1676, at the instigation of Queen Christina of Sweden, who was a fan of opera (Celletti, Rodolfo (2000). La grana della voce. Opere, direttori e cantanti (2nd edition).
|
|
In 1935, he started the construction of a villa, which he named after Ariogala, in Roquebrune-Cap- Martin, located next to Monaco in the South of France. At the end of 1937, he was reassigned to Riga, Latvia, where he served for a little less than a year before moving to Geneva, Switzerland, to work as the Lithuanian representative to the League of Nations. During his tenure, Germany ultimatum forced Lithuania to give up the Klaipėda Region (Memelland) in March 1939. At the end of 1939, two Lithuanian legations in Geneva and Bern were consolidated, leaving Jurgis Šaulys in Switzerland and moving Savickis to Kaunas.
|
|
On 12 June 1940, according to the director of the Russian State Archive of the Naval Department Pavel Petrov (C.Phil.), the order for total military blockade of Estonia was given to the Soviet Baltic Fleet. Pavel Petrov at Finnish Defence Forces home pagedocuments published from the State Archive of the Russian Navy On 14 June, the Soviet military blockade of Estonia went into effect while the world's attention was focused on the fall of Paris to Nazi Germany. Two Soviet bombers downed a Finnish passenger airplane "Kaleva" flying from Tallinn to Helsinki carrying three diplomatic pouches from the U.S. legations in Tallinn, Riga and Helsinki.
|
|
Returning to Rome in March 1848, Bedini replaced the Cardinal Secretary of State Giacomo Antonelli, from 10 March 1848 until November 1848 following Pius IX when he was forced into exile in Gaeta, by the Roman Republic (1849) revolution in Rome. Once the Pope had recovered his temporal power, Bedini continued his job of Papal Nuncio and commissioner in the Legations and ambassador to Bologna from 1849 to 1852. Just at the beginning of that period, Ugo Bassi was captured at Comacchio and executed on 8 August 1849 in Bologna by the Austrians. Many patriots accused Bedini of nonintervention in order to save himself.
|
|
A > witness was sent from each of the foreign legations. We were seven > foreigners in all. After another profound obeisance, Taki Zenzaburo, in a > voice which betrayed just so much emotion and hesitation as might be > expected from a man who is making a painful confession, but with no sign of > either in his face or manner, spoke as follows: Bowing once more, the > speaker allowed his upper garments to slip down to his girdle, and remained > naked to the waist. Carefully, according to custom, he tucked his sleeves > under his knees to prevent himself from falling backwards; for a noble > Japanese gentleman should die falling forwards.
|
|
Giuseppe Garibaldi Thus, by early 1860, only five states remained in Italy—the Austrians in Venetia, the Papal States (now minus the Legations), the new expanded Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and San Marino. Francis II of the Two Sicilies, the son and successor of Ferdinand II (the infamous "King Bomba"), had a well-organized army of 150,000 men. But his father's tyranny had inspired many secret societies, and the kingdom's Swiss mercenaries were unexpectedly recalled home under the terms of a new Swiss law that forbade Swiss citizens to serve as mercenaries. This left Francis with only his mostly unreliable native troops.
|
|
At noon on 1 September Radio Luxembourg announced that in order for the country to remain unambiguously neutral it would cease broadcasting. Exceptions were a daily 20 minute-long message at midday and in the evening reserved for government announcements. For the rest of the month, the government supplied full transcripts of its broadcasts to the foreign legations in the country. Later that day several German stations posed as Radio Luxembourg by broadcasting in the Luxembourgian wavelength, making, in the opinion of United States Chargé d'Affaires George Platt Waller, "grossly unneutral announcements". On the evening of 21 September, the Grand Ducal government suspended all broadcasts pending the resolution of the war.
|
|
A total of 473 foreign civilians, 409 soldiers, marines and sailors from eight countries, and about 3,000 Chinese Christians took refuge there. Under the command of the British minister to China, Claude Maxwell MacDonald, the legation staff and military guards defended the compound with small arms, three machine guns, and one old muzzle-loaded cannon, which was nicknamed the International Gun because the barrel was British, the carriage Italian, the shells Russian and the crew American. Chinese Christians in the legations led the foreigners to the cannon and it proved important in the defence. Also under siege in Beijing was the Northern Cathedral (Beitang) of the Catholic Church.
|
|
In the spring of 1900, Chinese xenophobia fueled by increasing foreign political and economic influence, including the expanding presence of foreign missionaries increased until it culminated in the Boxer Rebellion. Some Chinese Imperial troops, supporting the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists (the Boxers) besieged the foreign legations at Peking and at Tientsin. An international relief force from eight nations was sent to relieve the siege. As part of the United States Navy's force assigned to the campaign, the gunboat , sister-ship of the , was withdrawn from her patrol duties in the northern Philippines to provide assistance to the operations off the coast of North China.
|
|
Treaty between the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic and the Republic of Lithuania on the Basis for Relations between States Most Western governments maintained that Baltic sovereignty had not been legitimately overridden and thus continued to recognise the Baltic states as sovereign political entities represented by the legations—appointed by the pre-1940 Baltic states—which functioned in Washington and elsewhere. The Baltic states recovered de facto independence in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Russia started to withdraw its troops from the Baltics (starting from Lithuania) in August 1993. The full withdrawal of troops deployed by Moscow ended in August 1994.
|
|
Piazza Navona (17th century) Map of Rome from Topographia Italiae, published by Matthaeus Merian's heirs in 1688. In the 18th century, the Papacy reached the peak of its temporal power, the Papal States including most of Central Italy, including Latium, Umbria, Marche and the Legations of Ravenna, Ferrara and Bologna extending north into the Romagna, as well as the small enclaves of Benevento and Pontecorvo in southern Italy and the larger Comtat Venaissin around Avignon in southern France. Baroque and Rococo architecture flourished in Rome, with several famous works being completed. Work on the Trevi Fountain began in 1732 and was completed in 1762.
|
|
In 1868, when the allies were pressing him hard, he convinced himself that his Paraguayan supporters had actually formed a conspiracy against his life. Thereupon, several hundred prominent Paraguayan citizens were seized and executed by his order, including his brothers and brothers-in-law, cabinet ministers, judges, prefects, military officers, bishops and priests, and nine-tenths of the civil officers, together with more than two hundred foreigners, among them several members of the diplomatic legations (the San Fernando massacres). During this time, he also had his 70-year-old mother flogged and ordered her execution, because she revealed to him that he had been born out of wedlock.
|
|
Between July and August 1900, Pelliot was caught up in the siege of the foreign legations during the Boxer Rebellion. At one point, during a ceasefire, Pelliot made a daring one-man foray to the rebels' headquarters, where he used his boldness and fluency in Mandarin to impress the besiegers into giving him fresh fruit for those inside the legation. For his conduct during the siege, as well as for capturing an enemy flag during the fighting, he was awarded the Légion d'Honneur upon his return to Hanoi. In 1901, when only 23 years old, Pelliot was made a professor of Chinese at the EFEO.
|
|
The neutral powers led a major rescue effort and Pius' representative, Angelo Rotta, took the lead in establishing an "international Ghetto", marked by the emblems of the Swiss, Swedish, Portuguese, Spanish and Vatican legations, and providing shelter for some 25,000 Jews.Martin Gilbert; The Righteous – The Unsung Heroes of the Holocaust; Doubleday; 2002; ; p. 337 In Rome, some 4,000 Italian Jews and escaped prisoners of war avoided deportation, many of them hidden in safe houses or evacuated from Italy by a resistance group organized by the Irish- born priest and Vatican official Hugh O'Flaherty. Msgr. O'Flaherty used his political connections to help secure sanctuary for dispossessed Jews.
|
|
55 Days at Peking is a 1963 American epic historical war film dramatizing siege of the foreign legations' compounds in Peking (now known as Beijing) during the Boxer Rebellion, which took place in China from 1898 to 1900. It is produced by Samuel Bronston for Allied Artists, with a screenplay by Philip Yordan and Bernard Gordon with uncredited contributions from Robert Hamer, Julian Halevy, and Ben Barzman. Noel Gerson wrote a screenplay novelization, under the pseudonym Samuel Edwards, in 1963. The film was directed primarily by Nicholas Ray, although Guy Green and Andrew Marton took over in the latter stages of filming after Ray had fallen ill.
|
|
With 13 of China's 18 provinces forced into territorial concessions by those colonial powers, frustration over foreign encroachment boils over when the Empress encourages the Boxers to attack all foreigners in Peking and the rest of China. When the Empress condones the assassination of the German ambassador and "suggests" the foreigners leave, a violent siege of Peking's foreign legations district erupts. Peking's foreign embassies are gripped by terror, as the Boxers, supported by Imperial troops, set about killing Christians in an anti-western nationalistic fever. The head of the US military garrison is US Marine Major Matt Lewis, an experienced China hand who knows local conditions well.
|
|
On the morning of 11 June, the British sent a large convoy of carts to greet the Seymour Expedition. The procession safely passed through the areas occupied by the Gansu troops inside the walled city and soon reached the Majiapu (Machiapu) train station south of Beijing, where the relief troops were expected to arrive soon. Except that it they never arrived, and the carts had to head back to the legations. A smaller Italian delegation guarded by a few riflemen narrowly escaped Dong Fuxiang's soldiers, who were lining up to block Beijing's main southern gate the Yongding Gate, but also managed to return safely.
|
|
Cultural, scientific, and educational exchanges were initiated, and in 1964 the legations of both nations were promoted to full embassies. After Communist Party General Secretary Nicolae Ceaușescu began to distance Romania from Soviet foreign policy, as in Romania's continued diplomatic relations with Israel and denunciation of the 1968 Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, President Richard Nixon paid an official visit to Romania in August 1969. Despite political differences, dimplomacy continued between US and Romanian leaders throughout the 1970s, culminating in the 1978 state visit to Washington by President Ceauşescu and his wife. In 1972, a consular convention to facilitate the protection of citizens and their property in both countries was signed.
|
|
In February 1944 the American Note crisis took place when the American minister to Ireland, David Gray, dispatched a communiqué to Éamon de Valera demanding the closure of legations belonging to the Axis powers in Dublin. Fearing this to be the diplomatic prelude to an invasion of Ireland by the Allies, the Irish government placed the army on high alert and rushed troops to the border. As a result the two Allied governments were forced to clarify that the communiqué had been a request rather than an ultimatum and that they had no intention of violating Irish neutrality.Caoimhe Nic Dháibhéid, Seán MacBride: A Republican Life, 1904-1946, p.
|
|
Between May and June 1940, the Baltic governments reached a secret decision that in the event of an emergency, the powers of government to appoint and recall diplomatic and consular representatives were assigned to the heads of the respective legations in the event that connection with the governments was lost. After the Soviet occupation in 1940, Soviet authorities attempted to have missions turned over and the diplomatic representatives return home. Draconian laws were promulgated in 1940 to induce compliance; the diplomats who refused to return were declared outlaws with the penalty of death by shooting within 24 hours of their capture.Mälksoo (2003), p. 142.
|
|
Upon the death of Secretary of State Walter Q. Gresham, Cleveland named Olney to the position on June 10, 1895. Olney quickly elevated US foreign diplomatic posts to the title of embassy, officially raising the status of the United States to one of the world's greater nations. (Until then, the United States had had only Legations, which diplomatic protocol dictated be treated as inferior to embassies.) Olney took a prominent role in the boundary dispute between the British and Venezuelan governments. In his correspondence with Lord Salisbury, he gave an extended interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine that went considerably beyond previous statements on the subject, now known as the Olney interpretation.
|
|
Cultural, scientific, and educational exchanges were initiated, and in 1964 the legations of both nations were promoted to full embassies. In March 2005, President Traian Băsescu made his first official visit to Washington to meet with President Bush, Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, and other senior U.S. officials. In December 2005, Secretary Rice visited Bucharest to meet with President Băsescu and to sign a bilateral defense cooperation agreement that would allow for the joint use of Romanian military facilities by U.S. troops. The first proof of principle exercise took place at Mihail Kogălniceanu Air Base from August to October 2007.
|
|
A decision was thus taken to attack the Ottoman Empire on both fronts, but Balbi took more than one year to return to the Iranian Empire, and by that time the situation had changed in Safavid Iran, as Iran was forced to make peace with the Ottoman Empire because of an insurrection of the Shaybanid Uzbeks. About the same time, envoys were also sent to Iran by King Ferdinand, in the person of Pietro da Negro and Simon de Lillis, without success. Other legations were sent in 1532 and 1533. These exchanges were effectively followed however by the long Ottoman-Safavid War (1532–1555).
|
|
Drawing from 1850 St. Ansgar's Cathedral by H. G. F. Holm The first Catholic congregations in Denmark after the Protestant reformation were centered on foreign legations. Starting with the one formed by the Spanish diplomat (and poet) Count Bernardino de Rebolledo, who served in Denmark between 1648 and 1659, continuous church registers were kept. From its original location at de Rebolledo's residence on Østergade the chapel moved around between various legation addresses, but in 1764 it settled at the present location on what is now Bredgade. For some time the Austrian legation had been the main supporter of the congregation, and the new chapel was financed by Empress Maria Theresia.
|
|
Sir Ronald Hugh Campbell (27 September 1883 – 15 November 1953) was a British diplomat who held several important positions including that of British ambassador to France from July 1939 to 22 June 1940, when the armistice between Germany and France was signed at Compiègne.Campbell, Rt Hon. Sir Ronald Hugh, Who Was Who, A & C Black, 1920–2016 (online edition, Oxford University Press, 2014) He was appointed British ambassador in Paris from the post of British envoy to Yugoslavia, a considerable jump in promotion that was extremely rare in the diplomatic service. Such an important position is normally reserved for diplomats who have passed through several legations and other embassies.
|
|
Thornton's choice of location, at a time when Dupont Circle was still almost entirely undeveloped, may be considered the origin of Embassy Row as a diplomatic neighborhood. In the first three decades of the 20th Century, several European legations gathered farther North-East, on a section of 16th Street near Meridian Hill Park. This area was specifically developed by local resident Mary Foote Henderson to attract embassies, and she even aimed at having the residences of the U.S. President and Vice-President relocated there. However, the neighborhood was hit by the Great Depression, and Embassy Row became a comparatively more attractive location for diplomats starting in the 1930s.
|
|
In 1897, taking advantage of the murder of two missionaries, Germany demanded and was given a set of mining and railroad rights around Jiaozhou Bay in Shandong province. In 1898, Russia obtained access to Dairen and Port Arthur and the right to build a railroad across Manchuria, thereby achieving complete domination over a large portion of northeast China. The United Kingdom, France, and Japan also received a number of concessions later that year. The erosion of Chinese sovereignty contributed to a spectacular anti-foreign outbreak in June 1900, when the "Boxers" (properly the society of the "righteous and harmonious fists") attacked foreign legations in Beijing.
|
|
The Portuguese Ambassador in Budapest, Carlos Sampaio Garrido and the Chargé d'Affaires Carlos de Liz-Texeira Branquinho, under Salazar's direct supervision, helped an estimated 1,000 Hungarian Jews in 1944. They rented houses and apartments in the outskirts of Budapest to shelter and protect refugees from deportation and murder. On April 28, 1944, when the Hungarian secret police (counterparts to the Gestapo) raided the Ambassador's home and arrested his guests, the Ambassador physically resisted the police and was also arrested, but he managed to have his guests released on the grounds of ex-territorially of diplomatic legations. In 2010 Sampaio Garrido was recognized as Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem.
|
|
Bilateral relations between Russia and Thailand date to the late nineteenth century, when the Russian Tsar Nicholas II and King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) of Siam (as Thailand was then known) formed a friendly personal relationship. The two countries exchanged legations in 1897–1898, and signed a Treaty of Friendship and Maritime Navigation in 1899. Diplomatic relations were terminated following the Russian Revolution in 1917, and re-established between the Soviet Union and Thailand on March 12, 1941; Thailand recognized Russian Federation as the successor to Soviet Union on December 28, 1991. Russia has an embassy in Bangkok and two honorary consulates in Phuket and Pattaya.
|
|
The Russian invasion of Manchuria occurred in the aftermath of the First Sino- Japanese War (1894–1895) when concerns regarding China's defeat by the Japanese and the latter's occupation of Manchuria caused the Russians to speed up their long held designs for imperial expansion across Eurasia. With the building of the South Manchuria Railway, Mukden (now known as Shenyang) became a Russian stronghold, which occupied it after the Boxer Rebellion.(Original from Harvard University)(Original from the University of Michigan) As with all other major powers in China, Russia demanded concessions along with the railroad. During the Boxer Rebellion, Russia became involved due to its presence in the foreign legations.
|
|
In 1900, the anti-colonial Boxer Rebellion (August 1899 – September 1901) reinforced the racist stereotypes of East Asians as a Yellow Peril to white people. The Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists (the Boxers) was a xenophobic martial-arts organization who blamed the problems of China on the presence of Western colonies in China proper. The Boxers sought to save China by killing every Western colonist and Chinese Christian – Westernized Chinese people.Preston, Diana The Boxer Rebellion, New York: Berkley Books, 2000 In early summer of 1900, Prince Zaiyi allowed the Boxers into Beijing, to kill Western colonists and Chinese Christians, in siege to the foreign legations.
|
|
After this strange schooling for a future cardinal, Charles went to Rome when he was twenty and entered the Academia Ecclesiastica, where ecclesiastics intending to be candidates for public offices receive a special training. An essay of his attracted the attention of the Secretary of State, della Somaglia, and Pope Leo XII made him a chamberlain and attaché to the Paris Nunciature, where he had the best opportunity to become acquainted with diplomacy. Pope Pius VIII recalled him and named him vice-legate, granting him choice of any of the four legations over which cardinals presided. He chose Bologna as affording most opportunity for improvement.
|
|
Bailey joined the Royal Navy as a cadet in the training ship HMS Britannia in September 1896.Sir Sidney Robert Bailey Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives As a midshipman in HMS Centurion, he took part in the Seymour Expedition for the relief of Peking legations in 1900 during the Boxer Rebellion, for which he was mentioned in dispatches. He was promoted to acting sub-lieutenant on 27 August 1901 and subsequently confirmed in that rank from the same date. In November 1902 he was posted to the protected cruiser HMS Doris, but was first lent for a couple of weeks to HMS Hogue for sea-trials.
|
|
Only fourteen years after his first application at the Belgian ministry of foreign affairs, Joostens was promoted in the winter of 1899 to the rank of Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary at the court of the Chinese emperor and the king of Siam. When Joostens arrived in Peking to replace baron Carl de Vinck de Deux-Orp, he ended up in the so-called Legation Quarter. This was the diplomatic compound south of the Forbidden City where all the foreign legations were situated and in which there was a very distinctive diplomatic culture with its own practices and rules. In this context, Joostens could rely on a competent team of Belgian lower-ranking diplomats and officials.
|
|
The location of the Belgian Legation in the Legation Quarter during the Siege of the International Legations in the summer of 1900. Shortly after Joostens' arrival, the Boxer Rebellion, of which the first features showed in the winter of 1899, would reach its peak. This rebellion had anti- foreign, anti-Christian and mystical features and had among other things its origins in a crop failure in 1899, decades of frustrations about the Western presence in China and the chaos and internal struggles at the Chinese court following the failed Hundred Days' Reform. The wrath of the rebels was first aimed at Chinese Christians but later faced towards the foreign presence in China.
|
|
Great Britain favored the idea, but Russia opposed it; France, Germany, Italy and Japan agreed in principle, but only if all the other nations signed on. American soldiers scale the walls of Beijing to relieve the Siege of the International Legations, August 1900 American missionaries were threatened and trade with China became imperiled as the Boxer Rebellion of 1900 menaced foreigners and their property in China.Diana Preston, The Boxer Rebellion: The Dramatic story of China's war on foreigners that shook the world in the summer of 1900 (Bloomsbury, 2000). Americans and other westerners in Peking were besieged and, in cooperation with other western powers, McKinley ordered 5000 troops to the city in June 1900 in the China Relief Expedition.
|
|
When Boxers entered Beijing, the Qing government ordered all foreigners to leave, but they and many Chinese Christians were besieged in the foreign legations quarter. An Eight-Nation Alliance sent the Seymour Expedition of Japanese, Russian, British, Italian, German, French, American, and Austrian troops to relieve the siege, but they were forced to retreat by Boxer and Qing troops at the Battle of Langfang. After the Alliance's attack on the Dagu Forts, the court declared war on the Alliance and authorized the Boxers to join with imperial armies. After fierce fighting at Tientsin, the Alliance formed the second, much larger Gaselee Expedition and finally reached Beijing; the Empress Dowager evacuated to Xi'an.
|
|
During World War I, her elder sister and then- Grand Duchess Marie-Adélaïde had elected to stay during Germany's occupation of the country, bringing the monarchy into disrepute; Charlotte wanted to avoid such problems. The government moved some of the country's gold reserves to Belgium, and began stockpiling funds in its Brussels and Paris legations in the event it was forced to flee due to German attack. The Paris legation was also given a sealed envelope detailing a formal request of military assistance from the French government in case communications from the mainland were cut- off in an invasion. After several false alarms in the spring of 1940, the probability of a military conflict between Germany and France grew.
|
|
Seventy American missionaries (including spouses and children) and a large number of British missionaries took refuge in the British legation in Beijing during the Siege of the International Legations. All of them survived the siege, although British missionary, Joseph Stonehouse, was killed in the aftermath of the siege, the last missionary to die in the Boxer Rebellion.Thompson, Larry Clinton (1909), William Scott Ament and the Boxer Rebellion: Heroism, Hubris, and the Ideal Missionary, Jefferson, NC: MacFarland Publishing, pp. 200, 221-222 The decapitation of missionary and Yale graduate Horace Tracy Pitkin in Baoding led to the founding of the Yale China Mission, the papers of which remain a significant research source concerning early 20th century Chinese history.
|
|
Although referred to as a "Maxim" gun, the 1893 could have easily been mistaken for such due to its brass water jacket. A 1901 photograph below shows the gun with such a brass water jacket on a light landing carriage with ammunition boxes mounted on the carriage, typical of Naval landing carriage mountings. This photograph shows the Salvator Dormus 1893 Machine gun in its optimum configuration before changes made in 1902 with the new model. This gun on a landing carriage and shield like this was most likely the configuration used by the Austro-Hungarian bluejackets (sailors) from the Cruiser Zenta during the defense of siege of the Peking Legations in 1900 during the Boxer Rebellion.
|
|
Prime Minister Yamagata likewise concurred, but others in the cabinet demanded that there be guarantees from the British in return for the risks and costs of a major deployment of Japanese troops. On July 6, the 5th Infantry Division was alerted for possible deployment to China, but without a timetable being set. Two days later, on July 8, with more ground troops urgently needed to lift the siege of the foreign legations at Peking, the British ambassador offered the Japanese government one million British pounds in exchange for Japanese participation. Shortly afterward, advance units of the 5th Division departed for China, bringing Japanese strength to 3,800 personnel, of the then-17,000 allied force.
|
|
Dupuy became the chargé d'affaires for the Canadian legations for France, Belgium and the Netherlands. On 2 November 1940, the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Halifax, asked the Canadian government to allow Dupuy to visit Vichy so as to "make an informal report on [the] present situation [there] which would be of considerable value". Mackenzie King, the Canadian prime minister, quickly agreed "in the hope that such a visit would aid in some measure in throwing light on the present uncertainty and in establishing more friendly relations between the Government of France and the British Commonwealth". Dupuy thus visited France three times between November 1940 and August 1941, and reported back to the Allies.
|
|
Sensationalist American newspapers initially reported, in screaming headlines, that Conger was "undoubtedly dead," together with his staff consisting of H. G. Squires, William E. Bainbridge and Fleming D. Cheshire as well as all other foreigners in Beijing. Americans and other westerners retreated to the Beijing Legation Quarter, where they were under siege for fifty-five days (see. Siege of the International Legations) until the Eight-Nation Alliance brought 20,000 troops to their rescue. After receiving a hero's welcome on return to the United States in 1901,"Mr. Conger in Iowa," New York Times, 1901-05-02 at p. 9. Conger resumed his duties in China for several more years, serving until 1905.
|
|
Kabul is reduced to a state of siege, and the king and queen judge it prudent to retire within the Arg, the fortified part of the palace. Although the rebels disclaim any hostility to the members of the British legation, the legation buildings, which are situated outside of the town in the zone of fighting, suffer damage from stray shots. The position being regarded as dangerous, five British aeroplanes on December 23 fly across from Peshawar and take off all the women and children to the number of about a dozen. Between that date and the end of the year the women and children from the other legations are rescued in a similar manner.
|
|
The Kamehameha Dynasty was the reigning monarchy of the Hawaiian Kingdom, beginning with its founding by Kamehameha I in 1795, until the death of Kamehameha V in 1872 and Lunalilo in 1874. On July 6, 1846, U.S. Secretary of State John C. Calhoun, on behalf of President Tyler, formally recognized Hawaii's independence under the reign of Kamehameha III. As a result of the recognition of Hawaiian independence, the Hawaiian Kingdom entered into treaties with the major nations of the world and established over ninety legations and consulates in multiple seaports and cities. The kingdom would continue for another 21 years until its overthrow in 1893 with the fall of the House of Kalākaua.
|
|
During the 55-day siege, most civilians of the various foreign legations took refuge in the British Compound, which was larger and more easily defended than the rest. Cheshire was said to have displayed courageous and inspiring conduct within the walls of the compound joining a group of about 150 men to defend it. In the weeks ahead more violent attacks ensued and by late June, American newspapers were reporting that Congers, Cheshire, and all other Americans in Peking had been killed. By July 14, with more than one third of the legation killed or wounded, the Chinese government forwarded a conciliatory response thus marking the beginning to the end of the rebellion.
|
|
Relaciones Bilaterales entre Argentina y las Filipinas (in Spanish) In May 1960, both nations diplomatic legations were elevated to the rank of embassy. In July 1986, President Raúl Alfonsín became the first Argentine head of state to visit the Philippines. In October 1995, Argentine President Carlos Menem also paid a visit to the Philippines. In September 1999, Philippine President, Joseph Estrada, paid a state visit to Argentina, becoming the first Philippine head-of-state to visit the South American nation. In September 2012, Argentine Foreign Minister, Hector Timerman, paid a visit to the Philippines and met with President Benigno Aquino III to discuss the broadening of the two countries’ relations and possible people and cultural engagements.
|
|
Hai Tien had a very brief and uneventful career in the Qing Navy. Shortly after the start of Boxer Rebellion which plunged China into chaos, the Beiyang Fleet was sent to reinforce the Dagu forts on 31 May 1900. During this time there was an uneasy state of high alert between the increasing number of foreign warships and the Chinese fleet, although tensions were high no shots were fired between the two sides. Eventually on 16 June 1900, the twenty-three ships of the Eight-Nation Alliance anchored off Dagu made an ultimatum to the fort, demanding its surrender to the allied fleet in order to relieve the Siege of the International Legations in the capital, Beijing.
|
|
Hudson first entered court as a page to George III. In 1830 he became clerk to the Lord Chamberlain and, between 1831 and 1837, usher to Queen Adelaide, consort of William IV. Between 1830 and 1837 he was secretary to Sir Herbert Taylor, the private secretary to William IV. At the accession of Victoria, he, with other officials from the court of William IV, left Windsor Castle. Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston appointed Hudson as secretary to successive British Legations: Washington (1838), The Hague (1845), and to Rio de Janeiro, where, in 1850, he became Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. He was posted to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, and in 1852, to Turin.
|
|
The university would have a profound impact on the intellectual and political history of the city. In 1898, a millenarian group called the Righteous Harmony Society Movement rebelled in Shandong Province in reaction to Western imperialist expansion into China.Li, Dray-Novey & Kong 2007: 119–120 They attacked Westerners especially missionaries and converted Chinese, and were called the "Boxers" by Westerners. The Qing court initially suppressed the Boxers but the Empress Dowager attempted to use them to curtail foreign influence and permitted them to gather in Beijing, then expelled the Boxers from the city after ransacking occurred and ordered the foreigners in the legations to leave to Tianjin, which they refused to do.
|
|
"Diálogo con Mariano Brull." Revista de la Universidad de México. Ciudad de México: Universidad de México. vol II. p.24. In 1934 his third book of poetry, Canto redondo, was brought out in Paris. He was stationed in Rome between 1934 and 1937 where fascism was alive and thriving. After moving to Brussels (for the second time) at the end of the 1930s, Brull was in charge of attending to the many German Jews who, seeking visas to emigrate, had lined up before the legations and embassies of numerous countries. During these years he was Cuba's delegate to the XVII Reunion of the Assembly of the League of Nations and, also, Commissioner for the repatriation of Cubans fleeing the Spanish Civil War.García Morales, Alfonso (1984).
|
|
The British and French sent gunboats under the command of Admiral Sir Michael Seymour to capture the Taku Forts in May 1858. In June 1858, at the end of the first part of the Second Opium War, the Treaties of Tianjin were signed, which opened Tianjin to foreign trade. In 1859, after China refused to allow the setting up of foreign legations in Beijing, a naval force under the command of British Admiral Sir James Hope attacked the forts guarding the mouth of the Hai River. During the action, US Navy Commodore Josiah Tattnall, who later served in the Confederate Navy during the American Civil War, came to the assistance of the British gunboat HMS Plover, offering to take off their wounded.
|
|
In his early political life Ala served as the chef de cabinet of the Iranian foreign ministry from 1905 to 1916. Subsequently, he was a member of an Iranian diplomatic delegation sent to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. Despite the efforts of the delegation, led by Aliqoli Massoud Ansari, and assisted ably by Ala, the British government of the time nixed Iran's hopes of officially attending the diplomatic gathering. Moreover, with the Iranian Government in Tehran having recently negotiated the Anglo-Iranian Agreement it was decided that Ansari and Ala would be banished to foreign legations to ensure they would not act as lightning rods against the agreement. Ala was appointed as the Iranian diplomatic envoy to Spain in 1920.
|
|
The Presidi (top) and the Principality of Piombino (below) in orange. The terms of the treaty were vague, Clause II stating 'it may consist of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany...or the three Roman legations or of any other continental provinces of Italy which form a rounded state;' Spain would hand over Louisiana once this was confirmed. When Austria and France made peace in the February 1801 Treaty of Lunéville, one provision forced Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany to exchange his Italian duchy for the German Electorate of Salzburg and Berchtesgaden Provostry. Ferdinand of Parma, brother-in-law of Charles IV, then formally ceded his Duchy of Parma to France, although he was allowed to keep it until his death in October 1802.
|
|
Ronglu blocked the transfer of artillery to Zaiyi and Dong, preventing them from destroying the legations. When artillery was finally supplied to the imperial army and Boxers, it was only done so in limited amounts; Ronglu deliberately held back the rest of them. The Chinese forces defeated the small 2,000 man Western relief force at the Battle of Langfang, but lost several decisive battles, including the Battle of Beicang, and the entire imperial court was forced to retreat as the forces of the Eight-Nation Alliance invaded Beijing. Due to the fact that moderates at the Qing imperial court tried to appease the foreigners by moving the Muslim Kansu Braves out of their way, the allied army was able to march into Beijing and seize the capital.
|
|
Although this sudden absence was once frequently attributed to his death, in fact Boso had merely resigned his cardinalate, as required by canon law, to assume the office of bishop of Turin. The date of his election as bishop is unknown, but he is first recorded in office on 13 December 1122. The author of the Historia compostellana was apparently aware of Boso's resignation and election, for he records that Diego had a precious cross made specifically as a gift for Boso as bishop of Turin, in gratitude for the work Boso had done on his behalf during the crisis of 1121. Less is known of Boso's years at Turin than of his legations in Spain, since his episcopate is not covered by any narrative sources.
|
|
While stationed at the naval station at Cavite early in 1900, Waller, now a major, was ordered to command a detachment of Marines, assigned to take part in the expedition mounted to relieve the siege of Peking, the Imperial Capital of China. This city, with its enclave of foreign Legations, was besieged by a mixed force of "Boxers" and Chinese Imperial troops supporting them. Accordingly, Waller and his men arrived at Taku, China, on 19 June 1900, soon moved inland, and linked up with a Russian column of 400 men. At 02:00 on June 21, this small combined force set out for Tientsin, a large enemy held city along the route to Peking, arrayed against a Chinese contingent of some 1,500 to 2,000 men.
|
|
The Republic of Estonia was occupied by the Soviet Union in June 1940. On 12 June 1940, the order for a total military blockade of Estonia by the Soviet Baltic Fleet was given. from the State Archive of the Russian Navy On 14 June 1940, while the world's attention was focused on the fall of Paris to Nazi Germany a day earlier, the Soviet military blockade of Estonia went into effect, and two Soviet bombers downed Finnish passenger airplane Kaleva flying from Tallinn to Helsinki carrying three diplomatic pouches from the U.S. legations in Tallinn, Riga and Helsinki. US Foreign Service employee Henry W. Antheil Jr. was killed in the crash. On 16 June 1940, the Soviet Union invaded Estonia.
|
|
Holstein was born in Schwedt, Province of Brandenburg on April 24, 1837, the son of a Prussian military officer August Friedrich Carl Ernst Leopold von Holstein (1800-1863) and Karoline von Brünnow (1791-1858). He studied jurisprudence at the Frederick William University of Berlin, from which he was graduated in 1856. Holstein joined the diplomatic service and in 1860 became an attaché at the Prussian embassy in Saint Petersburg under the authority of Otto von Bismarck and later served as a member of the legations at Rio de Janeiro, London, Washington, Florence, and Copenhagen. During his time at Washington, 1866–1867, his relationship with Alice Mason Hooper, wife of Senator Charles Sumner, led to Holstein's withdrawal and the divorce of the couple.
|
|
During the Hundred Days' Reform in 1898 Dong Fuxiang, Ma Anliang, and Ma Haiyan were called to Beijing and helped put an end to the reform movement along with Ma Fulu and Ma Fuxiang. He fought against the foreign Eight Nation Alliance in the Boxer Rebellion with his nephew Ma Biao serving under him, besieged the Catholic Xishiku Cathedral and the legations, and defeated the Alliance at Battle of Langfang, and died of exhaustion while he and the Kansu Braves were escorting the Imperial family to safety. His son Ma Qi took over his posts. Ma Biao was the eldest son of Ma Haiqing 馬海清, who was the sixth younger brother of Ma Haiyan, the grandfather of Ma Bufang.
|
|
Initially, the Foreign Office of the United Kingdom conducted the foreign relations of the Dominions. A Dominions section was created within the Colonial Office for this purpose in 1907. Canada set up its own Department of External Affairs in June 1909, but diplomatic relations with other governments continued to operate through the governors-general, Dominion High Commissioners in London (first appointed by Canada in 1880; Australia followed only in 1910), and British legations abroad. Britain deemed her declaration of war against Germany in August 1914 to extend to all territories of the Empire without the need for consultation, occasioning some displeasure in Canadian official circles and contributing to a brief anti- British insurrection by Afrikaner militants in South Africa later that year.
|
|
The Austrian invasion was stopped by the arrival of French troops in Piedmont from 25 April onward. The Austrians were defeated at the Battle of Magenta on 4 June and pushed back to Lombardy, where the Franco- Sardinian victory at the Battle of Solferino on 24 June resulted in the end of the war and the signing of the Armistice of Villafranca on 12 July. Austria ceded Lombardy to France, which in turn gave it to Sardinia. Sardinia exploited the defeat of Austrian power by annexing the United Provinces of Central Italy, consisting of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Parma, the Duchy of Modena and Reggio and the Papal Legations, to the Kingdom of Sardinia on 22 March 1860.
|
|
From 1669, the ennobled who came mainly by then from the burgher class would only receive skartabellat (similar to the German Briefadel, or Letters patent), a specific form of institution and ennoblement introduced by pacta conventa, a lower class of nobility where newly created nobles could only hold public offices and perform legations not until after the third generation; from 1775 an obligation was imposed on newly created nobles possessing (purchasing) land estate. During the reign of Stanisław August Poniatowski (r. 1764 to 1795), almost half of the total number of Polish ennoblements was made. Under the reigns of Stanisław Leszczyński and Stanisław August Poniatowski, both were also known for circumventing the restrictions placed on conferring ennoblement, applying the so-called 'secret ennoblements', without parliamentary confirmation.
|
|
New York: Berkley Books, 1999 For China, the Boxer Rebellion was a disaster but turned out, ironically, about so well as could be expected. China remained together as a single country, while prior to the Boxer Rebellion it seemed likely to be divided by the colonial powers. The Chinese government supported the Boxers, who otherwise might have turned anti-Qing and hastened the extinction of the dynasty, but was unsuccessful in killing the foreigners in the Legations. Had the Chinese succeeded, retribution from the Western nations and Japan might have been more severe. Ronglu later took credit for saving the besieged: “I was able to avert the crowning misfortune which would have resulted from the killing of the Foreign Ministers”.
|
|
In any case a code message in a news or weather programs was not needed, as ordinary commercial communication facilities were available to Japan right up to the December 7 attack. Pearl Harbor historians Gordon Prange and Roberta Wholstetter sidestep the issue by saying that the intercepted codes-destruct messages of 2 December were a more accurate indication of war breaking out. Both Henry Clausen and John Costello see the Winds Code controversy as a red herring and coming close to disinformation (Clausen) or only as an alert to legations (Costello). The code was set up, so that in case of an emergency leading to the interruption of regular communication channels, a coded message would be inserted into the daily Japanese international news broadcast.
|
|
Admiral of the Fleet Sir George Astley Callaghan (21 December 1852 – 23 November 1920) was an officer in the Royal Navy. During the Boxer Rebellion he served as commander of a naval brigade sent ashore to form an element of a larger expedition under Lieutenant-General Sir Alfred Gaselee: the expedition entered Peking and rescued the legations which had been held hostage there. He came to prominence again when, as Second-in-Command of the Mediterranean Fleet, he assisted with the provision of aid to survivors of the Messina earthquake, which had caused the loss of circa 123,000 lives. Callaghan became Commander-in-Chief of the Home Fleet in November 1911 and was advised in December 1913 that his tenure would be extended for another twelve months.
|
|
The Kaiser ordered the expedition-commander, Field Marshal Alfred von Waldersee, to behave barbarously, because the Chinese were, "by nature, cowardly, like a dog, but also deceitful". In that time, the Kaiser's best friend, Prince Philip von Euenburg wrote to another friend that the Kaiser wanted to raze Beijing, and kill the populace to avenge the murder of Baron Clemens von Ketteler, Imperial Germany's minister to China. Only the Eight-Nation Alliance's refusal of barbarism to resolve the siege of the legations saved the Chinese populace of Beijing from the massacre recommended by Imperial Germany. In August 1900, an international military-force of Russian, Japanese, British, French, and American soldiers captured Beijing, before the German force arrived to the city.
|
|
On July 6, 1846, U.S. Secretary of State John C. Calhoun, on behalf of President Tyler, afforded formal recognition of Hawaiian independence under the reign of Kamehameha III. As a result of the recognition of Hawaiian independence, the Hawaiian Kingdom entered into treaties with the major nations of the world and established over ninety legations and consulates in multiple seaports and cities. The Kamehameha Dynasty was the reigning monarchy of the Kingdom of Hawaii, beginning with its founding by Kamehameha I in 1795, until the death of Kamehameha V in 1872 and Lunalilo in 1874. The kingdom would continue under the House of Kalākaua for another 21 years until its overthrow in 1893 when a coup d'état against Queen Liliuokalani was supported by U.S. Marines.
|
|
He also noted that the Cuban economy revolved mainly upon selling sugar abroad, especially to the United States, and he expressed worries that a fall in the sugar price would cause "an internal revolution ending in some form of Communism". In December 1941, Cuba under strong American pressure declared war on the Axis powers, which led to the closing of the German and Italian legations whose diplomats Ogilvie-Forbes had competed against. In June 1942, Ogilvie-Forbes negotiated an agreement that led the Royal Air Force (RAF) use the air base at San Antonio de los Baņos to conduct anti-submarine patrols over the Caribbean. Later in 1942, he negotiated another agreement to let the RAF use the San Julián Air Base for anti-submarine patrols.
|
|
Even before peace negotiations began with Spain, McKinley asked Congress to set up a commission to examine trade opportunities in Asia and espoused an "Open Door Policy", in which all nations would freely trade with China and none would seek to violate that nation's territorial integrity. American soldiers scale the walls of Beijing to relieve the Siege of the International Legations, August 1900 American missionaries were threatened with death when the Boxer Rebellion menaced foreigners in China. Americans and other westerners in Peking were besieged and, in cooperation with other western powers, McKinley ordered 5000 troops to the city in June 1900 in the China Relief Expedition. The westerners were rescued the next month, but several Congressional Democrats objected to McKinley dispatching troops without consulting the legislature.
|
|
In 1940, in accordance with the secret protocol of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union directed the occupation and subsequent annexation of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. In each country, demands were made under threat of force from Moscow for puppet communist governments to be formed. Fraudulent elections were held in July 1940 electing solely communists to be represented in the parliament of each country's government, and those governments then were instructed by Moscow to petition the Soviet government to be added as constituent republics of the USSR. The United States, like other Western democratic powers, such as the United Kingdom, Norway, France, and Denmark, never recognized this incorporation as valid and continued to accredit the legations of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.
|
|
Hiden, et al, p. 3 It was an application of the 1932 Stimson Doctrine of non-recognition of international territorial changes that were executed by force. It was consistent with U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's attitude towards territorial expansion.Hiden, et al, p. 40 The Soviet invasion was an implementation of its 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany, which contained a secret protocol by which the two powers agreed to partition and annex the independent states between them. After the pact, the Soviets engaged in a series of ultimatums and actions ending in the annexation of the Baltic states during the summer of 1940. While the area held little strategic importance to the United States, several legations of the U.S. State Department established diplomatic relationships there.
|
|
Marcello Santacroce was born in Rome on 7 June 1619, the son of Son of Valerio and Elena Maria Santacroce. He comes from a family of cardinals: his great-uncle was Cardinal Prospero Santacroce (elevated 1565) and his uncle was Cardinal Antonio Santacroce (elevated 1629). His nephew, Andrea Santacroce, was also elevated to cardinal in 1699. He studied theology, Greek, and Latin before earning his doctorate in law in Rome. On 14 August 1639, he was appointed Canon of the Vatican and later the Referendary of the Tribunals of the Apostolic Signature of Justice and of Grace; Prelate of the Sacred College of Good Government; Commissary to bring the peace among the people of Rieti; Vice-legate of Bologna; and the Commissary general of the three legations, Bologna, Ravenna and Ferrara.
|
|
Scholars in international law have noted that "in accordance with Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention, the settlement of Russians in the Baltic States during the period was illegal under international law" ("The Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies"). The convention was adopted in 1949, including by the Soviet Union. However, as the Soviet Union maintained the Baltic States joined the USSR voluntarily, it did not consider the convention applicable to the Baltic states. Continuing the position of their legations or governments in exile, and based on international law and treaties in effect at the time of initial Soviet occupation, the Baltic states view the Soviet presence in the Baltic states as an illegal occupation for its full duration.
|
|
The Chinese Imperial Tenacious Army under General Nie Shicheng was waging a brutal campaign to suppress the Boxers under orders from Commander in Chief Ronglu. At the same time General Nie was fighting the Boxers (Militia United in Righteousness, Yihetuan), the foreign Eight-Nation Alliance launched an invasion of China to reach the Legations at Beijing. The Imperial Court then decided to change its tack and halt the suppression campaign against the Boxers and fight the foreigners instead. There was too much bad blood between General Nie and the Boxers for them to cooperate with each other against the foreigners, so in response, the Imperial Court sent another Chinese Army, the Muslim Kansu Braves under the anti- foreign General Dong Fuxiang fight alongside the Boxers against the foreign Eight-Nation Alliance forces.
|
|
The appointment of a minister in Prague improved Czechoslovak-Chinese relations, and in the 1930s China began to purchase industrial equipment and arms to modernize China, especially its armed forces. In the 1930s, China had 17 diplomatic missions in Europe by 1936 with embassies established in Paris, London, Moscow, Berlin and Rome. By contrast, China maintained legations in Lisbon, Warsaw, Vienna and Prague as Portugal, Poland, Austria and Czechoslovakia, respectively, were considered only secondary powers. The fact that none of those nations where China maintained relations at a legation level had extraterritorial rights led the Chinese to attach some importance to relations with those states as it allowed them to show the rest of the world that extraterritorial rights were not necessary to have a good relationship with China.
|
|
The two were afterwards reconciled and remained in correspondence for life: shortly after his friend's death, Mattheson translated John Mainwaring's Handel biography into German and had it published in Hamburg at his own expense ("auf Kosten des Übersetzers") in 1761.Georg Friderich Händels Lebensbeschreibung, nebst einem Verzeichnisse seiner Ausübungswerke und deren Beurtheilung; übersetzet, auch mit einigen Anmerkungen, absonderlich über den hamburgischen Artikel, versehen vom Legations-Rath Mattheson, Hamburgh, auf Kosten des Übersetzers, 1761 (accessible for free online as a Google ebook). The son of a well-to-do tax collector, Mattheson received a broad liberal education and, aside from general musical training, took lessons in keyboard instruments, violin, composition and singing. By age nine he was singing and playing organ in church and was a member of the chorus of the Hamburg opera.
|
|
He entered into negotiations with the British and Soviets. Indian troops guarding the Abadan Refinery in Iran, 4 September 1941 Foroughi was an enemy of Reza Shah (he was forced into retirement in earlier years for political reasons, and his son was executed by firing squad). When he entered into negotiations with the British, instead of negotiating a favourable settlement, Foroughi implied that both he and the Iranian people wanted to be "liberated" from the Shah's rule. The British and Foroughi agreed that for the Allies to withdraw from Iran, the Iranians would have to assure that the German minister and his staff should leave Tehran; the German, Italian, Hungarian and Romanian legations should close and all remaining German nationals (including all families) to be handed over to the British and Soviet authorities.
|
|
As first consul, Bonaparte decided to call an extraordinary consulta or meeting of the Italian deputies of the Cisalpine Republic in Lyon. This republic had been created after the first Italian campaign and was made up of Lombardy, Mantua, Bergamo, Brescia, Verona, Cremona, Rovigo, the duchy of Modena, Massa and Carrara and three legations from Bologna, Ferrara and Romagna. The proposal for the meeting was highly successful - 452 deputies were named to attend it, though it was effectively a parody of a constituent assembly, with its members vetted by Bonaparte, an order of business imposed upon it and pressure exerted upon it to approve Bonaparte's wishes.Catherine Brice: Histoire d'Italie Hatier Nations d'Europe page 304 Over the following days the consul received deputations from the neighbouring towns and departments, while the 'consulte' continued with its business.
|
|
U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1919. Also in 1901 Yin Chang was named Lieutenant-General commanding the Plain White Banner Garrison (). It is said that during the Boxer Rebellion, when the troops of the Eight-Nation Alliance stormed Beijing to relieve the besieged Legations, Yin Chang, with his German- equipped soldiers, escorted the Emperor and the Empress Dowager Cixi to safe passage through the back gates of the Forbidden City into the safety of Shaanxi Province, where the foreigners could not reach her. In August 1901 he was appointed the Chinese Ambassador to Germany (Berlin). In September 1901, by Imperial Edict, Yin Chang was charged with accompanying Zaifeng, Prince Chun to Germany with the special mission to convey China's regret to Kaiser Wilhelm II for the murder of Baron Clemens von Ketteler during the Boxer Rebellion.
|
|
Every government with a diplomatic presence in Hawaii, except for the United Kingdom, recognized the Provisional Government within 48 hours of the overthrow via their consulates. Countries recognizing the new Provisional Government included Chile, Austria-Hungary, Mexico, Russia, the Netherlands, Imperial Germany, Sweden, Spain, Imperial Japan,During the overthrow, the Japanese Imperial Navy gunboat Naniwa was docked at Pearl Harbor. The gunboat's commander, Heihachiro Togo, who later commanded the Japanese battleship fleet at Tsushima, refused to accede to the Provisional Government's demands that he strike the colors of the Kingdom, but later lowered the colors on order of the Japanese Government. Along with every other international legations in Honolulu, the Japanese Consulate-General, Suburo Fujii, quickly recognized the Provisional Government as the "de facto" legitimate successor to the monarchy.
|
|
321–323 On the other hand, the Marine Legation Guard, which used the 6mm U.S.N. cartridge in the defense of the foreign legations in Peking during the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, apparently had no such criticisms.Simmons, Edward H. and Moskin, J. Robert,The Marine, Hong Kong: Marine Corps Heritage Foundation, Hugh Lauter Levin Associates Inc., (1998), p. 158 U.S. forces equipped with the Lee rifle in the first (Seymour) relief expedition advancing from Tientsin to relieve the Marines at Peking were able to transport some 10,000 rounds of 6mm ball for the riflemen as well as a Colt machine gun crew, and consequently never ran short of ammunition, unlike other Western forces, who were forced to capture the Imperial Chinese arsenal at Hsiku to find enough cartridges to continue fighting.
|
|
Statue of Turkish President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in Mexico City The first official contact between Mexico and the Ottoman Empire (present day Turkey) was 1864 when Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico sent out emissaries to several nations to seek official recognition of his rule in the country.La política exterior de Maximiliano de Habsburgo durante el Segundo Imperio Mexicano (in Spanish) Diplomatic relations between the two nations were established in 1928 after the transformation of Turkey from the Ottoman Empire by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the modern Turkish republic in 1923; and after the end of the Mexican revolution in 1920. That same year, both nations signed a 'Friendship Agreement'.History of diplomatic relations between Mexico and Turkey (in Spanish) Almost immediately, both nations opened diplomatic legations in each other's capitals, respectively.
|
|
The history of the COMTA begins after the second Italian war of independence. Following the Italian- French victory over the Austrian Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia annexed the Papal Legations in present-day Emilia Romagna. Thus on 25 March 1860 the 4th Higher Military Command was activated as a territorial command in Bologna and tasked to defend the newly acquired territory between the Panaro river and the Adriatic Sea. The command consisted of the 4th, 7th and 13th division of the Line. At the outbreak of the third Italian war of independence the command covered the right flank of the main army and remained static along the river Po. The command under General Enrico Cialdini consisted of the 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 17th, 18th and 20th division of the line.
|
|
Milani, The Shah Foroughi was an enemy of Reza Shah (he was forced into retirement in earlier years for political reasons, and his son was executed by firing squad). When he entered into negotiations with the British, instead of negotiating a favorable settlement, Foroughi implied that both he and the Iranian people wanted to be "liberated" from the Shah's rule. The British and Foroughi agreed that for the Allies to withdraw from Iran, Iran would have to expel the German minister and his staff should leave Tehran; the German, Italian, Hungarian and Romanian legations would be closed; and all remaining German nationals (including all families) would be handed over to the British and Soviet authorities. The last order would mean almost certain imprisonment or, in the case of those handed to the Soviets, possible death.
|
|
Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689) After the Aigun Treaty the allied forces, with the help of General Ignatyev, signed the four positions of the Treaty of Tientsin. They stated the following: # Britain, France, Russia, and the U.S. would have the right to establish diplomatic legations (small embassies) in Peking (a closed city at the time) # Eleven additional Chinese ports would be opened for foreign trade, including Newchwang, Tamsui (former name of Taiwan), Hankou and Nanjing # The right of all foreign vessels including commercial ships to navigate freely on the Yangtze River # The right of foreigners to travel in the internal regions of China, which had been formerly banned # China was to pay an indemnity of four million taels of silver to Britain and two million to France. As a result, Russia did not use a single soldier and achieved success only using diplomatic power.
|
|
George Hugh Wyndham was educated at Harrow School and Exeter College, Oxford and entered the Diplomatic Service in 1857. He accompanied Sir Frederick Bruce to China in 1859 and stayed there for two years. He then served as consul-general at Warsaw and subsequently as Secretary of the legations or embassies at Athens, Madrid, St Petersburg and Constantinople (where in 1883 it fell to him, as Chargé d'Affaires to the Sublime Porte, to sign a declaration amending the convention for the suppression of the slave trade that had been agreed between the UK government and the Sultan of Turkey in 1880). Wyndham was promoted to be Minister Resident to the King of Serbia in 1885 and upgraded to Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary in the following year. In 1888 he was moved to be minister to Brazil and remained there until mid-1894.
|
|
By the middle of that month, the Boxers, joined by imperial troops, had cut the railroad between Peking and the coast, killed many missionaries and converts, and besieged the foreign legations. Hay faced a precarious situation; how to rescue the Americans trapped in Peking, and how to avoid giving the other powers an excuse to partition China, in an election year when there was already Democrat opposition to what they deemed American imperialism. As American troops were sent to China to relieve the nation's legation, Hay sent a letter to foreign powers (often called the Second Open Door note), stating while the United States wanted to see lives preserved and the guilty punished, it intended that China not be dismembered. Hay issued this on July 3, 1900, suspecting that the powers were quietly making private arrangements to divide up China.
|
|
New South Wales Naval Brigade At the time of the Boxer Rebellion, naval brigades from New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia, were part of the British contingent in the field force under General Alfred Gaselee, in the Gaselee Expedition, a successful relief by a multinational military force that in 1900 marched to Beijing and protect the diplomatic legations and foreign nationals in the city from attacks. The New South Wales Naval Brigade included 25 men from the New South Wales Marine Corps. (This unit was completely unrelated, except for its name, to the New South Wales Marine Corps, which accompanied the First Fleet and served between 1788 and 1791.) New South Wales Naval Artillery Volunteers During the early nineteenth century the New South Wales Government began construction of naval fortifications in Sydney Harbour. However, security was generally lax.
|
|
The Sacré Coeur basilica seen from Arc de Triomphe The oldest of all PMK European legations operates from its centre in Paris, already established in the 1830s by such national luminaries as Adam Mickiewicz, or Juliusz Słowacki who were obliged to emigrate to France after the 1831 November Uprising. The hub of the mission is the parish of Notre-Dame-de-l'Assomption, Paris, dedicated to the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary which collaborates with the Polish Adam Mickiewicz school in Paris, next to the Polish Embassy. As well as religious instruction, the parish offers Polish lessons for children and young people and various levels of French language teaching. There are well over a dozen Polish parishes and chapels in Paris that celebrate Mass in Polish, or in the event that there are Francophone visitors, in both Polish and French language.
|
|
The Imperial Decree on events leading to the signing of Boxer Protocol () is an imperial decree issued by the government of the Qing dynasty in the name of the Guangxu Emperor, as an official imperial statement on historical events such as Boxer Rebellion, Eight-Nation Alliance and Battle of Peking and Siege of the International Legations, detailing instructions given to Prince Qing and Li Hongzhang as the full representatives of the imperial court in negotiating a peace treaty with the foreign powers, prior to the official signing of the Boxer Protocol on 7 September 1901. This Imperial Decree was officially issued in the name of the Guangxu Emperor, bearing his official Imperial Seal, who was in reality under house arrest, ordered by Empress Dowager Cixi at that time, as the full administrative power was in the hand of the Empress Dowager.
|
|
Chemical Biological Incident Response Force The Chemical Biological Incident Response Force is a rapid response force that is capable of being deployed to a combatant commander or United States Department of State legations and installations, and, when directed by the National Command Authority, anywhere in the world that is affected by chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, or high-yield explosive (CBRNE) incidents. The force is completely self-contained and self- sufficient, and may also provide coordinating initial relief efforts, security, detection, identification, expert medical advice, and limited decontamination of personnel and equipment. This response force will respond to CBRNE incidents affecting to assist local civilian and military agencies in order to assist the on-scene commander in providing initial post incident consequence management. CBIRF consists of specially trained personnel and specialized equipment suited for operations in a wide range of contingencies.
|
|
Painting of Western, Russian and Japanese troops In the early hours of 15 August, just as the Foreign Legations were being relieved, Empress Dowager Cixi, dressed in the padded blue cotton of a farm woman, the Guangxu Emperor, and a small retinue climbed into three wooden ox carts and escaped from the city covered with rough blankets. Legend has it that the Empress Dowager then either ordered that the Guangxu Emperor's favourite concubine, Consort Zhen, be thrown down a well in the Forbidden City or tricked her into drowning herself. The journey was made all the more arduous by the lack of preparation, but the Empress Dowager insisted this was not a retreat, rather a "tour of inspection." After weeks of travel, the party arrived in Xi'an in Shaanxi province, beyond protective mountain passes where the foreigners could not reach, deep in Chinese Muslim territory and protected by the Gansu Braves.
|
|
Louis de Bignon was born at La Mailleraye-sur-Seine, Seine-Maritime, the son of a dyer. Although he had received a good education, he served throughout the early part of the French Revolutionary Wars without rising above the rank of private. In 1797, however, the attention of Talleyrand, then minister of foreign affairs, was called to his exceptional abilities by General Huet, and he was attached to the diplomatic service. After serving in the legations in Switzerland and the Cisalpine Republic, he was appointed in 1799 attach to the French legation at Berlin, of which three years later he became chargé d'affaires. As minister-plenipotentiary at Cassel, between the years 1804 and 1806, he took a prominent share in the formation of the confederation of the Rhine; and after the battle of Jena he returned to Prussia as administrator of the public domains and finances.
|
|
"Pars hæc vitæ ultima Christo neganda non est" (I must not refuse to Christ this last portion of my life) were the words in which he offered himself to Pius II as leader of a relief to the Republic of Ragusa which was being hard-pressed in 1464 by the Turks. He left no printed works, though he heard from Pius II about the printing of the Gutenberg Bible in a famous letter of 1455, and had an edition of the works of Thomas Aquinas posthumously dedicated to him by the first printers of Italy, Sweynheym and Pannartz, in 1469. Among his manuscript remains are a defence of the Holy See, reports of his legations, a volume of letters, and various discourses. His discourse in the papal consistories, says Pastor, was brief, simple, clear, logical, and devoid of contemporary rhetoric; his legatine reports have the same "restrained and impersonal character".
|
|
The President of the Apostolic Camera is the fifth-highest dignitary in that office, after the Cardinal Chamberlain of the Holy Roman Church (Camerlengo), the Governor of Rome, the Treasurer-General of the Holy Roman Church, and the Auditor of the Camera Apostolica. In 1643 he acted as commissary-resident for the three legations held by Cardinal Antonio Barberini over regions in which he did not reside - effectively operating as the cardinal's representative in those regions when the cardinal was not there. He was also sent by the pope as legate to Lombardy during the First War of Castro to reach a peace agreement with the Dukes of Parma after the pope renounced the peace agreement negotiated by Cardinal Bernardino Spada.Pope Alexander the Seventh and the College of Cardinals by John Bargrave, edited by James Craigie Robertson (reprint; 2009) He was then named Protonotary Apostolic at the Datary.
|
|
Following the relief of the besieged foreign legations in Peking by an international allied expeditionary force the Chinese government lost control of what remained of the badly damaged railway system for a two-year period of allied foreign occupation. British and other foreign military units repaired the line between Tientsin and Peking (1900–1902) and the railway was also extended from the Ma Chiu Pu terminus to new Peking stations. The first was adjacent to the Temple of Heaven and a gap was made in the outer city wall for this purpose next to the Yung Ting Men gatehouse. center Cheng Yang Mun station A few months later the foreign military authorities decided to take the railway even closer to central Peking and extended the line to near the front gate of the Tartar city at Zhengyangmen as well as the addition of a branch line eastwards to Tongzhou.
|
|
On 19 June 1899, the 1st Cavalry left Ft Robinson for Fort D.A. Russell, Wyoming and began thorough training for new recruits after a brief reorganization period. When the Boxer Rebellion began in China in August 1899, the US Army garrison in the Philippines was moved to Peking to relieve the surrounded legations there, and the 1st Cavalry was sent to the Philippines on 7 August, their horses following four days later. Arriving at Batangas, Luzon on 20 September, they moved to Santo Tomas just south of Manila. They busied themselves with scouting missions, escorting supplies, and patrolling the countryside and villages for guerrilla fighters. In October 1901, a group of insurgents stole some native supplies, so 20 troopers pursued them, reclaimed the goods, and burned the village they were found in, and on 22 October, Troop B captured 5 guerrillas on Mount Makiling.
|
|
Palazzo Varano in Predappio, one of the first works of Di Fausto Born in Rocca Canterano, a town near Rome, Florestano Di Fausto studied in Rome, first getting the Laurea in Architecture at the Accademia di belle Arti, and then (1922) in civil Engineering.Miano (1991) His first work, from 1916 to 1923, was the architectural part of the tomb of Pope Pius X in St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican, a work correct but cold. It was followed by the design of the Calvary and of the chapel of relics of Passover in the Roman basilica of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme, inaugurated in 1930 but finished only in 1952. From 1924 until 1932 he was a technical consultant of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MAE), erecting, modifying or restructuring a great number of Italian embassies, legations, consulates, culture institutes and schools in Europe, Africa and the Americas.
|
|
Because the franc was tied to the pound, France needed loans from Britain, which were not forthcoming, and so France was left "with its hands tied". British and American investors were unwilling to buy French bonds as long as the Sudetenland Crisis continued, which caused "severe monetary problems" for the French government in August-September 1938. Only when Daladier moved the "free-market liberal" Paul Reynaud from Justice Ministry to the Finance Ministry in November 1938 that France regained the confidence of international investors, who began to buy the French bonds that they had just shunned. Reports from the embassy in Warsaw and the legations in Belgrade and Bucharest emphasised that Yugoslavia and Romania would probably do nothing if Germany invaded Czechoslovakia, and Poland might very well join in with Germany since the Teschen dispute between Poland and Czechoslovakia had made them bitter enemies.
|
|
Hitler's Pope? ; by Sir Martin Gilbert, The American Spectator According to Gilbert, "With Arrow Cross members killing Jews in the streets of Budapest, Angelo Rotta, the senior Vatican representative in Budapest, took a lead in establishing an "International Ghetto", consisting of several dozen modern apartment buildings to which large numbers of Jews - eventually 25,000 - were brought and to which the Swiss, Swedish, Portuguese, and Spanish legations, as well as the Vatican, affixed their emblems." Rotta also got permission from the Vatican to begin issuing protective passes to Jewish converts - and was eventually able to distribute more than 15,000 such protective passes, while instructing the drafters of the documents not to examine the recipients credentials too closely. A Red Cross official asked Rotta for pre-signed blank identity papers, to offer to the sick and needy fleeing the Arrow Cross, and was given the documents, along with Rotta's blessing.
|
|
6-inch gun on USS Newark On 19 March 1900, she sailed for Hong Kong to rendezvous with the monitor on 22 March and convoy that ship to Cavite, arriving on 3 April and staying there until sailing for Yokohama on 24 April, arriving three days later. The ship then hoisted the flag of Rear Admiral Louis Kempff, Assistant-Commander of the Asiatic Station and sailed on 20 May for China to help land reinforcements to relieve the legations under siege by the Boxers at Peking. Arriving Tientsin on 22 May, Newark operated in that port and out of Taku and Chefoo, protecting American interests and aiding the relief expedition under Vice Admiral Edward Hobart Seymour, R.N., until sailing at the end of July for Kure, Japan, and then Cavite where she hoisted the pennant of the Senior Squadron Commander in the Philippines. She sailed for home in mid-April 1901, via Hong Kong, Ceylon and Suez, arriving Boston late July 1901.
|
|
Though King did begin to make overseas travel for prime ministers a more regular occurrence, including a visit to Adolf Hitler in Berlin in 1937. President Obama, Prince Charles, PM Brown, PM Stephen Harper & President Sarkozy at 65th anniversary commemoration of Normandy landing D-Day With the onset of the Second World War Canada became intimately involved in the politics of Europe, as a member of the Allies, as a sanctuary for European refugees including the Dutch royal family, and with Canadian troops fighting in France, Belgium, Italy, and the Netherlands. Canada began raising the status of its missions in Europe from legations to embassies in 1944. Canada was a strongly Atlanticist state, and following the war, the new links were institutionalized through the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization which bound Canada to defend any of the (Western) European members of the alliance if it was attacked by the Soviet Union.
|
|
The Austrian government named him as one of the cardinals who was absolutely unacceptable as pope.Charles van Duerm, Un peu plus de lumière sur le Conclave de Venise et sur les commencements du Pontificat de Pie VII, 1799-1800 (Louvain: Ch. Peeters 1896), pp. 26-31: "We extend our exception to all cardinals of French origin, and to all those who have shown any disposition to espouse the cause of France.... In a most special manner we formally and absolutely exclude the cardinals Gerdil, Caprara, Antonelli, Maury, and those of the Doria family.... " They preferred Cardinal Alessandro Mattei of Florence (a native Roman), who had signed the Treaty of Tolentino with Napoleon on behalf of Pope Pius VI, since it acknowledged Austria's possession of the three Italian legations of the Papal States. Others, led by Cardinal Albani, the Dean of the College of Cardinals, and including Maury, preferred Cardinal Carlo Bellisomi, Bishop of Cesena, a diplomat with experience in Cologne and Portugal.
|
|
Like Hitler, he viewed the British rule in India as being desirable. Asit Krishna Mukherji, with support of the German consulate, published The New Mercury, a National Socialist magazine and was lauded by Baron von Selzam in a "communiqué to all German legations in the Far East that no one had rendered services to the Third Reich in Asia comparable to those of Sir Asit Krishna Mukherji's." Savitri Devi, who would later marry him, shared his beliefs "in the pan Aryan revival of India", as well as in Hindu nationalism, and once World War II started, both "undertook clandestine war work on behalf of the Axis powers in Calcutta." During the first years of the war in Europe, as Hitler sought to reach an arrangement with the British, he held the notion that India should remain under British control after the war, as in his mind the only alternative was a Soviet occupation of the subcontinent.
|
|
Commemorative plaque showing final location of Texas Legation in London from 1842-1845 Commemorative plaque, 1 Place Vendôme, Paris 1st A Texas Legation was maintained by the Republic of Texas in Washington, D.C., London, and Paris (1 Place Vendôme) from 1836 through 1845. In a bid to protect itself from almost certain invasion by forces from neighboring Mexico, the government of the republic sought to foster international ties. It did this by also opening the Texas Legations in London and Paris. Their opening is believed by some academics to be less an attempt by Texas to enter the international stage as an independent country and more a maneuver to prompt officials in the United States to worry that an independent Texas might allow British and French soldiers to mass on the southern border of the U.S. When Texas sought to join the United States in 1845, the British Empire supported keeping it independent.
|
|
Waterwitch on the Australian Station, some time after 1894Waterwitch was converted for use as a survey vessel, which included replacing her engine and boilers to provide 450 horsepower. She commissioned in 1894 for service on the Australia Station,Bastock, p.125. undertaking a series of surveys on passage to the Cape of Good Hope. Once on station she made lines of soundings in Esperance Bay, Fiji and the Tasman Peninsula in preparation for the running of telegraph cables.Day (1967), p.128 Between 1898 and 1907 she worked the coast of China, including Hong Kong, Weihaiwei and the Yangtze River. In early 1900 Commander Willoughby Pudsey Dawson was in command, succeeded by Lieutenant W. O. Lyne when she was re-commissioned on 16 February 1900. She formed part of the British naval contingent involved in relieving the Peking legations during the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 and surveyed the north channel of the Yangtze prior to the battleship 's navigation of the river.
|
|
In May 1900, Myers was sent to China aboard the cruiser USS Newark and put ashore with a detachment of 48 Marines (including then Private Daniel Daly) and 3 sailors to guard the US Legation in Peking, just as the Boxer Rebellion broke out. Myers' Marines occupied a wall defending the Legations, arguably the most vulnerable part of the defensive position, and led an attack (along with Russian and British troops) as part of a ferocious battle on July 3 which dislodged the main Boxer position near the wall. Myers was wounded in the leg by a spear; his attack was claimed by the British Consul, Sir Claude Maxwell MacDonald, as "one of the most successful operations of the siege, as it rendered our position on the wall, which had been precarious, comparatively strong." As a result of his bravery in this action, he was brevetted Major and advanced four numbers in rank.
|
|
On 10 June, the heir to the Duchy of Parma, Louis of Bourbon, and two days later, Napoleon invaded the Romagna, which belonged to the Papal States; on 23 June the Pope had to accept the French occupation of the northern Legations, allowing the French to occupy the port city of Ancona on the Adriatic Sea. The appearance of French warships in the Adriatic led Venice to renew the ancient decree that prohibited the entry of foreign fleets in the Venetian Lagoon, and informed Paris of that. Flotillas and fortifications were established along the lagoon's shores with the mainland, as well as in the canals, to block access from the land as well as from the sea. In this regard, on 5 July the provedditore on the Lagoon, Giacomo Nani, recalling the victorious War of the Morea against the Ottoman Turks, wrote: Venice seemed to have lost forever the Terraferma, as in former times during the War of the League of Cambrai.
|
|
Gregory XVI and Cardinal Lambruschini opposed basic technological innovations such as gas lighting and railways, believing that they would promote commerce and increase the power of the bourgeoisie, leading to demands for liberal reforms which would undermine the monarchical power of the Pope over central Italy. Gregory XVI in fact banned railways in the Papal States, calling them chemins d'enfer ("road to hell", a play on the French for railroad, chemin de fer, literally "iron road"). The insurrections at Viterbo in 1836, in various parts of the Legations in 1840, at Ravenna in 1843 and at Rimini in 1845, were followed by wholesale executions and draconian sentences of hard labour and exile, but they did not bring the unrest within the Papal States under the control of the authorities. Gregory XVI made great expenditures for defensive, architectural and engineering works, having a monument to Pope Leo XII built by Giuseppe Fabris in 1837.
|
|
Most of the victims of the Boxer Rebellion were Chinese Christians, but the massacres of Chinese people were of no interest to the West, who demanded Asian blood to avenge the Western colonists killed by rebellious Chinese natives. In response, Imperial Great Britain, the U.S., and Imperial Japan, Imperial France, Imperial Russia, and Imperial Germany, Austria–Hungary and Italy formed the Eight-Nation Alliance and dispatched an international military expeditionary force to end the Siege of the International Legations in Beijing. Yellow Peril xenophobia arose from the armed revolt of the Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists (the Boxers) to expel European colonists from China, during the Boxer Rebellion (August 1899 – September 1901) The Russian press presented the Boxer Rebellion in racialist and religious terms, as a cultural war between White Holy Russia and Yellow Pagan China. The press further supported the Yellow Peril apocalypse with quotations from the Sinophobic poems of the philosopher Vladimir Solovyov.
|
|
Colonel Sir Claude Maxwell MacDonald (1852–1915), the chief British diplomat in Beijing during the Boxer Uprising, and the commander of the defence of the besieged foreign legations, also defended the missionaries: > If all looting is wrong, as in theory it is, then they have been to blame: > but there are times when the laws of nature assert themselves over the laws > of civilization, and this was a case in point. You must remember that these > men had just endured a long siege, that they had been bereft of everything > they possessed and that they had hundreds of men, similarly destitute, who > were dependent upon them. What was their position? Had they come to me and > said, 'Give us money and food,' I could only have replied in the negative, > or, at all events, to the effect that I could not feed their converts, and > so they took the law into their own hands.
|
|
In 1899 the Boxer Rebellion broke out, and the following summer an international force was sent to quell the rebellion and relieve the siege of Western legations in Beijing. After the suppression of the Boxers, there was a considerable amount of looting throughout the capital, and during this time of chaos Captain Clarence A. K. Johnson (1870–1937) of the 1st Bengal Lancers, who was stationed at the Summer Palace, somehow managed to acquire the Admonitions Scroll. His family later claimed that he was given the scroll as a reward for escorting a "lady of high birth" and her family to safety, but this story has never been corroborated. Johnson did not realise the value of the scroll, but when he returned to London in 1902 he took it to the British Museum to have the jade toggle on it valued. The keeper of the department of Prints and Drawings, Sidney Colvin (1845–1927), and his assistant, Laurence Binyon (1869–1943), recognised the significance of the painting, and in 1903 the British Museum purchased it from Johnson for the sum of £25.
|
|
That created a permanent group of people that opposed the regime and continued non-violent resistance.Vardys (1997), p. 84 Because of the United States and the United Kingdom, the allies of the Soviet Union were against Nazi Germany during World War II, recognized the occupation of the Republic of Lithuania at Yalta Conference in 1945 de facto, the governments of the rest of the western democracies did not recognize the seizure of Lithuania by the Soviet Union in 1940 and in 1944 de jure according to the Sumner Welles' declaration of 23 July 1940;Daniel Fried, Assistant Secretary of State at U.S Department of State Due to the situation, many western countries continue to recognize Lithuania as an independent, sovereign de jure state subject to international law represented by the legations appointed by the pre-1940 Baltic states which functioned in various places through the Lithuanian Diplomatic Service. Lithuania declared sovereignty on its territory on 18 May 1989 and declared independence from the Soviet Union on 11 March 1990 as the Republic of Lithuania, and was the first Soviet republic to do so.
|
|
Russia made a request to the Qing government for approval of building the railway, but was refused by the latter. On June 1, 1899, Russia forced the Qing government to make a commitment that it would consult Russia or Russian companies beforehand in the case that companies from any third country wanted to build railways in the north of Beijing or Northeast China. After the Siege of the International Legations, the Qing government signed with Britain Regulations on Britain Returning the Imperial Railways of North China (《英国交还铁路章程》) and Regulations on Following the Returning of the Imperial Railways of North China (《关内外铁路交还以后章程》), which excluded any third country from building railways in areas within 80 miles in the north and south of the Shanhai Pass and between Fengtai and the Great Wall in the north. This caused objection of Russia and France, which made representations to the Qing government on the latter Regulations.
|
|
A recurring point of tension in the Toronto region since the 1980s has concerned allegations of police harassment and violence against the black population in the Toronto area. After the killing of Lester Donaldson by the Toronto police in August 1988, the Black Action Defence Committee (BADC) was founded in October 1988 to protest al legations of police brutality against black Canadians in Toronto. The founder of BADC, the Jamaican immigrant Dudley Laws became one of the most recognized figures in Toronto in the 1990s, noted for his willingness to confront the police. Alvin Curling told the Toronto Star in 2013: "I think BADC raised the question that this wonderful looking society of Canada and Toronto, as organized as it was, had some systemic racism going on and police behaviour that was not acceptable." In April 1992, two white Peel Region police officers were acquitted for killing a 17-year black teenager, Michael Wade Lawson, who was riding in a stolen car, and then on 2 May 1992, a Toronto police officer killed a 22-year- old black man, Raymond Lawrence, claiming he was wielding a knife, through Lawrence's fingerprints were not found on the knife that was found on his corpse.
|
|
In 1885, Howard was promoted again to be Secretary to the legation at Athens,The London Gazette, 17 April 1885 and subsequently held the same post at the legations at Copenhagen,The London Gazette, 15 January 1886 PekingThe London Gazette, 23 September 1887 and St Petersburg.The London Gazette, 23 December 1890 In 1894, he was appointed Secretary to the embassy at Paris.The London Gazette, 18 September 1894 In 1896, he was appointed minister to the Netherlands and also to Luxembourg.The London Gazette, 20 October 1896 While at The Hague, Howard was knighted KCMG, in January 1899,The London Gazette, 10 January 1899 and, a few months later, he was named as British co-representative (with Sir Julian Pauncefote) at the Hague Convention of 1899.The Times, London, 11 April 1899, page 9 Sir Henry was promoted to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) in the King's Birthday Honours of 1907.Supplement to the London Gazette, 8 November 1907 In October 1908 he left The Hague after presenting his letters of recall to Queen Wilhelmina, who conferred on him the Order of Orange- Nassau.The Times, London, 15 October 1908, page 11 Some of his furniture and effects were shipped on the Great Eastern Railway Company's ship Yarmouth which sank with all hands on its way from Hook of Holland to Harwich on 27 October 1908.
|
|