This involves bringing in vast amounts of transactional and interactional data being created across commerce platforms.
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Jeremy BailensonProfessor, Communications, Stanford, founding director of the Virtual Human Interaction Lab and author of 'Experience on Demand'In my new book, I argue that the roadblock to great networked VR such as "The OASIS" is interactional synchrony.
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Interactional linguistics is an interdisciplinary approach to grammar and interaction in the fields of linguistics, the sociology of language, and anthropology. Not only is Interactional Linguistics about language grammar and use, but it encompasses a wide range of language as well – syntax, phonetics, phonology, morphology, semantics, pragmatics, and so on. Interactional linguistics is a project in which linguistic structures and uses are formed through interaction and it aims at helping understanding how languages are formed through interaction. Interactional linguistics was not much developed until recently.
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Gumperz, John J. (1982). Discourse Strategies. Studies in Interactional Sociolinguistics 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Topics that might benefit from an Interactional sociolinguistic analysis include: cross-cultural miscommunication, politeness, and framing.
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Particular attention will be paid to their interactional competence, fluency, lexical and grammar adequacy and pronunciation.
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Certainly in the management of large science projects, managers will work hard to acquire interactional expertise quickly.
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The ability to converse expertly in more than one discipline is called interactional expertise (Collins & Evans, 2002).
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Three main proposed components of organizational justice are distributive, procedural, and interactional justice (which includes informational and interpersonal justice).
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Kecskes, I., Robert E. Sanders and Anita Pomerantz. 2017. The basic interactional competence of language learners. Journal of Pragmatics. Vol.
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It is this kind of expertise that Collins and Evans call interactional expertise. The important thing to note about interactional expertise is that the only thing the social researcher can’t do that a practicing plumber or physicist can do is the practical work of actually installing central heating or conducting experiments. It is this difference – the difference between being able to talk like a plumber/physicist and actually do plumbing/physics – that is the difference between interactional expertise (what the researcher has) and contributory expertise (what the plumbers and physicists have).
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This means that, like contributory expertise, interactional expertise cannot be acquired from books alone and it cannot be encoded in computerised expert systems. It is a specialised natural language and, as such; it can only be acquired by linguistic interaction with experts. The difference between interactional and contributory expertise is that, in the case of interactional expertise, the tacit knowledge pertains to the language of the domain but not its practice. In the case of contributory expertise, tacit knowledge relating to both the language and practice must be acquired.
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There are three general theories of motivation: participant/trait theory, situational theory, and interactional theory. These theories are similar to those of personality.
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Watzlawick did extensive research on how communication is effected within families. Watzlawick defines five basic axioms in his theory on communication, popularly known as the "Interactional View". The Interactional View is an interpretive theory drawing from the cybernetic tradition. The five axioms are necessary in order to have a functioning communication process and competence between two individuals or an entire family.
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Of course, plumbers and physicists who can talk fluently about their work will have both kinds of expertise. In identifying this separate and distinctive kind of linguistic expertise, the idea of interactional expertise makes a clear break with other theories of expertise, particularly those developed in Science and Technology Studies, which tend to see expertise as a social status granted by others rather than a property of the individual. As discussed in more detail below, the idea of interactional expertise also differs from more traditional phenomenological theories of expertise, in which the embodied expertise of the contributory expert is well- recognised but the distinctively linguistic expertise of the interactional expert appears to have been overlooked. In this context, it must be emphasised that interactional expertise is a tacit knowledge-laden ability and thus similar in kind to the more embodied contributory expertise.
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Interactional justice is defined by sociologist John R. Schermerhorn as the "...degree to which the people affected by decision are treated by dignity and respect" (Organizational Behavior, 2013). The theory focuses on the interpersonal treatment people receive when procedures are implemented. Interactional justice, a subcomponent of organizational justice, has come to be seen as consisting of two specific types of interpersonal treatment (e.g. Greenberg, 1990a, 1993b).
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The link between these arguments, the embodiment debate and the idea of interactional expertise is the importance of natural language. If interactional expertise exists then it suggests that people who cannot perform a particular task or skill – and who therefore cannot have the embodied expertise associated with it – can still talk about that skill as if they did possess the embodied skills. Interactional expertise thus raises a key question about the “amount” of embodiment that is needed for expertise to be transferred. For proponents of the embodiment thesis, quite a lot of embodiment is needed as the expertise resides in the relative position, movement and feel of the body.
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One theory of interactional linguistics, emergent grammar, proposed by Paul Hopper, postulates that rules of grammar come about as language is spoken and used. This is contrary to the a priori grammar postulate, the idea that grammar rules exist in the mind before the production of utterances. Compared to the principles of generative grammar and the concept of Universal Grammar, interactional linguistics asserts that grammar emerges from social interaction. Whereas Universal Grammar claims that features of grammar are innate, emergent grammar and other interactional theories claim that the human language faculty has no innate grammar and that features of grammar are learned through experience and social interaction.
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From the perspective of interactional expertise much less embodiment is needed and, taken to its logical minimum, perhaps only the ability to hear and speak are needed.
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Today CA is an established method used in sociology, anthropology, linguistics, speech- communication and psychology. It is particularly influential in interactional sociolinguistics, discourse analysis and discursive psychology.
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In terms of research methods, interactional sociolinguists analyzes audio or video recordings of conversations or other interactions. Concerning the methodology of discourse analysis, by which instances of interactional sociolinguistics can be isolated, there are many ways in which language can be analyzed. Though Gumperz pioneered his framework several decades ago it is still being used by anthropologists today in their research. Oftentimes researchers will focus on specific linguistic components.
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As a sociocultural linguist, Bucholtz has focused on researching how language is used in interactional contexts to create identity and culture and contribute to issues of social power.
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Systemic therapy is a form of psychotherapy which seeks to address people as people in relationship, dealing with the interactions of groups and their interactional patterns and dynamics.
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Other terms for suicidal ideation include suicidalness,Roca- Cuberes, Carles. "Diagnosing as an Interactional Achievement in Psychiatric Interviews." The Palgrave Handbook of Adult Mental Health. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2016. 191-208.
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Psychology Today, pp. 70-73 However, habitual rule breaking leads to declining stress, and may eventually end in enjoyment. T. David KemperKemper, T. D. (1978). A social interactional theory of emotion.
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Stress-related transactions between person and environment. In Perspectives in interactional psychology (pp. 287-327). Springer US. Social stress can arise from one's micro-environment (e.g., family ties) and macro-environment (e.g.
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Berger and Calabrese separate the initial interaction of strangers into three stages: the entry stage, the personal stage, and the exit stage. Each stage includes interactional behaviors that serve as indicators of liking and disliking.
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Gerald Patterson's social interactional model, which involves the mother's application and the child's counterapplication of coercive behaviors, also explains the development of aggressive conduct in the child.Patterson, G. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia.
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However, because gender is "done" or constructed, it can also be "undone" or deconstructed. The study of the interactional level could expand beyond simply documenting the persistence of inequality to examine: (1) when and how social interactions become less gendered, not just differently gendered, (2) the conditions under which gender is irrelevant in social interactions, (3) whether all gendered interactions reinforce inequality, (4) how the structural (institutional) and interactional levels might work together to produce change, and (5) interaction as the site of change.
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Scholars in interactional linguistics draw from functional linguistics, conversation analysis, and linguistic anthropology in order to describe "the way in which language figures in everyday interaction and cognition." Studies in interactional linguistics view linguistic forms, including syntactic and prosodic structures, as greatly affected by interactions among participants in speech, signing, or other language use. The field contrasts with dominant approaches to linguistics during the twentieth century, which tended to focus either on the form of language per se, or on theories of individual language user's linguistic competence.
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Positive reinforcement, performance feedback, and performance enhancement. In J.M. Williams (Ed.), Applied Sport Psychology: Personal Growth to Peak Performance (pp. 40-56). New York: McGraw-Hill. Coaches influence motivation of athletes mainly through interactional behavior with athletes.
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The path of Barry Schwartz's work runs from interactional social psychology to cognitive sociology, the sociology of knowledge, and collective memory. The last, major, phase cannot be inferred from the first but is inextricably connected to it.
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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. It is one of the ways in which linguists look at the intersections of human language and human society; other subfields that take this perspective are language planning, minority language studies, quantitative sociolinguistics, and sociohistorical linguistics, among others. Interactional sociolinguistics is a theoretical and methodological framework within the discipline of linguistic anthropology, which combines the methodology of linguistics with the cultural consideration of anthropology in order to understand how the use of language informs social and cultural interaction. Interactional sociolinguistics was founded by linguistic anthropologist John J. Gumperz.
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Interactional expertise is part of a more complex classification of expertise developed by Harry Collins and Robert Evans (both based at Cardiff University).Collins, H.M. and Evans, R.J. (2002) ‘The Third Wave of Science Studies: Studies of Expertise and Experience’, Social Studies of Sciences, Vol. 32, No. 2, (April), pp. 235–296 In this initial formulation interactional expertise was part of a threefold classification of substantive expertise that also included ‘no expertise’ and ‘contributory expertise’, by which they meant the expertise needed to contribute fully to all aspects of a domain of activity.
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The normalization process model explains the embedding of complex interventions by reference to four constructs of collective action that are demonstrated to promote or inhibit the operationalization and embedding of complex interventions (interactional workability, relational integration, skill-set workability, and contextual integration) in a rigorous and sound theory.May C, T Finch, FS Mair, L Ballini, C Dowrick, et al. 2007a. "Understanding the implementation of complex interventions in health care: the Normalization Process Model." BMC Health Services Research # Interactional workability: This describes how a complex intervention is operationalized by the people using it.
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The spiritual paradigm of Creation is transformed into a dynamical interactional process in Divinity. Divine manifestations enclothe within each other, and are subject to exile and redemption: > The concept of hitlabshut ("enclothement") implies a radical shift of focus > in considering the nature of Creation. According to this perspective, the > chief dynamic of Creation is not evolutionary, but rather interactional. > Higher strata of reality are constantly enclothing themselves within lower > strata, like the soul within a body, thereby infusing every element of > Creation with an inner force that transcends its own position within the > universal hierarchy.
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He is known for his research on delinquency, including the "interactional theory" he proposed in 1987 to explain its origins. This theory is based on Travis Hirschi's work on social bonding and Ronald Akers' work on social learning theory.
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The second definition is interactional. It views language aptitude as comprehension abilities during second language learning. Aptitude is or can be subject to change according to an environment. It highlights that no specific instruction works for all second language learners.
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It is important that a high degree of interactional justice exists in a subordinate/supervisor relationship in order to reduce the likelihood of counterproductive work behavior. If a subordinate perceives that interactional injustice exists, then the subordinate will hold feelings of resentment toward either the supervisor or institution and will therefore seek to "even the score". A victim of interaction injustice will have increased expressions of hostility toward the offender which can manifest in actions of counterproductive work behavior and reduce the effectiveness of organizational communication. Abuse directed toward a subordinate from a supervisor often stems from displaced aggression.
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The findings of Barsky and Kaplan show that both state and trait level negative affect can act as antecedents to justice perceptions. State and trait level negative affect are negatively associated with interactional, procedural, and distributive justice perceptions. Conversely, positive state and trait affectivity was linked to higher ratings of interactional, procedural and distributive justice. Based on the research regarding the central role of affect in justice perceptions, Lang, Bliese, Lang, and Adler (2011) extended this research and studied the idea that sustained clinical levels of negative affect (depression) could be a precursor to perceptions of injustice in organizations.
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Interactional sociolinguistics is a subdiscipline of linguistics that uses discourse analysis to study how language users create meaning via social interaction.Tannen, Deborah (2006). Language and culture. In R.W. Fasold and J. Connor Linton (eds.) An Introduction to Language and Linguistics, 343-372.
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In psychotherapy, systemic therapy seeks to address people not only on the individual level, as had been the focus of earlier forms of therapy, but also as people in relationships, dealing with the interactions of groups and their interactional patterns and dynamics.
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Cafiero, p. 8. AAC intervention in this population is directed towards the linguistic and social abilities of the child,Beukelman & Mirenda, pp. 246–248. including providing the person with a concrete means of communication, as well as facilitating the development of interactional skills.Mirenda (2001).
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Janet Yang uses the Interactional Justice Model to test the effects of willingness to talk with a doctor and clinical trial enrollment.Yang, Z. J., et al. (2010). "Motivation for Health Information Seeking and Processing About Clinical Trial Enrollment". Health Communication 25(5): 423–436.
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When the lower levels are inconsistent with the higher levels, it is called a "strange loop". Essentially, "a 'strange' loop is a repetitive interactional pattern that alternates between contradictory meanings".Craig 1997. For example, the alcoholic identifies that he is an alcoholic and then quits drinking.
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In 1956 Gumperz joined the faculty at the University of California, Berkeley. There, he developed a new way of looking at sociolinguistics with Dell Hymes, also a scholar of sociolinguistics. Their contribution was a new method called the "ethnography of communication." Gumperz's own approach has been called interactional sociolinguistics.
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The third potential outcome of dialogue journal use, development of cognitive skills, is mediated through the interactional scaffolding provided by the teacher's responses to student ideas and topics. Here the importance of having a motivated, committed teacher as an interactional partner is clear. Teachers readily use higher-order cognitive skills involved in comprehending information, such as comparing, evaluating, giving examples, predicting, requesting clarification, and elaboration. The Gallaudet report, Conversations in Writing: A Guide for Using Dialogue Journals includes reflections from Gallaudet University faculty on the value of their dialogue journal use in upper-division classes for developing engagement and cognitively demanding exchanges in topic areas, geared to individual students' actual cognitive maturity, rather than (often minimal) writing competence.
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Interactional justice refers to the treatment that an individual receives as decisions are made and can be promoted by providing explanations for decisions and delivering the news with sensitivity and respect (Bies & Moag, 1986). A construct validation study by Colquitt (2001) suggests that interactional justice should be broken into two components: interpersonal and informational justice. Interpersonal justice refers to perceptions of respect and propriety in one's treatment while informational justice relates to the adequacy of the explanations given in terms of their timeliness, specificity, and truthfulness. Interpersonal justice "reflects the degree to which people are treated with politeness, dignity, and respect by authorities and third parties involved in executing procedures or determining outcomes".
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People hold themselves and each other accountable for their presentations of gender (how they 'measure up'). They are aware that others may evaluate and characterize their behavior. This is an interactional process (not just an individual one). Social constructionism asserts that gender is a category that people evaluate as omnirelevant to social life.
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Interactional expertise offers an alternative to this approach. Instead of a new language emerging, some members of the group learn the language of the others and shift back and forth between the two worlds. This is more akin to translation between two cultures rather than the creation of a new, shared, culture.
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Bies and Moag (1986) argue that interactional justice is distinct from procedural justice because it represents the social exchange component of the interaction and the quality of treatment whereas procedural justice represents the processes that were used to arrive at the decision outcomes. Generally researchers are in agreement regarding the distinction between procedural and distributive justice but there is more controversy over the distinction between interactional and procedural justice (Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001). Colquitt (2001) demonstrated that a four- factor model (including procedural, distributive, interpersonal, and informational justice) fit the data significantly better than a two or three factor model. Colquitt's construct validation study also showed that each of the four components have predictive validity for different key organizational outcomes (e.g.
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Ten Have, Paul (1999): Doing Conversation Analysis. A Practical Guide, Thousand Oaks: Sage. It is particularly influential in interactional sociolinguistics, discourse analysis and discursive psychology, as well as being a coherent discipline in its own right. Recently CA techniques of sequential analysis have been employed by phoneticians to explore the fine phonetic details of speech.
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The interactional function is to do with politeness. For if one is invited somebody to a party, and responded no without a filled pause, they might appear rude; but a reply of "Hmm, sorry, no" might appear much more polite, as it seems the speaker is giving the offer some thought, rather than abruptly declining.
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The concept of interactional expertise # provides a new way of engaging with traditional problems in the philosophy of knowledge # appears to be implicated in a wide range of social activities, ranging from some styles of management in large organisations to high level specialist journalism to the peer review that is at the centre of science.
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94 and .92, respectively. It was also found that phenelzine was associated with LSAS scores that had post-treatment scores with standard deviations at least half higher than patients in placebo treatment. Safren and colleagues found that the relationship between social interactional anxiety and performance anxiety in their studies, showed high face validity but lacked construct validity.
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Sandra Annear Thompson (July 6, 1941 - ) is an American linguist specializing in discourse analysis, typology, and interactional linguistics. She is Professor Emerita of Linguistics at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB). She has published numerous books, her research has appeared in many linguistics journals, and she serves on the editorial board of several prominent linguistics journals.
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A person offers themselves to a social group through a good appearance or a well demeanored appearance. When an individual has a well demeanored appearance it makes interaction between people easier. After a person is socially accepted to a group, it is expected that they will conform to interactional norms. Through acting on those norms, people receive deference.
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The infants categorized as disorganized/disorientated are the most insecure and make up 5–15% of American infants. They exhibit both avoidant and resistant attachment behavior. This infant will become fearful when the mother is absent, and avoid her when reunited. Synchronized routines play a significant role in the development of interactional synchrony, predictors for quality attachment.
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The Normalization process model is a sociological model, developed by Carl R. May, that describes the adoption of new technologies in health care. The model provides framework for process evaluation using three componentsactors, objects, and contextsthat are compared across four constructs: Interactional workability, relational integration, skill-set workability, and contextual integration. This model helped build the Normalization process theory.
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Through the use of structural equation modeling, Sweeney and McFarlin found that distributive justice was related to outcomes that are person-level (e.g., pay satisfaction) while procedural justice was related to organization-level outcomes (e.g., organizational commitment). The accuracy of the two-factor model was challenged by studies that suggested a third factor (interactional justice) may be involved.
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Socialization is achieved by extending the speech act perspective to the level of interaction. Externalization is achieved by capturing the propositional and interactional commitments created by the speech acts performed. And dialectification is achieved by regimenting the exchange of speech acts to an ideal model of a critical discussion. (see Van Eemeren & Grootendorst, 2004, pp.52-53).
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Within the field of human-computer interaction, Rosalind Picard's cognitivist or "information model" concept of emotion has been criticized by and contrasted with the "post-cognitivist" or "interactional" pragmatist approach taken by Kirsten Boehner and others which views emotion as inherently social. Picard's focus is human-computer interaction, and her goal for affective computing is to "give computers the ability to recognize, express, and in some cases, 'have' emotions". In contrast, the interactional approach seeks to help "people to understand and experience their own emotions" and to improve computer-mediated interpersonal communication. It does not necessarily seek to map emotion into an objective mathematical model for machine interpretation, but rather let humans make sense of each other's emotional expressions in open-ended ways that might be ambiguous, subjective, and sensitive to context.
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Deutsch uses examples of studies that use West and Zimmerman's work to illustrate how normative gender ideals are apparent in a variety of contexts. This, she argues, contributes to the invisibility of gender transgression and does not work towards West and Zimmerman's goal of eliminating gender inequity. In order to facilitate the undoing of gender, Deutsch suggests that "The study of the interactional level could expand beyond simply documenting the persistence of inequality to examine (1) when and how social interactions become less gendered, not just differently gendered; (2) the conditions under which gender is irrelevant in social interactions; (3) whether all gendered interactions reinforce inequality; (4) how the structural (institutional) and interactional levels might work together to produce change; and (5) interaction as the site of change" (p. 114).
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This creates a conversational structure that makes it easier for verbal communication to develop. It also teaches patience, kindness, and respect as they learn from the direction of elders that one person should speak at a time. This creates interactional synchrony during their preverbal routines that shapes their interpersonal communication skills early on in their development.Haslett, B., & Samter, W. (1997).
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The Intersystem Approach is an integrative and dialectical framework, that explores how individuals, couples, family systems and communities function in their relationships. it includes two constructs: (1) the attachment theory construct, and (2) the interactional construct. Gerald R. Weeks. Klaus F. Riegel asserted that development proceeds in for dimensions simultaneously: 1) inner-biological, 2) individual- psychological, 3) cultural-sociological, and 4) outer-physical.
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The interactions between the person and environment result in the construction of the individual ecological niches. These niches are what we experience as our world. Ecological counseling seeks to understand people's ecological niches and assist them to live a satisfying life. This is accomplished by improving one's interactional quality, or concordance, through counseling intervention at both the personal and environmental levels.
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At the beginning of the two thousands, Collins along with Dr Robert Evans, also of Cardiff University, has published works on what they term the "Third Wave of Science Studies" and, in particular, the idea of interactional expertise. This aims to address questions of legitimacy and extension and public involvement in scientific decision-making. They continue to research and publish on this topic.
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Frame 1 is centered on the ways in which gender identity shapes how individuals interact with each other. In this sense communication is treated as evidence or a product of gender identity. # Frame 2 is Discourse (Dis)Organizes Gender, and it speaks to identity as something that is “done.” In her second frame, Ashcraft proposes that discourse and gender identity have a dialectical and interactional relationship.
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Dialogue journal writing can be described as a place for risk-free experimentation with written language, as an opportunity for developing critical literacy and a reflective perspective on a topic of focus. Early research on dialogue journals explored the cognitive processing inherent in interactive written dialogues with a skilled teacher, drawing on Vygotsky's theory of interactional scaffolding of learning.Vygotsky, L. (1934/1986). Thought and language.
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Teachers can continuously go through interactional revision when continuing the conversation with a student using this sequence. This allows for methodical revision and negotiation between speakers. As the teacher analyses the student's replies and reformulates the following question, each question becomes a repair of the one before and thus becomes an interpretive resource based on the teacher's analysis and decisions derived from the prior exchange.
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New York: Springer Publishing Company. The intellectual premise for STI is based on systems theory, which considers a system as a set of interacting and independent parts. If depression is a system consisting of various symptoms, when one of the symptoms improves, the entire trajectory of the depressive episode is transformed. In this sense, STI is related to Bowen's systemic theory and its interactional dynamics.
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The study observes an instructor who conducts a multimodal group activity with students. Previous studies observed different classes using modes such as gestures, classroom space, and PowerPoints. The current study observes an instructors combined use of multiple modes in teaching to see its effect on student participation and conceptual understanding. She explains the different spaces of the classroom, including the authoritative space, interactional space, and personal space.
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The area Interaction is a leading international center for conversation research and interactional linguistics. The area Spoken Corpora includes archives, such as the "Archiv für Gesprochenes Deutsch (AGD)" (the Archive for spoken German). The Department of Digital Linguistics is divided into two areas. The area Research Coordination and Research Infrastructure deals with tasks and projects related to the internal and external communication of information and networking.
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In this case, the individual (supervisor) is unwilling to retaliate against the direct source of mistreatment and will therefore abuse a less threatening target such as a subordinate since the subordinate is incapable of retaliation. Thus, interactional injustice can essentially trickle-down from the top of an organization to the bottom due to displaced aggression that exists in the top ranks of the hierarchy.
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The next step which made interactional linguistics develop was the important work on conversation analysis. Some sociologists were saying the study of everyday language was the essence of social order; some other kinds of discourse were said to be understood as habituations of the fundamental conversational order. The term talk-in-interaction was created as an inclusive term for all of naturally speech exchange.
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The Palo Alto Mental Research Institute (MRI) is one of the founding institutions of brief and family therapy.Nichols, M., & Schwartz, R. (2005). Family Therapy: Concepts and Methods (7th Edition), New York City: Prentice Hall. Founded by Don D. Jackson and colleagues in 1958, MRI has been one of the leading sources of ideas in the area of interactional/systemic studies, psychotherapy, and family therapy.
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These contextualization cues are culturally specific and usually unconscious. Linguistic anthropology helps make explicit the implicit features of culture that can often be unknown to the speaker. When participants in a conversation come from different cultural backgrounds they may not recognize these subtle cues in one another's speech, leading to misunderstanding. This very idea of misunderstanding, contextualization, and culture, has been widely explored using Gumperz's framework of Interactional sociolinguistics.
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More recently known as conversation analysis, Harvey Sacks established this approach in collaboration with his colleagues Emanuel Schegloff and Gail Jefferson. # Talk-in-interaction within institutional or organisational settings. While early studies focused on talk abstracted from the context in which it was produced (usually using tape recordings of telephone conversations) this approach seeks to identify interactional structures that are specific to particular settings. # The study of work.
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De-escalation refers to refusing to be drawn into a battle with the other (escalation). Escalation can be symmetrical Watzlawick, P., Beavin, J.H., and Jackson, D.D. (1967). Pragmatics of human communication: a study of interactional patterns, pathologies and paradoxes. W.W.Norton. where parent and child each attempt to gain control over the other and raise levels of aggression in an upward spiral, or complementary,Patterson, G.R., Dishion, T.J., and Bank, L. (1984).
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Paul Watzlawick's theory of communication, popularly known as the "Interactional View", interprets relational patterns of interaction in the context of five "axioms". The theory draws on the cybernetic tradition. Watzlawick, his mentor Gregory Bateson and the members of the Mental Research Institute in Palo Alto were known as the Palo Alto Group. Their work was highly influential in laying the groundwork for family therapy and the study of relationships.
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Perceptions of injustice and unfairness are significant antecedents and determinants of turnover intention (DeConinck & Stilwell, 2004; Nadiri & Tanova, 2010). In other words, turnover intention is a considerable outcome of an employee's fairness perceptions. Although all three dimensions of organizational justice may play a role in an employee's intention to exit an organization, interactional and distributive justice are more predictive of turnover intention than procedural justice (Thomas & Nagalingappa, 2012).
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Keeney developed Recursive Frame Analysis (RFA) as a qualitative research method for discerning patterns in therapeutic conversation. It is a method he describes as “scoring” conversations, much as one would a song. Through RFA “…Keeney derived a series of distinctions which would allow therapists and researchers to describe interactional patterns in therapeutic discourse and to guide their practice in therapy.” RFA has been used in numerous dissertations and research studies.
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Behavioral ethics researchers have found the relationship between employees' justice perceptions and also, ethical and unethical behavior. In the 1990s, organizational justice became one of the most studied organizational themes. The term organizational justice is created by Greenberg(1987) to involve employee's perception of organizational events, policies, and practices as being fair or not fair. Classic work on distributive justice, procedural justice and interactional justice has been built.
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Traditionally, the assessment of student learning in medical education has relied almost entirely on written exams. But there would seem to be more to being a competent practitioner than could ever be assessed using a paper and pencil test. Barrows' pioneering work on training actors to serve as simulated patients opened the door to a new way of evaluating clinical skills. Simulated patients could be used to test the students' interactional and problem-solving skills.
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Furthermore, roles are situated identities, such as "nurse" and "student," developed as the situation demands, while gender is a master identity with no specific site or organizational context. For them, "conceptualizing gender as a role makes it difficult to assess its influence on other roles and reduces its explanatory usefulness in discussions of power and inequality". West and Zimmerman consider gender an individual production that reflects and constructs interactional and institutional gender expectations.
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There are multiple concepts that may fall under the aegis of mimicry. Behavioral mimicry is also placed in its broader context as a form of interpersonal coordination. It is often compared to interactional synchrony and other social contagion effects, including verbal, facial, emotional and behavioral mimicry with similar emotional and attitudinal convergence. Facial Mimicry defined is the resemblance shown by one animal species to another which protects it from predators, perceived or otherwise.
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Powell (2007) focused on a particular medium, public internet access, in an urban context. Shepherd, Arnold, Bellamy and Gibbs (2007) extended the concept to attend to the material and spatial aspects of the communicative ecology of the domestic sphere. The term "communicative ecology" has also been used in other studies with various interpretations. Interactional sociolinguists use the term to describe the local communicative environment of a particular setting in which discourse is contextualised.
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Approaches to Discourse (1994) exemplifies how discourse analysis uses methods from other disciplines, besides just linguistics, including anthropology, sociology, and philosophy. The book compares and contrasts several different approaches of linguistic analysis in relation to discourse including: speech theory, pragmatics, conversation analysis, ethnography, interactional sociolinguistics, and variation analysis. Within each approach described, Schiffrin includes her own analysis of the narratives used above in order to illustrate the similarities and differences of the various approaches.
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Emotional exhaustion, which related to employee health and burnout, is related to overall organizational justice perceptions. As perceptions of justice increase employee health increases and burnout decreases (Liljegren & Ekberg, 2009). Distributive, procedural, and interactional justice perceptions are able to capture state specific levels of emotional exhaustion which fade over time; however, overall organizational justice perceptions give the most stable picture of the relationship between justice perceptions and emotional exhaustion over time (Liljegren & Ekberg, 2009).
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Social Interactional Model, deriving from phenomenological sociology and ethnomethodology, emphasizes the intersubjective and objective features of sensemaking. Intersubjective feature reveals that people always try to obtain subjective meanings of others. In CMC, communicators are required to actively figure out whether they share meanings with others, including computers. In this process, people are expected to use normal form objects, terms and utterances to portray correctly the contexts and experiences in order to let computer recognize.
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In recent years, computer-assisted language learning has been integrated into foreign language education and computer programs with varying levels of interactional relationship between computer and the language learner have been developed.Palmberg, R. (1989). Integrating CALL into Foreign- Language Teaching. Language learning aids such as foreign language writing aid and foreign language reading aid, targeted at the specific language skills of foreign language learners, are also alternative instruments available for foreign language learners.
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"Hmm" is a "filler" word, such as "um" and "er". Use of "hmm" for "filled pauses" has been considered by many as stupidity and showing a lack of skill or competence, but many linguists attest this judgement is unjustified. Typically, "hmm" is uttered when the person is being especially conscious about whom they are talking with, and as a result are thinking deeply about what to say. Moreover, the use of "hmm" is often interactional and cognitive.
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For instance, gender is maintained before the woman enters the male-dominated group through conceptions of masculinity. Race, class, and other oppressions can also be omnirelevant categories, though they are not all identically salient in every set of social relationships in which inequality is done. People have preconceived notions about what particular racial groups look like (although there is no biological component to this categorization). Accountability is interactional because it does not occur solely within the individual.
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A major career contribution is Risman's theory of gender as a social structure. Her book, Gender Vertigo: American Families in Transition (1998, Yale University Press) is an early presentation of this theory. In this monograph, Risman introduces a theoretical framework that conceptualizes gender as a social structure, comprising three distinct but interlocking levels – individual, interactional, and institutional. Risman argues that it is the recursive relationship between all three levels that constructs and perpetuates gender inequalities in society.
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This can be improved by allowing students to participate in peer-to-peer interactions as platforms to generate appropriate listener responses. In contrast, typical IRF exchanges could still be useful in classroom situations where teachers assign the kind of interactional status that helps learners be actively involved in the interactions. Productive use of conversational responses in peer-to-peer speech practices could be eventually achieved if teachers provide exposure to and guidance on the use of follow-ups.
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Due to OIT's situational perspective, the meanings of messages consist of the messages, the interpretations of receivers, and the interactional context. However, ambiguity and uncertainty can mean that a standard answer - the only one true objective interpretation - exists. Also, Weick emphasizes that "the equivocality is the engine that motivates people to organize". Maitlis and Christianson states that the equivocality trigger sensemaking for three reasons: environment jolts and organizational crises, threats to identity, and planned change interventions. 3\.
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Studies demonstrate that primates adhere two main forms of group living characterized by opposing interactional styles: agonic and hedonic. The agonic mode of interaction is typical of hierarchical societies, in which group members concentrate on defending against threats to status. Agonic behavior is focused around aggression as well as the inhibition of aggression, often through either submission or appeasement. On the other hand, the hedonic mode of interaction is characteristic of egalitarian societies, where cooperative and affiliative behavior is common.
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Members of speech communities will often develop slang or jargon to serve the group's special purposes and priorities. Community of Practice allows for sociolinguistics to examine the relationship between socialization, competence, and identity. Since identity is a very complex structure, studying language socialization is a means to examine the micro-interactional level of practical activity (everyday activities). The learning of a language is greatly influenced by family but it is supported by the larger local surroundings, such as school, sports teams, or religion.
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Such frustration-related aggression tended to be against the perpetrator and persons not involved in failure to reach the goal. Prolonged waiting times in A&E; departments and general practice led to aggression due to frustration; it generally being directed towards receptionists–with approximately 73% of doctors becoming involved (Hobbs and Keane 1996). ; Situational/Interactional Model (Nijman et al. 1999): :This deals with factors involved in the immediate situation, for example interactions between patients and staff (Duxbury et al. 2008).
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Halliday argues that both experiential and interpersonal functions are intricately organized, but that between the two "there is comparatively very little constraint". This means that "by and large, you can put any interactional 'spin' on any representational content". What allows meanings from these two modes to freely combine is the intercession of a third, distinct mode of meaning that Halliday refers to as the textual function. The term encompasses all of the grammatical systems responsible for managing the flow of discourse.
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Hypoarticulation is one of the interactional-communicative factors in connected speech, and it has long been noted and widely studied as "a reduction of less important tokens in relation to the more important ones." Some features of hypoarticulation include more pronounced enunciations, as well as diminished lip protrusions. Many believe that infant-directed speech contains different characteristics which facilitate learning. However, it is not known for sure whether if the actual speech registers used when communicating when infants and adults differ.
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In learning, co-construction is a distinctive approach where the emphasis is on collaborative or partnership working. The approach includes some more interactional processes such as cooperation and coordination. Co-construction is a concept that students can use to help them learn from others and expand their knowledge. Not only does co-construction among learners assist them with growing in many areas, such as solving issues together, but it also teaches students how to form relationships with their peers and teachers.
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Agonistic competition spans back as far as 300 million years, and thus is deeply ingrained into the genome. Extensive observational evidence of reptiles and birds reveal that when they compete for breeding territory, individuals engage in a specific manner of interactional display, known as ritualistic agonistic behavior (RAB). Opponents confront one another and display various power signals which may include standing tall, maintaining eye contact, or puffing themselves up. This type of behavior can also be found in humans, especially in the context of a physical contest.
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DG is composed of all the linguistic resources that are available for designing texts, irrespective of whether these are spoken or written (or signed) texts. It is viewed both as an activity, a real-time interactional tool, and a knowledge store consisting of a set of conventional linguistic units plus their combinatorial potential. An elementary distinction between two main domains of speech processing is made, referred to as Sentence Grammar and Thetical Grammar. Sentence Grammar is organized in terms of propositional concepts and clauses and their combination.
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The authors comment that these poor outcomes might reflect a need for additional support for some patients, in addition to the group therapy. This is borne out by the impressive results obtained using mentalization-based treatment, a model that combines dynamic group psychotherapy with individual psychotherapy and case management. Most outcome research is carried out using time-limited therapy with diagnostically homogenous groups. However, long-term intensive interactional group psychotherapy assumes diverse and diagnostically heterogeneous group membership, and an open-ended time scale for therapy.
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Picard's critics describe her concept of emotion as "objective, internal, private, and mechanistic". They say it reduces emotion to a discrete psychological signal occurring inside the body that can be measured and which is an input to cognition, undercutting the complexity of emotional experience. The interactional approach asserts that though emotion has biophysical aspects, it is "culturally grounded, dynamically experienced, and to some degree constructed in action and interaction". Put another way, it considers "emotion as a social and cultural product experienced through our interactions".
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The theory of least collaborative effort asserts that participants in a contribution try to minimize the total effort spent on that contribution – in both the presentation and acceptance phases.Clark and Schaefer, 1989; Contributing to Discourse p 269 In exact, every participant in a conversation tries to minimize the total effort spent in that interactional encounter.Bethan L. Davies, Least Collaborative Effort or Least Individual Effort: Examining the Evidence The ideal utterances are informative and brief. Participants in conversation refashion referring expressions and decrease conversation length.
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Therefore, situationism is of the same opinion as zeitgeist theory—leaders are created from the social environment and are molded from the situation. The concept of zeitgeist also relates to the sociological tradition that stems from Émile Durkheim and recently developed into social capital theory as exemplified by the work of Patrick Hunout. These two perspectives have been combined to create what is known as the interactional approach to leadership. This approach asserts that leadership is developed through the mixing of personality traits and the situation.
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Related to the first axiom, non-verbal communication can be viewed as informative rather than communicative. With the behavioral characteristic of equifinality involved, it is hard to know when the system of the Interactional View is happening or not. Equifinality is the systems theory assumption that a given outcome could have occurred due to any or many interconnected factors rather than being a result in a cause—effect relationship. This theory rests on the word communication, but this word can be interpreted very differently between people.
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Whilst there may be some skills that are more or less generic in the management of large organisations – presumably the kinds of skills that are taught on MBA schemes around the world – we can also ask if managers do better if they understand particularities of the business they are in charge of. Intuitively it seems reasonable to suggest that the manager of a newspaper should know something about how a journalist works or that a manager of a car factory should know something about how a Production-line works. Whilst this kind of thinking is formally included in many training schemes, the idea of interactional expertise allows us to ask about the kind of experience that is needed in order for managers who lack the embodied experience of writing copy or working on a production line to understand what this is like for those that do fulfil these roles. One implication of interactional expertise is that direct experience – working one’s way up through the ranks – may be less important than previously thought even though lots of interaction with those who do these tasks could still be important.
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John J. Gumperz was an integral figure in the solidification of anthropology as an academic discipline and in the creation of the interdisciplinary field of linguistic anthropology. Born in 1922 he was able to play a crucial role in setting up how future scholars looked at language, culture, and social meaning. Gumperz conducted ethnographic work around the world as well as teaching at many esteemed universities in the United States. He worked with several great thinkers across disciplines (including: psychology, sociology, linguistics, anthropology) in order to establish his framework around Interactional sociolinguistics.
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In this fashion, an interlocutor is influenced by her partner's language at the word level in natural conversation in the same way that one's non- verbal behavior can be influenced by another's movement. Additionally, Kate G. Niederhoffer proposes a coordination-engagement hypothesis, which suggests that the degree of engagement should be predictive of both linguistic and nonverbal coordination. There exists an interactional complexity whereby people can converge on some communicative features to meet social needs, but diverge on others for identity management. For example, one can diverge in accent but converge in lexical diversity.
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Two types of overlap were observed: overlaps that were continuers or assessments and did not substantially contribute to the conversation or demand attention away from the speaker, and overlaps that were questions or statements and moved the conversation forwards. The majority of overlap during the study consisted of continuers or assessments that were non-interruptive. Overlapping questions and their interactional environment were analyzed in particular. It was found that overlapping questions demonstrate the speaker's interest in the conversation and knowledge of the content, act as clarifiers, and progress the conversation.
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In the third month of life, children begin smiling, gesturing and vocalizing (cooing) when greeting familiar adults. Vygotskians have called this the animation complex and infants soon come to use it proactively to arouse and maintain the attention of a caregiver (Bodrova & Leong 2007). From around three to six months of age, infants use smiles and vocalizations to invite caregivers to engage in emotional exchanges, creating what researchers such as Tronick have called interactional synchrony (Tronick 1989). Parents often use "baby-talk" or "child-directed speech" in response to their children's prelinguistic vocalization (e.g.
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Objects and materials become familiar to the child as the activities are a normal part of everyday life. Learning is done in an extremely contextualized environment rather than one specifically tailored to be instructional. For example, the direct involvement that Mazahua children take in the marketplace is used as a type of interactional organization for learning without explicit verbal instruction. Children learn how to run a market stall, take part in caregiving, and also learn other basic responsibilities through non-structured activities, cooperating voluntarily within a motivational context to participate.
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The SSD-12 is a further development of the Somatic Symptoms Experiences Questionnaire. Herzog A, Voigt K, Meyer B, Rief W, Henningsen P, Hausteiner-Wiehle C, Löwe B. The Somatic Symptoms Experiences Question-naire (SSEQ): a new self-report instrument for the assessment of psychological characteristics of patients with somatoform disorder. Psychotherapie Psychosomatik Medizinische Psychologie. 2013;63:112–121.Herzog A, Voigt K, Meyer B, Wollburg E, Weinmann N, Langs G, Löwe B. Psychological and interactional characteristics of patients with somatoform disorders: validation of the Somatic Symptoms Experiences Questionnaire (SSEQ) in a clinical psycho-somatic population.
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Along with Clara Thompson, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, Otto Allen Will, Jr., Erik H. Erikson, and Frieda Fromm-Reichmann, Sullivan laid the groundwork for understanding the individual based on the network of relationships in which they are enmeshed. He developed a theory of psychiatry based on interpersonal relationships where cultural forces are largely responsible for mental illnesses (see also social psychiatry). In his words, one must pay attention to the "interactional", not the "intrapsychic". This search for satisfaction via personal involvement with others led Sullivan to characterize loneliness as the most painful of human experiences.
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A complex intervention will affect co-operative interactions over work (its congruence), and the normal pattern of outcomes of this work (its disposal). Therefore: a complex intervention is disposed to normalization if it confers an interactional advantage in flexibly accomplishing congruence and disposal of work. # Relational integration: This describes how knowledge and work is mediated and understood within the social networks of people around it. A complex intervention will affect not only the knowledge required by its users (its accountability), but also the ways that they understand the actions of people around them (its confidence).
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Sentence-final particles, including modal particles, interactional particles, etc., are minimal lexemes (words) that occur at the end of a sentence and that do not carry referential meaning, but may relate to linguistic modality, register or other pragmatic effects. Sentence-final particles are common in Chinese, including particles such as Mandarin le 了, ne 呢, ba 吧, ou 哦, a 啊, la 啦, ya 呀, and ma 嗎/吗, and Cantonese lo 囉 and ge 嘅. These particles act as qualifiers of the clause or sentence they end.
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The communication within the "Interactional View" is based on what is happening, and not necessarily associated with who, when, where, or why it takes place. "Normal" as well as the "disturbed" family is studied in order to infer conditions conducive to the approach of interaction-orientation. It is believed that individual personality, character, and deviance are shaped by the individual's relations with his fellows. Thus, symptoms, defenses, character structure and personality can be seen as terms describing the individual's typical interactions which occur in response to a particular interpersonal context.
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Gender is the performance of attitudes and actions that are considered socially acceptable for one's sex category. West and Zimmerman suggested that the interactional process of doing gender, combined with socially agreed upon gender expectations, holds individuals accountable for their gender performances. They also believe that while "doing gender" appropriately strengthens and promotes social structures based on the gender dichotomy, it inappropriately does not call into question these same social structures; only the individual actor is questioned. The concept of "doing gender" recognizes that gender both structures human interactions and is created through them.
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Different definitions of the same concepts can lead to contradictory findings of a given study with studies of the past and can thereby lead to circular, as opposed to progressive, debates in the literature. Although research has been able to establish that throughout the duration of a relationship, there is a decrease in sexual desire but increase in intimacyChelune, G. J., Robison, J. T., & Kommer, M. J. (1984). A cognitive interactional model of intimate relationships. In V. J. Derlega (Ed.), Communication, intimacy and close relationships (pp. 11–46).
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The concept of "doing" gender came from conversations of gender from sociology and gender studies. The specific term "doing gender" was used in West and Zimmerman's article by the same title, originally written in 1977 but not published until 1987. West and Zimmerman illustrate that gender is performed in interactions, and that behaviors are assessed based on socially accepted conceptions of gender. Rather than focusing on how gender is ingrained in the individual or perpetuated by institutions, West and Zimmerman emphasize the interactional level as a site where gender is invoked and reinforced.
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Sentence-final particles, sometimes called sentence-ending particles or interactional particles, are uninflected lexical items that appear at the end of a phrase or sentence. Unlike other types of particles such as case particles or conjunctive particles, sentence-final particles do not indicate the grammatical relation of different elements in a clause. Instead, they can be described as indicating "the illocutionary force of the proposition as well as the speaker's attitude towards the proposition and/or the interloculor(s)". This means that, among other things, sentence- final particles can be used to indicate how true the speaker believes the utterance is (e.g.
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Bottom-up approaches to the formation of collective memories investigate how cognitive-level phenomena allow for people to synchronize their memories following conversational remembering. Due to the malleability of human memory, talking with one another about the past results in memory changes that increase the similarity between the interactional partners' memories When these dyadic interactions occur in a social network, one can understand how large communities converge on a similar memory of the past. Research on larger interactions show that collective memory in larger social networks can emerge due to cognitive mechanisms involved in small group interactions.
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These projects and the collaboration with Paul Luff led to the organization of the Work, Interaction and Technology (WIT) Research Group, now Research Centre. Since 1998 WIT has been based at King's College London. In 2000 Heath published Technology in Action which addressed diverse issues including collaborative production of news stories, teamwork in traffic control, and the interactional incongruities that arise in media spaces and virtual environments. These studies became part of the emerging fields of Workplace Studies and CSCW (Computer Supported Cooperative Work) and contributed to knowledge of embodied action and multimodal interaction in ethnomethodology and conversation analysis.
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Today, most personality psychologists adhere to an interactionist perspective, where both person and situation contribute to human behavior; as a result, the primary debate no longer exists. Personality-job fit theory (based on the broader concept of person-environment fit) suggests that certain job environments are more suited to individuals with certain personality characteristics, and that hiring individuals who are the best "fit" will result in higher employee satisfaction, well-being and better job performance. In other words, personality-job fit theory is based on an interactional model which suggests that both person and situation interact to influence behavior.
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Much of Dey's research deals with the construction and intersectional nature of ubiquitous computing. In 2002, in a research project at the University of California, Berkeley alongside Scott Lederer and Jennifer Mankoff, the team developed a conceptual model exploring the tangibility and accessibility of everyday end-user privacy in ubicomp environments. The model takes considerations from societal influences, contextual factors, and subjectivity to develop a far-reaching scope for ubicomp privacy. The model was then used to explore an interactional metaphor called situational faces, which makes the issue of privacy in ubiquitous computing environments more accessible to users.
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Objective sociological research findings quickly become a normative and political issue. Early work in medical sociology was conducted by Lawrence J Henderson whose theoretical interests in the work of Vilfredo Pareto inspired Talcott Parsons interests in sociological systems theory. Parsons is one of the founding fathers of medical sociology, and applied social role theory to interactional relations between sick people and others. Key contributors to medical sociology since the 1950s include Howard S. Becker, Mike Bury, Peter Conrad, Jack Douglas, David Silverman, Phil Strong, Bernice Pescosolido, Carl May, Anne Rogers, Anselm Strauss, Renee Fox, and Joseph W. Schneider.
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Scientific papers and research are subject to peer review but, in most cases, the reviewers will be drawn from cognate or related fields. This is particularly common in research funding decisions, where the likelihood of an application being reviewed by non-specialists increases with the amount of money involved. Even in the case of smaller awards, and of peer reviewed papers, it is still often the case that reviewers will have contributory expertise in a different narrowly defined specialism to that of the author being reviewed. If interactional expertise did not exist, then justifying peer review would be difficult.
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Goodwin worked in the field of social welfare before entering academia. He was a caseworker for the New York City Department of Welfare, and a filmmaker for the Developmental Center for Autistic Children in Philadelphia and the Philadelphia Child Guidance Clinic. After receiving a BS in English from Holy Cross, and a law degree from New York University School of Law, Charles Goodwin was awarded his doctorate in linguistics in 1977 by the University of Pennsylvania, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. From that point on he made contributions to the field of interactional linguistics, (sociolinguistics, linguistic anthropology).
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However, it is often the case that students have a hard time understanding and interpreting a poem even though they know every single word. The glittering example reveals the problem of treating spoken language and written language as the same and implies the need to treat them differently. According to Kravchenko, spoken language and written language are different in that spoken language is temporal and local, while written language is atemporal and non-local. The understanding of spoken language relies on the common knowledge shared by the participants who are involved in the conversation, and the cognition required is situated and highly interactional.
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In sociolinguistics, SPEAKING or the SPEAKING model, is a model socio- linguistic study (represented as a mnemonic) developed by Dell Hymes. Hymes developed this model as part of a new methodology referred to as the ethnography of speaking. This model is a tool to assist the identification and labeling of components of interactional linguistics that was driven by his view that, in order to speak a language correctly, one needs not only to learn its vocabulary and grammar, but also the context in which words are used. In essence, the learning the components of the SPEAKING model is essential for linguistic competence.
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Levinson's earliest work was with John Gumperz in interactional sociolinguistics, studying the interaction patterns in a multilingual community in India. He has written extensively on pragmatics, producing the first comprehensive textbook in the field (1983). He locates his work on pragmatics under what he has called the Gricean umbrella (2000:12ff.), a broad theory of communication that focuses on the role of conversational implicatures. His work with Penelope Brown on language structures related to formality and politeness across the world led to the publication of Politeness: Universals in Language Usage (1978/1987), a foundational work in Politeness theory.
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A few centuries ago, students and researchers were only investigating written language. With the improvement of technology, linguists have started to focus on spoken language as well due to its functions in intonation and transcription system. Starting to investigate spoken language on its own is the start of Interactional linguistics’ development. Afterward, function-directed linguists were working on relations between discourse function and linguistic form. Though the functional linguistic study wasn’t all about conversational interaction, it was really helpful for the language study which saw linguistic form as being useful on the situated occasion of use.
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In pragma-dialectics, argumentation is viewed as a communicative and interactional discourse phenomenon that is to be studied from a normative as well as a descriptive perspective. The dialectical dimension is inspired by normative insights from "critical rationalism" and formal dialectics, the pragmatic dimension by descriptive insights from speech act theory, Gricean language philosophy and discourse analysis. To allow for the systematic integration of the pragmatic and dialectical dimensions in the study of argumentation, the pragma-dialectical theory uses four meta-theoretical principles as its point of departure: functionalization, socialization, externalization and dialectification. Functionalization is achieved by treating discourse as a purposive act.
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Second, it would allow for an assessment of the relative importance of the dimensions of situational strength, helping researchers to determine which dimensions are necessary and/or sufficient to adequately understand a given interactional question. Third, it would help researchers determine whether the situational strength dimensions interact with each other—and, if they do, whether these interactions are synergistic or antagonistic. Fourth, it would allow for large-scale analyses of the relative levels of situational strength that exist in diverse situations, the results of which could then be compiled into centralized databases that could help inform future practice and research.
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One of the main ways that Gumperz's framework is often utilized is in the context of jokes and how, when and why they are used by a specific culture in conversation. One anthropologist who has conducted research using the methodology of interactional sociolinguistics is Catherine Evans Davies. She uses it her ethnographic research to understand how beginning language learners start to make sense of social interaction in that language by using jokes in conversation with native speakers. In her work she discusses the usefulness of Gumperz's theory in her methodology as it stresses conversational analysis for the purpose of interpreting different linguistic practices, in this case humor and joking.
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There are numerous ways that school influences student engagement, including structural characteristics like class size and interactional processes like teacher’s instructional and emotional support. Studies show that instructional quality, such as rigorous and challenging learning activities that can be applied to the outside world, as well as teacher expectations can enhance or hurt a child’s engagement. The school environment is also important to student engagement, as one study reported that racial discrimination in schools negatively affected students of color's engagement and performanceBaysu, G., Celeste, L., Brown, R., Verschueren, K., & Phalet, K. (2016). Minority adolescents in ethnically diverse schools: Perceptions of equal treatment buffer threat effects.
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The use of social media by nonprofits should follow a stewardship model that includes acts of reciprocity, responsibility, and accountability in an effort to nurture nonprofit relationships and place supporters at the forefront. Referencing organizational partners and supporters is one way in which these ideals can be expressed through social media use. Furthermore, listing the nonprofits specific use of donations and volunteers as well as posting the names of board members and mission statement can cover the responsibility and accountability components. And although most social media sites provide free services, for social media to be most effective, organizations must provide on-going interactional experiences for users, which requires additional man-hours.
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It is estimated that for a mid-size nonprofit with revenue between $1 and $5 million annually, having a social media presence will cost, on average, $11 thousand annually to attain an adequate level of interaction. Examples of such interactional components for a nonprofit website might include: downloadable video, RSS feeds, chat rooms, polls or surveys, linked publications and always, contact information. In a poll conducted with mid-sized nonprofit organizations, 51 percent reported that between one and five hours were spent weekly attending to social media. Additionally, as the nonprofits social media presence grew, more hours were required to sustain the same level of interaction.
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Ameka has made seminal contributions to the cross-linguistic study of interjections, editing a highly influential special issue on 'the universal yet neglected part of speech' . Ameka has pioneered research on the interaction of grammar, culture, and social structure, using the framework of Natural Semantic Metalanguage to elucidate cultural scripts and interactional resources. A long-term research associate at the Max Planck Institute of Psycholinguistics, Ameka has led a large-scale comparative project on the semantics of locative predicates and contributed to cross-linguistic work on the expression of motion events. With Alan Dench and Nick Evans, he co-edited an influential collection on the art of grammar writing.
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Arvind Singhal is an Indian-born American social scientist and academician. His academic research has focused on diffusion of innovations, the positive deviance approach, organizing for social change, the entertainment-education strategy, and liberating interactional structures. He currently holds the positions of Samuel Shirley and Edna Holt Marston Endowed Professor of Communication and Director of the Social Justice Initiative in Department of Communication at University of Texas at El Paso since 2007, William J. Clinton Distinguished Fellow at the Clinton School of Public Service since 2010 and Distinguished Professor 2 in the Faculty of Business Administration, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, since 2015.
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Molotch has also conducted a series of studies in conversation analysis on mechanisms such as gaps and silences in human conversation that reveal the way power operates at the micro-interactional level. This work includes a notable collaboration with Mitchell Duneier on talk between men on the street and women passersby. His research builds on writings of Don Zimmerman, Harvey Sacks, Gail Jefferson, and Emanuel Schegloff. Molotch was among the first to utilize ethnomethodology and conversation analysis in the study of traditional sociological topics, bridging what had been regarded as a highly esoteric and specialized approach to micro-sociology with mainstream, macro-level sociological issues such as hegemony and power.
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Interactional linguistics has developed in linguistic discourse analysis and conversation analysis, and is used to investigate the relationship between grammatical structure and real-time interaction and language use. Further, the topic of normativity in a discourse or a social norm both contribute to how a conversation functions. There is a common ground that both parties in a conversation use in order to determine how to both continue a conversation and what sort of social syntax to use. For example, if two workers were speaking together, the interaction between them would be different, more informal, compared to how a worker and their boss might interact in a more formal manner.
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It is distinct from discourse analysis in focus and method. (i) Its focus is on processes involved in social interaction and does not include written texts or larger sociocultural phenomena (for example, 'discourses' in the Foucauldian sense). (ii) Its method, following Garfinkel and Goffman's initiatives, is aimed at determining the methods and resources that the interacting participants use and rely on to produce interactional contributions and make sense of the contributions of others. Thus CA is neither designed for, nor aimed at, examining the production of interaction from a perspective that is external to the participants' own reasoning and understanding about their circumstances and communication.
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Edutainment is also a growing paradigm within the science center and children's museum community in the United States, as well as in many other locations such as the zoo or a botanical garden. Educational locations such as these are constantly looking for new and innovative ways to reach the surrounding public and get them interested in areas such as the fine arts, science, literature, and history. Additionally, field trip visits to these educational places provide participants with interactional stimulus to learn about the content offered there. Since people are used to flashy, polished entertainment venues like movie theaters and theme parks, they demand similar experiences at science centers or museums.
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There are many different reasons for the start of employee silence in an organization. According to the Handbook of Organizational Justice, "a culture of injustice in organizations, be it distributive, procedural, or interactional (what we would call interpersonal), can lead to employee silence." In other words, "if the organizational norm is an unjust environment such as one that is characterized by intense supervisory control, suppression of conflict, ambiguous reporting structures, and poorly conducted performance reviews, employees will choose not to exercise voice and will therefore not receive the benefits available to those that do express opinions and ideas." One obvious cause of employee silence is constant negative feedback from supervisors.
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With his mentor Laura North Rice, who had studied with Carl Rogers at the University of Chicago, he began doing psychotherapy process research, attempting to mathematically model therapist–client interactions and using techniques of task analysis. He was also influenced early in his career by Juan Pascual-Leone's neo-Piagetian constructivist model of mind. His first academic position was at the University of British Columbia in counseling psychology, and he completed an externship at the Mental Research Institute in California in 1981. Initially trained in a client-centered therapy approach, he then trained in Gestalt therapy and over the years was exposed to many other approaches including systemic-interactional, psychodynamic and cognitive therapy.
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Conversation is seen as central to language learning within the Dogme framework, because it is the "fundamental and universal form of language" and so is considered to be "language at work". Since real life conversation is more interactional than it is transactional, Dogme places more value on communication that promotes social interaction. Dogme also places more emphasis on a discourse-level (rather than sentence-level) approach to language, as it is considered to better prepare learners for real-life communication, where the entire conversation is more relevant than the analysis of specific utterances. Dogme considers that the learning of a skill is co-constructed within the interaction between the learner and the teacher.
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As summarized by Della Noce, Bush & Folger (2002), the transformative approach to mediation practice takes an essentially social / communicative view of human conflict. According to this model, a conflict represents first and foremost a crisis in some human interaction—an interactional crisis with a somewhat common and predictable character. Specifically, the occurrence of conflict tends to destabilize the parties' experience of both self and other, so that the parties interact in ways that are both more vulnerable and more self-absorbed than they did before the conflict. Further, these negative dynamics often feed into each other on all sides as the parties interact, in a vicious circle that intensifies each party's sense of weakness and self-absorption.
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The following is a list of important phenomena identified in the conversation analysis literature, followed by a brief definition and citations to articles that examine the named phenomenon either empirically or theoretically. Articles in which the term for the phenomenon is coined or which present the canonical treatment of the phenomenon are in bold, those that are otherwise centrally concerned with the phenomenon are in italics, and the rest are articles that otherwise aim to make a significant contribution to an understanding of the phenomenon. ; Turn-taking : A process by which interactants allocate the right or obligation to participate in an interactional activity. (Sacks, Schegloff, & Jefferson, 1974) ; Repair : The mechanisms through which certain "troubles" in interaction are dealt with.
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Using conversation analysis, he describes how the host retains power through devices such as "The Second Position" – the concept of going second in a discussion, giving the host time to formulate a response. Similarly, the last word is always the broadcast word. The public can choose to end the conversation, but they are doing so by withdrawing from the interactional arena (Hutchby, 1996: 94-5; Talbot et al.). In 2007, the BBC suspended all phone-in competitions (but not voting) due to an internal inquiry into corruption in the production of these games in shows such as charity telethons after a nationwide inquiry into the whole process leading to the cancellation of ITV Play.
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John Local, BA, Ph.D. (University of Newcastle upon Tyne) (born 1947), is a British phonetician and Emeritus Professor of Phonetics at the University of York. He was one of the creators of the experimental Yorktalk non-segmental speech synthesis system which employed techniques of Firthian Prosodic Analysis (FPA), an approach to phonology developed by J.R. Firth and members of the London School of linguistics. His book Doing Phonology written with John Kelly provides a radical contemporary take on FPA. Arising out of work which combined detailed phonetic analysis and Conversation Analysis (French and Local 1983) his recent research has explored the interactional functioning of phonetic detail and phonetic variation in talk-in-interaction (Local and Walker 2005).
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While conceptualizations of stress have differed, the most dominant accounts in current psychology are appraisal-based models of stress. These models define stress as a reaction to a certain type of subjective appraisal, done by an individual, of the circumstances he or she is in. Specifically, stress occurs when an individual decides that a factor in the environment puts demands on the individual beyond his or her current ability to deal with it. The process of rating situations as demanding or nondemanding is called appraisal, and this process can occur quickly and without conscious awareness. Appraisal models of stress are sometimes called “interactional” because the occurrence of stress depends on an interaction between characteristics of the person, especially goals, and the environmental situation.Folkman, S. (2011).
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Fernald also studied to see if the pitch and tone in adults voices when talking to infants makes a difference when it comes to intent of the communication. Several different tests were used to determine whether or not what she was researching had any validity to it at all. The tests started out by using 80 participants, 20 mothers and 20 fathers of children between 10–14 months old and then 20 female and 20 male college students that had no direct experience with infants or kids past the age of 5. Fernald's tests had 5 natural samples of infant and adult directed speech recorded from mothers of 12 month old kids in 5 standardized interactional contexts: Attention-bid, Approval, Prohibition, Comfort, and Game/telephone.
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Organizational justice or fairness perceptions have been shown to influence the display of counterproductive work behaviors. Distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice have all been shown to include both counterproductive work behaviors aimed at individuals, such as political deviance and personal aggression; and counterproductive work behaviors aimed at the organization, such as production slowdown and property deviance. Overall perceptions of unfairness may particularly elicit interpersonal counterproductive work behaviors such as political deviance and personal aggressions. Interpersonal justice and informational justice may also predict counterproductive work behaviors aimed at the supervisor, such as neglecting to follow supervisory instructions, acting rudely toward one's supervisor, spreading unconfirmed rumors about a supervisor, intentionally doing something to get one's supervisor in trouble, and encouraging coworkers to get back at one's supervisor.
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It is at this point that Langs began to call his approach the "communicative approach," highlighting thereby the specific way of listening to clients' unconscious communication, as experienced in the therapeutic field. At times he would also term the approach "adaptational- interactional," again focusing on (1) the adaptive character of psychic experiences and (2) the communication of the meaning of those experiences in therapy, via Type 2 derivatives, which are in part based on the interaction between patient and therapist. Over time, he would call the adaptive context a "trigger" and the interpretation of derivative communications—what Langs now typically calls "encoded communications"—in the light of adaptive triggers, "trigger decoding". Also during this phase, Langs not only had his own practice but was supervising other therapists.
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Research into the many possible relationships, intersections and tensions between language and gender is diverse. It crosses disciplinary boundaries, and, as a bare minimum, could be said to encompass work notionally housed within applied linguistics, linguistic anthropology, conversation analysis, cultural studies, feminist media studies, feminist psychology, gender studies, interactional sociolinguistics, linguistics, mediated stylistics, sociolinguistics and media studies. In methodological terms, there is no single approach that could be said to 'hold the field'. Discursive, poststructural, ethnomethodological, ethnographic, phenomenological, positivist and experimental approaches can all be seen in action during the study of language and gender, producing and reproducing what Susan Speer has described as 'different, and often competing, theoretical and political assumptions about the way discourse, ideology and gender identity should be conceived and understood'.
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Aware contexts can be closed, open or suspicion awareness based on the differences in the way people engage in different behaviors within the awareness context. Awareness context is classified as closed if the patient does not know but suspects her condition in varying degrees so that she goes on the offensive while the hospital staff carefully and cannily assumes the defensive position in a contest for interactional control. The open awareness context, on the other hand, is a situation where everyone is aware of the condition of the patient. It is distinguished from mutual pretense where everyone knows about the condition but they pretend that they do not or that the patient may recover if he or she is already dying.
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Although the argument was not made in these terms at the time, the concept of interactional expertise is important here. In the original critique of AI research, Collins distinguished between behaviour- specific action (capable of being encoded and reproduced by machines) and natural action (what humans do the rest of the time and which machines cannot reproduce). In a later work with Martin Kusch,Collins, H. M., & Kusch, M., (1998) The Shape of Actions: What Humans and Machines Can Do, Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. this same distinction was re-cast as the distinction as mimeomorphic action (action performed in the same way each time and thus amenable to mechanical reproduction) and polimorphic action (actions that depend on context and local convention for their correct interpretation and continuation and thus not reproducible by machines, however sophisticated).
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Researchers of communication accommodation theory who have been interested in conversations between the elderly and the young, actively apply this theory to analyze intergenerational communication situations. Since the aging of population is becoming a serious issue in current society, communication difficulties of older adults and issues like ageism should be addressed. According to mainstream sociolinguistic studies, age is regarded as a variable only to the extent that it may show patterns of dialectal variation within speech communities across time. However, the existence of potentially important generational differences relating to beliefs about talk, situational perceptions, interactional goals, and various language devices between the young and the elderly are all taken into account as empirical questions in their own right when using communication accommodation theory to explore intergenerational communication problems and improve effectiveness.
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Rockstuhl et al.'s 2012 meta-analysis of LMX theory and national culture correlates found that in Western cultures LMX is more strongly correlated with organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), justice perceptions, job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and leader trust than in Asian cultures. This meta-analysis used 253 studies conducted in 23 countries to compare the differences in how LMX influenced work-related attitudes and behaviors such as task performance, OCB, distributive justice, procedural justice, interactional justice, job satisfaction, affective commitment, normative commitment, and turnover intentions between two different cultural configurations: horizontal-individualistic (Western countries) and vertical- collectivist (Asian countries). The analysis found that the relationships between LMX and citizenship behaviors, between LMX and justice outcomes, between LMX and job satisfaction, between LMX and turnover intentions, and between LMX and leader trust are stronger in horizontal-individualistic cultures than in vertical-collectivist cultures.
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For Kantor, because the interaction between organism and environment is continuous in time this event should be analyzed in terms of all of its interdependent components. This led to the proposal of the interbehavioral field as the unit of analysis. Kantor represented this field with the formula PE = C(k, sf, rf, hi, st, md) where PE is the psychological event, consisting of the interdependence (C) of the factors in the field, k stands for the specificity of every behavior segment, sf is the stimulus function, rf is the response function, hi stands for the history of interactions, st corresponds to the interactional setting, and md is the medium of contact. According to Kantor, this interbehavioral field is at the core of every psychological event, and this event is not reducible to any of the individual factors.
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The book provides elaboration of how gender is constructed and sometimes deconstructed at the individual, interactional and institutional levels. She illustrates the use of efficacy of her theoretical argument with three different research studies: The first study is based on life history interviews with young people ages 18 and 30 about the meaning of gender in their lives. The second study is based on a major national survey of college students, as well as nearly 100 interviews with University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC) students about sexuality. The third study is an analysis of the effectiveness of major federal grants to universities to do "gender transformation" projects; the data are based on a meta-analysis of new research and an analysis of both quantitative climate surveys and interviews with people involved in the project at the UIC.
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As for written language, the understanding takes place when the text is written (product) rather than is being written (process). Therefore, it is less interactional. Despite the difference, the understanding of both linguistic systems calls for the appropriate background knowledge. An example adapted from Kravchenko is that if a traveler wants to check in and the clerk tells him/her, “I’ll be back in 20 minutes”, the traveler may check the watch and calculate when to come back for the check-in, so he/she does not have to stand at the front desk for 20 minutes. However, if the traveler sees a note on the front desk saying, “I’ll be back in 20 minutes”, he/she may be baffled due to no point of reference, so he/she does not know how long is needed.
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Barry Schwartz's sociology of knowledge is informed by Emile Durkheim's cognitive sociology, but his earliest research reflects a different body of influence: interactional social psychology, as conceived especially by Georg Simmel, Erving Goffman, and George Homans. His interest in Simmel shows up in a decade of work on gift exchange, privacy, vengeance and forgiveness, mental life of suburbia, queuing phenomena, priority and social process, waiting and social power. His research inside a juvenile penal institution qualifies Goffman's observations on “total institutions” by demonstrating that behavior within the setting reflects characteristics that youngsters bring into it at least as much as the structure of the setting itself. Analysis of the dynamics of the home advantage in four different sports applies George Homans’ account of reinforcement to explain another aspect of interaction, namely, how spectator behavior affects player performance.
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It is only that perspective of the ultimate reference in action that Parsons' dictum (that higher-order cybernetic systems in history will tend to control social forms that are organized on the lower levels of the cybernetic hierarchy) should be understood. For Parsons, the highest levels of the cybernetic hierarchy as far as the general action level is concerned is what Parsons calls the constitutive part of the cultural system (the L of the L). However, within the interactional processes of the system, attention should be paid especially to the cultural-expressivistic axis (the L-G line in the AGIL). By the term constitutive, Parsons generally referred to very highly codified cultural values especially religious elements (but other interpretation of the term "constitutive" is possible).The complete structure of Parsons AGIL system was scattered around in dozens of his works and not presented in any handy form.
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From a more STS perspective, Sheila Jasanoff, has written that "Co-production is shorthand for the proposition that the ways in which we know and represent the world (both nature and society) are inseparable from the ways in which we chose to live in." Co-production draws on constitutive (such as Actor–network theory) and interactional work (such as the Edinburgh School) in STS. As a sensitizing concept, the idiom of co-production looks at four themes: "the emergence and stabilization of new techno-scientific objects and framings, the resolution of scientific and technical controversies; the processes by which the products of techno-science are made intelligible and portable across boundaries; and the adjustment of science’s cultural practices in response to the contexts in which science is done." Studies employing co-production often follow the following pathways: "making identities, making institutions, making discourses, and making representations"Jasanoff, Sheila.
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Doing difference is a concept that grew out of the authors' earlier idea of "doing gender", presented at the American Sociological Association in 1977 by Candace West and Don Zimmerman and published in Gender and Society in 1987. In 1995, Candace West and Sarah Fenstermaker sought to extend the idea of gender as an ongoing interactional process into the realms of race and class. They begin by asserting that the intersection of these three fundamental ways to categorize social difference cannot simply be thought of in a mathematical or even strictly hierarchical sense. That is, simply plugging in these concepts as variables in a multiple regression model to predict life success in a particular society provides a simplified way to look at their relative effects, but would fail to provide an adequate basis for even understanding, lesser yet altering systemic inequalities based on race, class, and gender.
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Description and Blame in the British Press, Discourse Studies, 1(2): 151-174 The "generally applicable discourse analytic approach" articulated and demonstrated therein has proved particularly useful for the study of media texts. Whereas traditional DP studies explore the situated, occasioned, rhetorical use of our rich common sense psychological lexicon across various forms of spoken data, this newer form of textual DP shows that and how authors use that same lexicon in order to present themselves (or others) as individuals and/or members of larger collectives that are (ab)normal, (ir)rational, (un)reasonable, etc. This approach has proved particularly productive in an age marked by the growth in usage of social media, SMS texts, photo messaging apps, blogs/vlogs, YouTube, interactive websites (etc.): never before have so many opportunities for explicitly public, accountably interactional and rhetorically motivated invocations of psychological terms been available to so many people.
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Axial coding is the breaking down of core themes during qualitative data analysis. Axial coding in grounded theory is the process of relating codes (categories and concepts) to each other, via a combination of inductive and deductive thinking. The basic framework of generic relationships is understood, according to Strauss and Corbin (1990, 1998) who propose the use of a "coding paradigm", to include categories related to (1) the phenomenon under study, (2) the conditions related to that phenomenon (context conditions, intervening -structural- conditions or causal conditions), (3) the actions and interactional strategies directed at managing or handling the phenomenon and (4) the consequences of the actions/interactions related to the phenomenon. As Kelle underlines, the implicit or explicit theoretical framework necessary to identify categories in empirical data is derived, in the procedures explicated by Strauss and Corbin (1990), from a "general model of action rooted in pragmatist and interactionist social theory" (Kelle, 2005, para. 16).
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In 1977 Heath was appointed Research Fellow in the Department of General Practice, University of Manchester working with the late Professor P.S Byrne. In 1986 Heath published Body Movement and Speech in Medical Interaction which drew on ethnomethodology and conversation analysis to analyse multimodal communication in the general practice consultations, including the physical examination, the opening and closing of the consultation and the use of medical records and early computers. In 1988 while continuing research on medical interaction, including studies of diagnosis, the expression of pain, and the management of embarrassment, he was granted leave from the University of Surrey firstly to undertake an Alexandra von Humboldt Stiftung Fellowship at the University of Constance with Thomas Luckmann and then to become a Visiting Senior Fellow at the EuroPARC, (the European base of Xerox PARC at that time) in Cambridge. With Paul Luff he explored the interactional foundations of technology use in a variety of settings, including architectural practices, medical consultations and the control rooms of London Underground.
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For example, if a person's core emotion is one of shame > and they feel "rotten at the core" or "simply fundamentally flawed," > soothing or reassuring from one's partner, while helpful, will not > ultimately solve the problem, lead to structural emotional change, or alter > the view of oneself. In Greenberg and Goldman's approach to EFT for couples, although they "fully endorse" the importance of attachment, attachment is not considered to be the only interpersonal motivation of couples; instead, attachment is considered to be one of three aspects of relational functioning, along with issues of identity/power and attraction/liking. In Johnson's approach, attachment theory is considered to be the defining theory of adult love, subsuming other motivations, and it guides the therapist in processing and reprocessing emotion.; ; ; In Greenberg and Goldman's approach, the emphasis is on working with core issues related to identity (working models of self and other) and promoting both self-soothing and other-soothing for a better relationship, in addition to interactional change.
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These steps fall into one of three theoretical orientations (i.e., rational or solution focused, cognitive emotive, and behavioral) and are intended to provide abused children and their adoptive parents with positive behavior change, corrective interpersonal skills, and greater control over themselves and their relationships. They are: 1) determining and normalizing thinking and behaving, 2) evaluating language, 3) shifting attention away from problem talk 4) describing times when the attachment problem isn't happening, 5) focusing on how family members "successfully" solve problematic attachment behavior; 6) acknowledging "unpleasant emotions" (i.e., angry, sad, scared) underlying negative interactional patterns, 7) identifying antecedents (controlling conditions) and associated negative cognitive emotive connections in behavior (reciprocal role of thought and emotion in behavioral causation), 8) encouraging previously abused children to experience or "own" negative thoughts and associated aversive emotional feelings, 9) modeling and rewarding positive behavior change (with themselves and in relationships), and 10) encouraging and rewarding thinking and behaving differently.
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This distinction between sex, as the anatomical aspects of the female body, and gender, as the cultural meaning that forms the body and the various modes of bodily articulation, means that it is "no longer possible to attribute the values or social functions of women to biological necessity". Butler interprets this claim as an appropriation of the doctrine of constituting acts from the tradition of phenomenology. Butler concludes that "gender is in no way a stable identity or locus of agency from which various acts proceed; rather, it is an identity tenuously constituted in time—an identity instituted through the stylization of the body and, hence, must be understood as the mundane way in which bodily gestures, movements and enactments of various kinds constitute the illusion of an abiding gendered self". Candace West and Sarah Fenstermaker also conceptualize gender "as a routine, methodical, and ongoing accomplishment, which involves a complex of perceptual, interactional and micropolitical activities that cast particular pursuits as expressions of manly and womanly 'natures'" in their 1995 text Doing Difference.
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This is fine in principle but difficult in practice, particularly for science, as it requires the journalist to make a judgement about how credible a scientific claim is and thus how it should be reported. For example, should it be reported in a balanced way, in which two more or less equal sides get to make contrasting claims, as a story about a fringe, maverick or otherwise highly uncertain claim being made but not widely supported, or simply ignored as nonsense and not reported at all? In the UK, the reporting of the MMR controversy arguably adopted the ‘balanced approach’ for too long, thus lending greater credibility to the claims that MMR was dangerous than they deserved according to most members of the scientific community. In the latter stages of the debate these stories were often produced by the general news journalists and not the specialist health or science journalists who, by virtue of what we might call their interactional expertise, no longer saw the claims as credible.
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