Knowing in advance that Zolmitriptan boosts neural growth, the scientists wondered if it might contribute to innervation.
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When innervation is weak, sensory organs are prevented from communicating auditory, visual, or tactile information to the brain.
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"It's quite possible that some women do have innervation or nerve conduction, and therefore sensation at the cervix or near the cervix," she says.
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Given these findings, the researchers say the drug could eventually be used in regenerative medicine to foster innervation, thereby increasing the success of transplanted organ functionality.
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A technique called targeted muscle re-innervation (TMR) permits surgeons to take the nerves that once controlled a missing limb and attach them to muscles in a patient's chest or back.
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Innervation Finance, based in New York, manages programmes for buyers offering finance to "diverse" suppliers (eg, run by people from ethnic minorities, women, veterans, the disabled or gay people) in banking, manufacturing and pharmaceuticals.
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The molecules in this drug boost an important biological process called innervation, in which nerves are supplied to specific parts of the body, by activating a pair of serotonin receptors associated with neural development.
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Ignorance about innervation in the female genital area is also a problem for surgeries like hysterectomies and C-sections, says Debby Herbenick, PhD, MPH, Associate Professor of Applied Health Science at Indiana University and Research Fellow at the Kinsey Institute.
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The smooth muscle constricts under parasympathetic innervation and relax under sympathetic innervation.
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Parasympathetic innervation of the midgut is from the superior mesenteric plexus, while sympathetic innervation is from the lesser splanchnic nerve.
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Pelvic splanchnic nerves are the primary source for parasympathetic innervation. Lumbar splanchnic nerves provide sympathetic innervation via the inferior mesenteric ganglion.
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The hindgut is innervated via the inferior mesenteric plexus. Sympathetic innervation is from the Lumbar splanchnic nerves (L1-L2), parasympathetic innervation is from S2-S4.
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Although areas of innervation are somewhat consistent following genetically determined patterns of the species, specific areas of innervation are as unique to an individual as are fingerprints.
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The visceral pleurae covering the lung itself receive their innervation from the autonomic nervous system and have no sensory innervation. Only the parietal pleurae are sensitive to pain.
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T6 is associated with abdominal innervation beginning. T12 and L1 are associated with abdominal innervation complete. L2 is associated with hip flexors. L3 is associated with knee extensors.
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The superior gluteal nerve arises from the sacral plexus and only has muscular innervation associated with it. There is no cutaneous innervation for sensation that stems from the superior gluteal nerve.
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This is why people who have lost their dental innervation have a reduced healing ability and increased rate of tooth injury. Thus, as people age, their gradual loss of innervation leads to pulpitis.
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Cutaneous innervation below the pectinate line and external anal sphincter.
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A mature preganglionic axon can innervate anywhere from 50-200 SCG cells. Postganglionic fibers then leave the SCG via the internal carotid nerve and the external carotid nerve. This pathway of SCG innervation is shown through stimulation of the cervical sympathetic nerve, which invokes action potentials in both the external and internal carotid nerves. These postganglionic fibers shift from multiple axon innervation of their targets to less profound multiple axon innervation or single axon innervation as the SCG neurons mature during postnatal development.
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Sympathetic innervation to the lacrimal gland is of less physiologic importance than the parasympathetic innervation, however there are noradrenergic axons found within the lacrimal gland. Their cell bodies are located in the superior cervical ganglion.
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The infraorbital nerve provides sensory innervation to the skin of the lower eyelid, side of the nose, moveable part of nasal septum, anterior cheek and upper lip. It does not provide motor innervation to any muscles.
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Segmental innervation refers to the distribution (innervation) of nerves within an organ or muscle. These nerves are attached to a segment of the spine. Puri and Tyrer. (1992). Sciences Basic to Psychiatry, Edinburgh: Robert Stevenson House.
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Image showing innervation and blood-supply of the human external male genitalia.
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The larynx is innervated by branches of the vagus nerve on each side. Sensory innervation to the glottis and laryngeal vestibule is by the internal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve. The external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve innervates the cricothyroid muscle. Motor innervation to all other muscles of the larynx and sensory innervation to the subglottis is by the recurrent laryngeal nerve.
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The parotid gland receives both sensory and autonomic innervation. General sensory innervation to the parotid gland, its sheath, and the overlying skin is provided by the auriculotemporal nerve. The autonomic innervation controls the rate of saliva production and is supplied by the glossopharyngeal nerve. The cell bodies of the preganglionic sympathetic fibres usually lie in the lateral horns of upper thoracic spinal segments (T1-T3).
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Hendry, Stewart H. C.; Reid, R. Clay (2000). "The koniocellular pathway in primate vision". Annual Review of Neuroscience 23, 137. As a conclusion, retinal inputs compete with a quantitatively dominant corticothalamic innervation and a rich innervation from brainstem nuclei.
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From the lacrimal nerve they enter the lacrimal gland and provide secretomotor innervation.
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The nerve to stapedius provides motor innervation for the stapedius muscle in middle ear The chorda tympani provides parasympathetic innervation to the sublingual and submandibular glands, as well as special sensory taste fibers for the anterior two thirds of the tongue.
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The maxillary nerve branch of the trigeminal nerve supplies sensory innervation to the palate.
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Somatic (conscious) innervation of the external urethral sphincter is supplied by the pudendal nerve.
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Damage to the deep fibular nerve can result in foot drop. The plantar digital nerves from the medial plantar nerve provide sensory innervation to the skin of the plantar aspect of the toes, except the medial part of the big toe and the lateral part of the little toe and the motor innervation of the first lumbrical. The proper plantar nerve from the common plantar digital nerve provide sensory innervation to the plantar surface of the toes as well as the dorsal aspect of the distal interphalangeal phalanges. It also provides motor innervation to flexor hallucis brevis.
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The saphenous nerve from the femoral nerve provides sensory innervation to the medial side of the foot as well as the medial side of the leg. Likewise, the sural nerve provides sensory innervation to the skin on the lateral side of the foot as well as the skin on the posterior aspect of the lower leg. The tibial nerve from the sciatic nerve provides sensory innervation to the skin of the sole and toes, and the dorsal aspect of the toes. It provides motor innervation to plantaris, tibialis posterior, flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus as well as posterior muscles in the leg.
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This reciprocal innervation occurs so that the contraction of a muscle results in the simultaneous relaxation of its corresponding antagonist. A common example of reciprocal innervation, is the effect of the nociceptive (or nocifensive) reflex, or defensive response to pain, otherwise commonly known as the withdrawal reflex; a type of involuntary action of the body to remove the body part from the vicinity of an offending object by contracting the appropriate muscles (usually flexor muscles), while relaxing the extensor muscles. The concept of reciprocal innervation is also applicable to the eye (Sherrington's law), wherein increased innervation to an extraocular muscle is accompanied by a simultaneous decrease in innervation to its specific antagonist, such as the medial rectus and the lateral rectus in the case of an eye looking to one side of the midline. When looking outward or laterally, the lateral rectus of one eye must contract via increased innervation, while its antagonist, the medial rectus of the same eye - shall relax.
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Other peptides aside from melatonin have been detected in the pineal. They are most likely associated with a type of innervation deemed "pineal peptidergic innervation." These include vasopressin, oxytocin, VIP, NPY, peptide histidine isoleucine, calcitonin gene-related peptide, substance P and somatostatin.
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The deep temporal nerves provide motor innervation to the temporalis, which is a muscle of mastication that elevates and retracts the mandible. The deep temporal nerves also have articular branches which provide a minor contribution to the innervation of the temporomandibular joint.
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Innervation of the psoas major is through the anterior rami of L1 to L3 nerves.
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Dorsal rami divide into medial, intermediate, and lateral branches. The lateral branch supplies innervation to the iliocostalis muscle, as well as the skin lateral to the muscle on the back. The Intermediate branch supplies innervation to the spinalis muscle and the longissimus muscle. The medial branch supplies innervation to the rest of the epaxial derived muscles on the back (including the transversospinales, intertransversarii muscles, interspinalis muscles, suboccipital muscles, and splenius), and the zygapophyseal joints.
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The renal branches of vagus nerve are small branches which provide parasympathetic innervation to the kidney.
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The obturator nerve is responsible for the sensory innervation of the skin of the medial aspect of the thigh. The nerve is also responsible for the motor innervation of the adductor muscles of the lower limb (external obturator.Moore, K.L., & Agur, A.M. (2007). Essential Clinical Anatomy: Third Edition.
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Sensory innervation of the temporomandibular joint is derived from the auriculotemporal and masseteric branches of V3 or mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve. These are only sensory innervation. Recall that motor is to the muscles. The specific mechanics of proprioception in the temporomandibular joint involve four receptors.
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The inferior dental plexus is a nerve plexus which supplies the lower jaw. It is branches off of the inferior alveolar nerve and functions as innervation to the mandibular molars, first bicuspid, and part of the second bicuspid. The inferior dental plexus does not supply innervation to the cuspids or incisors as they get innervation from the incisive branch of the inferior alveolar nerve which branches as the inferior alveolar nerve exits the mental foramen as the mental nerve.
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During expiration, the rectus abdominous muscle receives motor innervation from both the thoracoabdominal intercostal and subcostal nerves.
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The lacrimal nerve provides sensory innervation to the lacrimal gland, conjunctiva of the lateral upper eyelid and superior fornix, the skin of the lateral forehead, scalp and lateral upper eyelid. It also provides parasympathetic innervation to the lacrimal gland from the communicating branch it receives from the zygomatic nerve.
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Each of the neurotrophins mentioned above promotes neurite outgrowth. NGF/TrkA signaling regulates the advance of sympathetic neuron growth cones; even when neurons received adequate trophic (sustaining and nourishing) support, one experiment showed they did not grow into relating compartments without NGF. NGF increases the innervation of tissues that receive sympathetic or sensory innervation and induces aberrant innervation in tissues that are normally not innervated. NGF/TrkA signaling upregulates BDNF, which is transported to both peripheral and central terminals of nocireceptive sensory neurons.
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The supratrochlear nerve provides sensory innervation to the skin of the lateral forehead, upper eyelid and the conjunctiva.
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More specifically: # innervation of taste buds on the posterior 1/3 of tongue # general sensory innervation of posterior 1/3 of tongue, soft palate, palatine tonsils, upper pharynx and Eustachian tubes # innervation of baroreceptor cells in the carotid sinus # innervation of glomus type I chemoreceptor cells in the carotid body The central processes of the neurons which provide taste sensation synapse in the rostral portion of the solitary nucleus (also called the gustatory nucleus). The central processes of the neurons which provide general sensory information synapse in the spinal trigeminal nucleus. Finally, the central processes of the neurons which innervate the carotid sinus and carotid body synapse in the caudal portion of the solitary nucleus.
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The fourth intercostal nerve is innervated by cutaneous slowly-adapting and rapidly-adapting mechanoreceptors, especially by ones densely-packed under the areola; innervation subsequently triggers oxytocin release, which, when in the peripheral bloodstream, causes myoepithelial cell contraction and lactation: this is an example of a non- nerve-innervation muscular reflex.
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The anococcygeal nerve is a nerve in the pelvis which provides sensory innervation to the skin over the coccyx.
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The nerve to quadratus femoris is a nerve that provides innervation to the quadratus femoris and gemellus inferior muscles.
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Both lungs are innervated primarily by the posterior pulmonary plexus; it accounts for 74–77% of the total innervation.
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As intrafusal muscle fibers, nuclear chain fibers are innervated by both sensory afferents and motor efferents. The afferent innervation is via type Ia sensory fibers and type II sensory fibers. These project to the nucleus proprius in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Efferent innervation is via static γ motor neurons.
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Innervation Trust is a Christian charity that recruits and resources school teams, each dedicated to a major city in the UK. Innervation Trust is the product of Mark Pennells and Zarc Porter, a songwriter/producer partnership also credited with writing most of the music for, and co-founding, the World Wide Message Tribe.
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The superficial and deep branches of the lateral plantar nerve from the tibial nerve provide sensory innervation to the skin of the lateral side of the sole, to the fifth and half the fourth toes, and the nail bed of these toes. They also provide motor innervation to quadratus plantae, abductor digiti minimi, flexor digiti minimi brevis, lateral three lumbricals, adductor hallucis, and the dorsal and plantar interossei. The medial plantar nerve from the tibial nerve provides sensory innervation to the skin of the medial side of the sole, the skin of the medial three and a half toes, and the nail beds of these toes. It also provides motor innervation to abductor hallucis, flexor hallucis brevis, flexor digitorum brevis, and the first lumbrical.
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The myenteric plexus (or Auerbach's plexus) provides motor innervation to both layers of the muscular layer of the gut, having both parasympathetic and sympathetic input (although present ganglion cell bodies belong to parasympathetic innervation, fibers from sympathetic innervation also reach the plexus), whereas the submucous plexus has only parasympathetic fibers and provides secretomotor innervation to the mucosa nearest the lumen of the gut. It arises from cells in the vagal trigone also known as the nucleus ala cinerea, the parasympathetic nucleus of origin for the tenth cranial nerve (vagus nerve), located in the medulla oblongata. The fibers are carried by both the anterior and posterior vagal nerves. The myenteric plexus is the major nerve supply to the gastrointestinal tract and controls GI tract motility.
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The converse would occur in the other eye, both eyes demonstrating the law of reciprocal innervation. The significance of Descartes’ Law of Reciprocal Innervation has been additionally highlighted by recent research and applications of bioengineering concepts, such as optimal control and quantitative models of the motor impulses sent by the brain to control eye motion.
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For instance, maxillary lateral incisors originate where the lateral maxillae and medial nasal bone processes fuse. In contrast, Kjaer et al. (1994) suggested regions where innervation developed were more sensitive than areas of fusion. Commonly affected regions were found to undergo innervation last, this might imply the developmental relationship between nerve and hard tissue.
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The pectoralis major receives dual motor innervation by the medial pectoral nerve and the lateral pectoral nerve, also known as the lateral anterior thoracic nerve. The sternal head receives innervation from the C7, C8 and T1 nerve roots, via the lower trunk of the brachial plexus and the medial pectoral nerve. The clavicular head receives innervation from the C5 and C6 nerve roots via the upper trunk and lateral cord of the brachial plexus, which gives off the lateral pectoral nerve. The lateral pectoral nerve is distributed over the deep surface of the pectoralis major.
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Improvement usually occurs in weeks to months, as the innervation to the muscles are restored. About half of patients recover fully.
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The preganglionic parasympathetic axons synapse in the pterygopalatine ganglion, which contains the postganglionic neurons which provide secretomotor innervation to the lacrimal gland, as well as the nasal and palatine glands. The postganglionic sympathetic axons do not synapse in the pterygopalatine ganglion, they travel on the branches of the maxillary nerve to provide sympathetic innervation to blood vessels.
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The lumbrical innervation always follows the innervation pattern of the associated muscle unit of flexor digitorum profundus (i.e. if the muscle units supplying the tendon to the middle finger are innervated by the median nerve, the second lumbrical will also be innervated by the median nerve).Last's Anatomy - Regional and Applied, 10th ed. Chummy S. Sinnatamby, pg.
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Sherrington's law of reciprocal innervation states that: When a muscle contracts, its direct antagonist relaxes to an equal extent allowing smooth movement.
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Motor innervation of this muscle is provided through the pharyngeal plexus of the CN X (vagal nerve), SVE (special visceral efferent) fibers.
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Mercer received her PhD in zoology in 1979 from the University of Otago. Her thesis Visceral innervation in molluscs was concerned with molluscs.
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Alternately, the variation in motor neuron number may be trivial and have little functional impact, because crustacean muscles generally have sparse polyneuronal innervation.
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The nerve of the anterior compartment of thigh is the femoral nerve. Innervation for the quadriceps muscles come from the posterior division of the femoral nerve, while the anterior division (which contains cutaneous as well as muscular components) gives a lateral and a medial branch, the second being responsible for the innervation of the sartorius muscle. The iliacus and the psoas major and psoas minor muscles, sometimes considered part of the anterior compartment, do not share the same innervation. Whereas the iliacus is innervated by the femoral nerve, the psoas is innervated by ventral rami of L1-L3.
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There are different types of neurons involved in innervating the lower GI tract these include: the enteric nervous system; located within the wall of the gut, and the extrinsic nervous system; comprising sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation. The enteric nervous system directly controls the gut motility, whereas, the extrinsic nerve pathways influence gut contractility indirectly through modifying this enteric innervation. In almost all cases of neurogenic bowel dysfunction it is the extrinsic nervous supply affected and the enteric nervous supply remains intact. The only exception being Parkinson's disease, as this can affect both the enteric and extrinsic innervation.
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Sudomotor (from Latin sudor, 'sweat' and motor) describes anything that stimulates the sweat glands. Sudomotor innervation is the cholinergic innervation of the sympathetic nervous system prominent in sweat glands which causes perspiration to occur via activation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Release of acetylcholine and nitric oxide induced vasodilation occur. Increased blood flow causes more sweat and also allows heat loss via skin.
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The facial nerve also supplies parasympathetic fibers to the submandibular gland and sublingual glands via chorda tympani. Parasympathetic innervation serves to increase the flow of saliva from these glands. It also supplies parasympathetic innervation to the nasal mucosa and the lacrimal gland via the pterygopalatine ganglion. The parasympathetic fibers that travel in the facial nerve originate in the superior salivatory nucleus.
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A filament descends beneath the mucous membrane on the inner surface of the thyroid cartilage and joins the recurrent nerve. Above the vocal folds the sensory innervation of the larynx is via the internal laryngeal nerve. Below the vocal folds it is by way of branches of the recurrent laryngeal nerve. The vocal fold itself receives dual innervation from both nerves.
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However, the innervation shows that the homology is limited: The eyes of Onychophora form behind the antenna, whereas the opposite is true in arthropods.
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Prensa et al., 2000 These authors insit on the extrastriatal dopaminergic innervation of other elements of the basal ganglia system: pallidum and subthalamic nucleus.
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Pelvic splanchnic nerves or nervi erigentes are splanchnic nerves that arise from sacral spinal nerves S2, S3, S4 to provide parasympathetic innervation to the hindgut.
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The premaxilla and dentary are larger than archaeopteryx, while also lacking teeth. The anterior of these bones shows evidence of vasculature and innervation, implying the presence of a beak. The lack of recovery of this structure indicates that the beak had a soft horny sheath. The softness of the beak along with the innervation suggest that the beak was sensitive, making it useful for searching for prey.
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The extensor pollicis longus muscle receives innervation from the posterior interosseous nerve (C7 and C8) which is the continuation of the deep branch of the radial nerve.
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The homozygous Robo3 mutations have been associated with typical ophthalmologic horizontal gaze palsy with progressive scoliosis, which is characterized by oculomotor problems and general disturbances in innervation.
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Unilateral pudendal nerve neuropathy inconsistently causes fecal incontinence in some, but not others. This is because crossover innervation of the external anal sphincter occurs in some individuals.
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The cremaster muscle is innervated from the genital branch of the genitofemoral nerve. It receives distinctly different innervation and vascular supply in comparison to the internal oblique.
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Release of serotonin from EC cells can be triggered by a multitude of stimuli, particularly luminal distension, parasympathetic innervation or changes in osmotic concentrations in intestinal contents.
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Anconeus is innervated by a branch of the radial nerve (cervical roots 7 and 8) from the posterior cord of the brachial plexus called the nerve to the anconeus. The somatomotor portion of radial nerve innervating anconeus bifurcates from the main branch in the radial groove of the humerus. This innervation pattern follows the rules of innervation of the musculature of the posterior forearm (extensor) compartment by the radial nerve.
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Peristalsis of the smooth muscle originating in pace-maker cells originating in the walls of the calyces propels urine through the renal pelvis and ureters to the bladder. The initiation is caused by the increase in volume that stretches the walls of the calyces. This causes them to fire impulses which stimulate rhythmical contraction and relaxation, called peristalsis. Parasympathetic innervation enhances the peristalsis while sympathetic innervation inhibits it.
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There are normal variations in the muscles nerve innervation. In a Cannieu-Riche anastomosis, fibers from the deep palmar branch of the ulnar nerve innervate the opponens pollicis and/or abductor pollicis brevis. Regardless of their final innervation, the nerves that reach the thenar muscles arise from the C8 and T1 roots, pass through the lower trunk of the plexus, and then through the medial cord of the plexus.
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The anterior ethmoidal nerve is branch of the nasociliary nerve, itself a branch of the ophthalmic nerve. It provides sensory innervation to some structures around the nasal cavity.
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It is presumed that the innervation from the POA to the PVN mediates the neuroendocrine effects of fever through the pathway involving pituitary gland and various endocrine organs.
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The two branches of the frontal nerve provide sensory innervation to the skin of the forehead, mucosa of the frontal sinus, and the skin of the upper eyelid.
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Functional movements are movements based on real-world situational biomechanics. They usually involve multi-planar, multi-joint movements which place demand on the body's core musculature and innervation.
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The lack of innervation of the body musculature during development gives rise to small body weights, often below 40 kilograms, remarkable in view of the preserved brain weights.
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Cutaneous innervation of the sole of the foot The soles of the feet are extremely sensitive to touch due to a high concentration of nerve endings, with as many as 200,000 per sole. This makes them sensitive to surfaces that are walked on, ticklish and some people find them to be erogenous zones. Medically, the soles are the site of the plantar reflex, the testing of which can be painful due to the sole's sensitivity. The deep fibular nerve from the common fibular nerve provides the sensory innervation of the skin between the first and second toes and the motor innervation of the muscles of the anterior compartment of the leg and dorsal foot.
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TBC (styled as tbc), are a Christian girl band who were launched by Innervation Trust in 2004, as a "flagship" girl band alongside their brother band Thebandwithnoname. Innervation Trust is a Christian charity that exists to recruit and resource schools teams, dubbed "Collectives", each dedicated to a major city in the UK. Innervation Trust is the product of Mark Pennells and Zarc Porter, a songwriter/producer partnership also credited with writing most of the music for, and co-founding, the World Wide Message Tribe. After 7 years of promoting the Collective bands throughout every region of the UK, they were replaced by the primary school project, Pop Connection. This has since been replaced by iSingPOP.
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The cauda equina () is a bundle of spinal nerves and spinal nerve rootlets, consisting of the second through fifth lumbar nerve pairs, the first through fifth sacral nerve pairs, and the coccygeal nerve, all of which arise from the lumbar enlargement and the conus medullaris of the spinal cord. The cauda equina occupies the lumbar cistern, a subarachnoid space inferior to the conus medullaris. The nerves that compose the cauda equina innervate the pelvic organs and lower limbs to include motor innervation of the hips, knees, ankles, feet, internal anal sphincter and external anal sphincter. In addition, the cauda equina extends to sensory innervation of the perineum and, partially, parasympathetic innervation of the bladder.
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5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010. Print. The tibial part of the sciatic nerve is also responsible for innervation of semitendinosus and the long head of biceps femoris.
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The branches of the nasociliary nerve provide sensory innervation to structures surrounding the eye such as the cornea, eyelids, conjunctiva, ethmoid air cells and mucosa of the nasal cavity.
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The infratrochlear nerve provides sensory innervation to the skin of the eye lids, the conjunctiva, lacrimal sac, lacrimal caruncle and the side of the nose above the medial canthus.
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Damage to this muscle or its innervation can cause ptosis, which is drooping of the eyelid. Lesions in CN III can cause ptosis, because without stimulation from the oculomotor nerve the levator palpebrae cannot oppose the force of gravity, and the eyelid droops. Ptosis can also result from damage to the adjoining superior tarsal muscle or its sympathetic innervation. Such damage to the sympathetic supply occurs in Horner's syndrome and presents as a partial ptosis.
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Damage to the central nervous system motor pathway from the cerebral cortex to the facial nuclei is found in the pons. This leads to facial weakness that spares various muscles in the face depending on the type of paralysis. The discrepancy of the weakness between the upper and lower facial muscles are due to the bilateral corticonuclear innervation from the upper facial muscles and contralateral corticonuclear innervation to the lower facial muscles.
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This induces gas and nutrients to move from the blood to the cells, due to the lower osmotic pressure outside the capillary. The opposite process occurs when the blood leaves the capillaries and enters the venules, where the blood pressure drops due to an increase in flow rate. Arterioles receive autonomic nervous system innervation and respond to various circulating hormones in order to regulate their diameter. Retinal vessels lack a functional sympathetic innervation.
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In spinal cord injuries above T6, neurogenic shock may occur, from the loss of autonomic innervation from the brain. Parasympathetic is preserved but the synergy between sympathetic and parasympathetic system is lost in cervical and high thoracic SCI lesions. Sacral parasympathetic loss may be encountered in lesions below T6 or T7. Cervical lesions cause total loss of sympathetic innervation and lead to vasovagal hypotension and bradyarrhythmias – which resolve in 3–6 weeks.
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During non- REM sleep, the tonic drive to most respiratory muscles of the upper airway is inhibited. This has two consequences: # The upper airway becomes more floppy. # The rhythmic innervation results in weaker muscle contractions because the intracellular calcium levels are lowered, as the removal of tonic innervation hyperpolarizes motoneurons, and consequently, muscle cells. However, because the diaphragm is largely driven by the autonomous system, it is relatively spared of non-REM inhibition.
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The rest of the anterior two-thirds of the tongue gets taste innervation from the chorda tympani of cranial nerve VII, distributed with the lingual nerve of cranial nerve V.
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The supratrochlear nerve is a branch of the frontal nerve, itself a branch of the ophthalmic nerve. It provides sensory innervation to the skin of the forehead and upper eyelid.
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The supraorbital nerve provides sensory innervation to the skin of the lateral forehead and upper eyelid, as well as the conjunctiva of the upper eyelid and mucosa of the frontal sinus.
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The Achilles tendon receives its blood supply from its musculotendinous junction with the triceps surae and its innervation from the sural nerve and to a lesser degree from the tibial nerve.
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The iliopsoas gets innervation from the L2-4 nerve roots of the lumbar plexus which also send branches to the superficial lumbar muscles. The femoral nerve passes through the muscle and innervates the quadriceps, pectineus, and sartorius muscles. It also comprises the intermediate femoral cutaneous and medial femoral cutaneous nerves which are responsible for sensation over the anterior and medial aspects of the thigh, medial shin, and arch of the foot nerves. The obturator nerve also passes through the muscle which is responsible for the sensory innervation of the skin of the medial aspect of the thigh and motor innervation of the adductor muscles of the lower extremity (external obturator, adductor longus, adductor brevis, adductor magnus, gracilis) and sometimes the pectineus.
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Dissociation refers to the situation where the innervation of one eye causes it to move involuntarily and independently of the other eye. Usually both eyes work together as described by Hering's and Sherrington's laws of innervation. A DVD is a slow upward and sometimes temporal movement of one eye, with cortical suppression of the vision in that eye while it is deviated. On returning downward and possibly inward to take up fixation, the DVD slow movement will be reversed.
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Phantom pain refers to dysesthetic feelings in individuals who are paralyzed or who were born without limbs. It is caused by the improper innervation of the missing limbs by the nerves that would normally innervate the limb. Dysesthesia is caused by damage to the nerves themselves, rather than by an innervation of absent tissue. Dysesthesia should not be confused with anesthesia or hypoesthesia, which refer to a loss of sensation, or paresthesia which refers to a distorted sensation.
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Therefore, the starting innervation of the developing teeth is involved with the sensory innovation of the future periodontal ligament and pulp. Nerve fibers never enters the enamel organ. Nerve-related signaling molecules, such as Glial cell line-derived growth factor, Neurotrophin and semaphoring are among the few which have been studied during the tooth development process. Of which, the verve-related signaling molecules seems to show a trend that suggest an early implication of innervation of tooth development.
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Also, partial de-innervation is frequently experienced at the donor site, and multiple surgeries are required to harvest the tissue and implant it. When appropriate, a nearby donor may be used to supply innervation to lesioned nerves. Trauma to the donor can be minimized by utilizing a technique known as end-to-side repair. In this procedure, an epineurial window is created in the donor nerve and the proximal stump of the lesioned nerve is sutured over the window.
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Aristotle had commented upon this phenomenon and Ptolemy put forward a theory of why such a physiological law might be useful. It was clearly stated for the first time by Alhacen in his Book of Optics (1021). Depiction of predictions for refoveating Muller's stimulus with eyes moving independently or eyes following Hering's law of equal innervation. Hering's law of equal innervation is best understood with Müller's stimulus where an observer refoveates a point that moved in one eye only.
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The pharyngeal plexus provides sensory innervation of the oropharynx and laryngopharynx from CN IX and CN X. (The nasopharynx above the pharyngotympanic tube and the torus tubarius is innervated by CN V2).
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In addition, the spindle also has a motor efferent innervation carried by the efferent nerve fibers of gamma motor neurons, which is used by the nervous system to modify the spindle's sensitivity.
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The calf is composed of the muscles of the posterior compartment of the leg: The gastrocnemius and soleus (composing the triceps surae muscle) and the tibialis posterior. The sural nerve provides innervation.
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4 (1999): 550-62. .Marshall, C D, H Amin, K M Kovacs, and C Lydersen. “Microstructure and innervation of the mystacial vibrissal follicle- sinus complex in bearded seals, Erignathus barbatus (Pinnipedia: Phocidae).
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Similar to how many molecules are able to stimulate axonal growth or migration, various molecules are also within the bounds of possibility of being involved in the initial innervation of the tooth germ.
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In 2009, a combination of Slit-Robo and Netrin-Frazzled signaling in Drosophila was shown to govern the establishment of myotopic maps, which describe the innervation of motorneuron dendrites in the muscle field.
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The auriculotemporal nerve is a branch of the mandibular nerve (V3) that runs with the superficial temporal artery and vein, and provides sensory innervation to various regions on the side of the head.
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Lumbar plexus and its branches. Since the Lumbar plexus and Sacral plexus are interconnected, they are sometimes referred to as the Lumbosacral plexus. The intercostal nerves that give rami to the chest and to the upper parts of the abdominal wall efferent motor innervation and to the pleura and peritoneum afferent sensory innervation are the only ones that do not originate from a plexus. The ventral rami of L1-L5 spinal nerves with a contribution of T12 form Lumbar plexus.
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Pupil dilated for retina examination If the drug pilocarpine is administered, the pupils will constrict and accommodation is increased due to the parasympathetic action on the circular muscle fibers, conversely, atropine will cause paralysis of accommodation (cycloplegia) and dilation of the pupil. Certain drugs cause constriction of the pupils, such as opioids. Other drugs, such as atropine, LSD, MDMA, mescaline, psilocybin mushrooms, cocaine and amphetamines may cause pupil dilation. The sphincter muscle has a parasympathetic innervation, and the dilator has a sympathetic innervation.
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In the same way, there exists a tonotopic map in the primary auditory cortex and a somatotopic map in the primary sensory cortex. This last topographic map of the body onto the posterior central gyrus has been illustrated as a deformed human representation, the somatosensory homunculus, where the size of different body parts reflects the relative density of their innervation. Areas with much sensory innervation, such as the fingertips and the lips, require more cortical area to process finer sensation.
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Pancreatic juice secretion is principally regulated by the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin, which are produced by the walls of the duodenum, and by the action of autonomic innervation. The release of these hormones into the blood is stimulated by the entry of the acidic chyme into the duodenum. The coordinated action of the forementioned hormones results in the secretion of a large volume of the pancreatic juice, which is alkaline and enzyme-rich, into duodenum. The pancreas also receives autonomic innervation.
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IND can be grouped into NID A and NID B, with the "A" form affecting the sympathetic innervation, and the "B" version affecting the parasympathetic innervation. In 2002 Martucciello and colleagues published the first analysis of associated anomalies in IND population is an important clinical approach to investigate possible pathogenetic correlations. Two recessive syndromes were identified (3 families). The first was characterized by NID B, intestinal malrotation, and congenital short bowel, the second by NID B, short stature, mental retardation, and facial dysmorphism.
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There is still a great deal of disagreement about its innervation and its embryonic origin. In a review, it was reported that the muscle was innervated by the external or internal thoracic nerves in 55% of the cases, by the intercostal nerves in 43% of the cases, while the remaining cases were supplied by both nerves. However, innervation by the pectoral nerves has also been reported. This appears to indicate that the sternalis is not always derived from the same embryonic origin.
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The archetype would be—to borrow from Kant—the noumenon of the image which intuition perceives and, in perceiving, creates." Jung differentiates introverted intuition and introverted sensation: "Whereas introverted sensation is mainly confined to the perception of particular innervation phenomena by way of the unconscious, and does not go beyond them, intuition represses this side of the subjective factor and perceives the image which has really occasioned the innervation. Supposing, for instance, a man is overtaken by a psychogenic attack of giddiness. Sensation is arrested by the peculiar character of this innervation/disturbance, perceiving all its qualities, its intensity, its transient course, the nature of its origin and disappearance in their every detail, without raising the smallest inquiry concerning the nature of the thing which produced the disturbance, or advancing anything as to its content.
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The anterior grey column is the target for some spasmolytic medications. Norepinephrine release here, (as induced by cyclobenzaprine) reduces spasms by innervation (reducing nerve activity) of alpha motor neurons via interaction with gamma fibers.
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Signals from the sciatic nerve and its branches can be blocked, in order to interrupt transmission of pain signal from the innervation area, by performing a regional nerve blockade called a sciatic nerve block.
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The ophthalmic nerve (V1) is one of three divisions of the trigeminal nerve (CN V). It has three branches that provide sensory innervation to the eye, skin of the upper face and anterior scalp.
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It is also a stretch reflex. These are monosynaptic spinal segmental reflexes. When they are intact, integrity of the following is confirmed: cutaneous innervation, motor supply, and cortical input to the corresponding spinal segment.
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The hypoglossal nucleus interacts with the reticular formation, involved in the control of several reflexive or automatic motions, and several corticonuclear originating fibers supply innervation aiding in unconscious movements relating to speech and articulation.
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Changing body position (e.g. sitting upright rather than lying down) may also help reduce symptoms due to the vagus nerve's innervation of several structures within the body such as the GI tract, diaphragm and lungs.
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The mucous membrane receives sensory innervation by the posterior ethmoidal nerves (branch of the ophthalmic nerve), and postganglionic parasympathetic fibers of the facial nerve that synapsed at the pterygopalatine ganglion which controls secretion of mucus.
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After successful craniocaudal folding the septum transversum picks up innervation from the adjacent ventral rami of spinal nerves C3, C4 and C5, thus forming the precursor of the phrenic nerve. During the descent of the septum, the phrenic nerve is carried along and assumes its descending pathway. During embryonic development of the thoracic diaphragm, myoblast cells from the septum invade the other components of the diaphragm. They thus give rise to the motor and sensory innervation of the muscular diaphragm by the phrenic nerve.
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Brain levels of norepinephrine are lower in people with Rett syndrome (reviewed in). The genetic loss of MECP2 changes the properties of cells in the locus coeruleus, the exclusive source of noradrenergic innervation to the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. These changes include hyperexcitability and decreased functioning of its noradrenergic innervation. Moreover, a reduction of the tyrosine hydroxylase (Th) mRNA level, the rate- limiting enzyme in catecholamine synthesis, was detected in the whole pons of MECP2-null male as well as in adult heterozygous (MECP2+/-) female mice.
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Depiction of predictions for refoveating Muller's stimulus with eyes moving independently or eyes following Hering's law of equal innervation Hering further studied eye movements. He developed the Hering's law of equal innervation to describe the conjugacy of eye movements in animals. According to this law eye movements are always equal in intensity in the two eyes but not in direction. Eye movements can therefore be either conjugate (in the same direction such as saccades or smooth pursuit) or disjunctive (such as vergence eye movements).
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The affinity of SHTX IV to sodium channels has not been studied yet. However, the affinity of the toxin would most likely depend on the species, the issue and state of innervation it is exposed to.
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Unlike most of the median nerve innervation of the hand, the palmar branch travels superficial to the Flexor retinaculum of the hand. Therefore, this portion of the median nerve usually remains functioning during carpal tunnel syndrome.
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Thoracic splanchnic nerves are splanchnic nerves that arise from the sympathetic trunk in the thorax and travel inferiorly to provide sympathetic innervation to the abdomen. The nerves contain preganglionic sympathetic fibers and general visceral afferent fibers.
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In the case of using a so-called perforator flap, a reliable vascularization and the possibility of sensory (re) innervation can be combined with less donor-site morbidity and limited loss of function in the donor area.
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Dissociated vertical deviation (DVD) is an eye condition which occurs in association with a squint, typically infantile esotropia. The exact cause is unknown, although it is logical to assume it is from faulty innervation of eye muscles.
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Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 336. adductor longus, adductor brevis, adductor magnus, gracilis) and the pectineus (inconstant). It is, notably, not responsible for the innervation of the obturator internus, despite the similarity in name.Moore, K.L., & Agur, A.M. (2007).
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The neurological definition of this class in 2003 as T8 - L1. The location of lesions on different vertebrae tend to be associated with disability levels and functionality issues. T12 and L1 are associated with abdominal innervation complete.
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It shares innervation with the adductor magnus; the obturator nerve supplies the part attached to the linea aspera while the tibial nerve (L3-5), a branch of the sciatic nerve, supplies the part inserted onto adductor tubercle.
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The mandibular nerve is one of three branches of the trigeminal nerve, and the only one having motor innervation. One branch of it, the inferior alveolar nerve as well as the inferior alveolar artery enter the foramen traveling through the body in the mandibular canal and exit at the mental foramen on the anterior mandible at which point the nerve is known as the mental nerve. These nerves provide sensory innervation to the lower teeth, as well as the lower lip and some skin on the lower face.
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The greater petrosal nerve arises at the superior salivatory nucleus of the pons and provides parasympathetic innervation to several glands, including the nasal glands, the palatine glands, the lacrimal gland, and the pharyngeal gland. It also provides parasympathetic innervation to the sphenoid sinus, frontal sinus, maxillary sinus, ethmoid sinus, and nasal cavity. This nerve also includes taste fibers for the palate via the lesser palatine nerve and greater palatine nerve. The communicating branch to the otic ganglion arises at the geniculate ganglion and joins the lesser petrosal nerve to reach the otic ganglion.
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Also implicated in defects related to neural crest cell development and migration is Hirschsprung's disease (HD or HSCR), characterized by a lack of innervation in regions of the intestine. This lack of innervation can lead to further physiological abnormalities like an enlarged colon (megacolon), obstruction of the bowels, or even slowed growth. In healthy development, neural crest cells migrate into the gut and form the enteric ganglia. Genes playing a role in the healthy migration of these neural crest cells to the gut include RET, GDNF, GFRα, EDN3, and EDNRB.
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Yet another interpretation of the coelacanthiform basicranial muscle and its innervation. Acta Zoologica, 74, 289-299. the pharyngeal arches and their contributions to the braincaseBjerring, H. C. (1993). A reflection on the evolutionary origin of the tegmen tympani.
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The suprascapular nerve is a nerve that branches from the upper trunk of the brachial plexus. It is responsible for the innervation of two of the muscles that originate from the scapula, namely the supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles.
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The levator palpebrae superioris receives motor innervation from the superior division of the oculomotor nerve. The smooth muscle that originates from its undersurface, called the superior tarsal muscle is innervated by postganglionic sympathetic axons from the superior cervical ganglion.
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Coccygeal plexus originate from S4, S5, Co1 spinal nerves. It is interconnected with the lower part of Sacral plexus. The only nerve of the plexus is the coccygeal nerve, that serves sensory innervation of the skin in the coccygeal region.
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Sections of this gut begin to differentiate into the organs of the gastrointestinal tract, such as the esophagus, stomach, and intestines. The esophagus develops as part of the foregut tube. The innervation of the esophagus develops from the pharyngeal arches.
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The zygomatic nerve is a branch of the maxillary nerve, itself a branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V). It travels through the orbit and divides into branches that provide sensory innervation to skin over the zygomatic and temporal bones.
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René Descartes (1596–1650) was one of the first to conceive a model of reciprocal innervation (in 1626) as the principle that provides for the control of agonist and antagonist muscles. Reciprocal innervation describes skeletal muscles as existing in antagonistic pairs, with contraction of one muscle producing forces opposite to those generated by contraction of the other. For example, in the human arm, the triceps acts to extend the lower arm outward while the biceps acts to flex the lower arm inward. To reach optimum efficiency, contraction of opposing muscles must be inhibited while muscles with the desired action are excited.
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It is innervated by the deep branch of the radial nerve. The deep branch then becomes the posterior interosseous nerve upon exiting the supinator muscle. Its nerve roots are primarily from C6, with some C5 involvement. There is also possible additional C7 innervation.
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The SCG provides sympathetic innervation to structures within the head, including the pineal gland, the blood vessels in the cranial muscles and the brain, the choroid plexus, the eyes, the lacrimal glands, the carotid body, the salivary glands, and the thyroid gland.
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Wing bone stresses in free flying bats and the evolution of skeletal design for flight. Nature, 359(6397), 726. Bats had to reroute innervation to their wing muscles to allow for control of powered flight.Thewissen, J. G. M., & Babcock, S. K. (1991).
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Distinctive cranial and cervical innervation of wing muscles: new evidence for bat monophyly. Science, 251(4996), 934-937. The strength and mass of forelimb musculature also had to be increased to allow powerful upstrokes and downstrokes.Thewissen, J. G. M., & Babcock, S. K. (1992).
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Excessive stimulation with acetylcholine can induce an AV-block in the heart as shown in guinea pigs, which can be prevented by blockage of the KAch channels by tertiapin. This suggests a possible therapeutic role in excessive parasympathetic innervation or inferior myocardial infarction.
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The facial nerve (CN VII) also has buccal branches, which carry motor innervation to the buccinator muscle, a muscle of facial expression. This follows from the trigeminal (V3) supplying all muscles of mastication and the facial (VII) supplying all muscles of facial expression.
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The lateral plantar nerve supplies quadratus plantae, flexor digiti minimi brevis, adductor hallucis, the dorsal and plantar interossei, three lateral lumbricals and abductor digiti minimi. Cutaneous innervation is to the lateral sole and lateral one and one half toes (like the ulnar nerve).
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The facial nerve also supplies a small amount of afferent innervation to the oropharynx below the palatine tonsil. There is also a small amount of cutaneous sensation carried by the nervus intermedius from the skin in and around the auricle (outer ear).
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The postganglionic axons of the SCG innervate the pineal gland and are involved in Circadian rhythm. This connection regulates production of the hormone melatonin, which regulates sleep and wake cycles, however the influence of SCG neuron innervation of the pineal gland is not fully understood.
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Disabled Sports USA defined the neurological definition of this class in 2003 as T1 - T7. The location of lesions on different vertebrae tend to be associated with disability levels and functionality issues. T1 is associated with finger abductors. T6 is associated with abdominal innervation beginning.
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The auricular branch of the vagus nerve is often termed the Alderman's nerve or Arnold's nerve. The latter name is an eponym for Friedrich Arnold. The auricular branch of the vagus nerve supplies sensory innervation to the skin of the ear canal, tragus, and auricle.
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They all control movement of the thumb. The innervation of these muscles by the median nerve is unusual, as most of the intrinsic muscles on the palm of the hand are supplied by the ulnar nerve. The lateral two lumbrical muscles are the other exception.
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Come 1913, Sherrington was able to say that "the process of excitation and inhibition may be viewed as polar opposites [...] the one is able to neutralize the other." Sherrington's work on reciprocal innervation was a notable contribution to the knowledge of the spinal cord.
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The frontal branch passes through the orbit superiorly, then reenters the frontal bone briefly before exiting above the orbit through the superior orbital fissure and the supraorbital notch to provide sensory innervation for the skin of the forehead and scalp. The lacrimal nerve passes through the orbit superiorly to innervate the lacrimal gland. The nasociliary branch gives off several sensory branches to the orbit and then continues out through the anterior ethmoidal foramen, where it enters the nasal cavity and provides innervation for much of the anterior nasal mucosa. It also gives off a branch which exits through the nasal bones to form the external nasal nerve.
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The brains of onychophorans (velvet worms) have been recently re-investigated and have been shown to possess two unusual features. First, although the mouth is ventral, as is the case in euarthropods, it is innervated from three different places; the sides, the posterior, and by a nerve that originates dorsally, and passes anteriorly down to curve back to the front of the mouth. This set of innervation makes sense if the mouth of onychophorans was originally terminal and has been bent downwards. Second, the antennae of the onychophorans appear to be innervated from in front of the eyes; which in euarthropod terms implies a protocerebral (or potentially even more anterior) innervation.
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Sherrington's law of reciprocal innervation, also called Sherrington's law II explains how a muscle will relax when its opposite muscle (e.g., biceps/triceps) is activated. René Descartes had hypothesized as much in 1662. Descartes R. De Homine Figuris et Latinatate Donatus, Leyden: P Leffen & F Moyardum; 1662.
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Gestational undernutrition and the development of obesity in rats. J Nutr, 114,1484–1492.Jones, A.P., Olster, D.H., States, B. (1996). Maternal insulin manipulations in rats organize body weight and noradrenergic innervation of the hypothalamus in gonadally intact male offspring. Brain Res Dev Brain Res, 97,16–21.
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The pyloric sphincter, or valve, is a strong ring of smooth muscle at the end of the pyloric canal which lets food pass from the stomach to the duodenum. It controls the outflow of gastric contents into the duodenum. It receives sympathetic innervation from the celiac ganglion.
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Neuromasts (sensory papillae or pit organs) are interesting adaptations that this species of fish have developed to deal with reduced vision.Asaoka, R., M. Nakae, and K. Sasaki. 2011. The Innervation and Adaptive Significance of Extensively Distributed Neuromasts in Glossogobius olivaceus (Perciformes: Gobiidae). Ichthyol Res 59: 143-150.
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Below this point, the mucosa of the internal anus becomes skin. The pectinate line is also the division between the internal and external anus. The anus receives blood from the inferior rectal artery and innervation from the inferior rectal nerves, which branch from the pudendal nerve.
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Autonomic plexuses can contain both sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons. The cardiac plexus is located near the aortic arch and the carina of the trachea. The pulmonary plexus supplies innervation to the bronchial tree. The celiac, or solar plexus, is located around the celiac trunk and contains the celiac ganglia.
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Yang, CC et al. Excitatory innervation of caudal hypoglossal nucleus from nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis in the rat. Neuroscience. 1995 Mar;65(2):365-74. It additionally receives connections from the periaqueductal gray, the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus, central nucleus of the amygdala, lateral hypothalamic area, and parvocellular reticular nucleus.
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Serum magnesium is necessary for full secretion of PTH. Without the parathyroid glands, there is no trigger to release calcium into the blood. Another consequence of hypoparathyroidism is the lack of calcium in the blood to trigger muscle contraction. Without calcium present, muscles innervation is unable to take place.
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As inflammation intensifies, the A-fibers are increasingly activated. C-fiber innervation and Aδ-fibers are polymodal receptors that are sensitive to capsaicin and inflammatory mediators.Byers, M. R., Suzuki, H. and Maeda, T. (2003), Dental neuroplasticity, neuro-pulpal interactions, and nerve regeneration. Microsc. Res. Tech., 60: 503–515.
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The supratentorial dura mater membrane is supplied by small meningeal branches of the trigeminal nerve (V1, V2 and V3).'Gray's Anatomy for Students' 2005, Drake, Vogl and Mitchell, Elsevier The innervation for the infratentorial dura mater are via upper cervical nerves and the meningeal branch of the vagus nerve.
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The medial nasal branch after giving off sensory branches to the anterior and upper parts of the nasal septum, emerges from beneath the inferior nasal margin to form the external nasal nerve. The external nasal nerve provides sensory innervation to the skin of the external nose to the tip.
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A chest CT-scan showing a thymoma (red circle) Photograph of a person showing right partial ptosis (left picture), the left lid shows compensatory pseudo lid retraction because of equal innervation of the m. levator palpabrae superioris (Hering's law of equal innervation): Right picture: after an edrophonium test, note the improvement in ptosis. Muscle fibers of people with MG are easily fatigued, which the repetitive nerve stimulation test can help diagnose. In single-fiber electromyography, which is considered to be the most sensitive (although not the most specific) test for MG, a thin needle electrode is inserted into different areas of a particular muscle to record the action potentials from several samplings of different individual muscle fibers.
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Through electrophysiological studies and neuronal tracing, these characteristics do not fully support the typical person with central facial palsy. Often, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is used to understand the bilateral corticonuclear projections of the lower facial motor neurons. This idea using bilateral innervation to the upper facial motor neurons is rarely tested by humans because of the afferent fibers in the trigeminal nerve are distributed over the head and face and could cause damage. Supranuclear motor innervation of the facial musculature is difficult to examine because the circuitry is quite complex, only a few cases are described in literature of central facial palsy and the absence of bilateral perioral muscle responses after TMS of the affected hemisphere.
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His interest since that time was mainly the physics of the auditory system. There, he was the first to demonstrate physiologically that the innervation of the tensor tympani muscle was by the trigeminal nerve and that the innervation of the stapedial muscle was by the facial nerve. In another series of experiments, Politzer connected two manometers, one placed in the external auditory canal meatus and another in the pharynx, in order to study air movements through the Eustachian tube. In 1861, he published his first results on a new technique based on this knowledge, to treat internal ear diseases by insufflating the middle ear through the Eustachian tube, which obviated the need of its catheterization.
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Radial nerve dysfunction is a problem associated with the radial nerve resulting from injury consisting of acute trauma to the radial nerve. The damage has sensory consequences, as it interferes with the radial nerve's innervation of the skin of the posterior forearm, lateral three digits, and the dorsal surface of the lateral side of the palm. The damage also has motor consequences, as it interferes with the radial nerve's innervation of the muscles associated with the extension at the elbow, wrist, and fingers, as well the supination of the forearm. This type of injury can be difficult to localize, but relatively common, as many ordinary occurrences can lead to the injury and resulting mononeuropathy.
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All dorsal interossei are innervated by the lateral plantar nerve (S2–3). Those in the fourth interosseous space are innervated by the superficial branch and the other by the deep branch. The first and second dorsal interossei muscles additionally receive innervation from the lateral branch of the deep fibular nerve.
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Vasomotion is the spontaneous oscillation in tone of blood vessel walls, independent of heart beat, innervation or respiration.Haddock RE, Hill CE. Rhythmicity in arterial smooth muscle. J Physiol (Lond ). 2005; 566: 645-656, Aalkaer C, Nilsson H. Vasomotion: cellular background for the oscillator and for the synchronization of smooth muscle cells.
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The nerve supply of the cheek can be divided into sensory and motor systems. Sensation to the cheek is carried primarily by the second (maxillary) and third (mandibular) divisions of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V). The facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) provides motor innervation to the muscles of facial expression.
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The subclavian nerve or nerve to the subclavius is small branch of the upper trunk of the brachial plexus where C5 and C6 join. It contains axons derived from the ventral rami of the fifth (C5) and sixth (C6) cervical nerves. The subclavian nerve provides motor innervation to the subclavius muscle.
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The tibialis posterior is the most central of all the leg muscles, and is located in the deep posterior compartment of the leg. It is the key stabilizing muscle of the lower leg. Blood is supplied to the muscle by the posterior tibial artery, and innervation is via the tibial nerve.
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However, there is an inhibitory interneuron used to relax the antagonistic hamstring muscle (Reciprocal innervation). This test of a basic automatic reflex may be influenced by the patient consciously inhibiting or exaggerating the response; the doctor may use the Jendrassik maneuver in order to ensure a more valid reflex test.
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Along with the other three muscles of mastication (temporalis, medial pterygoid, and lateral pterygoid), the masseter is innervated by the anterior division of the mandibular division (V3) of the trigeminal nerve. The innervation pathway is: gyrus precentralis > genu capsula interna > nucleus motorius nervi trigemini > nervus trigeminus > nervus mandibularis > musculus masseter.
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Typically, the rhinarium is crenellated (wrinkled, crackled, or embossed), which may, in theory, increase its sensory area, but there are many exceptions and variations among different mammalian taxa, and also variations in the innervation and sensilla of the rhinarium, so such generalized speculation should be treated with caution regarding this matter.
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The central nervous system (CNS) works with the peripheral nervous system in cutaneous innervation. The CNS is responsible for processing the information it receives from the cutaneous nerves that detect a given stimulus, and then identifying the kind of sensory inputs which project to a specific region of the primary somatosensory cortex.
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Cell 107:605–16 Postsynaptically, innervation causes dendritic spines to remodel by as much as 30% over a period of seconds.Fischer M, Kaech S, Knutti D, Matus A. 1998. Rapid actin-based plasticity in dendritic spines. Neuron 20:847–54 The spines show a lateral expansion that envelops the presynaptic axonal indentation.
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The accessory nerve (CN XI) is particularly vulnerable to damage during lymph node biopsy. Damage results in an inability to shrug the shoulders or raise the arm above the head, particularly due to compromised trapezius muscle innervation. The external jugular vein's superficial location within the posterior triangle also makes it vulnerable to injury.
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The nucleus ambiguus controls the motor innervation of ipsilateral muscles of the soft palate, pharynx, larynx and upper esophagus. Lesions of nucleus ambiguus results in nasal speech, dysphagia, dysphonia, and deviation of the uvula toward the contralateral side. Preganglionic parasympathetics to the heart also flow through the external formation of the nucleus.
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The splanchnic nerves are paired visceral nerves (nerves that contribute to the innervation of the internal organs), carrying fibers of the autonomic nervous system (visceral efferent fibers) as well as sensory fibers from the organs (visceral afferent fibers). All carry sympathetic fibers except for the pelvic splanchnic nerves, which carry parasympathetic fibers.
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The carotid plexus is a network of intersecting sympathetic nerves which run parallel to the carotid artery into the head. They branch out from the superior cervical ganglia of the sympathetic chain. The lesser petrosal nerve receives sympathetic innervation from the carotid plexus along with parasympathetics from the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX).
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The SCO is innervated by many systems, the most common of which is associated with the serotonergic system. The serotonergic system influences water and sodium intake. During water deprivation it will also reduce its innervation to the SCO. The reduction of input to the SCO causes a marked decrease in RF production.
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He lived nearby at 8 Hill Place. Reid described the function of the glossopharyngeal nerve and vagus nerve. He also proved the heart had a double innervation through the vagus and sympathetic nerves. Reid subsequently became a demonstrator in the school of anatomy established at Old Surgeons' Hall, Edinburgh, and published medical essays.
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Using a combination of autorhythmicity and innervation, the cardiovascular center is able to provide relatively precise control over the heart rate, but other factors can impact on this. These include hormones, notably epinephrine, norepinephrine, and thyroid hormones; levels of various ions including calcium, potassium, and sodium; body temperature; hypoxia; and pH balance.
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Signals from the femoral nerve and its branches can be blocked to interrupt transmission of pain signal from the innervation area, by performing a regional nerve blockage. Some of the nerve blocks that works by affecting the femoral nerve are; femoral nerve block, fascia iliac block and 3-in-1 nerve block.
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Parkinson's disease results in loss of dopaminergic innervation to the dorsal striatum (and other basal ganglia) and a cascade of consequences. Atrophy of the striatum is also involved in Huntington's disease, and movement disorders such as chorea, choreoathetosis, and dyskinesias. These have also been described as circuit disorders of the basal ganglia.
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During rodent perinatal life, progesterone receptor (PR) is known to be transiently expressed in both the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of the mesocortical dopaminergic pathway. PR activity during this time period impacts the development of dopaminergic innervation of the mPFC from the VTA. If PR activity is altered, a change in dopaminergic innervation of the mPFC is seen and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the rate- limiting enzyme for dopamine synthesis, in the VTA will also be impacted. TH expression in this area is an indicator of dopaminergic activity, which is believed to be involved in normal and critical development of complex cognitive behaviors that are mediated by the mesocortical dopaminergic pathway, such as working memory, attention, behavioral inhibition, and cognitive flexibility.
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The infraorbital nerve is a branch of the maxillary nerve, itself a branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V). It travels through the orbit and enters the infraorbital canal to exit onto the face through the infraorbital foramen. It provides sensory innervation to the skin and mucous membranes around the middle of the face.
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There have been rumours of a new album by TBC with a more up-to-date image. Since working with primary school, the TBC girls and their team at Innervation have understood the pop music that young children are listening to and are heading towards the sounds of the new dance hip/pop sound.
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The inferior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve (petrosal ganglion) is a sensory ganglion. It is larger than and below the superior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve. It is located within the jugular foramen. The pseudounipolar neurons of the inferior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve provide sensory innervation to areas around the tongue and pharynx.
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Some crustacean muscle fibers have excitatory and inhibitory innervation. Picrotoxin blocks inhibition. Two different but related theories have been proposed for the mechanism by which picrotoxin acts on synapses. One theory is that it acts as a non-competitive channel blocker for GABAA receptor chloride channels, specifically the gamma- aminobutyric acid-activated chloride ionophore.
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The disfocusing of the system is thought to be responsible for most of the parkinsonian series symptoms. The mechanism of focusing is not known yet. The structure of the dopaminergic innervation does not seem to allow it to operate for this function. More likely focusing is regulated by the upstream striatopallidal and corticostriatal systems.
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Primary muscle fibers originate from primary myoblasts and tend to develop into slow muscle fibers. Secondary muscle fibers then form around the primary fibers near the time of innervation. These muscle fibers form from secondary myoblasts and usually develop as fast muscle fibers. Finally, the muscle fibers that form later arise from satellite cells.
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The Anatomical Record Part A 288, no. 1 (2006): 13-25. . .Sarko, D K, R L Reep, J E Mazurkiewicz, and F L Rice. “Adaptations in the Structure and Innervation of Follicle-Sinus Complexes to an Aquatic Environment as Seen in the Florida Manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris).” Journal of Comparative Neurology 504 (2007): 217-37. .
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Schematic image of the hypoglossal nerve and innervation targets. The hypoglossal nerve provides motor control of the extrinsic muscles of the tongue: genioglossus, hyoglossus, styloglossus, and the intrinsic muscles of the tongue. These represent all muscles of the tongue except the palatoglossus muscle. The hypoglossal nerve is of a general somatic efferent (GSE) type.
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The production of saliva is stimulated both by the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic. The saliva stimulated by sympathetic innervation is thicker, and saliva stimulated parasympathetically is more fluid-like. Sympathetic stimulation of saliva is to facilitate respiration, whereas parasympathetic stimulation is to facilitate digestion. Parasympathetic stimulation leads to acetylcholine (ACh) release onto the salivary acinar cells.
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Hollowing in the supraspinous and the infraspinous area is frequently seen as chronic rotator cuff tear resulting in wasting. The wasting may be caused by the supraglenoid cyst compressing the suprascapular nerve and causes a loss of innervation to supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles. Such wasting or hollowing can be differentially diagnosed as nerve compression or tendon rupture.
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The solar plexus is the largest autonomic plexus and provides innervation to multiple abdominal and pelvic organs. The superior mesenteric plexus includes the superior mesenteric ganglia and is located around the superior mesenteric artery. The inferior mesenteric plexus includes the inferior mesenteric ganglia and is located around the inferior mesenteric artery. Together, these plexuses innervate the intestines.
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Inverse Marcus Gunn phenomenon is a rare condition that causes the eyelid to fall upon opening of the mouth. In this case, trigeminal innervation to the pterygoid muscles of the jaw is associated with an inhibition of the branch of the oculomotor nerve to the levator palpebrae superioris, as opposed to stimulation in Marcus Gunn jaw-winking.
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For example, some, SNc nigrostriatal dopamine axons send axon collaterals to the pedunculopontine nucleus, the ventral palladium, subthalamic nucleus, globus pallidus, amygdala and the thalamus. A small number of SNc dorsal tier dopamine neurons also project directly to the cortex, although most of the dopaminergic innervation of the cortex comes from the adjacent VTA dopamine neurons.
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The neurons in the superior ganglion of the vagus nerve are pseudounipolar and provide sensory innervation (general somatic afferent) through either the auricular or meningeal branch. The axons of these neurons synapse in the spinal trigeminal nucleus of the brainstem. Peripherally, the neurons found in the superior ganglion form two branches, the auricular and meningeal branch.
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To improve the blood circulation to the upper extremities, an anesthetic block of the stellate ganglion is performed. Due to this blockage, in addition to vasodilatation, in the entire innervation area this leads to reduced sweating (anhidrosis) and Horner's syndrome. The latter is a sign of successful blockade. A temporary blockade of the stellate ganglion is performed for e.g.
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This makes the operation cheaper, also because of a reduced anesthesia time. Secondly the dynamic sphincter can be moved as result of a remaining neuromuscular innervation, which gives a better function of the velopharyngeal port. Finally there is a lower complication rate, although obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome (OSAS) is associated.Witt PD, Marsh JL, Muntz HR, et al.
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Ciliary ganglion with parasympathetic fibers of ciliary nerves. The parasympathetic innervation of the ciliary body is the most clearly understood. Presynaptic parasympathetic signals that originate in the Edinger-Westphal nucleus are carried by cranial nerve III (the oculomotor nerve) and travel through the ciliary ganglion. Postsynaptic fibers from the ciliary ganglion form the short ciliary nerves.
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The neurons in the inferior ganglion of the vagus nerve innervate the taste buds on the epiglottis, the chemoreceptors of the aortic bodies and baroreceptors in the aortic arch. Most importantly, the majority of neurons in the inferior ganglion provide sensory innervation to the heart, respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts and other abdominal organs as the urinary bladder.
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When the innervation to substance P nerve terminals is lost, post-synaptic cells compensate for the loss of adequate neurotransmitter by increasing the expression of post-synaptic receptors. This, ultimately, leads to a condition known as denervation supersensitivity as the post- synaptic nerves will become hypersensitive to any release of substance P into the synaptic cleft.
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The selective blue coloration develops with exposure to air (oxygen) and can be fixed by immersion of the stained specimen in an aqueous solution of ammonium molybdate. Vital methylene blue was formerly much used for examining the innervation of muscle, skin and internal organs.Wilson JG (1910) Intra vitam staining with methylene blue. Anatomical Record 4: 267-277.
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The first and second lumbricals (the most radial two) are innervated by the median nerve. The third and fourth lumbricals (most ulnar two) are innervated by the ulnar nerve. This is the usual innervation of the lumbricals (occurring in 60% of individuals). However 1:3 (median:ulnar - 20% of individuals) and 3:1 (median:ulnar - 20% of individuals) also exist.
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In the parasympathetic nervous system the output connections, the projections from ganglion neurons to tissues that don't belong to the nervous system, also release acetylcholine but act on muscarinic receptors. In the sympathetic nervous system the output connections mainly release noradrenaline, although acetylcholine is released at a few points, such as the sudomotor innervation of the sweat glands.
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The stylohyoid muscle is a slender muscle, lying anterior and superior of the posterior belly of the digastric muscle. It shares this muscle's innervation by the facial nerve, and functions to draw the hyoid bone backwards and elevate the tongue. Its origin is the styloid process of the temporal bone. It inserts on the body of the hyoid .
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The efferent arc occurs via the facial nerve. The reflex involves consensual blinking of both eyes in response to stimulation of one eye. This is due to the facial nerves' innervation of the muscles of facial expression, namely orbicularis oculi, responsible for blinking. Thus, the corneal reflex effectively tests the proper functioning of both cranial nerves V and VII.
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Autonomic innervation of the heart The heart receives nerve signals from the vagus nerve and from nerves arising from the sympathetic trunk. These nerves act to influence, but not control, the heart rate. Sympathetic nerves also influence the force of heart contraction. Signals that travel along these nerves arise from two paired cardiovascular centres in the medulla oblongata.
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The terminal branches of the zygomatic nerve contain sensory axons which provide innervation to the skin overlying the temporal and zygomatic bones. The zygomatic nerve also carries postganglionic parasympathetic axons. These axons have their cell bodies in the pterygopalatine ganglion. They travel from the ganglion to the zygomatic nerve and then to the lacrimal nerve through a communicating branch.
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A nuclear bag fiber is a type of intrafusal muscle fiber that lies in the center of a muscle spindle. Each has many nuclei concentrated in bags and they cause excitation of both the primary and secondary nerve fibers. There are two kinds of bag fibers based upon contraction speed and motor innervation. #BAG2 fibers are the largest.
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Pinnipeds have well-developed tactile senses. Their mystacial vibrissae have ten times the innervation of terrestrial mammals, allowing them to effectively detect vibrations in the water. These vibrations are generated, for example, when a fish swims through water. Detecting vibrations is useful when the animals are foraging and may add to or even replace vision, particularly in darkness.
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The largest nerve of the human body, the sciatic nerve is the main branch, that give rami to the motor innervation of the muscles of the foot, the leg and the thigh. Common peroneal nerve and its branches innervate some part of the skin of the foot, the peroneal muscles of the leg and the dorsal muscles of the foot.
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Sulf expression is not obligatory for GDNF signaling, but it does enhance the signal greatly. MSulf1 and 2 are believed to decrease 6-O sulfation, releasing GDNF from HS to bind and activate its receptor, thereby mediating its effects on esophageal innervation. Sulf1 even functions in basic neural development. Sulf1 modulation of HS chains sulfation is critical in nervous system development.
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The trigeminal V1 (fifth cranial) nerve bears the sensory pathway of the tear reflexes. When the trigeminal nerve is cut, tears from reflexes will stop, while emotional tears will not. The great (superficial) petrosal nerve from cranial nerve VII provides autonomic innervation to the lacrimal gland. It is responsible for the production of much of the aqueous portion of the tear film.
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The lingual nerve provides sensory (touch, pain and temperature) innervation to the anterior two thirds of the tongue. It is made of fibres from both the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3) and from the facial nerve (CN VII). The fibres from the mandibular nerve are for touch, and the ones from the facial nerve are for taste.
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After the fusion of the main nerve trunks of the nonclamp side, some prominent nerves arise to innervate the lappet. The innervation is different from that of Gastrocotyle trachuri. This is probably due to the attitude of clamps formation of P. trachuri, that occur in a posteroanterior direction, thus, the “prehaptoral” ganglion moves more anteriorly, close to the anteriormost clamps.
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Based on the circular organization of the nerve endings and its innervation pattern in Eimer’s organs, Marasco proposed by mapping experiments that nearly all receptors in the star-nosed mole have a preference for a particular direction of applied stimuli. Thus, while one receptor elicits a strong response if compressed in one direction, it may stay "silent" when compressed in another one.
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More recently, it is becoming clear what types of nerves innervated which sections of bone.Mach, D. Rogers, S. Sabino, M. Luger, N. Schwei, M. Pomonis, J. Keyser, C. Clohisy, D. Adams, D. O’leary, P. Mantyh, P. (2002). Origins of skeletal pain: Sensory and sympathetic innervation of the mouse femur. Neuroscience. 113(1):155-166.Falk S, Uldall M, Heegaard AM. (2012).
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Ciliary ganglion with parasympathetic fibers of ciliary nerves. The ciliary muscle receives parasympathetic fibers from the short ciliary nerves that arise from the ciliary ganglion. The sympathetic postganglionic fibers are part of cranial nerve V1 (Nasociliary nerve of the trigeminal), while presynaptic parasympathetic fibers to the ciliary ganglia are from the oculomotor nerve. The postganglionic sympathetic innervation arises from the superior cervical ganglia.
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Sensitivity is not determined by neuron density alone: other factors include the branching patterns of neuron terminals and cross or collateral innervation of neurons. While G-spot opponents argue that because there are very few tactile nerve endings in the vagina and that therefore the G-spot cannot exist, G-spot proponents argue that vaginal orgasms rely on pressure-sensitive nerves.
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Chromaffin cells also settle near the vagus nerve and carotid arteries. In lower concentrations, extra-adrenal chromaffin cells also reside in the bladder wall, prostate, and behind the liver. In non-mammals, chromaffin cells are found in a variety of places, generally not organised as an individual organ, and may be without innervation, relying only on endocrine or paracrine signals for secretion.
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The temporal branch travels out from the left and right posterior components. The inferior four branches do so via the left and right anterior components. The left and right branches supply their respective sides of the face (ipsilateral innervation). Accordingly, the posterior components receive motor input from both hemispheres of the cerebral cortex (bilaterally), whereas the anterior components receive strictly contralateral input.
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Again this information reaches the hypothalamus via relays in the brainstem. In addition hypothalamic function is responsive to—and regulated by—levels of all three classical monoamine neurotransmitters, noradrenaline, dopamine, and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), in those tracts from which it receives innervation. For example, noradrenergic inputs arising from the locus coeruleus have important regulatory effects upon corticotropin- releasing hormone (CRH) levels.
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Joe finally figures out the solution, which requires applying the chemicals to certain parts of his anatomy (Sacrum, Heart, Innervation, Eyes, Lungs, Derma), and exposing himself to x-rays. This gives him super strength, the ability able to make great leaps, and invulnerability. Joe uses the initials S.H.I.E.L.D. as his secret identity. His white costume becomes the familiar colors under the process.
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This may sound contradictory with the fact that this region has higher resolution and an important role in foraging behavior. However, instead of having more sensory organs this fovea region uses a different approach in which a skin surface may be more sensitive to mechanoreceptic input; it has more innervation density. Rays 1 through 9 each has about 4 fibers per Eimer's organ, while rays 10 and 11 have significantly higher innervation densities of 5.6 and 7.1 fibers per organ, respectively, revealing how the sensory periphery is differentially specialized across the star. The myelinated fibers innervating the 11 rays were photographed and counted from an enlarged photomontage by Catania and colleagues. The total number of myelinated fibers for half of the star ranged from 53,050 to 93–94; hence the total fibers for the entire star vary from roughly 106,000 to 117,000.
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Hogan MJ, Alvarado JA, Weddell E: Histology of the Human Eye. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1971 With ageing, this layer becomes thinner. The function of the Bowman's membrane remains unclear and appears to have no critical function in corneal physiology. Recently, it is postulated that the layer may act as a physical barrier to protect the subepithelial nerve plexus and thereby hastens epithelial innervation and sensory recovery.
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In contrast to chimpanzees, a common morphological variant found in humans called Hirsuties coronae glandis, or pearly penile papules, are substantially larger, appear to be an outpocketing of both surface and underlying connective tissue layers, and lack the rich innervation seen in other animals.Glicksman, JM and Freeman, RG. Pearly penile papules. A statistical study of incidence. Arch. Dermatol. 93:56-59 (1966)Agrawal, SK et al.
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Sulf null mice and other model systems implicated Sulfs in other developmental and disease systems. For example, studies detected esophageal defects in surviving MSulf-/-;MSulf2-/- adult mice. Specifically, esophagi had impaired smooth muscle contractility with reduced neuronal innervation and enteric glial cell numbers. It was postulated to be mediated by decreased glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), which is responsible for neurite sprouting in the embryonic esophagus.
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Autonomic innervation of the heart The wave of depolarization in a normal sinus rhythm shows a stable resting HR. Following parasympathetic stimulation, HR slows. Following sympathetic stimulation, HR increases. The normal sinus rhythm of the heart rate is generated by the SA node. It is also influenced by central factors through sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves of the two paired cardiovascular centres of the medulla oblongata.
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The superior tarsal muscle receives its innervation from the sympathetic nervous system. Postganglionic sympathetic fibers originate in the superior cervical ganglion, and travel via the internal carotid plexus, where small branches communicate with the oculomotor nerve as it passes through the cavernous sinus. The sympathetic fibres continue to the superior division of the oculomotor nerve, where they enter the superior tarsal muscle on its inferior aspect.
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Decreasing PLD3 expression meanwhile decreases myotube formation. These findings suggest a possible role of PLD3 in myogenesis, although its exact mechanism of action remains unknown. Overexpression of PLD3 in mouse myoblasts in vitro may inhibit Akt phosphorylation and block signal transduction during insulin signalling. PLD3 may be involved in the later stages of neurogenesis, contributing to processes associated with neurotransmission, target cell innervation, and neuronal survival.
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Sympathicolysis is a procedure for temporary or long-term elimination of sympathetic innervation. It is used to improve blood circulation in the legs or arms. The sympathetic nervous system causes the balance of the autonomic system to lean towards narrowing of blood vessels, with elimination of its function resulting in vasodilatation. Completely blocked arteries are not opened again, but the collaterals are better supplied with blood.
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Branching can be caused by repulsive cues in the environment that cause the growth cone to pause and collapse, resulting in the formation of branches. To ensure successful innervation, inappropriate targeting must be prevented. Once the axon has reached its target area and started to slow down and branch, it can be held within the target area by a perimeter of cues repulsive to the growth cone.
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Beritashvili began his experimental research early, as a third year student under the supervision of the eminent Russian physiologist Prof. Nikolay E. Wedensky (1852–1922). Beritashvili studied the problem of reciprocal innervation of skeletal musculature in frogs showing that local strychninization of the dorsal horn did not disrupt the coordination of the “wiping” reflex. The results of his first work were published in 1911.
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Before the nerve exits the skull via the stylomastoid foramen and after the nerve to the stapedius muscle has branched off, the facial nerve gives off the chorda tympani nerve. This nerve exits the skull through the Petrotympanic fissure and merges with the lingual nerve, after which it synapses with neurons in the submandibular ganglion. These postganglionic neurons provide parasympathetic innervation to the submandibular and sublingual glands.
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Cutaneous mechanoreceptors with small, accurate receptive fields are found in areas needing accurate taction (e.g. the fingertips). In the fingertips and lips, innervation density of slowly adapting type I and rapidly adapting type I mechanoreceptors are greatly increased. These two types of mechanoreceptors have small discrete receptive fields and are thought to underlie most low- threshold use of the fingers in assessing texture, surface slip, and flutter.
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The axillary arch is a variant of the latissimus dorsi muscle in humans. It is found as a slip of muscle or fascia extending between the latissimus dorsi muscle and the pectoralis major. There is considerable variation in the exact position of its origin and insertions as well as its blood and nerve supply.Wilson JT, The Innervation of the Achselbogen Muscle, J Anat Physiol.
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Motor neural degeneration is the progressive weakening of neural tissues and connections in the nervous system. Muscles begin to weaken as there are no longer any motor nerves or pathways that allows for muscle innervation. Motor neuron diseases can be viral, genetic or be a result of environmental factors. The exact causes remain unclear, however many experts believe that toxic and environmental factors play a large role.
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In the scrotum, it consists mostly of smooth muscle.Gray's 16th Edition The tone of this smooth muscle is responsible for the wrinkled (rugose) appearance of the scrotum. In females, the same muscle fibers are less well developed and termed dartos muliebris, lying beneath the skin of the labia majora. It receives innervation from postganglionic sympathetic nerve fibers arriving via the ilioinguinal nerve and the posterior scrotal nerve.
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Thus, suggesting there is free passage of the intestinal contents into the amniotic fluid. Motilin is found in higher concentrations in post-term than pre-term foetal gastrointestinal tracts. Similarly, intestinal parasympathetic innervation and myelination also increases in later gestations. Therefore, the increased incidence of MAS in post-term pregnancies may reflect the maturation and development of the peristalsis within the gastrointestinal tract in the newborn.
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These two compartments are synovial cavities, which consists of an upper and a lower synovial cavity. The synovial membrane lining the joint capsule produces the synovial fluid that fills these cavities. The central area of the disc is avascular and lacks innervation, thus getting its nutrients from the surrounding synovial fluid. In contrast, the posterior ligament and the surrounding capsules along has both blood vessels and nerves.
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Facial nerve: the facial nerve's nuclei are in the brainstem (represented in the diagram by "θ"). Orange: nerves coming from the left hemisphere of the brain, yellow: nerves coming from the right hemisphere. Note that the forehead muscles receive innervation from both hemispheres (yellow and orange) The cause of Bell's palsy is unknown. Risk factors include diabetes, a recent upper respiratory tract infection, and pregnancy.
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Nonetheless, their ultra-high cost and cumbersome weight limit the spread of this magnetic sensing technique. In the last several years, optically pumped magnetometers (OPMs) have been rapidly developed to study the innervation of the hand nerves and muscles as proof-of-concept investigations. The OPMs with small physical size have been improved their LODs significantly during recent years, especially from competing manufacturers e.g. QuSpin Inc.
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The muscles are supplied by two cranial nerves, the facial nerve and the trigeminal nerve. The upper lip receives its sensibility from the infraorbital nerve, which is a branch of the maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve. The infraorbita nerve provides sensation to the upper lip, cheek, ala, and nasal sidewall. The sensory innervation of the lower lip is provided by the mental nerve.
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His papers on the subject were synthesized into the Croonian lecture of 1897. Sherrington showed that muscle excitation was inversely proportional to the inhibition of an opposing group of muscles. Speaking of the excitation-inhibition relationship, Sherrington said "desistence from action may be as truly active as is the taking of action." Sherrington continued his work on reciprocal innervation during his years at Liverpool.
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It opens chemical or ligand-gated sodium and calcium ion channels, allowing an influx of positively charged ions. Norepinephrine binds to the beta–1 receptor. High blood pressure medications are used to block these receptors and so reduce the heart rate. Autonomic Innervation of the Heart - Cardioaccelerator and cardioinhibitory areas are components of the paired cardiac centers located in the medulla oblongata of the brain.
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The figure to the right illustrates this dependency and lists a few of these factors. A more detailed hierarchical illustration is provided in a subsequent figure. Equation () reveals HR and SV to be the primary determinants of cardiac output Q. A detailed representation of these factors is illustrated in the figure to the right. The primary factors that influence HR are autonomic innervation plus endocrine control.
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The distribution of axonal islands is widespread in the lateral region of the thalamus. The innervation of the central region is done by collaterals. The internal globus pallidus contains GABAergic neurons, which allow for its inhibitory function. As the GPi, along with the substantia nigra pars reticulata, forms the output of the basal ganglia, these neurons extend to the thalamus, the centromedian complex and the pedunculopontine complex.
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In 1994 graduated First Faculty of Medicine in Medical University of Silesia in Katowice. In 1995 doctorate in anatomy urology based on the work “Innervation external urethral sphincter”. In 2007 received his PhD in medical sciences (urology). In 2011 he was awarded the title of professor of medical sciences. Since 2004, a board member of the Section of Urology and Women’s Functional European Association of Urology (EAU).
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The spinal accessory nerve continues alone and heads backwards and downwards. In the neck, the accessory nerve crosses the internal jugular vein around the level of the posterior belly of digastric muscle. As it courses downwards, the nerve pierces through the sternocleidomastoid muscle while sending it motor branches, then continues down until it reaches the trapezius muscle to provide motor innervation to its upper part.
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Adjacent areas of the body are represented by adjacent areas in the cortex. When body parts are drawn in proportion to the density of their innervation, the result is a "little man": the cortical homunculus. Many textbooks have reproduced the outdated Penfield-Rasmussen diagram [ref?], with the toes and genitals on the mesial surface of the cortex when they are actually represented on the convexity.
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A lesion on either the left or right side would affect both the anterior and posterior routes on that side because of their close physical proximity to one another. So, a lesion on the left side would inhibit muscle innervation from both the left posterior and anterior routes, thus paralyzing the whole left side of the face (Bell’s palsy). With this type of lesion, the bilateral and contralateral inputs of the posterior and anterior routes, respectively, become irrelevant because the lesion is below the level of the medulla and the facial motor nucleus. Whereas at a level above the medulla a lesion occurring in one hemisphere would mean that the other hemisphere could still sufficiently innervate the posterior facial motor nucleus, a lesion affecting a lower motor neuron would eliminate innervation altogether because the nerves no longer have a means to receive compensatory contralateral input at a downstream decussation.
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These include: hormone balancing, replenishment of fuel stores, cellular repair, innervation and anabolism. Post-exercise oxygen consumption replenishes the phosphagen system. New ATP is synthesized and some of this ATP donates phosphate groups to creatine until ATP and creatine levels are back to resting state levels again. Another use of EPOC is to fuel the body’s increased metabolism from the increase in body temperature which occurs during exercise.
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In April 2009, after nearly five years of work in TBC/Innervation Trust, it was time for Natalie Joy Potgieter to leave the band to move to South Africa with her husband. TBC were then a three-girl band and have been searching for a new member. They carried on touring at such events, Spring Harvest, QuobFest, and New Wine music festivals. Also continuing to do primary school work.
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Special visceral efferent fibers (SVE) are the efferent nerve fibers that provide motor innervation to the muscles of the pharyngeal arches in humans, and the branchial arches in fish. Some sources prefer the term "branchiomotor" or "branchial efferent". The only nerves containing SVE fibers are cranial nerves: the trigeminal nerve (V), the facial nerve (VII), the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), the vagus nerve (X) and the accessory nerve (XI).Drake et al.
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From there, they contribute to the innervation of the pelvic and genital organs. The nerves regulate the emptying of the urinary bladder, control opening and closing of the internal urethral sphincter, influence motility in the rectum as well as sexual functions like erection. They contain both preganglionic parasympathetic fibers as well as visceral afferent fibers. Visceral afferent fibers go to spinal cord following pathway of pelvic splanchnic nerve fibers.
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As an enolase, ENO3 is a glycolytic enzyme that catalyzes the reversible conversion of 2-phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate. This particular isoform is predominantly expressed in adult striated muscle, including skeletal and cardiac muscle. During fetal muscle development, there is a transcriptional switch from expressing ENO1 to ENO3 influenced by muscle innervation and Myo D1. ENO3 is expressed at higher levels in fast-twitch fibers than in slow-twitch fibers.
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Scheme showing sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of the pupil and sites of lesion in a Horner's syndrome. Pathways in the Ciliary Ganglion. Green = parasympathetic; Red = sympathetic; Blue = sensoryThe ciliary ganglion contains postganglionic parasympathetic neurons that supply the ciliary muscle and the pupillary sphincter muscle. Because of the much larger size of the ciliary muscle, 95% of the in neurons in the ciliary ganglion innervate it compared to the pupillary sphincter.
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Nerve biopsy would show axonal neuropathy, but it is no longer indicated. A muscle biopsy of critical illness myopathy would show selective loss of thick filaments in muscle, demonstrating the loss of myosin and the presence of muscle cell death (necrosis). When muscles lose stimulation from neurons, they can undergo degeneration. However, when critical illness myopathy occurs, it is not solely due to loss of innervation of the muscle.
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Treatment involves the application of an antiperspirant or glycopyrrolate to the cheek, Jacobsen's neurectomy along the middle ear promontory, and lifting of the skin flap with the placement of a tissue barrier (harvested or cadaveric) to interrupt the misguided innervation of the sweat glands. Pain from parotitis, a condition that can be caused by mumps, will be carried by the auriculotemporal nerve and great auricular nerve to the brain.
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The following is a list of the muscles in the dog, along with their origin, insertion, action and innervation. Extrinsic muscles of the thoracic limb and related structures: Descending superficial pectoral: originates on the first sternebrae and inserts on the greater tubercle of the humerus. It both adducts the limb and also prevents the limb from being abducted during weight bearing. It is innervated by the cranial pectoral nerves.
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Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc.; 2004 Each mitral cell extends a primary dendrite to a single glomerulus, where the dendrite gives rise to an elaborate tuft of branches onto which the primary olfactory axons synapse. Each glomerulus in the mouse model, for example, contains approximately 25 mitral cells which receive innervation from approximately 25,000 olfactory receptor axons. The convergence increases the sensitivity of mitral cells to odor detection.
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The same mechanism applies for an upper motor neuron lesion in the right hemisphere. The left anterior FMN component no longer receives cortical motor input due to its strict contralateral innervation, whereas the posterior component is still sufficiently supplied by the left hemisphere. The result is paralysis of the left mid- and lower-face with an unaffected forehead. On the other hand, a lower motor neuron lesion is a bit different.
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The acini are surrounded, sometimes incompletely, by a row of myoepithelial cells. Animal studies suggest that the ducts of Wolfring glands have a tortuous course and open onto the palpebral conjunctiva. Like the main lacrimal gland, the accessory lacrimal glands are also densely innervated, but they lack parasympathetic innervation. These glands are exocrine glands, responsible for the basal (unstimulated) secretion of the middle aqueous layer of the tear film.
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The superior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve is a sensory ganglion of the peripheral nervous system. It is located within the jugular foramen where the glossopharyngeal nerve exits the skull. It is smaller than and above the inferior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve. The neurons in the superior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve provide sensory innervation to the middle ear and the internal surface of the tympanic membrane.
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It may be accompanied by paradoxical respiration – the intercostal muscles are paralysed and the chest is drawn passively in and out by the diaphragm. ;Sherrington's First Law: Every posterior spinal nerve root supplies a particular area of the skin, with a certain overlap of adjacent dermatomes. ;Sherrington's Second Law: The law of reciprocal innervation. When contraction of a muscle is stimulated, there is a simultaneous inhibition of its antagonist.
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It is this distinction that often makes the term "poikilotherm" more useful than the vernacular "cold- blooded", which is sometimes used to refer to ectotherms more generally. Poikilothermic animals include types of vertebrate animals, specifically some fish, amphibians, and reptiles, as well as many invertebrate animals. The naked mole-ratDaly, T.J.M., Williams, L.A. and Buffenstein, R., (1997). Catecholaminergic innervation of interscapular brown adipose tissue in the naked mole-rat (Heterocephalus glaber).
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While not well studied, the Rakali (Australian water rat) may also be able to detect water movements with its vibrissae as these have a large amount of innervation, though further behavioral studies are needed to confirm this. While tying the presence of whiskers to hydrodynamic reception has allowed the list of mammals with this special sense to grow, more research still needs to be done on the specific neural circuits involved.
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Type I neurons innervate inner hair cells. There is significantly greater convergence of this type of neuron towards the basal end in comparison with the apical end. A radial fiber bundle acts as an intermediary between Type I neurons and inner hair cells. The ratio of innervation that is seen between Type I neurons and inner hair cells is 1:1 which results in high signal transmission fidelity and resolution.
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H&E; stained fibers of the vagus nerve (bottom right) innervate the sinoatrial node tissue (middle left) Parasympathetic innervation of the heart is partially controlled by the vagus nerve and is shared by the thoracic ganglia. Vagal and spinal ganglionic nerves mediate the lowering of the heart rate. The right vagus branch innervates the sinoatrial node. In healthy people, parasympathetic tone from these sources are well-matched to sympathetic tone.
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Lower limb. Foot. Cutaneous innervation refers to the area of the skin which is supplied by a specific nerve. Modern texts are in agreement about which areas of the skin are served by which nerves, but there are minor variations in some of the details. The borders designated by the diagrams in the 1918 edition of Gray's Anatomy, provided below, are similar but not identical to those generally accepted today.
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The parasympathetic innervation to the lacrimal gland is a complex pathway which traverses through numerous structures in the head. Ultimately this two-neuron pathway involving both a preganglionic and postganglionic parasympathetic neuron increases the secretion of lacrimal fluid from the lacrimal gland. The preganglionic parasympathetic neurons are located in the superior salivatory nucleus. They project axons which exit the brainstem as part of the facial nerve (CN VII).
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In the alternative, the healing of trauma to the outer anulus fibrosus may result in the innervation of the scar tissue and pain impulses from the disc, as these nerves become inflamed by nucleus pulposus material. Degenerative disc disease can lead to a chronic debilitating condition and can have a serious negative impact on a person's quality of life. When pain from degenerative disc disease is severe, traditional nonoperative treatment may be ineffective.
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There is also some vagal innervation of the atrial muscle, and to a much lesser extent, the ventricular muscle. Vagus activation, therefore, results in modest reductions in atrial contractility (inotropy) and even smaller decreases in ventricular contractility. Muscarinic receptor antagonists bind to muscarinic receptors thereby preventing ACh from binding to and activating the receptor. By blocking the actions of ACh, muscarinic receptor antagonists very effectively block the effects of vagal nerve activity on the heart.
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He was involved in a number of extracurricular activities including editor of the university newspaper l'Ateneo. Although he was enrolled in anatomy, he also incorporated physiology despite resistance from the university to this multidisciplinary approach. He earned his degree in medicine (Laurea in Medicina e Chirurgia, equivalent to MB BS) from the University of Turin in 1967; his M.D. thesis was "The Adrenergic Innervation of the Alimentary Canal" with Dignita di Stampa (worthy of publication).
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In complex strabismus cases, toxin can be injected diagnostically as an aid to planning surgical treatment. The force exerted by a muscle is the sum of its contractile force (“active force”, controlled mostly by neural innervation) and its elastic force (“passive” force, determined stretching). Both are affected by muscle length, which determines the degree of stretch in a given eye position. Botulinum toxin paralysis reduces total muscle force by removing, or reducing, the contractile component.
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Parasympathetic activation of the M3 muscarinic receptors causes ciliary muscle contraction, the effect of contraction is to decrease the diameter of the ring of ciliary muscle. The parasympathetic tone is dominant when a higher degree of accommodation of the lens is required, such as reading a book. The ciliary body is also known to receive sympathetic innervation via long ciliary nerves. When test subjects are startled, their eyes automatically adjust for distance vision.
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Similar to the stomach, intestinal slow waves frequency, propagation velocity, and amplitude also demonstrate significant inter-species differences. In uterine smooth muscle, slow waves have not been consistently observed. Uterine muscle seems to generate action potentials spontaneously. In gastrointestinal smooth muscle, the slow-wave threshold can be altered by input from endogenous and exogenous innervation, as well as excitatory (acetylcholine and Substance P) and inhibitory (vasoactive intestinal peptide and nitric oxide) compounds.Pathophysiology. Porth.
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"Functional MRI in SUNCT (Short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with conjunctival injection and tearing) and SUNA (Short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with cranial autonomic symptoms) shows differential hypothalamic activation with increasing pain." Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 77(12): 041. Functional MRI studies suggest brain stem activation during attacks as well. Activation of the trigeminocervical complex and other related structures results from innervation from branches of trigeminal and upper cervical nerves.
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Lethal white syndrome, or ileocolonic aganglionosis, will result in meconium impaction since the foal does not have adequate nerve innervation to the large intestine, in essence, a nonfunctioning colon. Foals that are homozygous for the frame overo gene, often seen in Paint horse heritage, will develop the condition. They present with signs of colic within the first 12 hours after birth, and die within 48 hours due to constipation. This syndrome is not treatable.
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However, ECL cells are activated directly by ACh on M1 receptors from direct vagal innervation leading to histamine release. This pathway will be inhibited by atropine. Gastrin is transferred from a specific type of G cell in the gastric epithelium to the ECL cells by blood. Histamine and gastrin act synergistically as the most important stimulators of hydrochloric acid secretion from parietal cells and stimulators of secretion of pepsinogen from chief cells.
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While the sensory input described above is (general) visceral sensation (diffuse, poorly localized), the vocal fold also receives general somatic sensory innervation (proprioceptive and touch) by the superior laryngeal nerve. Injury to the external laryngeal nerve causes weakened phonation because the vocal folds cannot be tightened. Injury to one of the recurrent laryngeal nerves produces hoarseness, if both are damaged the voice may or may not be preserved, but breathing becomes difficult.
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Also, Onuf's nucleus is found almost symmetrically on both sides of the ventral horn. This innervation, or nerve supply, is arranged in a neuropil and averages approximately 300-500 in both the left and right ventral horns in animals. Humans average 625 neurons total across both sides of the spine which measures about 4–6 mm on each side. Many staining techniques have been used to study the anatomy of Onuf's nucleus.
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Onuf's nucleus is the origin of innervation for the striated muscles of the rectum and urethral sphincter. The neurons of Onuf's nucleus are responsible for controlling external sphincter muscles of the anus and urethra in humans. Onufrowicz also proposed that Onuf's nucleus controlled the ischiocavernosus and bulbocavernosus muscles which function in penile erection and ejaculation in males. The dorsomedial subnucleus innervates the external anal sphincter and the ventrolateral subgroup connects to the external urethral sphincter.
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The mechanism for producing the center of a bipolar cell's receptive field is well known: direct innervation of the photoreceptor cell above it, either through a metabotropic (ON) or ionotropic (OFF) receptor. However, the mechanism for producing the monochromatic surround of the same receptive field is under investigation. While it is known that an important cell in the process is the horizontal cell, the exact sequence of receptors and molecules is unknown.
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Regenerative endodontic procedures suggests that free nerve endings of the root end are guided into the canal by specific chemical signals. Nonetheless, the presence of nerve endings suggests the presence of a vital tissue that is immune-competent due to the intimate association of innervation with blood vessels and the immune system. It also suggests the recovery of sensation that is important for the detection of actual or potential injury to the tooth organ.
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The blade may be hollow or solid depending on the species. The base is connected to the underlying cytoplasm. Rostellum is innervated by a single bilateral pair of ganglia, which provide motor innervation of the anterior canal, and the circular muscles of the rostellar capsule; this connection controls the protrusion and retraction movements. The tegument lining the anterior canal and covering the apical rostellum is syncytial and continuous with the tegument of the scolex proper.
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If a sudden pull or stretch occurs, the body responds by automatically increasing the muscle's tension, a reflex which helps guard against danger as well as helping maintain balance. Such near-continuous innervation can be thought of as a "default" or "steady state" condition for muscles. Both the extensor and flexor muscles are involved in the maintenance of a constant tone while at rest. In skeletal muscles, this helps maintain a normal posture.
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Initially muscle fibers are connected to multiple neurons but synaptic competition selects certain connections over others to define the mature pattern of muscle innervation. The shape of a cell is determined by the structure of its cytoskeleton. A major element of the cytoskeleton are microtubules, which can grow in random directions from their origin. Microtubule-associated proteins can aid or inhibit microtubule growth, guide microtubules to specific cellular locations and mediate interactions with other proteins.
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The neurons of the pars reticulata are fast-spiking pacemakers, generating action potentials in the absence of synaptic input. In primates they discharge at a mean rate of 68 Hz in contrast to dopaminergic neurons (below 8 Hz). They receive abundant afferrences from the striatum (mainly from the associative striatum) with the same very peculiar synaptology as the pallidum. It receives axons from the subthalamic nucleus and a dopaminergic innervation from the dopaminergic ensemble.
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Part of a Myofibril A neuromuscular junction (or myoneural junction) is a chemical synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. It allows the motor neuron to transmit a signal to the muscle fiber, causing muscle contraction. Muscles require innervation to function—and even just to maintain muscle tone, avoiding atrophy. In the neuromuscular system nerves from the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system are linked and work together with muscles.
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This protein induces outgrowth of axons and dendrites and promotes the survival of embryonic sensory and sympathetic neurons. The mutation in NTRK1 does not allow NGF to bind properly, causing defects in the development and function of nociceptive reception. Mitochondrial abnormalities in muscle cells have been found in people with CIPA. Skin biopsies show a lack of innervation of the eccrine glands and nerve biopsies show a lack of small myelinated and unmyelinated fibers.
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Cell death in arthropods occurs first in the nervous system when ectoderm cells differentiate and one daughter cell becomes a neuroblast and the other undergoes apoptosis. Furthermore, sex targeted cell death leads to different neuronal innervation of specific organs in males and females. In Drosophila, PCD is essential in segmentation and specification during development. In contrast to invertebrates, the mechanism of programmed cell death is found to be more conserved in vertebrates.
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Proc Natl Acad Sci USA,103(45):16876-16881, 2006. Bajayo A, Bar A, Denes A, Bachar M, Kram V, Attar-Namdar M, Zallone A, Kovács KJ, Yirmiya R, Bab I. Skeletal parasympathetic innervation communicates central IL-1 signals regulating bone mass accrual. Natl Acad Sci U S A. 109(38):15455-15460, 2012. Raz Yirmiya is a past-president of the Psychoneuroimmunology Research Society (PNIRS) past-president of the Psychoneuroimmunology Research.
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Longet is remembered for extensive research of the autonomic nervous system, and physiological experiments of the anterior and posterior columns of the spinal cord in regards to sensory and motor functionality. Also, he is credited with providing a detailed comprehensive description of nerve innervation of the larynx.New Advent, Catholic Encyclopedia History of Medicine With Jean Pierre Flourens (1794-1867), he performed pioneer experiments on the effects of ether and chloroform on the central nervous system in laboratory animals.
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Peripheral expression of cannabinoid receptors led researchers to investigate the role of cannabinoids in the autonomic nervous system. Research found that the CB1 receptor is expressed presynaptically by motor neurons that innervate visceral organs. Cannabinoid-mediated inhibition of electric potentials results in a reduction in noradrenaline release from sympathetic nervous system nerves. Other studies have found similar effects in endocannabinoid regulation of intestinal motility, including the innervation of smooth muscles associated with the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.
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Findings with the inner ear in Johanson–Blizzard syndrome give explanation to the presence of bilateral sensorineural hearing loss in most patients affected by the disorder. The formation of cystic tissue in both the cochlea and vestibule, with resulting dilation (widening) and malformation of these delicate structures has been implicated. Congenital deformations of the temporal bone and associated adverse anatomical effects on innervation and development of the inner ear also contribute to this type of hearing loss.
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This is the mechanism by which milk is transported from the breast alveoli to the nipple. Suckling by the baby innervates slowly-adapting and rapidly-adapting mechanoreceptors that are densely packed around the areolar region. The electrical impulse follows the spinothalamic tract, which begins by innervation of fourth intercostal nerves. The electrical impulse then ascends the posterolateral tract for one or two vertebral levels and synapses with second-order neurons, called tract cells, in the posterior dorsal horn.
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The coactivation of different muscle groups allows for proper balance and the ability to adjust weight and to stay upright on uneven ground. It is also believed to be important for postural control by stabilizing the spine. Muscle coactivation is absolutely necessary for learning a fine motor skill or for any activity involving stability. In order for muscle coactivation to occur, it must inhibit reciprocal innervation, which occurs when a muscle contracts and the synergist muscle relaxes.
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Along the thorax and abdomen the dermatomes are like a stack of discs forming a human, each supplied by a different spinal nerve. Along the arms and the legs, the pattern is different: the dermatomes run longitudinally along the limbs. Although the general pattern is similar in all people, the precise areas of innervation are as unique to an individual as fingerprints. An area of skin innervated by a single nerve is called a peripheral nerve field.
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Neuromuscular junctions in gastrointestinal (GI) smooth muscles may reflect innervation of, and post-junctional responses in, all three classes of post-junctional cells. Transduction of neurotransmitter signals by ICC cells and activation of ionic conductances would be conducted electronically via gap junctions to surrounding smooth muscle cells and influence excitability. Studies do not exclude the possibility of parallel excitatory neurotransmission to ICC-DMP (deep muscular plexus) and smooth muscle cells. Different cells may utilize different receptors and signaling molecules.
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Chromaffin cells are derived from the embryonic neural crest and, as such, are simply modified neurons. In particular, they are modified postganglionic sympathetic neurons of the autonomic nervous system that have lost their axons and dendrites, receiving innervation from corresponding preganglionic fibers. The cells form clusters around fenestrated capillaries where they release norepinephrine and epinephrine into the blood. As a cluster of neuron cell bodies, the adrenal medulla is considered a ganglion of the sympathetic nervous system.
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The other way around, it is a different story. There will be plenty of accommodative neurons re-growing into the iris sphincter, and it won’t take very many of them to make a little muscle like the iris sphincter contract. This means that every time the patient accommodates her gaze to a near object, some of the innervation to the ciliary muscle will spill over into the iris and constrict the pupil. Loewenfeld’s theory is now generally accepted.
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The suprachiasmatic nucleus functions as the hypothalamic master clock, controlling the body's Circadian rhythm. The suprachiamatic nucleus of mice, hamsters, and rats have a small amount of cholinergic innervation. A "time memory" is the memory at a specific time of day for which an individual made an association with a certain event or location. "Time stamping" is the process by which the specific time-of-day is encoded to support the formation of a time memory.
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Even so, the full potential of the raw toxin is only reached by the combination of the α and γ subunits. A similar experiment has been done refocusing on the neural compounds. 24 hours after the injection the innervation was compromised to the extent of being unable to identify intact axons. This showed that Taipoxin like toxins lead to the depletion of transmitters from the nerve terminals and lead to the degeneration of nerve terminal and intramuscular axons.
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Regardless of their final innervation, the nerves that reach the thenar muscles arise from the C8 and T1 roots, pass through the lower trunk of the plexus, and then through the medial cord of the plexus. The ulnar nerve is exclusively responsible for the innervations of the hypothenar eminence. Both nerves contribute to the innervations of the midpalmar group. Print. The muscles in this location are usually innervated by the recurrent branch of the median nerve.
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Schacter D.L., Gilbert D.T., and Wegner D.M. (2011) Psychology second edition. New York, NY: Worth Types of lower motor neurons are alpha motor neurons, beta motor neurons, and gamma motor neurons. A single motor neuron may innervate many muscle fibres and a muscle fibre can undergo many action potentials in the time taken for a single muscle twitch. Innervation takes place at a neuromuscular junction and twitches can become superimposed as a result of summation or a tetanic contraction.
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There are several options of treatment when iatrogenic (i.e., caused by the surgeon) spinal accessory nerve damage is noted during surgery. For example, during a functional neck dissection that injures the spinal accessory nerve, injury prompts the surgeon to cautiously preserve branches of C2, C3, and C4 spinal nerves that provide supplemental innervation to the trapezius muscle. Alternatively, or in addition to intraoperative procedures, postoperative procedures can also help in recovering the function of a damaged spinal accessory nerve.
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The sensory fibers stimulate the motor fibers of the genital branch of the genitofemoral nerve (also at spinal level L1), which provides innervation to the cremaster muscles causing the contraction of the muscle and elevation of the testes. This causes the cremaster muscle on the same side to rapidly contract, raising the testicle. The cremaster can also be contracted voluntarily, by performing Kegels (which somehow contracts the cremaster), or by flexing and tightening the abdominal muscles.
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In vertebrates, inter-aural time differences are known to be calculated in the superior olivary nucleus of the brainstem. According to Jeffress, this calculation relies on delay lines: neurons in the superior olive which accept innervation from each ear with different connecting axon lengths. Some cells are more directly connected to one ear than the other, thus they are specific for a particular inter-aural time difference. This theory is equivalent to the mathematical procedure of cross-correlation.
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Thus Hering's law, in its original formulation, simply cannot be correct as it would lead to situations where the eyes would move by different amounts, something on which both agreed never happens. Hering subsequently modified his law to state that the eyes behave as if they received equal innervation. The extent to which Hering's law is correct, or not, remains in debate today as the exact physiological underpinning of vergence eye movements remain to be found.
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Embryologic evidence of generation of the cardiac conduction system illuminates the respective roles of this specialized set of cells. Innervation of the heart begins with a brain only centered parasympathetic cholinergic first order. It is then followed by rapid growth of a second order sympathetic adrenergic system arising from the formation of the thoracic spinal ganglia. The third order of electrical influence of the heart is derived from the vagus nerve as the other peripheral organs form.
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For example, poliomyelitis is caused by a virus that specifically targets and kills motor neurons in the ventral horn of the spinal cord. Amyotropic lateral sclerosis likewise is associated with the selective loss of motor neurons. Paralysis is one of the most pronounced effects of damage to α-MNs. Because α-MNs provide the only innervation to extrafusal muscle fibers, losing α-MNs effectively severs the connection between the brainstem and spinal cord and the muscles they innervate.
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Wu X, Ashe J, Bushara KO. Role of olivocerebellar system in timing without awareness. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011. In the central nervous system, these fibers are able to undergo remarkable regenerative modifications in response to injuries, being able to generate new branches by sprouting to innervate surrounding Purkinje cells if these lose their CF innervation. This kind of injury-induced sprouting has been shown to need the growth associated protein GAP-43.
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Nevertheless, all tests have some limitations and test results should be interpreted by an experienced dentist under the bidirectional consideration of both clinical symptoms and radiography. Sensitivity tests only indicate the presence or absence of the nerve supply to an individual tooth. Even though a prolonged response to aforementioned tests indicate pulpal inflammation, the degree of inflammation or innervation cannot be inferred from these tests. False positive or false negative results are possible when performing a sensitivity testing.
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The lacrimal gland is innervated by the lacrimal nerve, which is the smallest branch of the ophthalmic nerve, itself a branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V). After the lacrimal nerve branches from the ophthalmic nerve it receives a communicating branch from the zygomatic nerve. This communicating branch carries postganglionic parasympathetic axons from the pterygopalatine ganglion. The lacrimal nerve passes anteriorly in the orbit and through the lacrimal gland providing parasympathetic and sympathetic innervation to it.
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The extraocular muscles develop along with Tenon's capsule (part of the ligaments) and the fatty tissue of the eye socket (orbit). There are three centers of growth that are important in the development of the eye, and each is associated with a nerve. Hence the subsequent nerve supply (innervation) of the eye muscles is from three cranial nerves. The development of the extraocular muscles is dependent on the normal development of the eye socket, while the formation of the ligament is fully independent.
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The posterior cutaneous nerve of arm (internal cutaneous branch of musculospiral, posterior brachial cutaneous nerve) is a branch of the radial nerve that provides sensory innervation for much of the skin on the back of the arm. It arises in the axilla. It is of small size, and passes through the axilla to the medial side of the area supplying the skin on its dorsal surface nearly as far as the olecranon. In its course it crosses behind and communicates with the intercostobrachial.
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Mossy fiber input codes are conserved during synaptic transmission between granule cells, suggesting that innervation is specific to the input that is received. Granule cells do not just relay signals from mossy fibers, rather they perform various, intricate transformations which are required in the spatiotemporal domain. Each granule cell is receiving an input from two different mossy finer inputs. The input is thus coming from two different places as opposed to the granule cell receiving multiple inputs from the same source.
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The nerve also provides sensory branches that travel to the periosteum of the lateral epicondyle, the anterior radiohumeral joint, and the annular ligament. It provides motor function through innervation to most extensor muscles of the posterior arm and forearm. Therefore, it is extremely important in upper body extremity movement and can cause significant pain to patients presenting with radial tunnel syndrome. Unlike carpal tunnel syndrome, radial tunnel syndrome does not present tingling or numbness, since the posterior interosseous nerve mainly affects motor function.
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The ability of an axon to "choose" the accurate Schwann cell and eventually site of innervation is interconnected to preferential motor reinnervation. The specificity of a motor axon to preferentially choose the motor pathway is the very essence of preferential motor reinnervation. Additionally, it influences whether or not a nerve can truly experience full reinnervation and recovery of function that is likened to what it had before the injury. Thus, this accuracy influences whether or not a motor axon preferentially reinnervates.
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The contents of the fissure include communications of cranial nerve VII to the infratemporal fossa. A branch of cranial nerve VII, the chorda tympani, runs through the fissure to join with the lingual nerve providing special sensory (taste) innervation to the tongue. Anterior tympanic artery and tympanic veins also pass through the structure. Petrotympanic fissure contains some of the fibers of the anterior ligament of malleus, which run on the base of skull and eventually attach onto the spine of sphenoid bone.
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The thoracic ganglia are paravertebral ganglia. The thoracic portion of the sympathetic trunk typically has 12 thoracic ganglia. Emerging from the ganglia are thoracic splanchnic nerves (the cardiopulmonary, the greater, lesser, and least splanchnic nerves) that help provide sympathetic innervation to abdominal structures. The thoracic part of sympathetic trunk lies posterior to the costovertebral pleura and is hence not a content of the posterior mediastinum Also, the ganglia of the thoracic sympathetic trunk have both white and gray rami communicantes.
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Relatively simple neuronal ensembles operate in the spinal cord where they control basic automatisms such as monosynaptic tendon reflex and reciprocal innervation of muscles. These include both excitatory and inhibitory neurons. Central pattern generations that reside in the spinal cord are more complex ensembles for coordination of limb movements during locomotion. Neuronal ensembles of the higher brain structures such as the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia and cerebellum are not completely understood, despite the vast literature on the neuroanatomy of these regions.
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Nerve fiber innervation is much denser for inner hair cells than for outer hair cells. A single inner hair cell is innervated by numerous nerve fibers, whereas a single nerve fiber innervates many outer hair cells. Inner hair cell nerve fibers are also very heavily myelinated, which is in contrast to the unmyelinated outer hair cell nerve fibers. The region of the basilar membrane supplying the inputs to a particular afferent nerve fibre can be considered to be its receptive field.
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Thyrotoxic myopathy (TM) is a neuromuscular disorder that develops due to the overproduction of the thyroid hormone thyroxine. Also known as hyperthyroid myopathy, TM is one of many myopathies that lead to muscle weakness and muscle tissue breakdown. Evidence indicates the onset may be caused by hyperthyroidism.Kazakov, V.M., Terminal Intramuscular Motor Innervation and Motor End-Plates in Thyrotoxic Myopathy 2:343-349 (1992) There are two known causes of hyperthyroidism that lead to development thyrotoxic myopathy including a multinodular goiter and Graves' disease.
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Conversely, when a PR agonist, such as 17α-hydroxyprogesterone caproate, is administered to rodents during perinatal life, as the mesocortical dopaminergic pathway is developing, dopaminergic innervation of the mPFC increases. As a result, TH-ir fiber density also increases. Interestingly, this increase in TH-ir fibers and dopaminergic activity is also linked to impaired cognitive flexibility with increased perseveration later on in life. In combination, these findings suggest that PR expression during early development impact later cognitive functioning in rodents.
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Smooth and cardiac muscle contracts involuntarily, without conscious intervention. These muscle types may be activated both through the interaction of the central nervous system as well as by receiving innervation from peripheral plexus or endocrine (hormonal) activation. Striated or skeletal muscle only contracts voluntarily, upon the influence of the central nervous system. Reflexes are a form of nonconscious activation of skeletal muscles, but nonetheless arise through activation of the central nervous system, albeit not engaging cortical structures until after the contraction has occurred.
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The common fibular nerve innervates the short head of the biceps femoris muscle via a motor branch that exits close to the gluteal cleft. The remainder of the fibular-innervated muscles are innervated by its branches, the deep fibular nerve and superficial fibular nerve. It provides sensory innervation to the skin over the upper third of the lateral aspect of the leg via the lateral sural cutaneous nerve. It gives the aural communicating nerve which joins the sural nerve in the midcalf.
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The DCN differs from the ventral portion of the CN as it not only projects to the central nucleus (a subdivision) of the inferior colliculus (CIC), but also receives efferent innervation from the auditory cortex, superior olivary complex and the inferior colliculus. The cytoarchitecture and neurochemistry of the DCN is similar to that of the cerebellum, an important concept in theories of DCN function.Bell CC, Han V et al. Cerebellum-like structures and their implications for cerebellar function. Annu.Rev.Neurosci. 2008.Vol31.
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Although the anterior two thirds of the tongue are derived from the first pharyngeal arch, which gives rise to the facial nerve, not all innervation of the tongue is supplied by it. The lingual branch of the mandibular division (V3) of the trigeminal nerve supplies non-taste sensation (pressure, heat, texture) to the anterior part of the tongue via general visceral afferent fibers. Nerve fibers for taste are supplied by the chorda tympani branch of the facial nerve via special visceral afferent fibers.
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In the long run, however, reduced availability of the SMN protein results in gradual death of motor neuron cells in the anterior horn of spinal cord and the brain. Muscles that depend on these motor neurons for neural input now have decreased innervation (also called denervation), and therefore have decreased input from the central nervous system (CNS). Decreased impulse transmission through the motor neurons leads to decreased contractile activity of the denervated muscle. Consequently, denervated muscles undergo progressive atrophy (waste away).
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Detection of hydrodynamic stimuli in mammals typically occurs through use of hairs (vibrissae) or “push-rod” mechanoreceptors, as in platypuses. When hairs are used, they are often in the form of whiskers and contain a follicle-sinus complex (F-SC), making them different from the hairs with which humans are most familiar.Dehnhardt, G, H Hyvärinen, A Palviainen, and G Klauer. “Structure and innervation of the vibrissal follicle-sinus complex in the Australian water rat, Hydromys chrysogaster.” The Journal of Comparative Neurology 411, no.
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"Emotions are contagious" is one of the formulas on which Krause bases his investigations. He studies in detail which muscles are innervated in which affect, that in turn determines the facial expressions of the examinee. Accurate knowledge of the involved facial muscles – Krause calls it the "pattern of innervation" – allows to identify which emotion is brought into a communicative situation, such as in a conversation, a lecture or a discussion. Not always is this expression conscious or desired or intended by the person.
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Bozgan, p. 351 His scientific activity was known abroad as well as domestically, with many of his studies appearing in German. He made important advances in the histology of sensory organs in mammals and birds, publishing 34 articles on morphology, physiological anatomy and cynegetics. His discoveries pertained to the nerve endings in the tactile corpuscles of mammals, taste buds in birds, the neurofibrillary structure of nerve endings, the double innervation of striated muscle tissue and the epidermis, and glandular activity in sensory cells.
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Many women will benefit from a consultation with a physical therapist, a trial of anti-inflammatory medications, hormonal therapy, or even neurological agents. A hysterectomy is sometimes performed. Spinal cord stimulation has been explored as a potential treatment option for some time, however there remains to be consensus on where the optimal location of the spinal cord this treatment should be aimed. As the innervation of the pelvic region is from the sacral nerve roots, previous treatments have been aimed at this region; results have been mixed.
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These newly formed tumor vessels are usually abnormal in form and architecture. They are poorly aligned defective endothelial cells with wide fenestrations, lacking a smooth muscle layer, or innervation with a wider lumen, and impaired functional receptors for angiotensin II. Furthermore, tumor tissues usually lack effective lymphatic drainage. All of these factors lead to abnormal molecular and fluid transport dynamics, especially for macromolecular drugs. This phenomenon is referred to as the "enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect" of macromolecules and lipids in solid tumors.
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Secretomotor refers to the capacity of a structure (often a nerve) to induce a gland to secrete a substance (usually mucus or serous fluid). Secretomotor nerve endings are frequently contrasted with sensory neuron endings and motor nerve endings. An example of secretomotor activity can be seen with the lacrimal gland, which secretes the aqueous layer of the tear film. The lacrimal branch of the ophthalmic nerve (itself a branch of trigeminal nerve V1) supplies secretomotor innervation to the lacrimal gland, stimulating its secretion of the aqueous layer.
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Further, the auditory innervation of the spiral-shaped cochlea also traces back to the Cretaceous period. The evolution of the human cochlea is a major area of scientific interest because of its favourable representation in the fossil record. During the last century, many scientists such as evolutionary biologists and paleontologists strove to develop new methods and techniques to overcome the many obstacles associated with working with ancient, delicate artifacts. In the past, scientists were limited in their ability to fully examine specimens without causing damage to them.
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All three oral sensory parts of the mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve and other sensory nerves in the region will come in contact with the anesthetic and this reduces the need to anesthetise supplementary innervation. In comparison to other regional block methods of anestheising the lower jaw, the Gow-Gates technique has a higher success rate in fully anesthetising the lower jaw. One study found that out of 1,200 patients receiving injections through the Gow- Gate technique, only 2 of them did not obtain complete anesthesia.
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2005 Stimulations provoke no movements. Confirming anatomical data, few neurons respond to passive and active movements (there is no sensorimotor map) "but a large proportion shows responses that may be related to memory, attention or movement preparation"Wicheman and Kliem, 2004 that would correspond to a more elaborate level than that of the medial pallidum. In addition to the massive striatopallidal connection, the SNpr receives a dopamine innervation from the SNpc and glutamatergic axons from the pars parafascicularis of the central complex. It sends nigro-thalamic axons.
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In the leg, the deep peroneal nerve supplies muscular branches to the anterior compartment of extensor muscles in the leg which include the tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus, peroneus tertius, and extensor hallucis longus (propius), and an articular branch to the ankle-joint. After its bifurcation past the ankle joint, the lateral branch of the deep peroneal nerve innervates the extensor digitorum brevis and the extensor hallucis brevis, while the medial branch goes on to provide cutaneous innervation to the webbing between the first and second digits.
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Gustav Gärtner (September 28, 1855 - November 4, 1937) was an Austrian pathologist born in Pardubice, Bohemia. Gustav Gärtner In 1879 he earned his doctorate from the University of Vienna, afterwards working in Vienna as an assistant to Salomon Stricker (1834-1898), and later as an associate professor (1890). In 1918 he became a "full professor" at the University of Vienna. In Vienna he conducted scientific studies of kidney functions, experiments dealing with electrical skin resistance and research involving innervation of vessels of the brain.
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The genetic defect of the transcriptional regulator MECP2 is responsible for Rett syndrome. A MECP2 deficiency has been associated to catecholaminergic dysfunctions related to autonomic and sympathoadrenergic system in mouse models of Rett Syndrome (RTT). The locus coeruleus is the major source of noradrenergic innervation in the brain and sends widespread connections to rostral (cerebral cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus) and caudal (cerebellum, brainstem nuclei) brain areasHokfelt T, Martensson R, Bjorklund A, Kleinau S, Goldstein M. 1984. Distribution maps of tyrosine-hydroxylase- immunoreactive neurons in the rat brain.
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The physiological basis for the RAIR is poorly understood, but it is thought to involve a coordinated response by the internal anal sphincter to rectal distention with recovery of anal pressure from the distal to the proximal sphincter. Mediated by the autonomic nervous system, the afferent limb of this reflex depends upon an intact network of interstitial cells of Cajal in the internal anal sphincter. These cells, which are mediated at least in part by nitric oxide, provide inhibitory innervation of the internal anal sphincter.
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If the patient's eyes are aligned and is bifoveal, the shifting of the image caused by the prism will produce a movement towards the apex of the prism (of the eye under the prism), and the fellow eye will have an outward movement in the same direction of the same magnitude due to Hering's law of equal innervation. Simultaneously the fellow eye produces a fusional convergence movement as there is no central suppression of that fellow eye. This is a result of overcoming the diplopia experienced.
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Oser and the Hungarian-Austrian, gynecologist but working in Vienna as a private lecturer Wilhelm Schlesinger (1839-1896) made the innervation of the uterus the subject of their investigations and had 1872 an excitation center in the medulla oblongata after that at the transition of the central nervous system to Spinal cord located.Oser and Schlesinger, Experimental Studies on Uterine Movement, Med. Year 1872, p. 57. They also tried to experimentally determine the triggering of uterine movements when the blood was overloaded with carbon dioxide.
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The intermediolateral nucleus (IML) is a region of grey matter found in one of the three grey columns of the spinal cord, the lateral grey column. This is Rexed lamina VII. The intermediolateral cell column exists at vertebral levels T1 – L2 and mediates the entire sympathetic innervation of the body, but the nucleus resides in the grey matter of the spinal cord. Rexed Lamina VII contains several well defined nuclei including the nucleus dorsalis (Clarke's column), the intermediolateral nucleus, and the sacral autonomic nucleus.
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Adverse effects, especially with higher doses, include dizziness, drowsiness, fatigue, diarrhea, unusual dreams, trouble sleeping, depression, and vision problems. β-blockers, including metoprolol, reduce salivary flow via inhibition of the direct sympathetic innervation of the salivary glands. Metoprolol may also cause the hands and feet to feel cold. Due to the high penetration across the blood-brain barrier, lipophilic beta blockers such as propranolol and metoprolol are more likely than other less lipophilic beta blockers to cause sleep disturbances such as insomnia, vivid dreams and nightmares.
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Updated: Nov 3, 2010 The eye will be positioned down and out due to unopposed innervation of the fourth and sixth cranial nerves. Other symptoms include severe headache; weakness of the extremities on the opposite side from the lesion due to compression of the crossed pyramid pathways; and vision loss, also on the opposite side, due to compression of the posterior cerebral artery. In rare cases, small hematomas may be asymptomatic. If not treated promptly, epidural hematomas can cause tonsillar herniation, resulting in respiratory arrest.
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Electrocytes also have an important structure called "stalk," which are tentacle or tube-like structures that extend out from each electrocyte. Different stalk-electrocyte systems have been observed, which include stalks that penetrate the electrocytes, innervate electrocytes from the posterior or anterior side. Multiple stalks from one electrocyte eventually fuse together to form a large stalk that receives innervation from spinal-electromotor neurons. Different morphological structures of the stalk/ electrocyte systems result in differences in electric current flow, which further lead to various waveforms.
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42(1): 28-36. showed the benefits of operative treatment such as using transoral C2-C3 discectomy with plate-cage stabilization or posterior direct pars screw repair for the reducing and healing process.In deliberate or suicidal hanging, asphyxia is much more likely to be the cause of death due to associated prevertebral swelling.A common sign is a constricted pupil (Horner's syndrome) on the ipsilateral side due to loss of sympathetic innervation to the eye, caused by damage to the sympathetic trunk in the neck.
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Tralkasaurus was described by Cerroni and colleagues as a "medium-sized abelisaurid" based on the available material. Its maxilla has a length of , smaller than that of the similarly "medium-sized" Skorpiovenator (at , with the whole animal measuring long). It is most comparable to the smallest-known abelisaurid, MMCh-PV 69, from the Candeleros Formation, with Tralkasaurus pubis measuring long and MMCh-PV 69's pubis measuring long. The maxilla of Tralkasaurus is a subtriangular bone covered in neurovascular (pits formed by innervation) and rugosities (roughened areas).
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Diplopia is also increased on looking to the affected side and is partly caused by overaction if the medial rectus on the unaffected side as it tries to provide the extra innervation to the affected lateral rectus. These two muscles are synergists or "yoke muscles" as both attempt to move the eye over to the left or right. The condition is commonly unilateral but can also occur bilaterally. The unilateral abducens nerve palsy is the most common of the isolated ocular motor nerve palsies.
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Dynamic gamma motor neurons innervate the dynamic nuclear bag fibers (bag1 fibers), another type of nuclear bag fiber smaller than the static nuclear bag fibers. This type of gamma motor neuron can enhance the sensitivities of Ia sensory neurons. It is done so because the dynamic nuclear bag fibers, which are innervated by the dynamic gamma motor neurons, receive Ia sensory innervation. Furthermore, the firing of dynamic gamma motor neurons removes the slack in dynamic nuclear bags, bringing Ia fibers closer to the firing threshold.
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The supraorbital foramen is a small groove at superior and medial margin of the orbit in the frontal bone. The supraorbital nerve passes through this notch prior to dividing into superficial and deep components that provide sensory innervation to the ipsilateral forehead. The supraorbital nerve is a branch of the frontal nerve arising from the ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V). The foramen sits on the inmost, lower margin of a groove splitting the supraorbital ridge into a central and two distal sections.
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Muscles which possess more motor units (and thus have greater individual motor neuron innervation) are able to control force output more finely. Motor units are organized slightly differently in invertebrates; each muscle has few motor units (typically less than 10), and each muscle fiber is innervated by multiple neurons, including excitatory and inhibitory neurons. Thus, while in vertebrates the force of contraction of muscles is regulated by how many motor units are activated, in invertebrates it is controlled by regulating the balance between excitatory and inhibitory signals.
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Hering's law of equal innervation is used to explain the conjugacy of saccadic eye movement in stereoptic animals. The law proposes that conjugacy of saccades is due to innate connections in which the eye muscles responsible for each eye's movements are innervated equally. The law also states that apparent monocular eye movements are actually the summation of conjugate version and disjunctive (or vergence) eye movements. The law was put forward by Ewald Hering in the 19th century, though the underlying principles of the law date back considerably.
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The vague and poorly defined sensation as well as its temporal nature, characteristic of visceral pain, is due to the low density of sensory innervation of viscera and the extensive divergence of visceral input within the central nervous system (CNS). The phenomenon of referred pain is secondary to the convergence of visceral afferent (sensory) nerve fibers entering the spinal cord at the same level as the superficial, somatic structures experiencing the pain. This leads to a misinterpretation of incoming signals by higher brain centers.
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It supplies motor innervation to iliopsoas, pectineus, sartorius, and quadriceps; and sensory branches to the anterior thigh, medial lower leg, and posterior foot. The nerves of the sacral plexus pass behind the hip joint to innervate the posterior part of the thigh, most of the lower leg, and the foot. The superior (L4-S1) and inferior gluteal nerves (L5-S2) innervate the gluteus muscles and the tensor fasciae latae. The posterior femoral cutaneous nerve (S1-S3) contributes sensory branches to the skin on the posterior thigh.
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It holds fast to the vision, observing with the liveliest interest how the picture changes, unfolds further, and finally fades. In this way introverted intuition perceives all the background processes of consciousness with almost the same distinctness as extraverted sensation senses outer objects. For intuition, therefore, the unconscious images attain to the dignity of things or objects. But, because intuition excludes the cooperation of sensation, it obtains either no knowledge at all or at the best a very inadequate awareness of the innervation-disturbances or of the physical effects produced by the unconscious images.
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Later, he was awarded the title of professor. Rehfisch is remembered for his investigations on the physiology of micturition and bladder innervation, and is credited as being the first to gauge the phenomena of bladder pressure and urinary flow simultaneously in a human being.ISHN 2001 Annual Meeting -- Abstracts Remarks on the development of neuro-urology From these experiments, he helped lay a foundation for the advancement of modern urodynamics. The "Eugen-Rehfisch-Preis" is an award issued by the Forum Urodynamicum in recognition for achievements in the field of neuro-urology.
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Aspects including rat pouch musculature, vascularization, and innervation were all explored and compiled through this and other studies. The widely distributed Rattus rattus is an example of the rodent family Muridae that lacks a true cheek pouch, rather, they exhibit more elastic cheeks (not true pouches) due to the organization of their cheek musculature. Concerning the musculature, the cheek pouch is composed primarily of a developed masseter (cheek) muscle that exhibits a high tensile ability. The masseter muscle has been shown to insert into the pectoralis muscles, allowing for a higher degree of food retention.
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Their mystacial vibrissae have ten times the innervation of terrestrial mammals, allowing them to effectively detect vibrations in the water. These vibrations are generated, for example, when a fish swims through water. Detecting vibrations is useful when the animals are foraging and may add to or even replace vision, particularly in darkness. Harbor seals have been observed following varying paths of another seal that swam ahead several minutes before, similar to a dog following a scent trail, and even to discriminate the species and the size of the fish responsible for the trail.
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The lingual nerve supplies general somatic afferent innervation from the mucous membrane of the anterior two-thirds (body) of the tongue, while the posterior one-third (root) is innervated by the glossopharyngeal. It also carries nerve fibers that are not part of the trigeminal nerve, including the chorda tympani nerve of the facial nerve, which provides special sensation (taste) to the anterior 2/3 part of the tongue as well as parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers. The submandibular ganglion is suspended by two nerve filaments from the lingual nerve.
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Local Anesthesia for the Dental Hygienist, Logothetis, Elsevier, 2012 Several nondental nerves are usually anesthetized during an inferior alveolar block. The mental nerve, which supplies cutaneous innervation to the anterior lip and chin, is a distal branch of the inferior alveolar nerve. When the inferior alveolar nerve is blocked, the mental nerve is blocked also, resulting in a numb lip and chin. Nerves lying near the point where the inferior alveolar nerve enters the mandible often are also anesthetized during inferior alveolar anesthesia, such as affecting hearing (auriculotemporal nerve).
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Jejunal and ileal atresia are caused by in utero vascular insults, leading to poor recanalization of distal small bowel segments, a condition in which surgical resection and reanastamosis are mandatory. Hirschsprung disease is due to an arrest in neural cell ganglia, leading to absent innervation of a segment distal bowel, and appears as a massively dilated segment of distal bowel on contrast enema. Surgical resection is necessary for this condition as well. Imperforate anus also requires surgical management, with the diagnosis made by inability to pass the rectal tube through the anal sphincter.
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Control of gastrointestinal (GI) movements by enteric motoneurons is critical for orderly processing of food, absorption of nutrients and elimination of wastes. Neuroeffector junctions in the tunica muscularis might consist of synaptic-like connectivity with specialized cells, and contributions from multiple cell types in integrated post-junctional responses. Interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) – non-muscular cells of mesenchymal origin—were proposed as potential mediators in motor neurotransmission. Neuromuscular junctions in GI smooth muscles may reflect innervation of, and post-junctional responses in, all three classes of post- junctional cells.
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Neural top–down control of physiology concerns the direct regulation by the brain of physiological functions (in addition to smooth muscle and glandular ones). Cellular functions include the immune system’s production of T-lymphocytes and antibodies, and nonimmune related homeostatic functions such as liver gluconeogenesis, sodium reabsorption, osmoregulation, and brown adipose tissue nonshivering thermogenesis. This regulation occurs through the sympathetic and parasympathetic system (the autonomic nervous system), and their direct innervation of body organs and tissues that starts in the brainstem. There is also a noninnervation hormonal control through the hypothalamus and pituitary (HPA).
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The neurons in the inferior ganglion of the vagus nerve are pseudounipolar and provide sensory innervation (general somatic afferent and general visceral afferent). The axons of the neurons which innervate the taste buds of the epiglottis synapse in the rostral portion of the solitary nucleus (gustatory nucleus). The axons of the neurons which provide general sensory information synapse in the spinal trigeminal nucleus. The axons of the neurons which innervate the aortic bodies, aortic arch, respiratory and gastrointestinal tract, synapse in the caudal part of the solitary nucleus.
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The organ is thought to be an evolutionary artifact of ancestral insects who used their legs to detect vibrations in the underlying substrate. The anatomy and innervation of the organ is highly variable between species. However, the organ may be sensitive enough to detect less than 1 nm of displacement in the ground, and sometimes airborne sound waves. The sensitivity of the organ varies from species to species; in Orthoptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, sensitivity is on the order of one (or greater) kilohertz, while in Hemiptera sensitivity reaches only a few hundred hertz.
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The vagovagal reflex is active during the receptive relaxation of the stomach in response to swallowing of food (prior to it reaching the stomach). When food enters the stomach a "vagovagal" reflex goes from the stomach to the brain, and then back again to the stomach causing active relaxation of the smooth muscle in the stomach wall. If vagal innervation is interrupted then intra-gastric pressure increases. This is a potential cause of vomiting due to the inability of the proximal stomach smooth muscle to undergo receptive relaxation.
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Changes in the electrophysiological properties of cells in the locus ceruleus were shown. These Locus Coeruleus cell changes include hyperexcitability and decreased functioning of its noradrenergic innervation. A reduction of the tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) mRNA level, the rate-limiting enzyme in catecholamine synthesis, was detected in the whole pons of MECP2-null male as well as in adult heterozygous female mice. Using immunoquantification techniques, a decrease of TH protein staining level, number of locus coeruleus TH-expressing neurons and density of dendritic arborization surrounding the structure was shown in symptomatic MECP2-deficient mice.
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When a person touches a hot object and withdraws their hand from it without actively thinking about it, the heat stimulates temperature and pain receptors in the skin, triggering a sensory impulse that travels to the central nervous system. The sensory neuron then synapses with interneurons that connect to motor neurons. Some of these send motor impulses to the flexors that lead to the muscles in the arm to contract, while some motor neurons send inhibitory impulses to the extensors so flexion is not inhibited. This is referred to as reciprocal innervation.
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During the development of the vertebrate nervous system, many neurons become redundant (because they have died, failed to connect to target cells, etc.) and are eliminated. At the same time, developing neurons send out axon outgrowths that contact their target cells. Such cells control their degree of innervation (the number of axon connections) by the secretion of various specific neurotrophic factors that are essential for neuron survival. One of these is nerve growth factor (NGF or beta-NGF), a vertebrate protein that stimulates division and differentiation of sympathetic and embryonic sensory neurons.
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The palmar branch of the ulnar nerve arises about five cm proximal to the wrist from where the ulnar nerve splits into palmar and dorsal branches. It supplies sensory innervation to a small area in the palmar surface of the wrist. The palmar branch represents the continuation of the ulnar nerve as it crosses the flexor retinaculum of the hand on the lateral side of the pisiform bone, medial to and a little behind the ulnar artery. Some sources state that it ends by dividing into a superficial and a deep branch.
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They also noticed mechanical factors and considered them secondary to loss of innervation: During corrective surgery fibrous attachments have been found connecting the horizontal recti and the orbital walls and fibrosis of the lateral rectus has been confirmed by biopsy. This fibrosis can result in the lateral rectus being 'tight' and acting as a tether or leash. Co-contraction of the medial and lateral recti allows the globe to slip up or down under the tight lateral rectus producing the up and down shoots characteristic of the condition.
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The surgical creation (muscle dissection) of the augmentation- pocket avoids the gluteal innervation (superior gluteal nerve and inferior gluteal nerve) and the vascular system (venous and arterial) of the gluteus maximus muscle. Afterwards, the surgeon sutures the dissection-incision and secures it with adhesive tape to ensure that the augmentation-pocket remains open, as dissected, ready to receive the injections of adipose fat. For the revision of scars, with surgery and injections of autologous fat, or with allopathic synthetic fillers, the surgeon applies subcuticular closures to the incision wounds, which then are bandaged.
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Specific zones are associated with sexual response, and include the lips and nipples in addition to areas of the genitals, notably the foreskin and corona of the glans penis, clitoris and rest of the vulva, and perianal skin. The rete ridges of the epithelium are well-formed and more of the nerves are close to the external surface of the skin than in normal-haired skin. These zones have a high density of innervation, and may have an efficiency of wound healing and a capacity to stimulate generalized cerebral arousal.
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In addition, it is possible that inflammation of the cavernous sinus will result in compression of the optic chiasm (resulting in vision problems) and/or the pituitary gland. Failure of CN III will result in loss of function of the following muscles: medial rectus, superior rectus, inferior rectus, and inferior oblique as well as muscles that are responsible for opening the eyelid: levator palpebrae superioris muscle and the superior tarsal muscle (Muller's muscle). CN III damage also results in loss of parasympathetic innervation of the eye (loss of pupillary constriction and lens accommodation).
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The spinal cord contains a series of segmental ganglia, each giving rise to motor and sensory nerves that innervate a portion of the body surface and underlying musculature. On the limbs, the layout of the innervation pattern is complex, but on the trunk it gives rise to a series of narrow bands. The top three segments belong to the brain, giving rise to the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. Bilaterians can be divided, based on events that occur very early in embryonic development, into two groups (superphyla) called protostomes and deuterostomes.
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The term general efferent fibers (GVE or visceral efferent or autonomic efferent) refers to the efferent neurons of the autonomic nervous system that provide motor innervation to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands (contrast with SVE fibers) through postganglionic varicosities. GVE fibers may be either sympathetic or parasympathetic. The cranial nerves containing GVE fibers include the oculomotor nerve (CN III), the facial nerve (CN VII), the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) and the vagus nerve (CN X).Mehta, Samir et al. Step-Up: A High-Yield, Systems-Based Review for the USMLE Step 1.
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In children, differential diagnosis is more difficult because of the problems inherent in getting infants to cooperate with a full eye movement investigation. Possible alternative diagnosis for an abduction deficit would include: 1\. Mobius syndrome - a rare congenital disorder in which both VIth and VIIth nerves are bilaterally affected giving rise to a typically 'expressionless' face. 2\. Duane syndrome - A condition in which both abduction and adduction are affected arising as a result of partial innervation of the lateral rectus by branches from the IIIrd oculomotor cranial nerve. 3\.
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The axons of these neurons branch from the glossopharyngeal nerve at the level of the inferior ganglion and form the tympanic nerve along with the preganglionic parasympathetic axons from the inferior salivatory nucleus. The tympanic nerve then travels through the inferior tympanic canaliculus to the tympanic cavity forming the tympanic plexus. From here the sensory axons provide innervation of the middle ear and internal surface of the tympanic membrane. The parasympathetic axons branch from the tympanic plexus as the lesser petrosal nerve on their way to the otic ganglion.
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Sherrington's first job of full-professorship came with his appointment as Holt Professor of Physiology at Liverpool in 1895, succeeding Francis Gotch. With his appointment to the Holt Chair, Sherrington ended his active work in pathology. Working on cats, dogs, monkeys, and apes that had been bereaved of their cerebral hemispheres, he found that reflexes must be considered integrated activities of the total organism, not just the result of activities of the so-called reflex-arcs, a concept then generally accepted. There he continued his work on reflexes and reciprocal innervation.
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Cell death in the peripheral vs central nervous system Different mechanisms regulate PCD in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) versus the central nervous system (CNS). In the PNS, innervation of the target is proportional to the amount of the target-released neurotrophic factors NGF and NT3. Expression of neurotrophin receptors, TrkA and TrkC, is sufficient to induce apoptosis in the absence of their ligands. Therefore, it is speculated that PCD in the PNS is dependent on the release of neurotrophic factors and thus follows the concept of the neurotrophic theory.
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In addition, when the cell membrane was hyperpolarized, the effects of GPT also increased, suggesting a potential-dependent effect on GPT toxicity. Various GPT concentrations (10 – 100 nM) were added to guinea-pig blood vessels, which induced a contraction of the thoracic aorta, portal vein, and mesenteric and femoral arteries via an action on the innervation of the vessels. In neuroblastoma cells, even a small depolarizing stimulus can cause activation of sodium channels in the presence of GPT. In the rabbit myocardium GPT enhances atrial contractility and induce arrhythmias at concentrations above 30 nM.
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Adie syndrome, also known as Holmes-Adie syndrome, is a neurological disorder characterized by a tonically dilated pupil that reacts slowly to light but shows a more definite response to accommodation (i.e., light-near dissociation). It is frequently seen in females with absent knee or ankle jerks and impaired sweating. The syndrome is caused by damage to the postganglionic fibers of the parasympathetic innervation of the eye, usually by a viral or bacterial infection that causes inflammation, and affects the pupil of the eye and the autonomic nervous system.
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The spinal cord contains a series of segmental ganglia, each giving rise to motor and sensory nerves that innervate a portion of the body surface and underlying musculature. On the limbs, the layout of the innervation pattern is complex, but on the trunk it gives rise to a series of narrow bands. The top three segments belong to the brain, giving rise to the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. Bilaterians can be divided, based on events that occur very early in embryonic development, into two groups (superphyla) called protostomes and deuterostomes.
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It is innervated by the sympathetic system, which acts by releasing noradrenaline, which acts on α1-receptors. page 163 Thus, when presented with a threatening stimuli that activates the fight-or-flight response, this innervation contracts the muscle and dilates the pupil, thus temporarily letting more light reach the retina. The dilator muscle is innervated more specifically by postganglionic sympathetic nerves arising from the superior cervical ganglion as the sympathetic root of ciliary ganglion. From there, they travel via the internal carotid artery through the carotid canal to foramen lacerum.
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Type II neurons on the other hand innervate outer hair cells. However, there is significantly greater convergence of this type of neuron towards the apex end in comparison with the basal end. A 1:30-60 ratio of innervation is seen between Type II neurons and outer hair cells which in turn make these neurons ideal for electromechanical feedback. Type II neurons can be physiologically manipulated to innervate inner hair cells provided outer hair cells have been destroyed either through mechanical damage or by chemical damage induced by drugs such as gentamicin.
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The milk-glands-to-fat ratio is 2:1 in a lactating woman, and 1:1 in a non-lactating woman. In addition to the milk glands, the breast is also composed of connective tissues (collagen, elastin), white fat, and the suspensory Cooper's ligaments. Sensation in the breast is provided by the peripheral nervous system innervation by means of the front (anterior) and side (lateral) cutaneous branches of the fourth-, fifth-, and sixth intercostal nerves. The T-4 nerve (Thoracic spinal nerve 4), which innervates the dermatomic area, supplies sensation to the nipple-areola complex.
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It emerges in the pterygopalatine fossa and enters the pterygopalatine ganglion where the preganglionic parasympathetic axons synapse with the postganglionic parasympathetic neurons. The postganglionic neurons then send axons which travel with the zygomatic nerve to enter the inferior orbital fissure. As the zygomatic nerve travels anteriorly in the orbit it send a communicating branch to the lacrimal nerve which carries the postganglionic parasympathetic axons. The lacrimal nerve completes this long pathway by travelling through the lacrimal gland and sending branches to it which provide parasympathetic innervation to increase the secretion of lacrimal fluid.
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The ependymal cell bodies present a clear zonation that is especially marked in certain species: 1) In the perinuclear region, large and dilated cisternae of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) are the most distinctive ultrastructural feature of virtually all species; 2) the intermediate region consists mainly of RER and Golgi apparatus; 3) the subapical region is relatively narrow, and includes microtubules, mitochondria and smooth endoplasmic reticulum; and 4) the apical region comprises a large protrusion into the ventricle. There are no neuronal cell bodies within the subcommissural organ, although the specialized cells receive some innervation from outside neurons.
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The Hydrodynamic or Fluid Movement theory is one of the main theories in dentistry to explain the mechanism by which a tooth perceives the sensation of pain. It is currently the most widely accepted theory used to explain tooth sensitivity. There are three main theories of dentine hypersensitivity: # Direct Innervation (DI) Theory # Odontoblast Receptor (OR) Theory # Fluid Movement/Hydrodynamic Theory The hydrodynamic theory, first proposed by M. Brännström in 1966, suggested that dentine hypersensitivity is due to the abrupt movement of fluid within the dentinal tubules in response to cold and heat (thermal), osmotic (e.g. eating sugary foods), mechanical (e.g.
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The adductor magnus is a large triangular muscle, situated on the medial side of the thigh. It consists of two parts. The portion which arises from the ischiopubic ramus (a small part of the inferior ramus of the pubis, and the inferior ramus of the ischium) is called the pubofemoral portion, adductor portion, or adductor minimus, and the portion arising from the tuberosity of the ischium is called the ischiocondylar portion, extensor portion, or "hamstring portion". Due to its common embryonic origin, innervation, and action the ischiocondylar portion (or hamstring portion) is often considered part of the hamstring group of muscles.
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This artery splits into an internal and external branch, of which the latter extends dorsally and divides into five branches that supply the general cheek region. The branch that extends dorsally to the ear is known as the auricular branch. As for innervation of this structure, the associated nerve branches were all found to originate from the facial (CN VII of XII) nerve which initiates at the medulla and passes into the facial canal via the stylomastoid foramen. The primary aforementioned muscle, the masseter, is supplied by two large neural branches known as the temporalis and zygomatic nerves.
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The meningeal branches of the spinal nerves (also known as recurrent meningeal nerves, sinuvertebral nerves, or recurrent nerves of Luschka) are a number of small nerves that branch from the segmental spinal nerve near the origin of the anterior and posterior rami, but before the rami communicantes; rami communicantes are branches which communicate between the spinal nerves and the sympathetic trunk. They then re-enter the intervertebral foramen, and innervate the facet joints, the anulus fibrosus of the intervertebral disc, and the ligaments and periosteum of the spinal canal, carrying pain sensation. The nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral disk has no pain innervation.
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The transverse cervical nerve (superficial cervical or cutaneous cervical) arises from the second and third spinal nerves, turns around the posterior border of the sternocleidomastoideus about its middle, and, passing obliquely forward beneath the external jugular vein to the anterior border of the muscle, it perforates the deep cervical fascia, and divides beneath the Platysma into ascending and descending branches, which are distributed to the antero-lateral parts of the neck. It provides cutaneous innervation to this area. During dissection, the sternocleidomastoid (SCM) is the landmark. The transverse cervical nerves will pass horizontally directly over the SCM from Erb's point.
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Eimer recognized the importance of the mole's nose to its behaviour. He stated in 1871: "The mole's snout must be the seat of an extraordinarily well developed sense of touch because it replaces almost entirely the animal's sense of face, constituting its only guide on its paths underground." He estimated that the nose of the European mole was covered with more than 5,000 Eimer's organs, which were invested with 105,000 nerve fibres. He took the abundance of sensory innervation (stimulate a nerve or muscle) to affirm his contention that the nose's touch must represent the moles dominant facial sense.
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The SCN is situated in the anterior part of the hypothalamus immediately dorsal, or superior (hence supra) to the optic chiasm (CHO) bilateral to (on either side of) the third ventricle. The nucleus can be divided into ventrolateral and dorsolateral portions, also known as the core and shell, respectively. These regions differ in their expression of the clock genes, the core expresses them in response to stimuli whereas the shell expresses them constitutively. In terms of projections, the core receives innervation via three main pathways, the retinohypothalamic tract, geniculohypothalamic tract, and projections from some Raphe nuclei.
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The patient uses an external magnetic programming device to deactivate the electrical stimulation, relaxing the muscular contraction and enabling defecation at a voluntary time. Dynamic graciloplasty may be indicated for patients with a completely destroyed anal sphincter or a torn sphincter with a large gap between both ends that is not amenable to repair. The procedure involves detachment of the gracilis from the leg, preserving both its blood supply and innervation. The muscle is then moved to wrap around the anal canal completely, and also attached to the periosteum of the inferior ramus of the pubic bone.
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ICC are innervated and transmitters reach high enough concentration to activate post-junctional signaling pathways in ICC. If ICC are important intermediaries in motor neurotransmission, then loss of these cells could reduce communication between the enteric nervous system and the smooth muscle syncytium, resulting in reduced neural regulation of motility. In pioneering studies it was shown unequivocally that the innervation of smooth muscles is by varicose nerve terminals. However, it was not until the advent of the electron microscope that we were able to provide us with a comprehensive view of the relationship between these varicose endings and smooth muscle.
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Heart malformations also result from the loss of cardiac neural crest cells, which normally contribute to the cardiac outflow tract and innervation of the heart. Finally, limb musculature does not develop in the homozygotes and axial musculature demonstrates varying abnormalities. These myogenic effects are caused by increased cell death of myogenic precursors in the dermomyotome and diminished migration from the dermomyotome. Germline mutations of the PAX3 gene occur in the human disease Waardenburg syndrome, which consists of four autosomal dominant genetic disorders (WS1, WS2, WS3 and WS4). Of the four subtypes, WS1 and WS3 are usually caused by PAX3 mutations.
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The superior salivatory nucleus contains the cell bodies of parasympathetic axons within the intermediate nerve. These fibers reach the geniculate ganglion but do not synapse. Some of these preganglionic parasympathetic fibers persist within the greater petrosal nerve as they exit the geniculate ganglion and subsequently synapse with neurons in the pterygopalatine ganglion. These postganglionic neurons send axons that provide parasympathetic innervation to the lacrimal gland via a communicating branch from zygomatic nerve to lacrimal nerve of CN V. The remaining preganglionic fibers continue as the mixed facial nerve proper as it extends through the facial canal.
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The characteristics of PSCs are based on both external synaptic properties and internal glial properties, where the internal characteristics of PSCs develop based on the associated synapse, for example: the PSCs of a fast-twitch muscle fiber differ from the PSCs of a slow-twitch muscle fiber even when removed from their natural synaptic environment. PSCs of fast-twitch muscle fibers have higher Calcium levels in response to synapse innervation when compared to slow-twitch PSCs. This balance between external and internal influences creates a range of PSCs that are present in the many Neuromuscular Junctions of the Peripheral Nervous System.
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Research suggests that in vertebrate evolution, sensory cells became specialized as gravistatic sensors after they became assembled to form the ear. After this aggregation, growth, including duplication and segregation of existing neurosensory epithelia, gave rise to new epithelia and can be appreciated by comparing sensory epithelia from the inner ears of different vertebrates and their innervation by different neuronal populations. Novel directions of differentiation were apparently further expanded by incorporating unique molecular modules in newly developed sensory epithelia. For example, the saccule gave rise to the auditory epithelium and corresponding neuronal population of tetrapods, starting possibly in an aquatic environment.
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The proportion of fibres in the MOCS and LOCS also varies between species, but in most cases the fibres of the LOCS are more numerous.Robertson et al., 1989 In humans, there are an estimated (average) 1,000 LOCS fibres and 360 MOCS fibres, however the numbers vary between individuals. The MOCS gives rise to a frequency-specific innervation of the cochlea, in that MOC fibres terminate on the outer hair cells at the place in the cochlea predicted from the fibres’ characteristic frequency, and are thus tonotopically organised in the same fashion as the primary afferent neurons.
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Sherrington received the Nobel prize for showing that reflexes require integrated activation and demonstrated reciprocal innervation of muscles (Sherrington's law). Sherrington also worked with Thomas Graham Brown who developed one of the first ideas about central pattern generators in 1911. Brown recognized that the basic pattern of stepping can be produced by the spinal cord without the need of descending commands from the cortex. Acetylcholine was the first neurotransmitter to be identified. It was first identified in 1915 by Henry Hallett Dale for its actions on heart tissue. It was confirmed as a neurotransmitter in 1921 by Otto Loewi in Graz.
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The first 4 cervical spinal nerves, C1 through C4, split and recombine to produce a variety of nerves that serve the neck and back of head. Spinal nerve C1 is called the suboccipital nerve, which provides motor innervation to muscles at the base of the skull. C2 and C3 form many of the nerves of the neck, providing both sensory and motor control. These include the greater occipital nerve, which provides sensation to the back of the head, the lesser occipital nerve, which provides sensation to the area behind the ears, the greater auricular nerve and the lesser auricular nerve.
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However, studies have identified that gait patterns in deafferented or immobilized animals are more simplistic than in neurologically intact animals. (Deafferentation and immobilization are experimental preparations of animals to study neural control. Deafferentation involves transecting the dorsal roots of the spinal cord that innervate the animal's limbs which impedes transmission of sensory information while keeping motor innervation of muscles intact. In contrast, immobilization involves injecting an acetylcholine inhibitor which impedes the transmission of motor signals while sensory input is unaffected.) The complexity of gait arises from the need to adapt to expected and unexpected changes in the environment (e.g.
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Michael Charles Liberman (July 17, 1950) was born to Alvin Liberman and Isabelle Liberman in Storrs, Connecticut. He is now Director of the Eaton- Peabody Laboratory at the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary in Boston, and Harold Schuknecht Professor of Otology and Laryngology and Health Sciences and Technology at Harvard Medical School. He is a past president of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology. His research is concerned with the physiology and anatomy of the auditory nerve and cochlear efferent innervation, as well as noise-induced cochlear pathology; he has published over 100 peer-reviewed papers in these areas.
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Hering's law of equal innervation is best described by Müller's stimulus where the fixation point changes position in 1 eye but not the other eye. Simplicity conducts that only the misaligned eye should move to refoveate. Hering's law predicts that because the eyes must always move by equal amounts, both eyes should move in the new binocular direction of the target (see Hering's law of visual direction above), then move in opposite direction to adjust vergence to that of the target. In other words, the eye in which the target did not move will move away and then back at the target.
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As the study of the cochlea should fundamentally be focused at the level of hair cells, it is important to note the anatomical and physiological differences between the hair cells of various species. In birds, for instance, instead of outer and inner hair cells, there are tall and short hair cells. There are several similarities of note in regard to this comparative data. For one, the tall hair cell is very similar in function to that of the inner hair cell, and the short hair cell, lacking afferent auditory-nerve fiber innervation, resembles the outer hair cell.
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The muscle rigidity, tremor at rest, and slowness in initiation and execution of movement that are the cardinal motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease are attributed to a reduction in dopaminergic activity in the basal ganglia motor areas, particularly the putamen, due to gradually reduced innervation from the pars compacta of substantia nigra. Other motor deficits and common non-motor features of Parkinson's such as autonomic dysfunction, cognitive impairment, and gait/balance difficulties, are thought to result from widespread progressive pathological changes commencing in the lower brain stem and ascending to the midbrain, amygdala, thalamus and ultimately the cerebral cortex.
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The major input to the cochlear nucleus is from the auditory nerve, a part of cranial nerve VIII (the vestibulocochlear nerve). The auditory nerve fibers form a highly organized system of connections according to their peripheral innervation of the cochlea. Axons from the spiral ganglion cells of the lower frequencies innervate the ventrolateral portions of the ventral cochlear nucleus and lateral-ventral portions of the dorsal cochlear nucleus. The axons from the higher frequency organ of corti hair cells project to the dorsal portion of the ventral cochlear nucleus and the dorsal-medial portions of the dorsal cochlear nucleus.
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Following the lead of Eric R. Kandel, the genus has been studied as a model organism by neurobiologists, because its gill and siphon withdrawal reflex, as studied in Aplysia californica, is mediated by electrical synapses, which allow several neurons to fire synchronously. This quick neural response is necessary for a speedy reaction to danger by the animal. Aplysia has only about 20,000 neurons, making it a favorite subject for investigation by neuroscientists. Also, the 'tongue' on the underside is controlled by only two neurons, which allowed complete mapping of the innervation network to be carried out.
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The oblique vein of the left atrium (oblique vein of Marshall) is a small vessel which descends obliquely on the back of the left atrium and ends in the coronary sinus near its left extremity; it is continuous above with the ligament of the left vena cava (lig. venæ cavæ sinistræ vestigial fold of Marshall), and the two structures form the remnant of the left Cuvierian duct. This obscure region of cardiac perfusion adjacent to the SA node rocks back and forth under systole and diastole thus further influencing cardiac autonomic innervation. Ablation of this channel seems reasonable to many observers.
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Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (27 November 1857 – 4 March 1952) was an English neurophysiologist, histologist, bacteriologist, and a pathologist, Nobel laureate and president of the Royal Society in the early 1920s. He received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian, in 1932 for their work on the functions of neurons. Prior to the work of Sherrington and Adrian, it was widely accepted that reflexes occurred as isolated activity within a reflex arc. Sherrington received the prize for showing that reflexes require integrated activation and demonstrated reciprocal innervation of muscles (Sherrington's law).
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Thalamic interneurons process sensory information and signal different regions of the thalamic nuclei. These nuclei extend to relay cells, which in turn innervate distinct areas of the cortex via thalamocortical fibers. Either specifically or nonspecifically, TC relay cells project specifically to organized areas of the cortex directly and nonspecifically project to large areas of cortex through the innervation of many interconnected collateral axons. According to Jones (2001) there are two primary types of relay neurons in the thalamus of primates–core cells and matrix cells–each creating distinct pathways to various parts and layers throughout the cerebral cortex.
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During 1925 Oscar Tiegs moved to Melbourne University's department of Zoology as a senior lecturer, then headed by Professor Wilfred Eade Agar. In 1928 he obtained a Rockefeller Travelling Fellowship to visit Europe, where he worked for a while in the Anatomical School at Cambridge University, England, then headed by Professor Wilson, and in the Anatomical School at Utrecht University, the Netherlands, then headed by Professor Boecke. Also in 1928, Oscar Tiegs was awarded the David Syme Research Prize. As a histologist Oscar Tiegs developed an interest in Boecke's suggestion of a double innervation of vertebrate skeletal muscle.
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Diagnosis is based on physical examination and an x-ray. A physical examination can identify point tenderness, pain at the AC joint with cross-arm adduction, and pain relief with an injection of a local anesthetic. The cross-arm adduction will produce pain specifically at the AC joint and will be done by elevating the arm to a 90° angle, flexing the elbow to a 90° angle, and adducting the arm across the chest. The pain in the shoulder is hard to pinpoint due to the shared innervation of the AC joint and the glenohumeral joint.
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The terms "Tarlov cyst" or "sacral perineural cyst" refer to cystic lesions of the spinal meninges with innervation as well as nerve sheath dilatations with subarchnoid communication. While they were once thought to be a histopathological finding, they can be radiologically confirmed by specialized time lapsed MRI and CT imaging techniques showing subarchnoid communication from the nerve fibers in the cysts. They can also be surgically verified when the nerve fibers are visualized in the cystic sac. Often the cysts cause erosion from enlargement, damaging vertebrae and discs and can be misdiagnosed as primary stenosis or disc herniation.
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Vladimir Aleksandrovich Govyrin (, February 22, 1924, Balashov in Saratov region, USSR - February 5, 1994, Saint Petersburg, Russia) was Soviet and Russian physiologist, Academician of Academy of Sciences of USSR and Russian Academy of Sciences, who discovered regularity of the sympathetic innervation of the circulatory system of the vertebrates. He offered the concept of universal participation of vascular nerves in humoral transfer of the sympathetic influence on tissue. He also discovered the method of sympathetic nervous system influences the skeletal muscle. Govyrin found out that sympathetic influences to skeletal tissue are made by catecholamines, emitted by vascular nerves.
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CN III), which may affect the parasympathetic input to the eye on the side of the affected nerve, causing the pupil of the affected eye to dilate and fail to constrict in response to light as it should. Pupillary dilation often precedes the somatic motor effects of CN III compression called oculomotor nerve palsy or third nerve palsy. This palsy presents as deviation of the eye to a "down and out" position due to loss of innervation to all ocular motility muscles except for the lateral rectus (innervated by abducens nerve (a.k.a. CN VI) and the superior oblique (innervated by trochlear nerve a.k.a.
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Scheme showing sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of the pupil and sites of lesion in a Horner's syndrome. The internal carotid plexus (internal carotid plexus) is situated on the lateral side of the internal carotid artery, and in the plexus there occasionally exists a small gangliform swelling, the carotid ganglion, on the under surface of the artery. Postganglionic sympathetic fibres ascend from the superior cervical ganglion, along the walls of the internal carotid artery, to enter the internal carotid plexus. These fibres then distribute to deep structures, which include the Superior Tarsal Muscle and pupillary dilator muscles.
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To raise the profile of the band at its launch, Innervation opened a competition for fans to give the band a name. Fans were invited to vote via the internet for a new name, and the most popular ones were placed in a shortlist from which fans could vote for their favourite. However, the band had already released a single ("Take Up the Tempo", which would also appear on their first album The Blitz), and performed a high- profile launch concert at Soul Survivor 2002 under the name "thebandwithnoname". Fan response was in favour of the name being retained.
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The lateral pectoral nerve provides motor innervation to the pectoralis major. Although this nerve is described as mostly motor, it also has been considered to carry proprioceptive and nociceptive fibers. It arises either from the lateral cord or directly from the anterior divisions of the upper and middle trunks of the brachial plexus, unlike the medial pectoral nerve, which derives from the medial cord (or directly from the anterior division of the lower trunk). It splits into four to seven branches that pierce the clavipectoral fascia to innervate the entire pectoralis major or its superior portion.
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Highly refined and coordinated movements of the tongue are responsible for the intricacies of human speech. The evolutionary analysis would predict an abnormally large motor pool innervating the muscle of the human tongue, relative to those of other mammals. Such a large motor pool would allow for region-specific innervation of the tongue muscle, motor neurons with task-specificity, motor neuron specializations that allow for quick movements, and various other motor nuances necessary for producing complex speech. Anatomical analysis has validated this evolutionary prediction: in the average adult human, the motor pool for the tongue contains between 7,093 and 8,817 motor neurons.
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The obturator nerve (L2-L4) passes medially behind psoas major to exit the pelvis through the obturator canal, after which it gives off branches to obturator externus and divides into two branches passing behind and in front of adductor brevis to supply motor innervation to all the other adductor muscles. The anterior branch also supplies sensory nerves to the skin on a small area on the distal medial aspect of the thigh.Thieme Atlas of anatomy (2006), pp. 474–75 The femoral nerve (L2-L4) is the largest and longest of the nerves of the lumbar plexus.
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The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is divided into the somatic nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and the enteric nervous system. However, it is the somatic nervous system, responsible for body movement and the reception of external stimuli, which allows one to understand how cutaneous innervation is made possible by the action of specific sensory fibers located on the skin, as well as the distinct pathways they take to the central nervous system. The skin, which is part of the integumentary system, plays an important role in the somatic nervous system because it contains a range of nerve endings that react to heat and cold, touch, pressure, vibration, and tissue injury.
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One of the pathological features of the brain in the later stages of Alzheimer's disease is the presence of overgrown GAL-containing fibres innervating the surviving cholinergic neurons. Another feature is an increase in the expression of GAL and GAL receptors, in which increases of up to 200% have been observed in postmortem brains of Alzheimer's patients. The cause and role of this increase is poorly understood. It has been suggested that the hyper-innervation acts to promote the death of these neurons and that the inhibitory effect of galanin on cholinergic neurons worsened the degeneration of cognitive function in patients by decreasing the amount of acetylcholine available to these neurons.
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Filippo Lussana (17 December 1820 – 25 December 1897) was an Italian physiologist. In his medical research he dealt with the laws of nutrition, functions of the nervous system, cerebral localization, gustatory innervation, the relationship between touch and pain, and the causes of dizziness, and pellagra. Lussana was the author of more than two hundred scientific publications, receiving two gold medals from the Royal Society of Medical Sciences and Natural Sciences in Brussels and the Royal Academy of Medicine of Belgium, for his studies on "Fiber and blood" and "Monograph on the encephalic centers". In addition to research, Filippo Lussana was also a writer, a painter and a poet.
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The long ciliary nerves, two or three in number, are given off from the nasociliary nerve as it crosses the optic nerve. The nasociliary nerve that the long ciliary nerves branch from is itself a branch of the ophthalmic branch (V1) of the trigeminal nerve (CN V). They accompany the short ciliary nerves from the ciliary ganglion, pierce the posterior part of the sclera, and running forward between it and the choroid, are distributed to the iris and cornea. The long ciliary nerves provide sensory innervation to the eyeball, including the cornea. In addition, they contain sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion to the dilator pupillae muscle.
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The nervous system segmentation confers several developmental advantages to the vertebrate body as humans possess a body plan that is bilaterally segmented at the nervous system level. The segmentation is involved at all levels of the human nervous system with increasing level of complexity in the innervation from the brain to limbs. The presence of conserved features in various species of animals serves as a strong point to the nervous system’s origin from a common ancestor. Also, the neural segments form the basic building block of the human nervous system and these sub units possess their own level of autonomy in both the singular and collective sense.
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In the 1970s, new operative methods were developed to preserve innervation and clitoral function. However, a number of retrospective surveys in the last decade suggest that (1) sexual enjoyment is reduced in many women even after nerve-sparing procedures, and (2) women with CAH who have not had surgery also have a substantial rate of sexual dysfunction. (See Intersex surgery for an overview of procedures and potential complications, and History of intersex surgery for a fuller discussion of the controversies.) Many patient advocates and surgeons argue for deferring surgery until adolescence or later, while some surgeons continue to argue that infant surgery has advantages.
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Neurons from several brain regions, such as the neocortex, substantia nigra, and hippocampus have been found to contain autapses. Autapses have been observed to be relatively more abundant in GABAergic basket and dendrite-targeting cells of the cat visual cortex compared to spiny stellate, double bouquet, and pyramidal cells, suggesting that the degree of neuron self-innervation is cell-specific. Additionally, dendrite-targeting cell autapses were, on average, further from the soma compared to basket cell autapses. 80% of layer V pyramidal neurons in developing rat neocortices contained autaptic connections, which were located more so on basal dendrites and apical oblique dendrites rather than main apical dendrites.
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After serving as a house physician in University College Hospital he was made an Assistant Physician in 1889 and then moved to hold the same position at the National Hospital for the Paralysed and Epileptic from 1893 to 1896. His main interest was physiological research on such subjects as the electrical phenomena accompanying secretion, the action of drugs on the circulation and secretion of the kidney, and the innervation of various blood vessels. In 1894 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and in 1898 published Clinical Lectures on Nephritis. In 1895 he was made Professor-Superintendent of the Brown Institution, a post which he occupied for eight years.
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It was previously thought that the australopithecines' spine was more like that of non-human apes than humans, with weak neck vertebrae. However the thickness of the neck vertebrae of KSD-VP-1/1 is similar to that of modern humans. Like humans, the series has a bulge and achieves maximum girth at C5 and 6, which in humans is associated with the brachial plexus, responsible for nerves and muscle innervation in the arms and hands. This could perhaps speak to advanced motor functions in the hands of A. afarensis and competency at precision tasks compared to non-human apes, possibly implicated in stone tool use or production.
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The sympathetic innervation (nerve supply) comes from the sympathetic preganglionic neurons located in the upper lumbar spinal cord along the hypogastric nerve and terminates in the longitudinal and circular smooth muscle layers in the urethra. The parasympathetic nerve supply comes from the parasympathetic preganglionic neurons in the sacral spinal cord and also terminates in the longitudinal and circular smooth muscle layers. Finally the somatic nerve supply arises from the urethral sphincter motor neurons in the ventral horn of the sacral spinal cord; better known as Onuf's nucleus. The pudendal nerve that extends from Onuf's nucleus, connects directly to the rhabdosphincter muscle to control micturation.
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The key to the rhythmic firing of pacemaker cells is that, unlike other neurons in the body, these cells will slowly depolarize by themselves and do not need any outside innervation from the autonomic nervous system to fire action potentials. As in all other cells, the resting potential of a pacemaker cell (-60mV to -70mV) is caused by a continuous outflow or "leak" of potassium ions through ion channel proteins in the membrane that surrounds the cells. However, in pacemaker cells, this potassium permeability (efflux) decreases as time goes on, causing a slow depolarization. In addition, there is a slow, continuous inward flow of sodium, called the "funny" or pacemaker current.
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Vestibular duct perilymph vibrations bend organ of Corti outer cells (4 lines) causing prestin to be released in cell tips. This causes the cells to be chemically elongated and shrunk (somatic motor), and hair bundles to shift which, in turn, electrically affects the basilar membrane’s movement (hair-bundle motor). These motors (outer hair cells) amplify the traveling wave amplitudes over 40-fold. The outer hair cells (OHC) are minimally innervated by spiral ganglion in slow (unmyelinated) reciprocal communicative bundles (30+ hairs per nerve fiber); this contrasts inner hair cells (IHC) that have only afferent innervation (30+ nerve fibers per one hair) but are heavily connected.
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In most cases the nerve roots are stretched or torn from their origin, since the meningeal covering of a nerve root is thinner than the sheath enclosing the nerve. The epineurium of the nerve is contiguous with the dura mater, providing extra support to the nerve. Brachial plexus lesions typically result from excessive stretching; from rupture injury where the nerve is torn but not at the spinal cord; or from avulsion injuries, where the nerve is torn from its attachment at the spinal cord. A bony fragment, pseudoaneurysm, hematoma, or callus formation of fractured clavicle can also put pressure on the injured nerve, disrupting innervation of the muscles.
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The facial nerve is developmentally derived from the second pharyngeal arch, or branchial arch. The second arch is called the hyoid arch because it contributes to the formation of the lesser horn and upper body of the hyoid bone (the rest of the hyoid is formed by the third arch). The facial nerve supplies motor and sensory innervation to the muscles formed by the second pharyngeal arch, including the muscles of facial expression, the posterior belly of the digastric, stylohyoid, and stapedius. The motor division of the facial nerve is derived from the basal plate of the embryonic pons, while the sensory division originates from the cranial neural crest.
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The internal table of bone is thinner than the external table, and in some areas there is only a thin plate of compact bone with no diploë. Calvarial bones are supplied by endosteal and periosteal sheaths which are innervated by the nociceptors, sensory, sympathetic, and parasympathetic nerves. Horizontal section of the mouse pups showed that the density of nerve fibers was highest in the region of forehead, temples, and the back of head which crossing the frontal, parietal, and interparietal bones. In the calvarial innervation in the adult mouse, CGRP-labeled fibers and peripherin were seen in the sutures, emissary canals, and bone marrow but not in diploe.
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In between the six layers are smaller cells that receive information from the K cells (color) in the retina. The neurons of the LGN then relay the visual image to the primary visual cortex (V1) which is located at the back of the brain (posterior end) in the occipital lobe in and close to the calcarine sulcus. The LGN is not just a simple relay station but it is also a center for processing; it receives reciprocal input from the cortical and subcortical layers and reciprocal innervation from the visual cortex. Scheme of the optic tract with image being decomposed on the way, up to simple cortical cells (simplified).
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Nerve endings in the vagina can provide pleasurable sensations when the vagina is stimulated during sexual activity. Women may derive pleasure from one part of the vagina, or from a feeling of closeness and fullness during vaginal penetration. Because the vagina is not rich in nerve endings, women often do not receive sufficient sexual stimulation, or orgasm, solely from vaginal penetration. Although the literature commonly cites a greater concentration of nerve endings and therefore greater sensitivity near the vaginal entrance (the outer one-third or lower third), some scientific examinations of vaginal wall innervation indicate no single area with a greater density of nerve endings.
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The lumbar plexus is formed from the anterior rami of nerves L1 to L4 and some fibers from T12. With only five roots and two divisions, it is less complex than the brachial plexus and gives rise to a number of nerves including the femoral nerve and accessory obturator nerve. The pectineus muscle is considered a composite muscle as the innervation is by the femoral nerve (L2 and L3) and occasionally (20% of the population) a branch of the obturator nerve called the accessory obturator nerve. When it is present, the accessory obturator nerve innervates a portion of the pectineus muscle, entering the muscle on its dorsomedial aspect.
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The Sternalis muscle is an anatomical variation that lies in front of the sternal end of the pectoralis major runs along the anterior aspect of the body of the sternum. The sternalis muscle often originates from the upper part of the sternum and can display varying insertions such as the pectoral fascia, lower ribs, costal cartilages, rectus sheath, aponeurosis of the abdominal external oblique muscle. There is still a great deal of disagreement about its innervation and its embryonic origin. The sternal side (towards the breastbone) of the pectoralis major is distinct from the clavicular side (towards the collarbone), and the two are separated by a fascial interval.
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The glossopharyngeal fibers travel just anterior to the cranial nerves X and XI, which also exit the skull via the jugular foramen. Extra-cranial course and final innervation Upon exiting the skull the branchial motor fibers descend deep to the temporal styloid process and wrap around the posterior border of the stylopharyngeus muscle before innervating it. Voluntary control of the stylopharyngeus muscle Signals for the voluntary movement of stylopharyngeus muscle originate in the pre- motor and motor cortex (in association with other cortical areas) and pass via the corticobulbar tract in the genu of the internal capsule to synapse bilaterally on the ambiguus nuclei in the medulla.
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At the end of 2005, thebandwithnoname announced a new lineup. chipK remained along with three new members: Leon Henderson, stage name Q Kid, a rapper from Milton Keynes; Jonathan Moore, stage name J, a dancer and singer from London; and David Strafford, stage name Straff, a singer from Kent. The Innervation Winter Tour 2005 premiered this new lineup, a 13-date tour across the UK. American musicianaries Carissa Jardio (who later married Zulu from the second tbwnn lineup) and Kylie Evans (2006) were added to the band as back up dancers alongside Tina and Helen. They released, another single, "Justified/Pull Up the Vinyl", to showcase their new hip hop sound.
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The labial glands are minor salivary glands situated between the mucous membrane and the orbicularis oris around the orifice of the mouth. They are circular in form, and about the size of small peas; their ducts open by minute orifices upon the mucous membrane. Like the parotid and buccal glands, the labial glands are innervated by parasympathetic fibres that arise in the inferior salivatory nucleus, travel with the glossopharyngeal nerve and lesser petrosal nerve to the otic ganglion, where they synapse and then continue to the labial glands. Sympathetic innervation is mediated by postganglionary fibres which arise in the superior cervical ganglion and pass through the otic ganglion without synapsing.
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Neural tissue regeneration, or neuroregeneration looks to restore function to those neurons that have been damaged in small injuries and larger injuries like those caused by traumatic brain injury. Functional restoration of damaged nerves involves re-establishment of a continuous pathway for regenerating axons to the site of innervation. Researchers like Dr. LaPlaca at Georgia Institute of Technology are looking to help find treatment for repair and regeneration after traumatic brain injury and spinal cord injuries by applying tissue engineering strategies. Dr. LaPlaca is looking into methods combining neural stem cells with an extracellular matrix protein based scaffold for minimally invasive delivery into the irregular shaped lesions that form after a traumatic insult.
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G-spot proponents are criticized for giving too much credence to anecdotal evidence, and for questionable investigative methods; for instance, the studies which have yielded positive evidence for a precisely located G-spot involve small participant samples. While the existence of a greater concentration of nerve endings at the lower third (near the entrance) of the vagina is commonly cited, some scientific examinations of vaginal wall innervation have shown no single area with a greater density of nerve endings. Several researchers also consider the connection between the Skene's gland and the G-spot to be weak. The urethral sponge, however, which is also hypothesized as the G-spot, contains sensitive nerve endings and erectile tissue.
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In 1933 he was elected a corresponding member, and in 1935 a full member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. In the early 1920s Ukhtomsky began to publish on the foundations of the principle of dominance as a new theory of brain function. At the turn of 1923–1924 years he presented a report at the Second All-Union Congress of Psychoneurologists and Neurophysiologists, in which he put forward the principle of dominance as one of the main factors of central innervation. In 1927 he wrote a monograph "Parabiosis and Dominant", in which the organic link between the dominant and the basic tenets of Vvedensky’s theory of parabiosis is explained.
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Head thought it probable that sensation related to innervation of the skin, but there was no accurate knowledge of cutaneous distribution of afferent fibres which enter the spinal cord by each dorsal root and terminate in one spinal segment. To remedy this lack of understanding, Head chose to investigate the anatomic distribution of cutaneous disturbances caused by herpes zoster. A careful study with A.W. Campbell enabled him to demonstrate the zones of skin affected by disease and from this he could chart the cutaneous distribution of different fibres originating from cells of each ganglion and reaching the corresponding segment of the spinal cord. From these investigations, Head and Campbell made two important discoveries.
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This may be due to the different nature of the lesions- the surgical lesion results in complete loss of all olivocochlear innervation to the hair cells, while the genetic manipulations result in much more selective functional loss- that of the targeted gene only. Any remaining neuroactive substances that can be released by the intact synaptic terminals can still activate the hair cells. Indeed, upon genetic ablation of one of the neuroactive peptides present in the LOCS terminals, consequences similar to that following the surgical lesion were observed, demonstrating that the effects of the surgery were most likely due to loss of this peptide, and not the ACh present in the synaptic terminals.
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The most common disorder of a temporomandibular joint is disc displacement. In essence, this is when the articular disc, attached anteriorly to the superior head of the lateral pterygoid muscle and posteriorly to the retrodiscal tissue, moves out from between the condyle and the fossa, so that the mandible and temporal bone contact is made on something other than the articular disc. This, as explained above, is usually very painful, because unlike these adjacent tissues, the central portion of the disc contains no sensory innervation. In most instances of disorder, the disc is displaced anteriorly upon translation, or the anterior and inferior sliding motion of the condyle forward within the fossa and down the articular eminence.
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The inferior pedicle (central mound) features a blood vessel supply (arterial and venous) for the NAC from an inferior, centrally-based attachment to the chest wall. The skin pedicle maintains the innervation and vascular viability of the NAC, which produces a reduced, sensitive breast with full lactational capability and function. The volume and size reduction of hypertrophied breasts is performed with a periareolar incision to the NAC, which then extends downwards, following the natural curve of the breast hemisphere. After cutting and removing the requisite quantities of tissue (glandular, adipose, skin), the NAC is transposed higher upon the breast hemisphere; thereby the inferior pedicle technique produces an elevated bust with breasts that are proportionate to the woman's person.
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A false positive response occurs when a patient is respondent to sensitivity testing despite a lack of sensory tissue in the tooth that is being tested. Such responses may occur due to innervation of adjacent teeth due to inadequate isolation of the tooth being tested, or in anxious patients who perceive pain despite no sensory stimulus, or in multi- rooted teeth which still have residual pulpal tissue residing in canals. False negative results occurs when innervated teeth do not respond to sensibility testing. Such can occur in individuals who have recently traumatised teeth, teeth with incomplete root development, teeth with heavy restorations or teeth that have significantly reduced pulp size due to production of tertiary or sclerotic dentine.
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The nature of dynamic movement must take into account our skeletal structure (as a lever) in addition to the force of external resistance, and consequently incorporates a vastly different complex of muscles and joints versus a static position. Because of this functional design, during dynamic movement there is more dependence on core musculature than just skeletal rigidity as in a static situation. This is because the purpose of movement is not to resist a static, unchanging resistance, but to resist a force that changes its plane of motion. By incorporating movement, the bones of the body must absorb the resistance in a fluid manner, and thus tendons, ligaments, muscles, and innervation take on different responsibilities.
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While this view still has its defenders (notably Colette and Jacques Bitsch), the alternative view that the chelicerae are innervated from the deuterocerebrum has gained ground, based on molecular development in mites and spiders, and neuroanatomy in Limulus. If this is the case, then chelicerates simply have no tritocerebrum, i.e. there is no third supraoesophageal ganglion of the brain; the segment corresponding to it would be the suboesophageal pedipalp one. Such a theory does not, however, immediately account for the same ganglionic innervation of the chelicerae and labrum, although one solution is simply to claim that the labrum itself is not homologous between mandibulates and chelicerates (the view, for example, of Dieter Waloszek and colleagues).
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The oblique arytenoid, the more superficial Arytenoid muscle, forms two fasciculi, which pass from the base of one cartilage to the apex of the opposite one, and therefore cross each other like the limbs of the letter X; a few fibers are continued around the lateral margin of the cartilage, and are prolonged into the aryepiglottic fold; they are sometimes described as a separate muscle, the Aryepiglotticus. The aryepiglottic muscle together with the transverse arytenoid and the thyroarytenoid work as a sphincter and close the larynx as we swallow or cough. Its innervation is by the recurrent laryngeal nerve (from vagus) just like all the intrinsic muscles of the larynx except the cricothyroid muscle.
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In the acute phase physical and occupational therapists focus on the patient’s respiratory status, prevention of indirect complications (such as pressure sores), maintaining range of motion, and keeping available musculature active. Depending on the Neurological Level of Impairment (NLI), the muscles responsible for expanding the thorax, which facilitate inhalation, may be affected. If the NLI is such that it affects some of the ventilatory muscles, more emphasis will then be placed on the muscles with intact function. For example, the intercostal muscles receive their innervation from T1–T11, and if any are damaged, more emphasis will need to be placed on the unaffected muscles which are innervated from higher levels of the CNS.
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A long period of reduced activity followed for the band, with Zulu Yengwa (a rapper) and Joshua Philip Oluwadare Morohumobo Kofi Alamu (a singer known simply as "Josh" whilst appearing with thebandwithnoname) occasionally featuring alongside the only remaining original member of the group, chipK. For some time Innervation failed to recruit any new members for the group. During this time, thebandwithnoname added dancers, Tina Mann and Helen Kendall (chipK's wife) and went on a two and a half month tour of the USA. The tour was organized by Tom Miyashiro of Faith 2 Faith Ministries International, who by the end of the tour helped recruit and send American musicianaries to the UK to work in Innervation's bands.
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The papilla is shaped like a truncated cone, the smaller end being directed downward and attached to the tongue, the broader part or base projecting a little above the surface of the tongue and being studded with numerous small secondary papillae and covered by stratified squamous epithelium. Ducts of lingual salivary glands, known as Von Ebner's glands empty a serous secretion into the base of the circular depression, which acts like a moat. The function of the secretion is presumed to flush materials from the base of circular depression to ensure that taste buds can respond to changing stimuli rapidly. The circumvallate papillae get special afferent taste innervation from cranial nerve IX, the glossopharyngeal nerve, even though they are anterior to the sulcus terminalis.
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Cutaneous innervation refers to the area of the skin which is supplied by a specific cutaneous nerve. Dermatomes are similar; however, a dermatome only specifies the area served by a spinal nerve. In some cases, the dermatome is less specific (when a spinal nerve is the source for more than one cutaneous nerve), and in other cases it is more specific (when a cutaneous nerve is derived from multiple spinal nerves.) Modern texts are in agreement about which areas of the skin are served by which nerves, but there are minor variations in some of the details. The borders designated by the diagrams in the 1918 edition of Gray's Anatomy are similar, but not identical, to those generally accepted today.
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As an advertising device to raise the profile of the band at its launch, Innervation opened a competition for fans to give the band a name. Fans were invited to vote via the internet for a new name, and the most popular ones were placed in a shortlist from which fans could vote for their favourite. However, the band decided, that alongside brother band Thebandwithnoname and with the help of around 80% of the votes, they decided to keep band name TBC in other words "Touring Band Collective". Shortly after the Collective work had ended, the girls refer to TBC as "To Be Continued", as to whatever the situation concerning new band members, the girls will try to continue doing work for God.
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In the pancreatic acinar cells, UBR1 is more highly expressed than anywhere else in the body. Impairment of the ubiquitin- proteasome system directly related to insufficient activity of ubiquitin ligase has been established as the cause of both congenital and progressive inflammatory damage, fatty tissue replacement, connective tissue proliferation and errors in innervation of the acini and islets, correlating to failures of normal apoptotic destruction of damaged cells and constitutive malpresence of proteins. This also applies to other areas affected by deleterious UBR1 expression, such as the craniofacial area, musculoskeletal and nervous systems, dentition and organs. Missense, nonsense and splice site mutations of the UBR1 gene in both parents have been found with JBS, confirming the homozygous nature of the JBS phenotype.
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The study found the density of NR2A mRNA-expressing PV neurons was decreased by as much as 50% in subjects with schizophrenia. In addition, density of immunohistochemically labeled glutamatergic terminals with an antibody against the vesicular glutamate transporter vGluT1 also exhibited a reduction that paralleled the reduction in the NR2A-expressing PV neurons. Together, these observations suggest glutamatergic innervation of PV-containing inhibitory neurons appears to be deficient in schizophrenia. Expression of NR2A mRNA has also been found to be altered in the inhibitory neurons that contain another calcium buffer, calbindin, targeting the dendrites of pyramidal neurons, and the expression of the mRNA for the GluR5 kainate receptor in GABA neurons has also been found to be changed in organisms with schizophrenia.
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This effectively produces an evolute which can be termed the resultant axis of mandibular rotation, which lies in the vicinity of the mandibular foramen, allowing for a low-tension environment for the vasculature and innervation of the mandible. The necessity of translation to produce further opening past that which can be accomplished with sole rotation of the condyle can be demonstrated by placing a resistant fist against the chin and trying to open the mouth more than 20 or so mm. The resting position of the temporomandibular joint is not with the teeth biting together. Instead, the muscular balance and proprioceptive feedback allow a physiologic rest for the mandible, an interocclusal clearance or freeway space, which is 2 to 4 mm between the teeth.
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Infusion of adrenaline well within the physiological range suppresses human airway hyper-reactivity sufficiently to antagonize the constrictor effects of inhaled histamine. A link between the sympathetic nervous system and the lungs was shown in 1887 when Grossman showed that stimulation of cardiac accelerator nerves reversed muscarine-induced airway constriction. In experiments in the dog, where the sympathetic chain was cut at the level of the diaphragm, Jackson showed that there was no direct sympathetic innervation to the lung, but that bronchoconstriction was reversed by release of adrenaline from the adrenal medulla. An increased incidence of asthma has not been reported for adrenalectomized patients; those with a predisposition to asthma will have some protection from airway hyper-reactivity from their corticosteroid replacement therapy.
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It is important to identify the initial trigger sites rather than address all the areas of pain, after the inflammation involves the entire trigeminal tree. Forehead migraine headaches: In the glabellar area the supra- orbital and supra-trochlear nerves are skeletonized by resecting the corrugator and depressor supercilii muscle using an endoscopic approach similar that of used for cosmetic forehead lift. Temporal migraine headaches: The temporal area, where the zygomaticotemporal branch of trigeminal nerve passes through the temporalis muscle, is addressed using a similar endoscopic approach but involves removing a segment of the nerve rather than transecting the muscle. This results in a slight sensory defect over temporal skin area, but cross-innervation from other sensory nerves helps to limit the damage.
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The dorsal raphe is the largest serotonergic nucleus and provides a substantial proportion of the serotonin innervation to the forebrain. Serotonergic neurons are found throughout the dorsal raphe nucleus and tend to be larger than other cells. A substantial population of cells synthesizing substance P are found in the rostral aspects, many of these co-express serotonin and substance P. There is also a population of catecholamine synthesizing neurons in the rostral dorsal raphe, and these cells appear to be relatively large. The dorsal raphe nucleus is rich in pre-synaptic serotonin 5-HT1A autoreceptors, and it's believed that the action of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in this region is responsible for the latency of their antidepressant effect.
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The myogenic mechanism is how arteries and arterioles react to an increase or decrease of blood pressure to keep the blood flow within the blood vessel constant. Myogenic response refers to a contraction initiated by the myocyte itself instead of an outside occurrence or stimulus such as nerve innervation. Most often observed in (although not necessarily restricted to) smaller resistance arteries, this 'basal' tone may be useful in the regulation of organ blood flow and peripheral resistance, as it positions a vessel in a preconstricted state that allows other factors to induce additional constriction or dilation to increase or decrease blood flow. The smooth muscle of the blood vessels reacts to the stretching of the muscle by opening ion channels, which cause the muscle to depolarize, leading to muscle contraction.
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The arterial blood supply of the breast has medial and lateral vascular components; it is supplied with blood by the internal mammary artery (from the medial aspect), the lateral thoracic artery (from the lateral aspect), and the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th intercostal perforating arteries. Drainage of venous blood from the breast is by the superficial vein system under the dermis, and by the deep vein system parallel to the artery system. The primary lymph drainage system is the retromammary lymph plexus in the pectoral fascia. Sensation in the breast is established by the peripheral nervous system innervation of the anterior and lateral cutaneous branches of the 4th, 5th, and 6th intercostal nerves, and thoracic spinal nerve 4 (T4 nerve) innervates and supplies sensation to the nipple-areola complex.
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Restoration creates a facsimile of the prepuce, but specialized tissues removed during circumcision cannot be reclaimed, in particular, the ridged band, an innervated structure encircling the penis along the cusp of the foreskin, which among other functions serves to contract the opening around the glans. Surgical procedures exist to reduce the size of the opening once restoration is complete (as depicted in the image above), or it can be alleviated through a longer commitment to the skin expansion regime to allow more skin to collect at the tip. The circumcision scar becomes hidden as shaft skin begins to fold, mimicking the natural function and appearance of the foreskin. The natural foreskin is composed of smooth dartos muscle tissue (called the peripenic muscle), large blood vessels, extensive innervation, outer skin, and inner mucosa.
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The cheek pouch is a specific morphological feature that is evident in particular subgroups of rodents (i.e. Heteromyidae and Geomyidae (or Gopher)), yet a common misconception is that certain families, like Muridae (including the common black and brown rats), contain this structure when, in actuality, their cheeks are merely elastic due to a high degree of musculature and innervation in the region. The true cheek pouch, however, is evident in the former Heteromyidae and Geomyidae groups. Murid Lacking Cheek Pouches (Source: Pacific Lutheran University Natural History Collection) Demonstration of Cheek Pouches in Geomyid (Source: Pacific Lutheran University Natural History Collection)Cheek pouches are more pronounced in certain rodents, such as hamsters, yet this structure is also distinguishable on certain species of rat, like the Gambian pouched rat, of which extensive morphological investigations have been conducted.
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The hypothesis with perhaps the strongest evidence is that which stems from the adaptation of endites and exites, appendages on the respective inner and outer aspects of the primitive arthropod limb. This was advanced by Trueman based on a study by Goldschmidt in 1945 on Drosophila melanogaster, in which a pod variation displayed a mutation transforming normal wings to what was interpreted as a triple-jointed leg arrangement with some additional appendages but lacking the tarsus, where the wing's costal surface normally would be. This mutation was reinterpreted as strong evidence for a dorsal exite and endite fusion, rather than a leg, with the appendages fitting in much better with this hypothesis. The innervation, articulation and musculature required for the evolution of wings are already present in the limb segments (podomeres).
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For example, an anatomist is concerned with the shape, size, position, structure, blood supply and innervation of an organ such as the liver; while a physiologist is interested in the production of bile, the role of the liver in nutrition and the regulation of bodily functions. The discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches including gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and also includes superficial anatomy or surface anatomy, the study by sight of the external body features. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a microscopic scale, along with histology (the study of tissues), and embryology (the study of an organism in its immature condition).
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Ian P. Howard argued in a 1996 Perception article that Alhazen should be credited with many discoveries and theories previously attributed to Western Europeans writing centuries later. For example, he described what became in the 19th century Hering's law of equal innervation. He wrote a description of vertical horopters 600 years before Aguilonius that is actually closer to the modern definition than Aguilonius's—and his work on binocular disparity was repeated by Panum in 1858.. Craig Aaen-Stockdale, while agreeing that Alhazen should be credited with many advances, has expressed some caution, especially when considering Alhazen in isolation from Ptolemy, with whom Alhazen was extremely familiar. Alhazen corrected a significant error of Ptolemy regarding binocular vision, but otherwise his account is very similar; Ptolemy also attempted to explain what is now called Hering's law.
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Maurice Raynaud was the son of a university professor. He commenced his medical studies at the University of Paris with the help of his uncle, the well known Paris physician Ange-Gabriel- Maxime Vernois (1809–1877), and obtained his medical doctorate in 1862. He thus became one of the select few who have achieved eponymous fame with their doctoral dissertation, in his case: De l'asphyxie locale et de la gangrène symétrique des extrémités.Raynaud stated that local asphyxia [decrease in oxygen concentration] of the extremities was a result of increased irritability of the central parts of the cord presiding over vascular innervation He became a holder of a Doctorat ès lettres the following year with the 48 page article "Asclepiades of Bithynia, doctor and philosopher", and the book "Medicine in Molière's time".
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The arterial blood supply of the breast has medial and lateral vascular components; it is supplied with blood by the internal mammary artery (from the medial aspect), the lateral thoracic artery (from the lateral aspect), and the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th intercostal perforating arteries. Drainage of venous blood from the breast is by the superficial vein system under the dermis, and by the deep vein system parallel to the artery system. The primary lymph drainage system is the retromammary lymph plexus in the pectoral fascia. Sensation in the breast is established by the peripheral nervous system innervation of the anterior and lateral cutaneous branches of the 4th, 5th, and 6th intercostal nerves, and thoracic spinal nerve 4 (T4 nerve) innervates and supplies sensation to the NAC.
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A motor unit consists of one alpha motor neuron and all the muscle fibres it innervates. Muscles differ in the number of motor units that they contain, and how many muscle fibres are within each unit (innervation ratio). In a general sense, muscles that require specificity of movement, such as muscles in charge of eye movement, have fewer fibres per unit, while those that are meant for less specific tasks, such as the calf muscles in charge of jumping, have more. MUNE uses a general formula of: Number of motor units = compound muscle action potential size divided by the mean surface-detected motor unit action potential size The compound muscle action potential (CMAP) size is found using supramaximal stimulation of the motor nerve to the muscle or muscle group (similar to a nerve conduction study).
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Twenty three years after the first perforator flap was described by Koshima and Soeda, there has been a significant step towards covering tissue defects by using only cutaneous tissue. Results obtained from studies done on musculocutaneous and septocutaneous perforator flaps have shown a reduction of donor-site morbidity to a minimum due to refined perforator flap techniques that allow collection of tissue without scarifying the underlying muscles. As a matter of fact, preventing damage to the underlying muscle including its innervation, has led to less cases of abdominal hernia, the absence of postoperative muscle atrophy and a better vascularised and functioning donor muscle. Furthermore, patients have shown decreased postoperative pain and accelerated rehabilitation Nevertheless, there will always be a chance that the displaced tissue partially or completely dies considering the fact that the perfusion of the flap is difficult to assess intraoperatively.
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A. sediba lacks a humanlike brachial plexus (which is identified in some A. afarensis), and the human brachial plexus is responsible for nerves and muscle innervation in the arms and hands enhancing motor control. Like humans, A. sediba appears to have had a flexible lumbar series comprising 5 vertebrae—as opposed to 6 static vertebrae in non-human apes—and exhibiting lumbar lordosis (human curvature of the spine) consistent with habitual upright posture. However, A. sediba seems to have had a highly mobile lower back and exaggerated lumbar lordosis, which may have been involved in counteracting torques directed inwards while walking in the hyperpronating gait proposed for A. sediba. MH1 preserves 2 upper thoracic, 1 mid-thoracic, and 3 lower thoracic ribs; and MH2 4 consecutive upper-to-mid-thoracic, and 3 lower thoracic ribs joined with the vertebrae.
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Dense innervation of arteries in seals by sympathetic nerves may be part of a system for maintaining vasoconstriction of the dive response independent of local metabolite induced vasodilation. Venous capacitance is highly developed, especially in phocid seals and whales, and includes a large hepatic sinus and posterior vena cava, and is thought to be related to the large blood volume of the animals. The relatively large spleen also injects extremely high hematocrit blood into the hepatic sinus during dives, and is a significant storage organ for red blood cells. Parallel counter-flowing arteries and veins characteristic of countercurrent exchange units are present in the dorsal fins, flukes, and flippers of cetaceans, and are considered to conserve body heat by transferring it to the returning venous flow before arterial blood is exposed to the high heat-loss areas.
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The mandibular incisive canal is a bony canal within the anterior mandible that runs bilaterally from the mental foramina usually to the region of the ipsilateral lateral incisor teeth. After branching into the mental nerve that exits the foramen of the same name, the inferior alveolar nerve continues anteriorly within the mandibular incisive canal as the incisive nerve, providing innervation to the mandibular first premolar, canine and lateral and central incisors.Greenstein, G; Cavallaro, J; Tarnow, D. "Practical Application of Anatomy for the Dental Implant Surgeon," J Perio 2008;79:1833-1846 The mandibular incisive nerve either terminates as nerve endings within the anterior teeth or adjacent bone, or may join nerve endings that enter through the tiny lingual foramen. The incisive canal is typically found within the middle third of the mandible in an apico-coronal dimension, reaching the midline 18% of the time.
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The Myomorpha, such as the brown rat, have enlarged temporalis muscles, making them able to chew powerfully with their molars. The Hystricomorpha, such as the guinea pig, have larger superficial masseter muscles and smaller deep masseter muscles than rats or squirrels, possibly making them less efficient at biting with the incisors, but their enlarged internal pterygoid muscles may allow them to move the jaw further sideways when chewing. The cheek pouch is a specific morphological feature used for storing food and is evident in particular subgroups of rodents like kangaroo rats, hamsters, chipmunks and gophers which have two bags that may range from the mouth to the front of the shoulders. True mice and rats do not contain this structure but their cheeks are elastic due to a high degree of musculature and innervation in the region.
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To prevent nipple-areola complex necrosis, the surgeon monitors and evaluates the viability of the transposed tissue; by the presence of oxygenated, bright red arterial blood demonstrates the proper functioning of the nipple-areola complex vascular system. A more common post-operative nipple-areola complex complication is dysesthesia, manifest as an abnormal sensation of numbness, and as a sensation of tingling, that perdures for the wound-healing period, yet it diminishes as the full functioning of the breast's innervation resumes the full sensitivity to the nipple-areola complex; nonetheless, permanent numbness of the nipple-areola complex is rare. Tissue necrosis of the medial pedicle flap is a potential, but rare, complication of mastopexy procedures. Moreover, the occurrence of hematoma also is possible; in post-operative praxis, a large hematoma is drained immediately, whereas a small hematoma can be observed for self-resolution, before draining.
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These vertebrates possess an exceptional ability to allow regeneration of entire limbs and their tails (as well as a multitude of their internal organs as well, including their spinal cord) through a process known as blastema formation. This involves covering of the wound by a layer of epithelial cells known as the wound cap and subsequent innervation of this area with nerves that give off signals that revert local differentiated cells (such as muscle, cartilage and connective tissue) back to their undifferentiated cell lineage also known as mesenchymal cells. It is this area that is known as the blastema which has the potential to differentiate and proliferate once again allowing regrowth of the limb similar to how it occurs during development. In wound-healing in urodeles it is the quick response of anti-inflammatory macrophages which have been shown to be key to their regeneration capabilities.
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The dominant theme is the plasticity of the nervous system under normal and pathological conditions. We study the effects of stroke and neurodegenerative diseases, epileptogenesis and the consequences of re-innervation, as well as emotional disturbances in humans. The research at the Department of Cell Biology is chiefly directed towards elucidating signalling cascades and regulatory mechanisms of gene expression involved in tumour transformation and the immune response, including the participation of membrane lipids in signal transfer by immunoreceptors, as well as the genetic regulation of cytoskeletal reorganisation. The Department of Biochemistry concentrates its research efforts on describing the molecular mechanisms of lipid-induced insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes, the regulation of calcium-mediated signal pathways, kinesine functioning, the role of mitochondria in the maintenance of cellular homeostasis and the development of pathologies, as well as the elucidation of the structure and function of intracellular ion channels.
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Many large and small muscles have relationships with the ligaments of the sacroiliac joint including the piriformis (see “piriformis syndrome”, a condition often related with sacroiliac joint dysfunction), rectus femoris, gluteus maximus and minimus, erector spinae, latissimus dorsi, thoracolumbar fascia, and iliacus. Any of these muscles can be involved or spasm with a painful and dysfunctional sacroiliac joint. The SI joint is a pain-sensitive structure richly innervated by a combination of unmyelinated free nerve endings and the posterior primary rami of spinal segments L2-S3. The wide possibility of innervation may explain why pain originating from the joint can manifest in so many various ways, with different and unique referral patterns (see “referred pain”) for individual patients. Patients with sacroiliac joint dysfunction can also develop tightness and dysfunction in the hamstring, quadriceps, iliotibial tract (see “iliotibial band syndrome”) and hip flexors, including the psoas muscle.
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It was necessary that the Spanish neurohistologist Fernando de Castro Rodríguez (1898–1967) described in detail the innervation of the aorta-carotid region, circumscribing the presence of baroreceptors to the carotid sinus, but that of chemoreceptors to the carotid body, for the Belgian group to move their focus from the first to the very small second structure to physiologically demonstrate the nature and function of the first blood chemoreceptors.de Castro, F. (2009) Towards the sensory nature of the carotid body: Hering, De Castro and Heymans. Front. Neuroanat. 3: 23 (1-11) (doi:10.3389/neuro.05.023.2009). The contribution of the young De Castro, maybe the last direct disciple of Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934; awarded the 1906 Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine) was overlooked at the time, but it was later recognized that he deserved to share the Nobel Prize with Heymans, his colleague and friend.
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The neurotrophic theory is the leading hypothesis used to explain the role of programmed cell death in the developing nervous system. It postulates that in order to ensure optimal innervation of targets, a surplus of neurons is first produced which then compete for limited quantities of protective neurotrophic factors and only a fraction survive while others die by programmed cell death. Furthermore, the theory states that predetermined factors regulate the amount of neurons that survive and the size of the innervating neuronal population directly correlates to the influence of their target field. The underlying idea that target cells secrete attractive or inducing factors and that their growth cones have a chemotactic sensitivity was first put forth by Santiago Ramon y Cajal in 1892. Cajal presented the idea as an explanation for the “intelligent force” axons appear to take when finding their target but admitted that he had no empirical data.
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This research led Karczmar to conceptualize on the pre-neurogenetic appearance of components of the cholinergic system, their non-parallel ontogenesis and its significance, and their omni-existent phylogenesis which is independent of the presence of innervation or motility.Scudder and Karczmar, 1966also Karczmar, 1963 a and b Karczmar and Steve Thesleff demonstrated in the 1950s the phenomenon of desensitization (receptor inactivation) at the neuromyal junction, and Karczmar described the reciprocal process, sensitization which is inducible by several drugs such as oxamides and NaF, and which, today, is ascribed to an allosteric receptor change.Karczmar, 1957Karczmar and Howard, 1955 Karczmar pioneered also the studies of the structural nature of central cholinergic receptors by demonstrating the structural similarity between peripheral and central muscarinic receptors.Karczmar and Long, 1958 With Kyozo Koketsu, Syogoro Nishi and Nae Dun Karczmar identified in the 1950s and 1960s the three ganglionic receptor sites (nicotinic, muscarinic and peptidergic) and their potentials; they described their ionic mechanisms and the contribution of second messengers to ganglionic transmission.
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Its tritocerebral innervation from the rear of the brain has suggested to some workers that, if an appendage, it is the appendage of the segment anterior to the first antenna, but this is disputed by others who argue that the presence of a well- developed appendage in at least crustaceans in this segment (the second antenna, corresponding to the intercalary segment of insects) rules this out. The most obvious choice for this is the segment whose ganglion is the protocerebrum, which in extant Euarthropoda bears no appendage (apart from the eyes). If the labrum really is an anterior appendage that has migrated to the posterior, then it may be homologous to the "antennae" of onychophorans which seem to be innervated from a very anterior part of the brain, in front of the eyes. It has even been suggested that the labrum belongs to an even more obscure segment that lies in front of the ocular one.
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The motor innervation of the gluteus maximus muscle is performed by the inferior gluteal nerve (a branch nerve of the sacral plexus) and extends from the pelvis to the gluteal region, then traverses the greater sciatic foramen (opening) from behind and to the middle to then join the sciatic nerve. The inferior gluteal nerve divides into three (3) collateral branches: (i) the gluteus branch, (ii) the perineal branch, and (iii) the femoral branch. The first ramification — the gluteus branch — is a branch nerve that is very close to the emergence of the inferior gluteal nerve to the area, next to the inferior border of the pyramidalis muscle. As it arises, the inferior gluteal nerve then divides into four (4) or more fillets (bands of nerve fibres) that travel (in a crow's-foot configuration) between the gluteus maximus muscle and its (front) anterior fascia; the thickest nerve-bands are the superior-most and the inferior-most fillets.
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Upon leaving the medulla oblongata between the olive and the inferior cerebellar peduncle, the vagus nerve extends through the jugular foramen, then passes into the carotid sheath between the internal carotid artery and the internal jugular vein down to the neck, chest, and abdomen, where it contributes to the innervation of the viscera, reaching all the way to the colon. Besides giving some output to various organs, the vagus nerve comprises between 80% and 90% of afferent nerves mostly conveying sensory information about the state of the body's organs to the central nervous system. The right and left vagus nerves descend from the cranial vault through the jugular foramina, penetrating the carotid sheath between the internal and external carotid arteries, then passing posterolateral to the common carotid artery. The cell bodies of visceral afferent fibers of the vagus nerve are located bilaterally in the inferior ganglion of the vagus nerve (nodose ganglia).
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The sensory and motor innervation to the lower limb is supplied by the lumbosacral plexus, which is formed by the ventral rami of the lumbar and sacral spinal nerves with additional contributions from the subcostal nerve (T12) and coccygeal nerve (Co1). Based on distribution and topography, the lumbosacral plexus is subdivided into the lumbar plexus (T12-L4) and the Sacral plexus (L5-S4); the latter is often further subdivided into the sciatic and pudendal plexuses:Thieme Atlas of anatomy (2006), pp. 470–71 The lumbar plexus is formed lateral to the intervertebral foramina by the ventral rami of the first four lumbar spinal nerves (L1-L4), which all pass through psoas major. The larger branches of the plexus exit the muscle to pass sharply downward to reach the abdominal wall and the thigh (under the inguinal ligament); with the exception of the obturator nerve which pass through the lesser pelvis to reach the medial part of the thigh through the obturator foramen.
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A thermographic image of an ectothermic snake wrapping around the hand of an endothermic human Information about the direct neuronal regulation of metabolic processes and circadian rhythm-controlled behaviors is not well known among either endothermic or ectothermic vertebrates, although extensive research has been done on the SCN in model animals such as the mammalian mouse and ectothermic reptiles, in particular, lizards. The SCN is known to be involved not only in photoreception through innervation from the retinohypothalamic tract but also in thermoregulation of vertebrates capable of homeothermy, as well as regulating locomotion and other behavioral outputs of the circadian clock within ectothermic vertebrates. The behavioral differences between both classes of vertebrates, when compared to the respective structures and properties of the SCN and various other nuclei proximate to the hypothalamus, provide insight into how these behaviors are the consequence of differing circadian regulation. Ultimately, many neuroethological studies must be done to completely ascertain the direct and indirect roles of the SCN on circadian- regulated behaviors of vertebrates.
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Normal activation of the left ventricle (LV) proceeds down the left bundle branch, which consist of three fascicles, the left anterior fascicle, the left posterior fascicle, and the septal fascicle. The posterior fascicle supplies the posterior and inferoposterior walls of the LV, the anterior fascicle supplies the upper and anterior parts of the LV and the septal fascicle supplies the septal wall with innervation. LAFB — which is also known as left anterior hemiblock (LAHB) — occurs when a cardiac impulse spreads first through the left posterior fascicle, causing a delay in activation of the anterior and upper parts of the LV. Although there is a delay or block in activation of the left anterior fascicle there is still preservation of initial left to right septal activation as well as preservation of the inferior activation of the LV (preservation, on the EKG, of septal Q waves in I and aVL and predominantly negative QRS complex in leads II, III, and aVF). The delayed and unopposed activation of the remainder of the LV now results in a shift in the QRS axis leftward and superiorly, causing marked left axis deviation.
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Breaking the humerus and deep puncture wounds can also cause the condition. Posterior interosseus palsy is distinguished from radial nerve palsy by the preservation of elbow extension. Symptoms vary depending on the severity and location of the trauma; however, common symptoms include wrist drop (the inability to extend the wrist upward when the hand is palm down); numbness of the back of the hand and wrist, specifically over the first web space which is innervated by the radial nerve; and inability to voluntarily straighten the fingers or extend the thumb, which is performed by muscles of the extensor group, all of which are primarily innervated by the radial nerve. Loss of wrist extension is due to paralysis of the posterior compartment of forearm muscles; although the elbow extensors are also innervated by the radial nerve, their innervation is usually spared because the compression occurs below, distal, to the level of the axillary nerve, which innervates the long head of the triceps, and the upper branches of the radial nerve that innervate the remainder of the Triceps.. Saturnine neuropathy can also be a cause of radial neuropathy (radial palsy).
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