109 Sentences With "innervating" | Random Sentence Generator

Bringing together the processed voices of industrial machines, human voices, and animals—for a result that sounds alternately revving, piercing, and shattering—it's a slow burn, innervating yet viscerally perturbing.

I will be honest with you — I do not know how people do that as a career regularly, day after day, year after year, because I found it really invigorating and thrilling, but also completely innervating.

These evolutionary predictions have been verified by comparative anatomical studies: the motor pools innervating the human hand are significantly larger than those innervating related primate hands.

The pathophysiology of the condition results from neuronal plasticity associated with bladder afferents and motor neurons innervating the external urethral sphincter.

Perl ER. Myelinated afferent fibres innervating the primate skin and their response to noxious stimuli. J. Physiol. (London) 197: 593-615, 1968.

Immunostaining allows the classification of SCG neurons as either positive or negative for neuropeptide Y (NPY), which is found in a subgroup of high-threshold neurons. Low threshold, NPY-negative neurons are secretomotor neurons, innervating salivary glands. High threshold, NPY-negative neurons are vasomotor neurons, innervating blood vessels. High threshold, NPY-positive neurons are vasoconstrictor neurons, which innervate the iris and pineal gland.

The longest lizard papillae are about 2mm long and contain 2000 hair cells and their afferent innervating fibers can be very sharply tuned to frequency.

The middle superior alveolar nerve is a nerve that drops from the infraorbital portion of the maxillary nerve to supply the sinus mucosa, the roots of the maxillary premolars, and the mesiobuccal root of the first maxillary molar. It is not always present; in 72% of cases it is non existent with the anterior superior alveolar nerve innervating the premolars and the posterior superior alveolar nerve innervating the molars, including the mesiobuccal root of the first molar.

This increase in intracellular calcium activates the TRPM5 channel and induces cellular depolarization. The ATP release channel CALHM1 gets activated by the depolarization and releases ATP neurotransmitter which activates the afferent neurons innervating the taste bud.

This requires norepinephrine to diffuse from the site it is released to the transporter for reuptake. Norepinephrine transporters are confined to the neurons of the sympathetic system, and those innervating the adrenal medulla, lung, and placenta.

The nucleus is situated in the caudal portion of the ventrolateral pontine tegmentum. Its axons take an unusual course, traveling dorsally and looping around the abducens nucleus, then traveling ventrally to exit the ventral pons medial to the spinal trigeminal nucleus. These axons form the motor component of the facial nerve, with parasympathetic and sensory components forming the intermediate nerve. The nucleus has a dorsal and ventral region, with neurons in the dorsal region innervating muscles of the upper face and neurons in the ventral region innervating muscles of the lower face.

The muscle is innervated by the posterior branch of axillary nerve where it forms a pseudoganglion. A pseudoganglion has no nerve cells but nerve fibres are present. Damage to the fibers innervating the teres minor is clinically significant.

The effectiveness of this test was subsequently investigated. The mechanism of action of this phenomenon is unclear, but has been attributed to "probably due to a functional toxic disturbance of the sympathetic post-ganglionic neuron innervating the iris".

Oxyhaemoglobin in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) causes vasoconstriction by increasing free radicals, endothelin-1, prostaglandin and reducing the level of nitric oxide and prostacyclin. Besides, the disturbances of autonomic nervous system innervating cerebral arteries is also thought to cause vasospasm.

Diagram of the segmental distribution of the cutaneous nerves of the sole of the foot The plantar nerves are a pair of nerves innervating the sole of the foot. They arise from the posterior branch of the tibial nerve.

It is essential for coordinated movement. ;Vulpian-Heidenhain-Sherrington phenomenon: Associated with Rudolf Peter Heinrich Heidenhain, Edmé Félix Alfred Vulpian, and Charles Scott Sherrington. Describes the slow contraction of denervated skeletal muscle by stimulating autonomic cholinergic fibres innervating its blood vessels.

The subclavian nerve can variably give rise to a branch which innervates the diaphragm called the accessory phrenic nerve. The accessory phrenic nerve may rather branch from the ansa cervicalis. This nerve usually joins with the phrenic nerve before innervating the diaphragm.

Transduction of neurotransmitter signals by ICC cells and activation of ionic conductances would be conducted electronically via gap junctions to surrounding smooth muscle cells and influence the excitability of tissues. Neuromuscular junction. 1. Axon innervating muscle fibers; 2. Junction between axon and muscle fiber; 3.

The pharyngeal plexus is a network of nerve fibers innervating most of the palate and pharynx. (Larynx, which is innervated by superior and recurrent laryngeal nerve from vagus nerve (CN X), is not included) It is located on the surface of the middle pharyngeal constrictor muscle.

Beam, Christopher (2009-12-11). Inorganic Milk: Can Kendra Wilkinson breast-feed her baby even though she has implants? , Slate.com. Functional breast-feeding difficulties arise if the surgeon cuts the milk ducts or the major nerves innervating the breast, or if the milk glands are otherwise damaged.

The genital branch passes through the deep inguinal ring and enters the inguinal canal. In men, the genital branch supplies the cremaster and scrotal skin. In women, the genital branch accompanies the round ligament of uterus, terminating in and innervating the skin of the mons pubis and labia majora.

The entorhinal cortex (EC) is composed of six layers. Superficial layer I consists largely of afferent fibers onto the apical dendrites of the cells in layers II-VI. Caudal levels project strongly to rostral levels. Within each EC area, deeper layers innervate superficial layers, with superficial layers innervating adjacent superficial layers.

Upon emerging from the stylomastoid foramen, the facial nerve gives rise to the posterior auricular branch. The facial nerve then passes through the parotid gland, which it does not innervate, to form the parotid plexus, which splits into five branches (temporal, zygomatic, buccal, marginal mandibular, and cervical) innervating the muscles of facial expression.

The theory gained more attraction when experimental manipulation of axon targets yielded death of all innervating neurons. This developed the concept of target derived regulation which became the main tenet in the neurotrophic theory. Experiments that further supported this theory led to the identification of the first neurotrophic factor, nerve growth factor (NGF).

Figure 8: Response of the basilar membrane to a pure tone, when there is a dead region. However, it appears that this is not the case. Dead regions cannot be clearly found via PTA audiograms. This may be because although the neurons innervating the dead region, cannot react to vibration at their characteristic frequency.

Different types of FNE can be rapidly adapting, intermediate adapting, or slowly adapting. A delta type II fibers are fast-adapting while A delta type I and C fibers are slowly adapting.Rolf-Detlef Treede, Richard A.Meyer, Srinivasa N.Raja, James N.Campbell. Evidence for two different heat transduction mechanisms in nociceptive primary afferents innervating monkey skin.

Postural hypotension is a common side effect of such drugs. Trimethaphan causes a histamine release which further lowers blood pressure. Effects on the heart include a decreased force of contraction and an increase in heart rate (tachycardia). Reflexive tachycardia can be diminished or undetected because trimetaphan is also blocking the sympathetic ganglia innervating the heart.

Neural adaptations for processing the two-note call of the Puerto Rican treefrog, Eleutherodactylus coqui. Brain, Behavior and Evolution, 17:48-66. Since the "Qui" note is a wide-band signal that sweeps upward in frequency, it appears as though the fibers innervating the female basilar papilla are better suited for detection of this component of the call.

The large cerebral ganglia are linked by a robust commissure and lie dorsal to the pedal ganglia. Anteroventrally, the robust labiotentacular nerve emerges innervating the labial tentacle. A rhinophoral ganglion is situated anterodorsally to each cerebral ganglion connected by a short, single cerebro- rhinophoral connective. The rhinophoral nerve arises from the rhinophoral ganglion extending to the rhinophore.

Hair plates function as proprioceptors. The sensory neurons innervating the hair plate may respond phasically to hair movements (rapidly adapting) or tonically to maintained deflections (slowly adapting). Thus, hair plates can encode the position and movement of an adjoining body segment. Hair plate neurons project to the insect central nervous system, where they form synapses with multiple postsynaptic partners.

The accessory nerve is responsible for innervating the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles, neither of which being exclusively in the head. For the rest of the body, spinal nerves are responsible for somatosensory information. These arise from the spinal cord. Usually these arise as a web ("plexus") of interconnected nerves roots that arrange to form single nerves.

Fibrillation also occurs with individual skeletal muscle fibers. This happens when muscle fibers lose contact with their innervating axon producing a spontaneous action potential, "fibrillation potential" that results in the muscle fiber's contraction. These contractions are not visible under the skin and are detectable through needle electromyography (EMG) and ultrasound. Fibrillations can occur in healthy individuals.

Illich, P.A and Walters, E.T., (1997). Mechanosensory neurons innervating Aplysia siphon encode noxious stimuli and display nociceptive sensitization. The Journal of Neuroscience, 17: 459-469 Neurons have been identified in a wide range of invertebrate species, including annelids, molluscs, nematodes and arthropods.Eisemann, C.H., Jorgensen, W.K., Merritt, D.J., Rice, M.J., Cribb, B.W., Webb, P.D. and Zalucki, M.P., (1984).

The evolutionary analysis also predicts large motor pools innervating the muscles of the human hand. The human innovations of tool-making, throwing motions, and clubbing motions required unprecedented manual dexterity, only made possible by extensive networks of large motor pools innervating the human hand. As Richard Young explains: > It has been proposed that the hominid lineage began when a group of > chimpanzee-like apes began to throw rocks and swing clubs at adversaries and > that this behaviour yielded reproductive advantages for millions of years, > driving natural selection for improved throwing and clubbing prowess. This > assertion leads to the prediction that the human hand should be adapted for > throwing and clubbing… thereby providing an evolutionary explanation for the > two unique grips, and the extensive anatomical remodelling of the hand that > made them possible.

As the growth cone slows down, branches begin to form through one of two modalities: splitting of the growth cone, or interstitial branching. Growth cone splitting results in bifurcation of the main axon and is associated with axon guidance and innervating multiple faraway targets. Conversely, interstitial branching increases axonal coverage locally to define its presynaptic territory. Most mammalian CNS branches extend interstitially.

In contrast, pseudobulbar palsy is a clinical syndrome similar to bulbar palsy but in which the damage is located in upper motor neurons of the corticobulbar tracts in the mid-pons (i.e., in the cranial nerves IX-XII), that is the nerve cells coming down from the cerebral cortex innervating the motor nuclei in the medulla. This is usually caused by stroke.

P. jenningsi is one of eleven species in the genus Prostoma, and can only be told from related species by dissection. Uniquely, it has eleven nerves innervating the proboscis, rather than nine or ten, as seen in other species. The specific epithet ' commemorates J. B. Jennings of the University of Leeds, a scientist who studied invertebrate digestive physiology. No taxonomic synonyms are recognised.

The autonomic nervous system is unique in that it requires a sequential two-neuron efferent pathway; the preganglionic neuron must first synapse onto a postganglionic neuron before innervating the target organ. The preganglionic, or first, neuron will begin at the “outflow” and will synapse at the postganglionic, or second, neuron's cell body. The postganglionic neuron will then synapse at the target organ.

While any (or all) of the three branches may present themselves, their constancy of location is what allows this to be defined as a distinct syndrome. One branch sets off anteriorly to the groin or pubic region. A second branch remains posterior, innervating the lower back and upper gluteal region. Thirdly a lateral take-off passed down the anterolateral thigh or trochanter region.

Or, there may be air release through the nose that is audible, as in an attempt to say "s". Articulation: Damage to the cranial nerves innervating the lips, tongue and other key muscles for making speech sounds may result in inaccurate or imprecise articulation. This may improve with rest. Other: Flaccid paralysis can cause muscles to atrophy or lose mass over time.

Breastfeeding after Breast Surgery , La Leche League, contains references.Breastfeeding and Breast Implants , Selected Bibliography April 2003, LLLI Center for Breastfeeding InformationInorganic Milk: Can Kendra Wilkinson breast-feed her baby even though she has implants? , Christopher Beam, Slate.com, 11 December 2009 Functional breast-feeding difficulties arise if the surgeon cut the milk ducts or the major nerves innervating the breast, or if the milk glands were otherwise damaged.

These antimigraine mechanisms are: # vasoconstriction of pain producing intra cranial extracerebral vessels by a direct effect on vascular smooth muscle. Sumatriptan and rizatriptan have been shown to cause vasoconstriction in the human middle meningeal arteries. # inhibition of vasoactive neuropeptide release by trigeminal terminals innervating intracranial vessels and the dura mater. The trigeminocervical complex has 5-HT1D receptors that bind dihydroergotamine and triptans in humans.

Additionally, shoes can be fitted with traditional spring- loaded braces to prevent foot drop while walking. Regular exercise is usually prescribed. Functional electrical stimulation (FES) is a technique that uses electrical currents to activate nerves innervating extremities affected by paralysis resulting from spinal cord injury (SCI), head injury, stroke and other neurological disorders. FES is primarily used to restore function in people with disabilities.

Anconeus is innervated by a branch of the radial nerve (cervical roots 7 and 8) from the posterior cord of the brachial plexus called the nerve to the anconeus. The somatomotor portion of radial nerve innervating anconeus bifurcates from the main branch in the radial groove of the humerus. This innervation pattern follows the rules of innervation of the musculature of the posterior forearm (extensor) compartment by the radial nerve.

Damages to these structures produce the ipsilateral presentation of paralysis or palsy due to the lack of cranial nerve decussation (aside from the trochlear nerve) before innervating their target muscles. The paralysis may be brief or it may last for several days, many times the episodes will resolve after sleep. Some common symptoms of alternating hemiplegia are mental impairment, gait and balance difficulties, excessive sweating and changes in body temperature.

The cells often have multiple primary dendrites innervating different glomeruli and they are sometimes called simply projection neurons, to indicate that they are the main neural element which project outside the olfactory bulb. The morphology of mitral cells was an advantage in early studies of synaptic processing, because the soma and the primary dendrite could be independently stimulated by appropriate positioning of stimulating electrodes in different layers of the olfactory bulb.

A sea hare There have been numerous studies of learning and memory using nociceptors in the sea hare, Aplysia. Many of these have focused on mechanosensory neurons innervating the siphon and having their somata (bulbous end) in the abdominal ganglion (LE cells). These LE cells display increasing discharge to increasing pressures, with maximal activation by crushing or tearing stimuli that cause tissue injury. Therefore, they satisfy accepted definitions of nociceptors.

The first five abdominal segments each have their own ganglion, that contains three roots with outward projections. The first has mixed sensory and motor nerves innervating swimmerets while the second has sensory and motor neurons that innervate the extensor muscles, while the third root contains only motor neuron projections that extend into the flexor muscles. The last segment contains the fusion of two ganglia. The ganglia here also receive sensory input from the sensitive hairs on the tail fan.

This inhibitory effect is achieved when Group III afferents synapse inhibitory interneurons that in turn synapse the alpha motor neurons innervating the antagonists muscle. The flexor reflex not only coordinates the activity of the leg being removed but also the activity of the other leg. When one leg is removed, the weight of the body needs to be distributed to the opposite leg to maintain the body’s balance. Thus, the flexor reflex incorporates a crossed extension reflex.

In addition to these changes in phonation, someone may have issues changing their pitch or loudness. Or, they may speak in short phrases, as they release more air than normal through their larynx while speaking. Resonance: Damage to the cranial nerves innervating muscles that control the velum may result in hypernasal speech. This can sound like someone is saying things through their nose, making oral sounds like "b" or "d" sound more like "m" or "n", respectively.

Early experiments showed that adrenaline increases twitch, but not tetanic force and rate of force development in muscles. It is questionable whether adrenaline, released from the adrenal medulla into the venous circulation, can reach the muscle quickly enough in order to be able to cause such an effect in the midst of a crisis. It may be that norepinephrine released from sympathetic nerve terminals directly innervating skeletal muscle has more of an effect over the timescale of seconds.

Although anatomical evidence for such an exclusive relationship is lacking at the level of single receptor and ganglion cells, the relationship between single buds and their innervating ganglion cells is tractable neuroanatomically. In taste, attempts to identify a spatial representation of taste receptors or taste qualities have revealed only an indistinct functional topography in the brain. Nevertheless, taste ganglion cells must distribute peripheral fibers to particular receptor cell types and disseminate impulses centrally in a structurally organized manner.

Like other antioxidants, it functions by ridding the body of harmful free radicals that can cause damage to tissues and organs. It has an important role in the Krebs cycle as a coenzyme leading to the production of antioxidants, intracellular glutathione, and nerve-growth factors. Animal research has also uncovered the ability of ALA to improve nerve conduction velocity. Because flavors are perceived by differences in electric potential through specific nerves innervating the tongue, idiopathic dysgeusia may be a form of a neuropathy.

These studies revealed for the first time a functional organization to the central termination pattern of unmyelinated afferents with different response profiles to skin stimulation.Sugiura Y, Lee CL, and Perl, ER. Central projections of identified, unmyelinated (C) afferent fibers innervating mammalian skin. Science 234: 358-361, 1986. Experiments performed by Christopher Honda, Siegfried Mense, and Perl in the early 1980s demonstrated that neurons located in specific areas of the cat thalamus were responsive to noxious stimulation of the skin of the hindlimb.

Oculomotor nerve palsy is an eye condition resulting from damage to the third cranial nerve or a branch thereof. As the name suggests, the oculomotor nerve supplies the majority of the muscles controlling eye movements. Thus, damage to this nerve will result in the affected individual being unable to move their eye normally. In addition, the nerve also supplies the upper eyelid muscle (levator palpebrae superioris) and It is accompanied by parasympathetic fibers innervating the muscles responsible for pupil constriction (sphincter pupillae) .

The brains of many molluscs and insects also contain substantial numbers of identified neurons. In vertebrates, the best known identified neurons are the gigantic Mauthner cells of fish. Every fish has two Mauthner cells, in the bottom part of the brainstem, one on the left side and one on the right. Each Mauthner cell has an axon that crosses over, innervating neurons at the same brain level and then travelling down through the spinal cord, making numerous connections as it goes.

Although muscles can be in a relaxed state, muscles have a general resting level of tension. This is termed muscle tone and is maintained by the motor neurons innervating the muscle. Its purpose is to maintain posture and assist in quicker movements, since if muscles were completely loose, then more neuronal firing would need to take place. The amount of tension in the muscles depends primarily on the resting level discharge of alpha motor neurons, mainly the Ia spindle afferents.

Acquired non-inflammatory myopathy (ANIM) is a neurological disorder primarily affecting skeletal muscle, most commonly in the limbs of humans, resulting in a weakness or dysfunction in the muscle. A myopathy refers to a problem or abnormality with the myofibrils, which compose muscle tissue. In general, non- inflammatory myopathies are a grouping of muscular diseases not induced by an autoimmune-mediated inflammatory pathway. These muscular diseases usually arise from a pathology within the muscle tissue itself rather than the nerves innervating that tissue.

Less abrupt or gradually intensifying stimuli evoke locomotion behavior similar to that seen in giant interneuron-mediated behaviors. However, the movements are less stereotyped and do not appear to occur in an all or nothing manner. They are so named because they lack the involvement of the giant interneurons, most likely because they do not produce depolarizations in the sensory neurons that are above the thresholds required to initiate these behaviors. Instead they involve one or a few of the smaller neurons innervating the tail.

This results in prolonged contraction/delayed relaxation of the muscle. The dysfunctional Cl− channels are located in the muscle fiber membrane and do not affect the motor nerve innervating the muscle. However, many studies have shown that denervation of muscle fibers alter the resting membrane conductance, but whether this affects myotonia in the muscle has been subject to heavy debate, and results from experiments are inconclusive. In skeletal muscle fibers, a large transverse tubule system with a high surface-area to volume ratio exists.

In human anatomy, the ulnar nerve is a nerve that runs near the ulna bone. The ulnar collateral ligament of elbow joint is in relation with the ulnar nerve. The nerve is the largest in the human body unprotected by muscle or bone, so injury is common. This nerve is directly connected to the little finger, and the adjacent half of the ring finger, innervating the palmar aspect of these fingers, including both front and back of the tips, perhaps as far back as the fingernail beds.

As a result of the corticobulbar input to the facial motor nucleus, an upper motor neuron lesion to fibers innervating the facial motor nucleus results in central seven. The syndrome is characterized by spastic paralysis of the contralateral lower face. For example, a left corticobulbar lesion results in paralysis of the muscles that control the lower right quadrant of the face. By contrast, a lower motor neuron lesion to the facial motor nucleus results in paralysis of facial muscles on the same side of the injury.

Despite damage to putative interoceptive areas of the brain, the patient was able to perceive his heartbeat with similar accuracy compared to healthy individuals; however, once lidocaine was applied to the patient's chest over the region of maximum cardiac sensation and the test was run again, the patient did not sense any change in heartbeat whatsoever. This suggested that somatosensory information from afferents innervating the skin outside of the heart may provide information to the brain about the heart's pounding through the somatosensory cortex.

The apical surface of a sensory fish hair cell usually has numerous stereocilia and a single, much longer kinocilium. Unlike mammals, the kinocilium does not regress and remains as part of the hair bundle after maturation of hair cells. Deflection of the stereocilia toward or away from the kinocilium causes an increase or decrease in the firing rate of the sensory neuron innervating the hair cell at its basal surface. Hair cells in fish and some frogs are used to detect water movements around their bodies.

Denervated muscles have shown the ability to survive after periods of denervation or in the case of a damaged nerve. The size of the nerve and its ability to function can be maintained if it is electrically stimulated soon after denervation, in clinical experiments. home-based functional electrical stimulation has been shown to rescue muscles which have experienced severe atrophy as a result of denervation. This process involves electrically stimulating the nerves innervating the affected part of the body, using electrodes placed on the skin.

The brachial plexus is a bundle of nerves innervating the shoulder and arm and can be blocked at different levels depending on the type of upper extremity surgery being performed. Interscalene brachial plexus blocks can be done before shoulder, arm, and elbow surgery. The interscalene block is done at the neck where the brachial plexus emerges between the anterior and middle scalene muscles. Lidocaine is injected first to numb the skin and then a blunt needle is used to protect the nerves from damage as the physician places the needle very close to the nerves.

In the development of mammalian visual system, axons from each eyes crosses through the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and terminate in separate layers of striate cortex. However, axons from each LGN can only be driven by one side of the eye, but not both together. These axons that terminate in layer IV of the striate cortex result in ocular dominance columns. A study shows that The density of innervating axons in layer IV from LGN can be increased by exogenous BDNF and reduced by a scavenger of endogenous BDNF.

Similarly, physical and mental stress may contribute to the occurrence of palpitation, possibly due to the depletion of certain micronutrients involved in maintaining healthy psychological and physiological function. Gastrointestinal bloating, indigestion and hiccups have also been associated with overstimulation of the vagus nerve causing palpitations, due to branches of the vagus nerve innervating the GI tract, diaphragm, and lungs. Many psychiatric conditions can result in palpitations including depression, generalized anxiety disorder, panic attacks, and somatization. However one study noted that up to 67% of patients diagnosed with a mental health condition had an underlying arrhythmia.

Each electric organ consists of 400–600 vertical columns, with each column composed of a stack of roughly 400 jelly-filled "electroplates" that essentially act like a battery. This ray has been measured producing up to 70–80 volts, and the maximum potential of the electric discharge has been estimated to be as high as 200 volts. The strength of the electric shock declines progressively as the ray becomes fatigued. Experiments in vitro have found that the nerves innervating the electric organ essentially stop functioning at temperatures below .

Whereas the stretch reflex regulates muscle length, the tendon reflex helps regulate muscle force. It helps maintain steady levels of tension and stable joints to counteract effects that reduce muscle force (such as fatigue). Because the Ib inhibitory interneurons receive convergent multisensory inputs and descending pathways, they may allow fine control of muscle forces, and may be better at protective functions. Also, because the Ib fibers connect widely with the motoneurons innervating muscles working on different joints, the Golgi tendon reflex forms part of reflex networks that control movements of the whole limb.

In using these methods to create a complete map and track the axons of a mouse muscle, it is necessary to collect tens of thousands of images and compile them into stacks to create a complete schematic. It is then possible to trace each motor axon and its synaptic contacts to construct a complete connectome of the muscle. More examples of neurons examined using the Brainbow technique in transgenic mice are located in the motor nerve innervating ear muscles, axon tracts in the brainstem, and the hippocampal dentate gyrus.

The discharge of the electric organs can reach 200 volts, and may occur singly or in bursts ("trains"). Experiments in vitro have found that the nerves innervating the electric organ essentially stop functioning at temperatures below . Winter water temperatures regularly drop below this threshold in the wild, suggesting the ray may not use its electric organs for part of the year, or has a yet-unknown physiological mechanism to adapt electric organ function to colder conditions. Solitary and nocturnal, the common torpedo spends much time resting on the sea floor, often buried in sediment.

The force produced by a single motor unit is determined in part by the number of muscle fibers in the unit. Another important determinant of force is the frequency with which the muscle fibers are stimulated by their innervating axon. The rate at which the nerve impulses arrive is known as the motor unit firing rate and may vary from frequencies low enough to produce a series of single twitch contractions to frequencies high enough to produce a fused tetanic contraction. Generally, this allows a 2 to 4-fold change in force.

In a number of cases, brain areas are organized into topographic maps, where adjoining bits of the cortex correspond to adjoining parts of the body, or of some more abstract entity. A simple example of this type of correspondence is the primary motor cortex, a strip of tissue running along the anterior edge of the central sulcus. Motor areas innervating each part of the body arise from a distinct zone, with neighboring body parts represented by neighboring zones. Electrical stimulation of the cortex at any point causes a muscle-contraction in the represented body part.

An adrenaline junkie is somebody who engages in sensation-seeking behavior through "the pursuit of novel and intense experiences without regard for physical, social, legal or financial risk". Such activities include extreme and risky sports, substance abuse, unsafe sex, and crime. The term relates to the increase in circulating levels of adrenaline during physiological stress. Such an increase in the circulating concentration of adrenaline is secondary to activation of the sympathetic nerves innervating the adrenal medulla, as it is rapid and not present in animals where the adrenal gland has been removed.

If severe or prolonged it could lead to cell death. In humans, hypoxia is detected by the peripheral chemoreceptors in the carotid body and aortic body, with the carotid body chemoreceptors being the major mediators of reflex responses to hypoxia. This response does not control ventilation rate at normal p, but below normal the activity of neurons innervating these receptors increases dramatically, so much so to override the signals from central chemoreceptors in the hypothalamus, increasing p despite a falling p In most tissues of the body, the response to hypoxia is vasodilation. By widening the blood vessels, the tissue allows greater perfusion.

In the early 1950s, Eccles and his colleagues performed the research that would lead to his receiving the Nobel Prize. To study synapses in the peripheral nervous system, Eccles and colleagues used the stretch reflex as a model, which is easily studied because it consists of only two neurons: a sensory neuron (the muscle spindle fibre) and the motor neuron. The sensory neuron synapses onto the motor neuron in the spinal cord. When a current is passed into the sensory neuron in the quadriceps, the motor neuron innervating the quadriceps produced a small excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP).

In Hymenoptera, olfactory input is layered in the calyx. In ants, several layers can be discriminated, corresponding to different clusters of glomeruli in the antennal lobes, perhaps for processing different classes of odors. There are two main groups of projection neurons dividing the antennal lobe into two main regions, anterior and posterior. Projection neuron groups are segregated, innervating glomerular groups separately and sending axons by separate routes, either through the medial-antenno protocerebral tract (m-APT) or through the lateral-antenno protocerebral tract (l-APT), and connecting with two layers in the calyx of the mushroom bodies.

The ureteric plexus is a nerve plexus covering and innervating the ureter. The plexus can be graduated into three parts, as the ureter itself can be divided: In the upper part of the ureter, the plexus gets its nerve fibers mainly from the renal plexus, but also from the abdominal aortic plexus. In the intermediate part the plexus receives nervous input from the superior hypogastric plexus and in the lower part from the inferior hypogastric plexus. The plexus contains both sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers, where the sympathetic components come from T11 to L2 levels of the spinal cord.

Muscle fibers secrete a limited amount of neurotrophic factors capable of sustaining only a fraction of the α-MNs that initially project to the muscle fiber. Those α-MNs that do not receive sufficient neurotrophic factors will undergo apoptosis, a form of programmed cell death. Because they innervate many muscles, some clusters of α-MNs receive high concentrations of neurotrophic factors and survive this stage of neuronal pruning. This is true of the α-MNs innervating the upper and lower limbs: these α-MNs form large cell columns that contribute to the cervical and lumbar enlargements of the spinal cord.

There are different types of neurons involved in innervating the lower GI tract these include: the enteric nervous system; located within the wall of the gut, and the extrinsic nervous system; comprising sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation. The enteric nervous system directly controls the gut motility, whereas, the extrinsic nerve pathways influence gut contractility indirectly through modifying this enteric innervation. In almost all cases of neurogenic bowel dysfunction it is the extrinsic nervous supply affected and the enteric nervous supply remains intact. The only exception being Parkinson's disease, as this can affect both the enteric and extrinsic innervation.

Highly refined and coordinated movements of the tongue are responsible for the intricacies of human speech. The evolutionary analysis would predict an abnormally large motor pool innervating the muscle of the human tongue, relative to those of other mammals. Such a large motor pool would allow for region-specific innervation of the tongue muscle, motor neurons with task-specificity, motor neuron specializations that allow for quick movements, and various other motor nuances necessary for producing complex speech. Anatomical analysis has validated this evolutionary prediction: in the average adult human, the motor pool for the tongue contains between 7,093 and 8,817 motor neurons.

2017, 2018 and 2019. Career Intentionality and Career Re-entry Dr Saundarya introduced the concept of Career Intentionality and Career Re-entry to Corporate India. Born as the result of research led by Dr Saundarya, Intentional Career Pathing refers to planned career pathing, especially by women, to counter unplanned attrition or off-ramping from the workplace. TEDx Talk Dr Saundarya did a TEDx talk organized at JIPMER in 2019. She spoke on the topic of Second Careers for Women – Re-innervating an important resource, in which she emphasizes the importance of women’s participation in the Indian workforce through a series of anecdotes and research.

One of these projections, the vestibulospinal tract, is responsible for upright posture and head stabilization. When the vestibular sensory neurons detect small movements of the body, the vestibulospinal tract commands motor signals to specific muscles to counteract these movements and re- stabilize the body. The vestibulospinal tract is an upper motor neuron tract consisting of two sub-pathways: :The medial vestibulospinal tract projects bilaterally from the medial vestibular nucleus within the medial longitudinal fasciculus to the ventral horns in the upper cervical cord (C6 vertebra). It promotes stabilization of head position by innervating the neck muscles, which helps with head coordination and eye movement.

One of the pathological features of the brain in the later stages of Alzheimer's disease is the presence of overgrown GAL-containing fibres innervating the surviving cholinergic neurons. Another feature is an increase in the expression of GAL and GAL receptors, in which increases of up to 200% have been observed in postmortem brains of Alzheimer's patients. The cause and role of this increase is poorly understood. It has been suggested that the hyper-innervation acts to promote the death of these neurons and that the inhibitory effect of galanin on cholinergic neurons worsened the degeneration of cognitive function in patients by decreasing the amount of acetylcholine available to these neurons.

Ocular motility should always be tested, especially when patients complain of double vision or physicians suspect neurologic disease. First, the doctor should visually assess the eyes for deviations that could result from strabismus, extraocular muscle dysfunction, or palsy of the cranial nerves innervating the extraocular muscles. Saccades are assessed by having the patient move his or her eye quickly to a target at the far right, left, top and bottom. This tests for saccadic dysfunction whereupon poor ability of the eyes to "jump" from one place to another may impinge on reading ability and other skills, whereby the eyes are required to fixate and follow a desired object.

Two pedal nerves emerge from each pedal ganglion, one in the anterior and another in the posterior part, both innervating the foot. The pleural ganglion is located posterior to the cerebral ganglion and connected to the latter and the pedal ganglion by short connectives forming the pre- pharyngeal nerve ring. The pleural ganglia are connected by very short connectives to the visceral nerve cord, so that the latter is located at the very beginning of the pharynx. There are three distinct ganglia on the short visceral nerve cord: the left parietal ganglion, the fused subintestinal/visceral ganglion and the fused right parietal/supraintestinal ganglion.

Pain-related activity in the thalamus spreads to the insular cortex (thought to embody, among other things, the feeling that distinguishes pain from other homeostatic emotions such as itch and nausea) and anterior cingulate cortex (thought to embody, among other things, the affective/motivational element, the unpleasantness of pain). Pain that is distinctly located also activates primary and secondary somatosensory cortex. In 1955, DC Sinclair and G Weddell developed peripheral pattern theory, based on a 1934 suggestion by John Paul Nafe. They proposed that all skin fiber endings (with the exception of those innervating hair cells) are identical, and that pain is produced by intense stimulation of these fibers.

Aside from their eyes, rattlesnakes are able to detect thermal radiation emitted by warm-blooded organisms in their environment. Functioning optically like a pinhole camera eye, thermal radiation in the form of infrared light passes through the opening of the pit and strikes the pit membrane located in the back wall, warming this part of the organ. Due to the high density of heat-sensitive receptors innervating this membrane, the rattlesnake can detect temperature changes of 0.003 °C or less in its immediate surroundings. Infrared cues from these receptors are transmitted to the brain by the trigeminal nerve, where they are used to create thermal maps of the snake's surroundings.

The glossopharyngeal fibers travel just anterior to the cranial nerves X and XI, which also exit the skull via the jugular foramen. Extra-cranial course and final innervation Upon exiting the skull the branchial motor fibers descend deep to the temporal styloid process and wrap around the posterior border of the stylopharyngeus muscle before innervating it. Voluntary control of the stylopharyngeus muscle Signals for the voluntary movement of stylopharyngeus muscle originate in the pre- motor and motor cortex (in association with other cortical areas) and pass via the corticobulbar tract in the genu of the internal capsule to synapse bilaterally on the ambiguus nuclei in the medulla.

Defecation involves conscious and subconscious processes, when the extrinsic nervous system is damaged either of these can be affected. Conscious processes are controlled by the somatic nervous system, these are voluntary movements for example the contraction of the striated muscle of the external anal sphincter is instructed to do so by the brain, which sends signals along the nerves innervating this muscle. Subconscious processes are controlled by the autonomic nervous system; these are involuntary movements such as contraction of the smooth muscle of the internal anal sphincter or the colon. The autonomic nervous system also provides sensory information; this could be about the level of distension within the colon or rectum.

She noted that pathological destruction of nerve cells in the ciliary ganglion that is found in all cases of Adie pupil. In her own words: : Let’s say that in a given fresh Adie’s pupil, a random 70% of the cells in the ciliary ganglion stop working; and that, in a couple of months, these neurons re-grow and randomly re-innervate both intraocular sphincters (the ciliary muscle and the iris sphincter). Some parasympathetic light-reaction neurons that were originally destined for the iris sphincter will end up innervating the ciliary muscle. But there will not be enough of them to budge that big muscle, so there will be no detectable accommodation with exposure to light.

A theory behind the condition is that nerves innervating scalp hair follicles send pain messages back to the brain when the follicle no longer has a hair in it, in a similar way to phantom limb pain. Another theory is that people who have this condition (sometimes called "ponytail syndrome") have super-sensitive nerves in their scalp. In a recent study it was hypothesised that the unpleasant sensations experienced in scalp dysesthesia are the result of a sensory neuropathy secondary to cervical spine dysfunction and chronic tension of the pericranial muscles. 16 patients were treated with a physiotherapist‐designed exercise protocol, 10 patients experienced a subjectively satisfying improvement and four had complete resolution of symptoms.

The H-reflex (or Hoffmann's reflex) is a reflectory reaction of muscles after electrical stimulation of sensory fibers (Ia afferents stemming from muscle spindles) in their innervating nerves (for example, those located behind the knee). The H-reflex test is performed using an electric stimulator, which gives usually a square-wave current of short duration and small amplitude (higher stimulations might involve alpha fibers, causing an F-wave, compromising the results), and an EMG set, to record the muscle response. That response is usually a clear wave, called H-wave, 28-35 ms after the stimulus, not to be confused with an F-wave. An M-wave, an early response, occurs 3-6 ms after the onset of stimulation.

Natural shapes of rat's mystacial pad vibrissae are well approximated by pieces of the Euler spiral. When all these pieces for a single rat are assembled together, they span an interval extending from one coiled domain of the Euler spiral to the other. Rats and mice are considered to be "whisker specialists", but marine mammals may make even greater investment in their vibrissal sensory system. Seal whiskers, which are similarly arrayed across the mystacial region, are each served by around 10 times as many nerve fibres as those in rats and mice, so that the total number of nerve cells innervating the mystacial vibrissae of a seal has been estimated to be in excess of 300,000.

In humans with weakness and low muscle tone, a muscle biopsy can help distinguish between myopathies (where the pathology is in the muscle tissue itself) and neuropathies (where the pathology is at the nerves innervating those muscles). Muscle biopsies can also help to distinguish among various types of myopathies, by microscopic analysis for differing characteristics when exposed to a variety of chemical reactions and stains. However, in some cases the muscle biopsy alone is inadequate to distinguish between certain myopathies. For example, a muscle biopsy showing the nucleus pathologically located in the center of the muscle cell would indicate "centronuclear myopathy", but research has shown that a variety of myopathies can cause these centronuclear biopsy appearance, and hence the specific genetic testing becomes increasingly important.

Every fish has two Mauthner cells, located in the bottom part of the brainstem, one on the left side and one on the right. Each Mauthner cell has an axon that crosses over, innervating (stimulating) neurons at the same brain level and then travelling down through the spinal cord, making numerous connections as it goes. The synapses generated by a Mauthner cell are so powerful that a single action potential gives rise to a major behavioral response: within milliseconds the fish curves its body into a C-shape, then straightens, thereby propelling itself rapidly forward. Functionally this is a fast escape response, triggered most easily by a strong sound wave or pressure wave impinging on the lateral line organ of the fish.

Every fish has two Mauthner cells, located in the bottom part of the brainstem, one on the left side and one on the right. Each Mauthner cell has an axon that crosses over, innervating neurons at the same brain level and then travelling down through the spinal cord, making numerous connections as it goes. The synapses generated by a Mauthner cell are so powerful that a single action potential gives rise to a major behavioral response: within milliseconds the fish curves its body into a C-shape, then straightens, thereby propelling itself rapidly forward. Functionally, this is a fast escape response, triggered most easily by a strong sound wave or pressure wave impinging on the lateral line organ of the fish.

Alpha motor neurons (α-MNs) innervating the head and neck are found in the brainstem; the remaining α-MNs innervate the rest of the body and are found in the spinal cord. There are more α-MNs in the spinal cord than in the brainstem, as the number of α-MNs is directly proportional to the amount of fine motor control in that muscle. For example, the muscles of a single finger have more α-MNs per fibre, and more α-MNs in total, than the muscles of the quadriceps, which allows for finer control of the force a finger applies. In general, α-MNs on one side of the brainstem or spinal cord innervate muscles on that same side of the body.

The earliest cited instance of the term is the French, névralgie, which, according to Rowland, was coined by François Chaussier in his 1801 Table Synoptique de la Névralgie, for "...an affection of one or more nerves causing pain which is usually of an intermittent but frequently intense character". The features and assumed etiology found in the medical literature have varied significantly over time. Various locations were proposed for the primary lesion during the nineteenth century, including nerve roots, ganglia, trunks and branches, as well as the brain and spinal cord. In 1828, JC Warren and TJ Graham placed the cause in the trunk or branch of the nerve innervating the perceived site of the pain, though Graham also attributed neuralgia to "morbid sensibility of the nervous system" due to "great disorder of the general health".

In neuroscience, an F wave is one of several motor responses which may follow the direct motor response (M) evoked by electrical stimulation of peripheral motor or mixed (sensory and motor) nerves. F-waves are the second of two late voltage changes observed after stimulation is applied to the skin surface above the distal region of a nerve, in addition to the H-reflex (Hoffman's Reflex) which is a muscle reaction in response to electrical stimulation of innervating sensory fibers. Traversal of F-waves along the entire length of peripheral nerves between the spinal cord and muscle, allows for assessment of motor nerve conduction between distal stimulation sites in the arm and leg, and related motoneurons (MN's) in the cervical and lumbosacral cord. F-waves are able to assess both afferent and efferent loops of the alpha motor neuron in its entirety.

The Inferior alveolar nerve anaesthesia or block or IANB (sometimes termed "inferior dental block", or wrongly referred to as the "mandibular block") probably is anesthetized more often than any other nerve in the body. An injection blocks sensation in the inferior alveolar nerve, which runs from the angle of the mandible down the medial aspect of the mandible, innervating the mandibular teeth, lower lip, chin, and parts of the tongue, which is effective for dental work in the mandibular arch. To anesthetize this nerve, the needle is inserted somewhat posterior to the most distal mandibular molar on one side of the mouth. The lingual nerve is also anesthetized through diffusion of the agent to produce a numb tongue as well as anesthetizing the floor of the mouth tissue, including that around the tongue side or lingual of the teeth.

This may sound contradictory with the fact that this region has higher resolution and an important role in foraging behavior. However, instead of having more sensory organs this fovea region uses a different approach in which a skin surface may be more sensitive to mechanoreceptic input; it has more innervation density. Rays 1 through 9 each has about 4 fibers per Eimer's organ, while rays 10 and 11 have significantly higher innervation densities of 5.6 and 7.1 fibers per organ, respectively, revealing how the sensory periphery is differentially specialized across the star. The myelinated fibers innervating the 11 rays were photographed and counted from an enlarged photomontage by Catania and colleagues. The total number of myelinated fibers for half of the star ranged from 53,050 to 93–94; hence the total fibers for the entire star vary from roughly 106,000 to 117,000.

George’s published papers show that the large neurons in the spinal cord supplying individual muscles are clustered together in discrete nuclei termed pools that are arranged in register with the position of the limb muscles they are programmed to innervate. Furthermore, in a now-classic paper published in 1951, Romanes showed that the pools of motor neurons innervating the muscles that act together to control a limb joint are themselves grouped together into larger clusters – thus uncovering a remarkable positional registration between a motor neuron and its target muscle. George reasoned that “all the higher parts of the central nervous system would be organized in a similar basic way “, a premise that is now gathering experimental support. His contemporaries used the utility of his maps to identify the pathognomonic lesions of motoneurones seen in the polio epidemic which was sweeping the USA.

Another important facet of the T-type voltage gated calcium channel is its fast voltage- dependent inactivation compared to that of other calcium channels. Therefore, while they help provide stronger and quicker depolarization of cardiac muscle cells and thalamus nerve cells, T-type channels also allow for more frequent depolarization events. This is very important in the heart in the simple fact that the heart is better apt to increase its rate of firing when stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system innervating its tissues. Although all of these functions of the T-type voltage gated calcium channel are important, quite possibly the most important of its functions is its ability to generate potentials that allow for rhythmic bursts of action potentials in cardiac cells of the sinoatrial node of the heart and in the thalamus of the brain.

Building on John Paul Nafe's 1934 suggestion that different cutaneous qualities are the product of different temporal and spatial patterns of stimulation, and ignoring a large body of strong evidence for receptor fiber specificity, DC Sinclair and G Weddell's 1955 "peripheral pattern theory" proposed that all skin fiber endings (with the exception of those innervating hair cells) are identical, and that pain is produced by intense stimulation of these fibers. In 1953, Willem Noordenbos had observed that a signal carried from the area of injury along large diameter "touch, pressure or vibration" fibers may inhibit the signal carried by the thinner "pain" fibers — the ratio of large fiber signal to thin fiber signal determining pain intensity; hence, we rub a smack. This was taken as a demonstration that pattern of stimulation (of large and thin fibers in this instance) modulates pain intensity.

They are noninvasive, easy to apply, and generally inexpensive. Until recently the common belief in the FES field has been that due to the electrode-skin contact impedance, skin and tissue impedance, and current dispersion during stimulation, much higher- intensity pulses are required to stimulate nerves using surface stimulation electrodes as compared to the subcutaneous electrodes. (This statement is correct for all commercially available stimulators except MyndMove stimulator, which has implemented a new stimulation pulse that allows the stimulator to generate muscle contractions without causing discomfort during stimulation, which is a common problem with commercially available transcutaneous electrical stimulation systems.) A major limitation of the transcutaneous electrical stimulation is that some nerves, for example those innervating the hip flexors, are too profound to be stimulated using surface electrodes. This limitation can be partly addressed by using arrays of electrodes, which can use several electrical contacts to increase selectivity.

The neurotrophic theory is the leading hypothesis used to explain the role of programmed cell death in the developing nervous system. It postulates that in order to ensure optimal innervation of targets, a surplus of neurons is first produced which then compete for limited quantities of protective neurotrophic factors and only a fraction survive while others die by programmed cell death. Furthermore, the theory states that predetermined factors regulate the amount of neurons that survive and the size of the innervating neuronal population directly correlates to the influence of their target field. The underlying idea that target cells secrete attractive or inducing factors and that their growth cones have a chemotactic sensitivity was first put forth by Santiago Ramon y Cajal in 1892. Cajal presented the idea as an explanation for the “intelligent force” axons appear to take when finding their target but admitted that he had no empirical data.

Autogenic inhibition refers to a reduction in excitability of a contracting or stretched muscle, that in the past has been solely attributed to the increased inhibitory input arising from Golgi tendon organs (GTOs) within the same muscle. It was first thought GTOs only had protective function which was to prevent muscles from damages because of the assumptions that they always inhibited motoneurons and that they fired only under high tension. But it is now known that GTOs signal muscle tension continuously providing precise information about muscle force, that the reflex pathway has multisensory inputs that may allow precise control of muscle forces for fine activities, and that Ib fibers connect widely with motoneurons innervating muscles acting on different joints, which when complemented with their reflex pathways, are part of reflex networks that control movements of the whole limbs. The reduced efferent (motor) drive to the muscle by way of autogenic inhibition is a factor historically believed to assist target muscle elongation, although current literature casts doubt on this hypothesis.