Valleys and basins and rivers long dry point to the planet's hydrous past.
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So-called flex-fuel cars in Brazil operate on gasoline or hydrous ethanol.
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Hydrous ethanol sales rose 42 percent as mills sought to escape low global sugar prices.
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The rest was consumed by ethanol production as sales of hydrous ethanol, the type that competes with gasoline at pumps.
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"We almost doubled hydrous ethanol production from last year to this," Luiz Gustavo Junqueira, innovation manager at Usina Batatais, told Reuters.
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Sales of hydrous ethanol, the type used by flex-fuel cars popular in Brazil, jumped 14 percent in Brazil's center-south in the first half of August.
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The company said it will have capacity to produce 200 million liters of hydrous ethanol and 140,000 tonnes of DDGS (Distiller's Dried Grains with Solubles) per year.
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Eventually, they hope to connect users to organizations like the coral nonprofit the Hydrous, which provided the 3D-printed coral used at FoST, and find museum and education partners.
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Product mix also includes sale of hydrous, anhydrous, industrial ethanol and sanitizers, with the domestic ethanol market becoming more volatile following Petroleo Brasileiro S/A's (Petrobras) new fuel pricing policy.
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"But if sugar mix advances to 42%, adding about 1.6 million tonnes of sugar to the market, or to 44%, adding 3.2 million tonnes of sugar, we shall cut hydrous demand more," Covrig said.
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The commodities eligible to be included in the index in 2017 are the ones whose future contracts are already traded at B3: crystal sugar, cattle, arabica coffee, hydrous ethanol, corn, gold, oil and soy.
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Unica said sales of hydrous ethanol, used by flex fuel vehicles popular in Brazil that can operate on gasoline or the biofuel, jumped 14 percent in the first half of August from the second half of July.
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Martinho Ono, a director at Sao Paulo-based ethanol brokerage SCA Etanol do Brasil, said some sugar and ethanol makers in Brazil are converting anhydrous ethanol - the type primarily produced in the United States - into the hydrous variety more common in Brazil.
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KEY ASSUMPTIONS --Sugar prices at USD19 cents/pound in 2017/2018 and average prices of USD17 cents/pound from then on; --The combination of oil prices and the FX rate will lead Petrobras to keep increasing domestic gasoline prices, paving the way for a gradual increase in hydrous ethanol prices; -- Average crushed volumes of 4.4 million tons in the projected period; --Additional capex needed to put the new sugar factory on stream and to increase Usina Otavio Lage crushed volumes to 2.2 million tons by the 2018/0003 season from the current 1.8 million tons; --Higher presence of sugar in the product mix relative to historical levels due to the coming on stream of the new sugar factory and maintenance of high premiums for organic sugar.
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According to Dana, it is cimolite, a hydrous silicate of aluminium.
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E85 is commonly used in the U.S. and Europe for flexible-fuel vehicles. Hydrous ethanol or E100 is used in Brazilian neat ethanol vehicles and flex-fuel light vehicles and hydrous E15 called hE15 for modern petrol cars in the Netherlands.
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Nominally anhydrous minerals (NAMs) are minerals with only trace to minor amounts of hydrous components. The hydrous material occurs only at crystal defects. NAMs chemical formulas are normally written without hydrogen. NAMs such as olivine and orthopyroxene account for a large proportion in the mantle volume.
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This mixture is called hydrous ethanol and can be used as a fuel alone, but unlike anhydrous ethanol, hydrous ethanol is not miscible in all ratios with gasoline, so the water fraction is typically removed in further treatment to burn in combination with gasoline in gasoline engines.
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Hydrous ferric oxides, also called hydrous iron oxides and iron(III) oxide- hydroxides are hydrous oxide inorganic compounds. They may be found as a class of minerals that form from the weathering of minerals that contain iron (Fe) and hydroxides (OH−), and weakly bound water. They are poorly crystalline, highly porous and have large surface areas. They usually occur as very small particles and tend to become more crystalline as they age because they are thermodynamically unstable.
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Most metamorphic phase transitions that occur within the subducting slab are prompted by the dehydration of hydrous mineral phases. The breakdown of hydrous mineral phases typically occurs at depths greater than 10 km. Each of these metamorphic facies is marked by the presence of a specific stable mineral assemblage, recording the metamorphic conditions undergone but the subducting slab. Transitions between facies causes hydrous minerals to dehydrate at certain pressure-temperature conditions and can therefore be tracked to melting events in the mantle beneath a volcanic arc.
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Hydrous pyrolysis refers to the thermal decomposition which takes place when organic compounds are heated to high temperatures in the presence of water. Many hydrous pyrolysis processes use superheated water in the liquid phase, whereas steam cracking uses water in the gas phase. Steam cracking is used in the petroleum industry to produce the lighter alkenes and in many cases also substantial atmospheric carbon dioxide. Hydrous pyrolysis may be a significant process in the creation of fossil fuels.Pennisi, Elizabeth, Surreptitiously converting dead matter into oil and coal - Water, Water Everywhere, Science News, February 20, 1993.
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Serpentine is also an important hydrous phase (13 wt% H2O) that is only present in oceanic crust created at a slow spreading ridge where ultramafic rocks are emplaced at shallow levels. Lawsonite does not release water until approximately 300 km depth and is the last hydrous mineral to do so. Metamorphic dehydration reactions are prominent within the subducting slab during subduction, giving rise to liquid phases that contain of fluid-mobile trace elements due to the breakdown of hydrous minerals such as phengite, lawsonite and zoisite. This creates a unique type of trace element distribution pattern for arc magma.
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Brophy, G.P. & Kerr, P.F. (1953): Hydrous uranium molybdate in Marysvale ore. Annual Report June 30, 1952 - April 1, 1953 U.S.Atomic Energy Comm., RME-3046, 45-51.
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Ultimate sources of this magmatic water includes water and hydrous minerals in rocks melted during subduction as well as primordial water brought up from the deep mantle.
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Hazenite is a hydrous phosphate mineral with chemical formula of , therefore a hydrous alkali magnesium phosphate. It is a member of the struvite group. It was first described for an occurrence adjacent to Mono Lake, California, and named after Robert M. Hazen of the Carnegie Institute. It was approved as a new mineral on February 28, 2008 by the Commission on New Minerals of the International Mineralogical Association.
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Blueschist containing the sodic blue amphibole, glaucophane Blueschist facies is characterized by the formation of a sodic, blue amphibole, namely, glaucophane, for which the blueschist facies is named. Lawsonite is also diagnostic of blueschist facies and occurs in association with glaucophane. Glaucophane forming reactions are listed below. Glaucophane producing reactions are significant because they can either release water or produce the hydrous phase, lawsonite through the breakdown of hydrous phyllosilicates.
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Picromerite (synonyms: schoenite, schönite) is a mineral from the class of hydrous sulfates lacking additional anions, and containing medium to large cations according to the Nickel-Strunz classification.
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Every year, 1–2 x 10 trillion kilograms of water descend into subduction zones. Approximately 90–95% of that water is contained in hydrous minerals, including mica, phengite, amphibole, lawsonite, chlorite, talc, zoisite, and serpentine. The most significant hydrous minerals are lawsonite (11 wt% H2O), phlogopite (2 wt% H2O) and amphibole (2 wt% H2O). Phlogopite does not release water until approximately 200 km depth whereas amphibole releases water at approximately 75 km depth.
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The common mineral gypsum is a hydrous sulfate mineral that readily alters to the anhydrous sulfate aptly named anhydrite with prolonged desiccation. :CaSO4·2H2O <=> CaSO4 This is a reversible reaction.
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HB.25 (IUPAC: iron diuranyl tetrahydro tungstanate dodecahydrate) #Urea (IMA1972-031) 10.CA.35 #Uricite (IMA1973-055) 10.CA.40 (IUPAC: uric acid) #Uroxite (hydrous uranyl oxalate: IMA2018-100) 10.
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DK.10 (IUPAC: calcium tetramanganese(II) tetradecaoxopentasilicate dihydroxyl monohydrate) #Santafeite (hydrous vanadate: 1958) 8.DM.40 #Santanaite (IMA1971-035) 7.FB.10 (IUPAC: undecalead chromium hexadecaoxide) #Santarosaite (IMA2007-013) 6.
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A wide range of Fe(III)-bearing minerals have been observed to function as terminal electron acceptors, including magnetite, hematite, goethite, lepidocrocite, ferrihydrite, hydrous ferric oxide, smectite, illite, jarosite, among others.
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The observations are in line with the fact that hydrous ethanol is known for being less corrosive than anhydrous ethanol. The reaction mechanism will be the same at lower-mid blends.
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Germanium(II) hydroxide, normally written as Ge(OH)2, is a poorly characterised compound, sometimes called hydrous germanium(II) oxide or germanous hydroxide. It was first reported by Winkler in 1886.
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One mL of each strength contains 0.94% sodium citrate hydrous, 1.26% citric acid anhydrous; pH is adjusted, if necessary, with hydrochloric acid. The 10 mg/mL strength contains 0.2% sodium chloride.
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Buserite is a type of hydrous oxide mineral. Its chemical formula is Na4Mn14O27 · 21H2O. It has to be kept in water to keep its form, and is normally found in streambeds.
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These sediments are progressively squeezed as they are subducted, reducing void space and forcing fluids out along the decollement and up into the overlying forearc, which may or may not have an accretionary prism. Sediments accreted to the forearc are another source of fluids. Water is also bound in hydrous minerals, especially clays and opal. Increasing pressure and temperature experienced by subducted materials converts the hydrous minerals to denser phases that contain progressively less structurally bound water.
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Sulfates can also be found in hydrothermal vein systems associated with sulfides,, pp. 456–57 or as oxidation products of sulfides., p. 674 Sulfates can be subdivided into anhydrous and hydrous minerals.
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Dudleyite is a mineral, named after Dudleyville, Alabama. It is a vermiculite, hydrous mica, derived from margarite,Oxford English Dictionary, Vol 3, page 704, col. a. (1933) Oxford University Press or phlogopite.
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This implies that at ambient conditions VP and VS of hydrous forsterite are slower than those of anhydrous one; conversely, with increasing pressure, and consequently depth, VP and VS of hydrous forsterite exceed those of anhydrous one. In addition hydration decreases the VP/VS ratio of forsterite, the maximum compressional wave azimuthal anisotropy and the maximum shear wave splitting. These data help us to constrain Earth's mantle composition and distinguish regions of hydrogen enrichment from regions of high temperature or partial melt.
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Example of public gas station with hE15 next to diesel and regular gasoline in the Netherlands. A 15% hydrous ethanol and 85% gasoline blend, hE15, has been introduced at public gas stations in the Netherlands since 2008. Ethanol fuel specifications worldwide traditionally dictate use of anhydrous ethanol (less than 1% water) for gasoline blending. This results in additional costs, energy usage and environmental impacts associated with the extra processing step required to dehydrate the hydrous ethanol produced via distillation (3.5-4.9 vol.
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EA.05 (IUPAC: hexauranyl decahydro sulfate pentahydrate) #Metauranospinite (8.EB.: IMA2007 s.p., 1958) 8.EB.10 (IUPAC: calcium diuranyl diarsenate octahydrate) #Metauroxite (hydrous uranyl oxalate: IMA2019-030) 10.0 [no] [no] #Metavandendriesscheite (Y: 1960) 4.
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Both pyrolysis of propane and closed-system hydrous pyrolysis of organic matter generate methane of T_{18} consistent with experimental temperatures. Closed-system nonhydrous pyrolysis of coal yields non-equilibrium distribution of methane isotopologues.
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It is a hydrous alumino-silicate. It is chemically inert, has high melting point and low electrical conductivity. It is used in refractories, foundry dressings, pesticides, ceramics and rubber. It is available as hydrothermal deposits.
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As a versatile tool for characterizing elastic properties of solid materials, RUS has found applications in a variety of fields. In geosciences one of the most important applications is related to the determination of seismic velocities in the Earth's interior. In a recent work, for example, the elastic constants of hydrous forsterite were measured up to 14.1 GPa at ambient temperature. This study showed that aggregate bulk and shear moduli of hydrous forsterite increase with pressure at a greater rate than those of the corresponding anhydrous phase.
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Marshall, A. T. & Morris, J. M. (2006) A Watery Solution and Sustainable Energy Parks , CIWM Journal, pp. 22–23 Fast pyrolysis is also investigated for biomass conversions. Fuel bio-oil can also be produced by hydrous pyrolysis.
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Another study found δD values around -140‰ in muscovite in the North America Cordillera during the early Eocene, which would suggest an elevation 1000m higher than today at the time. In addition to hydrous minerals, hydrogen isotopes in biomarkers such as leaf waxes have also been developed for paleoaltimetry studies. The δD lapse rate in leaf waxes (-21‰/km) falls in the range of meteoric water observations. As an example study, leaf wax δD data have been used to confirm hydrous mineral paleoaltimetry for the high elevation of the Sierra Nevada during the Eocene.
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Ferrimolybdite is a hydrous iron molybdate mineral with formula: Fe3+2(MoO4)3·8(H2O) or Fe3+2(MoO4)3·n(H2O). It forms coatings and radial aggregates of soft yellow needles which crystallize in the orthorhombic system.
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In natural systems, secondary minerals may form as a byproduct of bacterial metal reduction. Commonly observed secondary minerals produced during experimental bio-reduction by dissimilatory metal reducers include magnetite, siderite, green rust, vivianite, and hydrous Fe(II)-carbonate.
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Ellsworthite is heavily abundant in uranium, niobium and titanium oxides. It is very uranium, thorium, and water rich. One can consider Betafite as a hydrous uranium pyrochlore.Hogarth D.D. (1961) A study of Pyrochlore and Betafite, volume 6, issue 5.
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This is a transformation of the mineral anhydrite > (anhydrous calcium sulphate) into gypsum (hydrous calcium sulphate). A pre- > condition for this transformation is that the anhydrite is in contact with > water, which is then stored in its crystalline structure.
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Like niobium, tantalum is barely soluble in dilute solutions of hydrochloric, sulfuric, nitric and phosphoric acids due to the precipitation of hydrous Ta(V) oxide. In basic media, Ta can be solubilized due to the formation of polyoxotantalate species.
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It strongly smells of chlorine, owing to its slow decomposition in moist air. It is not highly soluble in hard water, and is more preferably used in soft to medium-hard water. It has two forms: dry (anhydrous); and hydrated (hydrous).
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Inesite is a hydrous calcium manganese silicate mineral. Its chemical formula is Ca2Mn7Si10O28(OH)2•5(H2O). Inesite is an inosilicate with a triclinic crystal system. It has a Mohs hardness of 5.5 to 6, and a specific gravity of 3.0.
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Hydrokenoelsmoreite is a hydrous tungsten oxide mineral with formula □2W2O6(H2O). Hydrokenoelsmoreite is a colorless to white, translucent isometric mineral. It has a Mohs hardness of 3, exhibits no cleavage and has a splintery fracture. It has a vitreous to adamantine luster.
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Microbial degradation of organic carbon sorbed to phyllosilicate clays with and without hydrous iron oxide coating. European Journal of Soil Science 66: 83–94. It also depends on SOM fractions (e.g., stabilized organic molecules and microbial biomass) by mineralization and immobilization processes.
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Originally used in medication, it has also been used as a pigment, as a poliment or base for gilding, and for other uses. It is red due to the presence of iron oxide; the clay also contains hydrous silicates of aluminum and possibly magnesium.
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Goldschmidt, V. (1913) Atlas der Krystallformen. 9 volumes, atlas, and text, 1: 194.Larsen, E.S. and Glenn (1920) “Some minerals of the melanterite and chalcanthite groups with optical data on the hydrous sulphates of manganese and cobalt“. American Journal of Science, 50: 225-233.
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In low temperature, thus, hydrous Mg-carbonates (hydromagnesite, nesquehonite etc.) form. It is possible to convert these phases into magnesite by changing temperature by mineral dissolution- precipitation or dehydration. While so happens, an isotope effect associated can control the isotopic composition of precipitated magnesite.
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A demonstration plant is due to start up in The Netherlands said to be capable of processing 64 tons of biomass (dry basis) per day into oil. Thermal depolymerisation differs in that it contains a hydrous process followed by an anhydrous cracking / distillation process.
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Thuringite is a variety of the chlorite mineral chamosite, a hydrous iron and aluminium silicate mineral. It is usually found as small green scales deposited on other minerals, particularly to which it is closely related. It is named after the German state of Thuringia.
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Individual minerals may contain only a very low content of OH but their total weight can contribute significant as the H2O reservoir on Earth and other terrestrial planets. The low concentration of hydrous components (OH and H2O) can be analyzed with Fourier Transform spectrometer due to its high sensitivity. Water is thought to have significant role in affecting mantle rheology, either by hydrolytic weakening to the mineral structure or by lowering the partial melt temperature. The presence of hydrous components within NAMs can therefore (1) provide information on the crystallization and melting environment in the initial mantle; (2) reconstruct the paleoenvironment of early terrestrial planet.
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As garnierite is not a valid mineral name according to the Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification (CNMNC), no definite composition or formula has been universally adopted. Some of the proposed compositions are all hydrous Ni-Mg silicates,Faust, G.T. (1966) The hydrous nickel-magnesium silicates – The garnierite group. The American Mineralogist, 51, 279-298. a general name for the Ni-Mg hydrosilicates which usually occur as an intimate mixture and commonly includes two or more of the following minerals: serpentine, talc, sepiolite, smectite, or chlorite,Brindley, G.W. and Hang, P.T. (1973) The nature of garnierites – I Structures, chemical compositions and color characteristics.
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Ferrous and ferric iron are components in many minerals, especially within sandstones. Fe2+ is in clay, carbonates, sulfides, and is even within feldspars in small amounts. Fe3+ is in oxides, hydrous, anhydrous, and in glauconites.Pettijohn, Potter, and Siever, 1987, Sand and Sandstone, Springer-Verlag Publishing Inc.
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Three different ethanol blends are sold in the Netherlands—E5, E10 and hE15. The last of these differs from standard ethanol–gasoline blends in that it consists of 15% hydrous ethanol (i.e., the ethanol–water azeotrope) instead of the anhydrous ethanol traditionally used for blending with gasoline.
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It is also readily prone to hydrolysis and is barely soluble in dilute solutions of hydrochloric, sulfuric, nitric and phosphoric acids due to the precipitation of hydrous Nb oxide. Nb(V) is also slightly soluble in alkaline media due to the formation of soluble polyoxoniobate species.
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For the second stage (cracking), Lemley reports a temperature of about . The EROEI [Energy Returned On Energy Invested] of these processes is uncertain and/or has not been measured. Furthermore, products of hydrous pyrolysis might not meet current fuel standards. Further processing may be required to produce fuels.
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Ellsworthite has complex hydrous oxides of , , , , with hydroxyl and fluorine; it may contain as much as 17% .Bates, R.G., Wedow Jr, H. (1953). Preliminary summary review of Thorium- Bearing mineral occurrence in Alaska. Geological Survey bulletin 202 It is composed of calcium, uranium, titanium, niobium, tantalum, and oxygen.
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Geigerite is a mineral, a complex hydrous manganese arsenate with formula: Mn5(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2·10H2O. It forms triclinic pinacoidal, vitreous, colorless to red to brown crystals. It has a Mohs hardness of 3 and a specific gravity of 3.05. It was discovered in Grischun, Switzerland in 1989.
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Tachyhydrite is an unstable mineral, a hydrous chloride of calcium and magnesium with formula: CaMg2Cl6·12H2O. It is a rare component of marine evaporite salt deposits. Upon exposure to moist air it rapidly deliquesces and dissolves. It forms a colorless to yellow trigonal crystal with a vitreous luster.
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Psilomelane is a group name for hard black manganese oxides including hollandite and romanechite. Psilomelane consists of hydrous manganese oxide with variable amounts of barium and potassium. Psilomelane is erroneously, and uncommonly, known as black hematite, despite not being related to true hematite, which is an iron oxide.
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Generalized formula may be represented as Ba(Mn2+)(Mn4+)8O16(OH)4 or as (Ba,H2O)2Mn5O10. It is sometimes considered to be a hydrous manganese manganate, but of doubtful composition. The amount of manganese present corresponds to 70-80% of manganous oxide with 10-15% of available oxygen.
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For experiments, hydrous ringwoodite has been synthesized by mixing powders of forsterite (), brucite (), and silica () so as to give the desired final elemental composition. Putting this under 20 gigapascals of pressure at for three or four hours turns this into ringwoodite, which can then be cooled and depressurized.
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Glossary of Terms: I It is a water-assisted transport in a basically vertical direction, as compared to alluviation, the horizontal running water transfer. The resulting deposits are called illuvial deposits. Cutans are a type of illuvial deposit. Illuvium includes organic matter, silicate clay, and hydrous oxides of iron and aluminum.
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With the calc-alkaline series, however, the precipitation of magnetite causes the iron-magnesium ratio to remain relatively constant, so the magma moves in a straight line towards the alkali corner on the AFM diagram. Calc-alkaline magmas are typically hydrous, and also typically are more oxidized, with higher oxygen fugacities.
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Zippeite is a hydrous potassium uranium sulfate mineral with formula: K4(UO2)6(SO4)3(OH)10·4(H2O). It forms yellow to reddish brown monoclinic- prismatic crystals with perfect cleavage. The typical form is as encrustations and pulverulent earthy masses. It forms as efflorescent encrustations in underground uranium mines.
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Marcasite reacts more readily than pyrite under conditions of high humidity. The product of this disintegration is iron(II) sulfate and sulfuric acid. The hydrous iron sulfate forms a white powder consisting of the mineral melanterite, FeSO4·7H2O. This disintegration of marcasite in mineral collections is known as "pyrite decay".
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Spencer, L.J., F.A. Bannister, M.H. Hey, and H. Bennett (1943) Minyulite (hydrous K-Al fluophosphate) from South Australia. Mineralogical Magazine, 26, 309–314. It has three refractive indices which are nα=1.531 nβ=1.534 nγ=1.538.Simpson, E.S., and Le Mesurier, C.R.(1933)Minyulite: a new phosphate mineral from Dandaragn.
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Cold seeps constitute a biome supporting several endemic species. Cold seeps develop unique topography over time, where reactions between methane and seawater create carbonate rock formations and reefs. These reactions may also be dependent on bacterial activity. Ikaite, a hydrous calcium carbonate, can be associated with oxidizing methane at cold seeps.
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1942 - (and Rowland, R. A.) Differential thermal analysis of clay minerals and other hydrous materials, Part 1: American Mineralogist, v. 27, p. 746-781; Part 2: p. 801-818. 1947 - Relation of clay mineralogy to origin and recovery of petroleum: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 31, p. 1491-1499.
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Current topography of Sumbawa The estimated volcanic ashfall regions during the 1815 eruption. The red areas show thickness of volcanic ash fall. The outermost region ( thickness) reached Borneo and Sulawesi. Mount Tambora experienced several centuries of dormancy before 1815, caused by the gradual cooling of hydrous magma in its closed magma chamber.
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Clinoclase is a hydrous copper arsenate mineral, Cu3AsO4(OH)3. Clinoclase is a rare secondary copper mineral and forms acicular crystals in the fractured weathered zone above copper sulfide deposits. It occurs in vitreous, translucent dark blue to dark greenish blue colored crystals and botryoidal masses. The crystal system is monoclinic 2/m.
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Scawtite is a hydrous calcium silicate mineral with carbonate, formula: Ca7(Si3O9)2CO3·2H2O. It crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system as thin plates or flat prisms. Scawtite was first described in 1929 for an occurrence at Scawt Hill in Northern Ireland. Scawtite occurs as in skarns and hydrothermal veins in limestone.
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Gay Head cliffs in Martha's Vineyard consist almost entirely of clay. Clay is a type of fine-grained natural soil material that contains hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates (clay minerals) that develops plasticity when wet.Olive, W.W.; Chleborad, A.F.; Frahme, C.W.; Shlocker, Julius; Schneider, R.R. & Schuster, R.L. (1989). Swelling Clays Map of the Conterminous United States.
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Tungstite is a hydrous tungsten oxide mineral with formula: WO3·H2O. It is a secondary mineral formed by the weathering of other tungsten containing minerals. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system in translucent yellow to yellow green masses. It is clay-like with Mohs hardness of 2.5 and a specific gravity of 5.5.
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2nd Edition, page 381. These granites are produced by partial melting of refractory lithology such as granulites in the lower continental crust at high thermal gradients. This leads to significant extraction of hydrous felsic melts from granulite-facies resitites. A-type granites occur in the Koettlitz Glacier Alkaline Province in the Royal Society Range, Antarctica.
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Stale urine, known as wash, was a source of ammonium salts and assisted in cleansing and whitening the cloth. By the medieval period, fuller's earth had been introduced for use in the process. This is a soft clay-like material occurring naturally as an impure hydrous aluminium silicate. It was used in conjunction with wash.
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Melanterite is a mineral form of hydrous iron(II) sulfate: FeSO4·7H2O. It is the iron analogue of the copper sulfate chalcanthite. It alters to siderotil by loss of water. It is a secondary sulfate mineral which forms from the oxidation of primary sulfide minerals such as pyrite and marcasite in the near-surface environment.
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Magnesite forms as surface moulds in such conditions but more generally occur as hydrous Mg- carbonates since their precipitation is kinetically favored. Most of the times, they derive C from DIC or nearby ultramafic complexes (e.g., Altin Playa, British Columbia, Canada). Magnesites in metamorphic rocks, on the other hand, indicate very high temperature of formation.
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Fuller's earth consists primarily of hydrous aluminum silicates (clay minerals) of varying composition. Common components are montmorillonite, kaolinite, and attapulgite. Small amounts of other minerals may be present in fuller's earth deposits, including calcite, dolomite, and quartz. In some localities fuller's earth refers to calcium bentonite, which is altered volcanic ash composed mostly of montmorillonite.
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Evidence supports that the force of gravity will increase plate velocity. As the relatively cool subducting slab sinks deeper into the mantle, it is heated causing dehydration of hydrous minerals. This releases water into the hotter asthenosphere, which leads to partial melting of asthenosphere and volcanism. Both dehydration and partial melting occurs along the isotherm, generally at depths of .
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The chemical composition of geigerite is hydrous manganese arsenate (Mn5(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2·10H2O). The chemical composition was found by using an electron microprobe in the Falotta mines in Switzerland.Graeser, S.; Schwander, H.; Bianchi, R.; Pilati, T.; Gramaccioli, C. M. (1989): Geigerite, the manganese analogue of chudobaite: Its description and crystal structure. American Mineralogist: 74, 676-684.
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Alum-(K) is a hydrous potassium aluminium sulfate mineral with formula KAl(SO4)2·12(H2O). It is the mineral form of potassium alum and is referred to as potassium alum in older sources. It is a member of the alum group.Alum-(K) on Mindat It occurs as colorless to white, soft isometric crystals and efflorescence coatings.
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Underclay which consists of siliceous refractory clay rich in hydrous aluminium silicates, is also called fireclay. Just as not all underclays are fireclays, not all fireclays are underclays.United States Bureau of Mines and American Geological Institute, 1996, Dictionary of mining And mineral-related terms. Mines Bureau Special Publication SP 96-1, 2nd ed, United States Bureau of Mines.
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Mirabilite, also known as Glauber's salt, is a hydrous sodium sulfate mineral with the chemical formula Na2SO4·10H2O. It is a vitreous, colorless to white monoclinic mineral that forms as an evaporite from sodium sulfate-bearing brines. It is found around saline springs and along saline playa lakes. Associated minerals include gypsum, halite, thenardite, trona, glauberite, and epsomite.
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Epsomite is a hydrous magnesium sulfate mineral with formula MgSO4·7H2O. Epsomite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system as rarely found acicular or fibrous crystals, the normal form is as massive encrustations. It is colorless to white with tints of yellow, green and pink. The Mohs hardness is 2 to 2.5 and it has a low specific gravity of 1.67.
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Nakhla is the first Martian meteorite to show signs of aqueous processes on Mars. The rock contains carbonates and hydrous minerals, formed by chemical reactions in water. Also, the rock was exposed to water after it formed, which caused secondary accumulations of minerals. The carbonates contain more 13C than rocks formed on Earth, indicating Martian origin.
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It turns out that the chemistry of erupted basalts associated with the MTJ are typical of mantle wedge–derived melts, characterized by enrichment in the large-ion lithophile elements and depletion in the high-field-strength elements. In general, mantle wedge-derived melts are relatively more hydrous, have lower viscosity and temperatures than melts derived from sub-slab mantle.
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The BEST project targets included the introduction of more than 10,000 flex-fuel or ethanol cars and 160 ethanol buses; to promote the opening of 135 E85 and 13 ED95 public fuel stations; and to promote the development and testing of hydrous E15 and anhydrous low ethanol blends with gasoline and diesel. Abstract also presented in English.
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When mixed with water they create hydrous aluminum silica that is plastic and moldable. During the firing process the clays lose their water and become a hardened ceramic body. Fluxes add oxygen when they burn to create more uniform melting of the silica particles throughout the body of the ceramic. This increases the strength of the material.
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Lawsonite is a hydrous calcium aluminium sorosilicate mineral with formula CaAl2Si2O7(OH)2·H2O. Lawsonite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system in prismatic, often tabular crystals. Crystal twinning is common. It forms transparent to translucent colorless, white, and bluish to pinkish grey glassy to greasy crystals. Refractive indices are nα=1.665, nβ=1.672 - 1.676, and nγ=1.684 - 1.686.
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Sodium ferrocyanide is the sodium salt of the coordination compound of formula [Fe(CN)6]4−. In its hydrous form, Na4Fe(CN)6 (sodium ferrocyanide decahydrate), it is sometimes known as yellow prussiate of soda. It is a yellow crystalline solid that is soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol. The yellow color is the color of ferrocyanide anion.
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Natural forms of zinc phosphate include minerals hopeite and parahopeite. A somewhat similar mineral is natural hydrous zinc phosphate called tarbuttite, Zn2(PO4)(OH). Both are known from oxidation zones of Zn ore beds and were formed through oxidation of sphalerite by the presence of phosphate-rich solutions. The anhydrous form has not yet been found naturally.
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When dissolved, iron(III) nitrate forms yellow solution due to hydrolysis. When heated to near boiling, nitric acid will evaporate from the solution, and all the iron will precipitate as iron(III) oxide .Egon Matijević and Paul Scheiner (1978): "Ferric hydrous oxide sols: III. Preparation of uniform particles by hydrolysis of Fe(III)-chloride, -nitrate, and -perchlorate solutions".
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This attracted her to materials science and electrochemistry. Birss earned her doctorate at the University of Auckland as a Commonwealth Scholar, where she studied anodic films on silver electrodes. She was a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Ottawa, where she worked on the supercapacitive properties of hydrous metal oxides. During this post she specialised in Ruthenium(IV) oxide.
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Its cell parameters are approximately a = 5.7 Å, b = 11.71 Å and c = 8.24 Å. Wadsleyite is found to be stable in the upper part of the Transition Zone of the Earth's mantle between in depth. Because of oxygens not bound to silicon in the Si2O7 groups of wadsleyite, it leaves some oxygen atoms underbonded, and as a result, these oxygens are hydrated easily, allowing for high concentrations of hydrogen atoms in the mineral. Hydrous wadsleyite is considered a potential site for water storage in the Earth's mantle due to the low electrostatic potential of the underbonded oxygen atoms. Although wadsleyite does not contain H in its chemical formula, it may contain more than 3 percent by weight H2O, and may coexist with a hydrous melt at transition zone pressure- temperature conditions.
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Xitieshanite is a hydrous iron sulfate–chloride mineral with chemical formula: Fe3+(SO4)Cl·6(H2O). It was discovered in 1983 and named for the discovery location of Xitieshan lead/zinc ore deposit in the Qinghai Province, China. The mineral has also been reported in 2005 from acid mine drainage from a coal mine in Green Valley, Vigo County, Indiana.Melchiorre, Erik, et al.
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They have an affinity for organic and inorganic pollutants, which has led to an interest in using them as sorbents for the treatment of effluents and polluted water. Hydrous iron oxides include ferrihydrite, akaganéite, feroxyhyte, goethite, lepidocrocite and limonite. They may also be precipitated in highly porous poorly crystaline or amorphous forms and therefore be good adsorbents used eg in water treatment.
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When oceanic lithosphere and continental lithosphere collide, the dense oceanic lithosphere subducts beneath the less dense continental lithosphere. An accretionary wedge forms on the continental crust as deep-sea sediments and oceanic crust are scraped from the oceanic plate. Volcanic arcs form on continental lithosphere as the result of partial melting due to dehydration of the hydrous minerals of the subducting slab.
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Allophane is an amorphous to poorly crystalline hydrous aluminium silicate clay mineraloid. Its chemical formula is Al2O3·(SiO2)1.3-2·(2.5-3)H2O. Since it has short-range atomic order, it is a mineraloid, rather than a mineral, and can be identified by its distinctive infrared spectrum and its X-ray diffraction pattern. It was first described in 1816 in Gräfenthal, Thuringia, Germany.
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Lemanskiite is a hydrous copper, calcium, and sodium chlorarsenate. The idealized formula is NaCaCu5(AsO4)4Cl•3H2O. The empirical formula of this mineral, calculated on the basis of 20 O + Cl is Na0.98(Ca0.98Sr0.03)Σ1.01Cu5.07As3.97O15.97Cl1.03•3H2O. Lemanskiite is no longer a dimorph of lanendulan due to the lower H2O content, as it was discovered in 2018, to actually less hydrated.
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Rozenite is a hydrous iron sulfate mineral, Fe2+SO4•4(H2O). It occurs as a secondary mineral, formed under low humidity at less than as an alteration of copper-free melanterite, which is a post mine alteration product of pyrite or marcasite. It also occurs in lacustrine sediments and coal seams. Associated minerals include melanterite, epsomite, jarosite, gypsum, sulfur, pyrite, marcasite and limonite.
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Jarosite is a basic hydrous sulfate of potassium and iron with a chemical formula of KFe3+3(OH)6(SO4)2. This sulfate mineral is formed in ore deposits by the oxidation of iron sulfides. Jarosite is often produced as a byproduct during the purification and refining of zinc and is also commonly associated with acid mine drainage and acid sulfate soil environments.
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This dramatically increased the detection sensitivity and allowed easy amplification of the resonance signal and outputting it directly to an oscilloscope. In 1944, EPR signals were detected in several salts, including hydrous copper chloride (CuCl2·2H2O), copper sulfate and manganese sulfate.Kochelaev p. 76 The results were revolutionary and were first not accepted even by the Soviet scientists (including Pyotr Kapitsa).
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Zincobotryogen is a hydrous sulfate mineral with formula (Zn,Mg,Mn)Fe3+(SO4)2(OH)·7H2O. It forms bright orange red monoclinic prismatic crystals that exhibit a vitreous to greasy luster. Its specific gravity is 2.201 and it has a Mohs hardness of 2.5. It is a rare secondary mineral which forms in arid climates by alteration of other zinc minerals.
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Tincalconite is a hydrous sodium borate mineral closely related to borax, and is a secondary mineral that forms as a dehydration product of borax. Its formula is Na2B4O7·5H2O or Na2[B4O5(OH)4]·3H2O. Tincalconite typically occurs as a fine grained white powder. It crystallizes in the hexagonal crystal system and has been found as primary euhedral di-rhombohedral, pseudo- octahedral crystals.
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TTGs are an aggregation of certain rocks (tonalite-trondhjemite- granodiorite), that form when hydrous, mafic crust is melted at high pressure. These rocks are critical to the formation of Archean greenstone complexes due to the low density, intrusive nature of the rocks. TTGs are found in other Archean greenstone belts such as Isua and Barberton. The processes that form TTGs are debated.
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Wardite is a hydrous sodium aluminium phosphate hydroxide mineral with formula: NaAl3(PO4)2(OH)4·2(H2O). Wardite is of interest for its rare crystallography. It crystallizes in the tetragonal trapezohedral class and is one of only a few minerals in that class. Wardite forms vitreous green to bluish green to white to colorless crystals, masses, and fibrous encrustations.
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Tin (IV) oxide fibers (optical microscope) Tin(IV) oxide crystallises with the rutile structure. As such the tin atoms are six coordinate and the oxygen atoms three coordinate. SnO2 is usually regarded as an oxygen-deficient n-type semiconductor.Solid State Chemistry: An Introduction Lesley Smart, Elaine A. Moore (2005) CRC Press Hydrous forms of SnO2 have been described as stannic acid.
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Astrophyllite is a very rare, brown to golden-yellow hydrous potassium iron titanium silicate mineral. Belonging to the astrophyllite group, astrophyllite may be classed either as an inosilicate, phyllosilicate, or an intermediate between the two. It forms an isomorphous series with kupletskite, to which it is visually identical and often intimately associated. Astrophyllite is of interest primarily to scientists and collectors.
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The structure of thorium(IV) chloride is square planar with a symmetry of D4h. In this coordinate compound the bond length between the Th-Cl bond is 2.690 Å. The structure has been reported as hydrous or anhydrous. Due to the compound’s hydroscopic nature in the presence of water it can form either ThCl4(H2O)4 and ThCl4(H2O)8.
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The age of the subducting plate is older towards west (Andreanof Island) where LFEs occur at greater depths (~75 km) than in the east where the plate is younger (~45 km near Kodiak Island). This may be because the depths at which the hydrous minerals release water and produce tremors are greater when the plate is older, colder, and subducting faster.
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Magadiite is a hydrous sodium silicate mineral (NaSi7O13(OH)3·4(H2O)) which precipitates from alkali brines as an evaporite phase. It forms as soft (Mohs hardness of 2) white powdery monoclinic crystal masses.Mineral HandbookWebmineral The mineral is unstable and decomposes during diagenesis leaving a distinctive variety of chert (Magadi-type chert).Encyclopedia of Sediments & Sedimentary Rocks, Springer, 2003, p.
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The magmas are mixtures of crust derived and mafic mantle- derived melts with a consistent petrological and chemical signature. The melt generation process may involve several different layers in the crust. Another model requires the intrusion of basaltic melts into an amphibole crust, resulting in the formation of hybrid magmas. Partial melting of the crust and of hydrous basalt generates andesitic–dacitic melts that escape upwards.
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The observations in Japan are in line with the fact that hydrous ethanol is known for being less corrosive than anhydrous ethanol. The reaction mechanism is 3 EtOH + Al -> Al(OEt)3 \+ H2 will be the same at lower-mid blends. When enough water is present in the fuel, the aluminum will react preferably with water to produce Al2O3, repairing the protective aluminum oxide layer.
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Anhydrous Copper sulfate is 39.81 percent copper and 60.19 percent sulfate by mass, and in its blue, hydrous form, it is 25.47% copper, 38.47% sulfate (12.82% sulfur) and 36.06% water by mass. Four types of crystal size are provided based on its usage: large crystals (10–40 mm), small crystals (2–10 mm), snow crystals (less than 2 mm), and windswept powder (less than 0.15 mm).
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The sedan and hatchback models sold in Brazil are built with a flexible-fuel engine optimized to run with ethanol blends from E20/E25 to neat hydrous ethanol (E100). The Etios Hatch 1.5 Flex has a fuel economy with ethanol fuel of , Hatch 1.2 Flex fuel economy is and Etios Sedan 1.5 Flex is , all in combined cycle 70% city driving and 30% on the highway.
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Clay is a soil component consisting of extremely fine particles. Most clays consist of hydrous aluminum silicates, though there is a considerable amount of chemical variation among the clays. Clay is cohesive and binds to the sand and the straw, holding the mixture together, as well as securing the mixture to the wall. Clay is also plastic when wet, which makes the plaster mixture workable.
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DF.10 [no] Note: an amorphous hydrous phosphate of Al with Pb and Cu. #Rossiantonite (IMA2012-056) 7.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: trialuminium dihydro phosphate disulfate decawater tetrahydrate) #Rossite (Y: 1927) 4.HD.05 (IUPAC: calcium di(trixovanadate) tetrahydrate) #Rösslerite (Y: 1861) 8.CE.20 (IUPAC: magnesium hydroxoarsenate heptahydrate) #Rossmanite (tourmaline: IMA1996-018) 9.CK.05 [no] #Rossovskyite (columbite: IMA2014-056) 4.0 [no] [no] #Rostite (IMA1988 s.p.
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Stishovite is an extremely hard, dense tetragonal form (polymorph) of silicon dioxide. It is very rare on the Earth's surface, however, it may be a predominant form of silicon dioxide in the Earth, especially in the lower mantle.Dmitry L. Lakshtanov et al. "The post-stishovite phase transition in hydrous alumina-bearing SiO2 in the lower mantle of the earth" PNAS 2007 104 (34) 13588-13590; .
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Gordaite is a sulfate mineral composed primarily of hydrous zinc sodium sulfate chloride hydroxide with formula: NaZn4(SO4)(OH)6Cl·6H2O. It was named for the discovery location in the Sierra Gorda district of Chile. Gordaite forms as tabular trigonal crystals. Gordaite first appeared after a research dive in September 1984 from the Juan de Fuca Ridge of the northeastern side of the Pacific Ocean.
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Monohydrocalcite is a mineral that is a hydrous form of calcium carbonate, CaCO3·H2O. It was formerly also known by the name hydrocalcite, which is now discredited by the IMA. It is a trigonal mineral which is white when pure. Monohydrocalcite is not a common rock-forming mineral, but is frequently associated with other calcium and magnesium carbonate minerals, such as calcite, aragonite, lansfordite, and nesquehonite.
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Similarly, crystal texture and form within pegmatitic rock may be taken to extreme size and perfection. Feldspar within a pegmatite may display exaggerated and perfect twinning, exsolution lamellae, and when affected by hydrous crystallization, macroscale graphic texture is known, with feldspar and quartz intergrown. Perthite feldspar within a pegmatite often shows gigantic perthitic texture visible to the naked eye. The product of pegmatite decomposition is euclase.
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Tisdall and Oades (1982) found that iron and aluminum hydrous oxides (or sesquioxides) can act as a cementing agents to form aggregates >100 μm, this effect becomes more pronounced in soil containing >10% sesquioxides. Sesquioxides act as stabilizing agents for aggregates because iron and aluminum in solution act as flocculants (i.e., bridging cations between negatively charged soil particles), and sesquioxides have potential to precipitate as gel on clay particles (Amézketa, 1999).
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In collisions between two oceanic plates, the cooler, denser oceanic lithosphere sinks beneath the warmer, less dense oceanic lithosphere. As the slab sinks deeper into the mantle, it releases water from dehydration of hydrous minerals in the oceanic crust. This water reduces the melting temperature of rocks in the asthenosphere and causes partial melting. Partial melt will travel up through the asthenosphere, eventually, reach the surface, and form volcanic island arcs.
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The oceanic crust contains hydrated minerals such as the amphibole group. During subduction, oceanic lithosphere is heated and metamorphosed causing dehydration of these hydrous minerals contained within basalts, releasing water into the asthenosphere. The release of water into the asthenosphere leads to partial melting. Partial melting allows the rise of more buoyant, hot material and can lead to volcanism at the surface and emplacement of plutons in the subsurface.
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Using iron isotopes, an improvement in the understanding of the metabolic processes controlling iron oxidation and energy production in these organisms can be developed. Photoautrophic bacteria, which oxidize Fe(II) under anaerobic conditions, have also been studied. The Thiodictyon bacteria precipitate poorly crystalline hydrous ferric oxide when they oxidize iron. The precipitate was enriched in the 56Fe relative to Fe(II)aq, with a δ56/54Fe value of +1.5 ± 0.2‰.
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Kyanite is typically a blue aluminosilicate mineral, usually found in aluminium-rich metamorphic pegmatites and/or sedimentary rock. Kyanite in metamorphic rocks generally indicates pressures higher than four kilobars. It is commonly found in quartz. Although potentially stable at lower pressure and low temperature, the activity of water is usually high enough under such conditions that it is replaced by hydrous aluminosilicates such as muscovite, pyrophyllite, or kaolinite.
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Since 1997, she has built a unique high temperature calorimetry facility. She has also designed and enhanced the instrumentation. Navrotsky introduced and applied the method for measuring the energetics of crystalline oxides of glasses, amorphous, nanophase material, porous materials of hydrous phases and carbonates also more recently nitrides and oxynitrides. Obtaining the thermo chemical data is used to understand the compatibility and reactivity of materials in technological and geological application.
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Psilomelane has no definite chemical composition and occurs as botryoidal and stalactitic masses with a smooth shining surface and submetallic lustre. The mineral is readily distinguished from other hydrous manganese oxides (manganite and wad) by its greater hardness 5 to 6; the specific gravity varies from 3.7 to 4.7. The streak is brownish black and the fracture smooth. The mineral often contains admixed impurities, such as iron hydroxides.
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Following the accretion of new terranes to the Western Cordillera, the Cenozoic brought the extensive uplift of the Andean orogeny. Volcanic rocks vary geochemically between the Western Cordillera and Eastern Cordillera. In the east, they are predominantly rhyolite, andesite and andesitedacite while in the west, they are characteristically andesite and plagidacite. These are inferred to be the result of hydrous partial melting of Basic Igneous Complex garnet amphibolite and amphibolite.
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This reaction is written below. The break down of glaucophane is an important water producing reaction at about 600 °C, and over 1 GPa that can trigger significant mantle melting and volcanism. Glaucophane + Paragonite = Pyrope + Jadeite + Quartz + H2O Another important water producing reaction that occurs during the eclogite facies is the dehydration of the hydrous phyllosilicate phlogopite by the reaction below. This reaction can also trigger significant mantle melting and volcanism.
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Clay minerals are hydrous aluminum phyllosillicates and form only in the presence of water, further supporting the claim that an ancient crater lake once existed in this region. Other silicates were detected as well, such as the Magnesium-rich end-member of olivine called forsterite, pigeonite, plagioclase, augite, clinopyroxene, and orthopyroxene. These detected minerals are all indicative of a potential mafic source for the origin of the deposition.
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Results may be biased upwards by hydrous mineral inclusions and downwards by a failure to maintain fluid saturation. At high pressures, water can interact with pure iron to get FeH and FeO. Models of the outer core predict that it could hold as much as 100 oceans of water in this form, and this reaction may have dried out the lower mantle in the early history of Earth.
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The amount of water available in the system plays a major role in controlling the degree of melting at a given temperature. Low water availability will suppress melting. Furthermore, the degree of water saturation of a system will affect the composition of any melt generated. Water can be derived from a variety of sources, including from surrounding country rocks (pore water) or from the decomposition of hydrous minerals (e.g.
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King began her career in education as an instructor in chemistry and mathematics at West Virginia State High School, West Virginia State's laboratory high school. During the summers, she attended Cornell University and paid her own tuition. King's thesis in chemistry at Cornell was entitled "The Interaction Between Solutions of Tannic Acid and Hydrous Ferric Oxide.". She received a master's degree in physical chemistry from Cornell in 1931.
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Anthonyite is a hydrous secondary copper halide mineral with chemical formula of Cu(OH,Cl)2•3(H2O). It was discovered in 1963 in the Centennial mine, Calumet, Houghton County, Michigan, United States. It was discovered by the University of Arizona mineralogist John W. Anthony (1920–1992), who named it for himself. Anthonyite is lavender in color, has a Mohs hardness of 2 and crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system.
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University of Illinois. at the University of Illinois, report on a hydrous pyrolysis process in which swine manure is converted to oil by heating the swine manure and water in the presence of carbon monoxide in a closed container. For that process they report that a temperatures of at least is required to convert the swine manure to oil, and temperatures above about reduces the amount of oil produced. The Zhang et al.
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However, straight hydrous ethanol is also called E95 by some authors. Here E95 is defined as pure ethanol before it is denatured, so straight hydrated ethanol would be E95 and not E100 by this definition. The first commercial vehicle capable of running on pure ethanol was the Ford Model T, produced from 1908 through 1927. It was fitted with a carburetor with adjustable jetting, allowing use of gasoline or ethanol, or a combination of both.
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Magmas produced in subduction zone regions have high volatile contents. This water is derived from the breakdown of hydrous minerals in the subducting slab, as well as water in the oceanic plate from percolation of seawater. This water rises from the subducting slab to the overriding mantle wedge. The water lowers the melting temperature of the wedge and leaves behind melt inclusions that can be measured in the associated arc volcanic rocks.
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Thermal depolymerization (TDP) has the potential to recover energy from existing sources of waste such as petroleum coke as well as pre-existing waste deposits. This process, which imitates those that occur in nature, uses heat and pressure to break down organic and inorganic compounds through a method known as hydrous pyrolysis. Because energy output varies greatly based on feedstock, it is difficult to estimate potential energy production. According to Changing World Technologies, Inc.
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Minerals of this type include olivine and pyroxene, which are found in CM chondrules. The surface composition of Pallas is very similar to the Renazzo carbonaceous chondrite (CR) meteorites, which are even lower in hydrous minerals than the CM type. The Renazzo meteorite was discovered in Italy in 1824 and is one of the most primitive meteorites known. Pallas's visible and near-infrared spectrum is almost flat, being slightly brighter in towards the blue.
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The spraying converts the liquid to small drops (up to several hundred μm (micrometers) in diameter), and the heat causes the hydrous dextrin to form a film. When the film dries, the drop becomes a microcapsule containing alcohol and dextrin. Before and after drying, comparing the amounts of water and alcohol, about 90% of water is removed and about 10% of ethyl alcohol is lost. One of the reasons which are considered, is the following.
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At the mining site of Chuquicamata, Chile, Leightonite is not found in rich ore; rather it only appears in borderland material within of the surface, acting as a cement between rock fragments as it fills in cracks and cross-fiber veins in surfaces as a network of crystals. Although a hydrous sulfate of copper, it is not a major source of the element. Because of its rare nature, it is valued by mineral collectors.
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Thermal depolymerization (TDP) is a depolymerization process using hydrous pyrolysis for the reduction of complex organic materials (usually waste products of various sorts, often biomass and plastic) into light crude oil. It mimics the natural geological processes thought to be involved in the production of fossil fuels. Under pressure and heat, long chain polymers of hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon decompose into short-chain petroleum hydrocarbons with a maximum length of around 18 carbons.
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The petrogenesis of continental arcs is generally different from that of oceanic arcs, so more calc-alkaline and alkaline rocks can be found at a continental arc, with fewer tholeiites and low-K rocks. Calc-alkaline phenocryst-rich dacite, andesite and rhyolite rocks are abundant in continental arc. These rocks contain hydrous minerals biotite and hornblende partially resorbed in magmatic process. Strongly-zoned plagioclase with sieve texture also occurs in those rocks.
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They found that on average the oil is depleted to corresponding kerogen by 23‰. Hydrous incubation experiments suggest that 36–79% of bulk organic hydrogen may come from water at moderate maturity. While still under debate, it appears likely that incorporation of water hydrogen isotopes is the more dominant process for kerogen D- enrichment during catagenesis. In summary, D content of kerogen and coals are complicated and hard to resolve due to the complex chemistry.
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Experiments and calculations demonstrated that recurring slope lineae could be produced by the deliquescence and rehydration of hydrous chlorides and oxychlorine salts. However, under present Martian atmospheric conditions there is not enough water to complete this process. These observations are the closest scientists have come to finding evidence of liquid water on the planet's surface today. Frozen water, however, has been detected near the surface in many middle to high-latitude regions.
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An explanation has recently been proposed to explain this high elevation. As the Farallon plate was subducted into the mantle beneath the region, water trapped in hydrous minerals in the descending slab was forced up into the lower crust above. Within the crust this water caused the hydration of dense garnet and other phases into lower density amphibole and mica minerals. The resulting increase in crustal volume raised the elevation about one mile.
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Discussed in the text are a subducting plate (5); an island arc (15) overlying a mantle wedge; a mid-ocean ridge (12); and a hotspot (3). Water is not just present as a separate phase in the ground. Seawater percolates into oceanic crust and hydrates igneous rocks such as olivine and pyroxene, transforming them into hydrous minerals such as serpentines, talc and brucite. In this form, water is carried down into the mantle.
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The source of metals and mineralizing solutions for SedEx deposits is deep formational brines in contact with sedimentary rocks. Deep formational brines are defined as saline to hypersaline waters which are produced from sediments during diagenesis. Metals such as lead, copper and zinc are found in a trace amount in all sediments. These metals are bound weakly to the hydrous clay minerals on the edges of the crystals and are held by weak bonds with hydroxyl groups.
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Tremor is commonly associated with the underground movement of magmatic or hydrothermal fluids. As a plate is subducted into the mantle, it loses water from its porespace and due to phase changes of hydrous minerals (such as amphibole). It has been proposed that this liberation of water generates a supercritical fluid at the plate interface, lubricating plate motion. This supercritical fluid may open fractures in the surrounding rock, and that tremor is the seismological signal of this process.
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Normal Aurorite in calcite with pyrolusite Hydrous silver calcium manganese oxide Aurora Mine, Hamilton, Treasure Hill District, Nevada. Treasure Hill is an east-jutting spur of the White Pine Range of White Pine County in the easte central of the U.S. states of Nevada. Hamilton is situated at the northern base of the hill while Treasure City is situated on the hill, from Hamilton. It lies to the east of Mount Hamilton and to the northwest of Mokomoke Hill.
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Cavansite, whose name is derived from its chemical composition, calcium vanadium silicate, is a deep blue hydrous calcium vanadium phyllosilicate mineral, occurring as a secondary mineral in basaltic and andesitic rocks along with a variety of zeolite minerals. Discovered in 1967 in Malheur County, Oregon, cavansite is a relatively rare mineral. It is polymorphic with the even rarer mineral, pentagonite. It is most frequently found in Pune, India and in the Deccan Traps, a large igneous province.
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This is known by several terms, including direct hydrothermal liquefaction, and hydrous pyrolysis. A few commercial scale applications exist. Thermal depolymerization or thermal conversion (TCC) uses superheated water at about 250 °C to convert turkey waste into a light fuel oil and is said to process 200 tons of low grade waste into fuel oil a day. The initial product from the hydrolysis reaction is de-watered and further processed by dry cracking at 500 °C.
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Mereheadite is a rare oxychloride that can be found with Mendipite at Merehead quarry, Cranmore, Somerset, in the United Kingdom. Most specimens are associated with calcite, mendipite or hydrous cerussite in the Manganese pods on vein two at torr works quarry (merehead quarry). This mineral is associated with symesite which is also light yellow to orange. Symesite is found in small blotches on the calcites or mendipites; Mereheadite does not, as it is most often found in veins.
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Proust analyzed samples of the meteorite from Campo del Cielo (Argentina), which had been obtained in 1783 by Miguel Rubín de Celis, discovering the presence in them of nickel (about 10%) along with iron. The bulk of the nickel is mined from two types of ore deposits. The first is laterite, where the principal ore mineral mixtures are nickeliferous limonite, (Fe,Ni)O(OH), and garnierite (a mixture of various hydrous nickel and nickel- rich silicates).
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At paths up to 220–320 °C and below 4.5 kbars, subducting slabs may encounter the prehnite-pumpellyite facies, characterized by the presence of the hydrous chlorite, prehnite, albite, pumpellyite, tremolite, and epidote and the loss of the zeolites heulandite and laumonite. Actinolite may occur at higher grade. Aside from albite, these characteristic minerals are water bearing, and may contribute to mantle melting. These minerals are also vital in the formation of glaucophane, which is associated with blueschist facies.
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Bog ore often combines goethite, magnetite, and vugs or stained quartz. Oxidation may occur through enzyme catalysis by iron bacteria. It is not clear whether the magnetite precipitates upon first contact with oxygen, then oxidizes to ferric compounds, or whether the ferric compounds are reduced when exposed to anoxic conditions upon burial beneath the sediment surface and reoxidized upon exhumation at the surface. Bog iron, like other hydrous iron oxides, has a specific affinity for heavy metals.
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During 1886 the brothers bought the Merrell and Thorpe Company, renaming it Lloyd Brothers, Pharmacists, Inc. John Lloyd's innovations include a "cold still" for plant extractions and the first buffered alkaloid (made with hydrous aluminium silicate), called alcresta. In 1919, Lloyd and his two brothers established trusts to fund the Lloyd Library and Museum. Today it is considered by many to house the finest collections in the world devoted to eclectic medicine, medical botany and pharmacy.
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Bischofite (bischofit) is a hydrous magnesium chloride mineral with formula MgCl2·6H2O. It belongs to halides and is a sea salt concentrate. It contains many macro- and micro-elements vital for human health, in much higher concentrations than can be found in sea or ocean salt. The main bischofit compound is magnesium chloride (up to 350 g/L), moreover, it contains about 70 other elements as impurities, including potassium, sodium, bromine, boron, calcium, silicon, molybdenum, silver, zinc, iron and copper.
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Synchrotron X-ray powder diffraction data for moganite from has revealed a reversible phase transition from space group I2/a to Imab at approximately . The in-situ Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy shows that while the thermal responses of H2O and OH in moganite display similarities to agate, the spectra are not completely identical. Absorptions in the O–H stretching region reveal that dehydration and dehydroxylation is a multistage process. Although hydrogen loss starts below , hydrous species may well remain in moganite even at .
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The serpentine subgroup (part of the kaolinite-serpentine group) are greenish, brownish, or spotted minerals commonly found in serpentinite rocks. They are used as a source of magnesium and asbestos, and as a decorative stone.Serpentine, American Heritage Dictionary The name is thought to come from the greenish color being that of a serpent. The serpentine group describes a group of common rock-forming hydrous magnesium iron phyllosilicate ((, )3) minerals, resulting from the metamorphism of the minerals that are contained in ultramafic rocks.
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Brewsterite is the name of a series of tectosilicate minerals of the zeolite group. Prior to 1997, brewsterite was recognized as a mineral species, but a reclassification in 1997 by the International Mineralogical Association changed it to a series name, with the mineral species being named brewsterite- Sr and brewsterite-Ba. Brewsterite-Sr, the more common of these, is a hydrous strontium and aluminium silicate, (Sr,Ba)2Al4Si12O32·10H2O. Small amounts of barium is usually present replacing part of the strontium.
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Earth's hydrosphere. Water covers 71% of Earth's surface, with the global ocean accounting for 97.3% of the water distribution on Earth. A planet cannot have a hydrosphere—a key ingredient for the formation of carbon-based life—unless there is a source for water within its stellar system. The origin of water on Earth is still not completely understood; possible sources include the result of impacts with icy bodies, outgassing, mineralization, leakage from hydrous minerals from the lithosphere, and photolysis.
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A quantitative measure for solvation power of solvents is given by donor numbers. Although early thinking was that a higher ratio of a cation's ion charge to ionic radius, or the charge density, resulted in more solvation, this does not stand up to scrutiny for ions like iron(III) or lanthanides and actinides, which are readily hydrolyzed to form insoluble (hydrous) oxides. As these are solids, it is apparent that they are not solvated. Strong solvent-solute interactions make the process of solvation more favorable.
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Small-scale tests have shown many vehicles with modern engine types can run smoothly on this hydrous ethanol blend. Mixed tanking scenarios with anhydrous ethanol blends at 5% or 10% level do not induce phase separation. As avoiding mixing with E0, in particular at extremely low temperatures, in logistic systems and engines is not recommended, a separate specification for controlled usage is presented in a Netherlands Technical Agreement NTA 8115. The NTA 8115 is written for a worldwide application in trading and fuel blending.
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Brazilianite, NaAl3(PO4)2(OH)4 is a hydrous sodium aluminium phosphate that forms through the metasomantic alteration of amblygonite- montebrasite. Amblygonite, LiAlPO4F in combination with quartz goes through an OH-F exchange to make montebrasite, LiAlPO4{F,OH} at temperatures greater than 480 °C. Natromontebrasite, NaAl(PO4)(OH), is formed when montebrasite does though Li-leaching process and there is a Na cation exchange at temperatures less than 450 °C. Brazilianite concludes this process by forming as natromontebrasite combines with fluorapatite, Ca5(PO4)3F.
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Regardless of the precise mechanism of oxidation, the oxidation of ferrous to ferric iron likely caused the iron to precipitate out as a ferric hydroxide gel. Similarly, the silica component of the banded iron formations likely precipitated as a hydrous silica gel. The conversion of iron hydroxide and silica gels to banded iron formation is an example of diagenesis, the conversion of sediments into solid rock. Banded iron formations most likely formed from sediments with nearly the same chemical composition as is found in the BIFs today.
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The researchers suggested these marks were consistent with salty water (brines) flowing downslope and then evaporating, possibly leaving some sort of residue. The CRISM spectroscopic instrument has since made direct observations of hydrous salts appearing at the same time that these recurrent slope lineae form, confirming in 2015 that these lineae are produced by the flow of liquid brines through shallow soils. The lineae contain hydrated chlorate and perchlorate salts (−), which contain liquid water molecules. The lineae flow downhill in Martian summer, when the temperature is above .
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Afghanite, (Na,K)22Ca10[Si24Al24O96](SO4)6Cl6, is a hydrous sodium, calcium, potassium, sulfate, chloride, carbonate alumino-silicate mineral. Afghanite is a feldspathoid of the cancrinite group and typically occurs with sodalite group minerals. It forms blue to colorless, typically massive crystals in the trigonal crystal system. The lowering of the symmetry from typical (for cancrinite group) hexagonal one is due to ordering of Si and Al. It has a Mohs hardness of 5.5 to 6 and a specific gravity of 2.55 to 2.65.
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The metamorphic conditions the slab passes through in this process creates and destroys water bearing (hydrous) mineral phases, releasing water into the mantle. This water lowers the melting point of mantle rock, initiating melting. Understanding the timing and conditions in which these dehydration reactions occur, is key to interpreting mantle melting, volcanic arc magmatism, and the formation of continental crust. Pressure-temperature pathway for subducted crust A metamorphic facies is characterized by a stable mineral assemblage specific to a pressure-temperature range and specific starting material.
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The island became present above sea level after African and Asiatic continental plates converged to cause rocks in the lower crust to be uplifted. The island contains three masses of peridotite, which are rich in the gemstone peridot (olivine). The island is believed to be the first discovered source of peridot, which was called topazios in ancient times, hence the Greek name for the island, Topazios. Layers of spinel-lherzolites with anhydrous Al-diopside pyroxenites and hydrous Cr-diopside pyroxenites can be found too on the island.
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Hornblendes are the most common of the amphiboles and are formed in a wide range of Pressure-Temperature environments. Tschermakite is found in eclogites and ultramafic igneous rocks as well as in medium to high-grade metamorphic rocks. The mineral is widespread throughout the world but has most notably been studied in Greenland, Scotland, Finland, France, and Ukraine (Anthony, 1995). Because amphibole minerals like Tschermakite are hydrous (contain an OH group), they can break down to denser anhydrous minerals like pyroxene or garnet at high temperatures.
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Nalbuphine is available in two concentrations, 10 mg and 20 mg of nalbuphine hydrochloride per mL. Both strengths contain 0.94% sodium citrate hydrous, 1.26% citric acid anhydrous, 0.1% sodium metabisulfite, and 0.2% of a 9:1 mixture of methylparaben and propylparaben as preservatives; pH is adjusted, if necessary, with hydrochloric acid. The 10 mg/mL strength contains 0.1% sodium chloride. The drug is also available in a sulfite and paraben-free formulation in two concentrations, 10 mg and 20 mg of nalbuphine hydrochloride per mL.
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Todorokite is a rare complex hydrous manganese oxide mineral with the formula (Na,Ca,K,Ba,Sr)1-x(Mn,Mg,Al)6O12·3-4H2O. It was named in 1934 for the type locality, the Todoroki mine, Hokkaido, Japan. It belongs to the prismatic class 2/m of the monoclinic crystal system, but the angle β between the a and c axes is close to 90°, making it seem orthorhombic. It is a brown to black mineral which occurs in massive or tuberose forms.
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The orange, partly hydrated form of V2O5 Precipitate of "red cake", which is hydrous V2O5 Technical grade V2O5 is produced as a black powder used for the production of vanadium metal and ferrovanadium. A vanadium ore or vanadium- rich residue is treated with sodium carbonate and an ammonium salt to produce sodium metavanadate, NaVO3. This material is then acidified to pH 2–3 using H2SO4 to yield a precipitate of "red cake" (see above). The red cake is then melted at 690 °C to produce the crude V2O5.
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Subduction zones are defined by the inclined array of earthquakes known as the Wadati–Benioff zone after the two scientists who first identified this distinctive aspect. Subduction zone earthquakes occur at greater depths (up to ) than elsewhere on Earth (typically less than depth); such deep earthquakes may be driven by deep phase transformations, thermal runaway, or dehydration embrittlement. The subducting basalt and sediment are normally rich in hydrous minerals and clays. Additionally, large quantities of water are introduced into cracks and fractures created as the subducting slab bends downward.
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The most common hydrous sulfate by far is gypsum, CaSO4⋅2H2O. It forms as an evaporite, and is associated with other evaporites such as calcite and halite; if it incorporates sand grains as it crystallizes, gypsum can form desert roses. Gypsum has very low thermal conductivity and maintains a low temperature when heated as it loses that heat by dehydrating; as such, gypsum is used as an insulator in materials such as plaster and drywall. The anhydrous equivalent of gypsum is anhydrite; it can form directly from seawater in highly arid conditions.
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The IMA approved mineral faustite, named after the American mineralogist and petrologist with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Dr. George Tobias Faust, is a member of the triclinic turquoise group of hydrous phosphates with the following chemical composition: _ZnAl 6(PO4)4(OH)8·4H2O_ Some divalent copper generally replaces the zinc position. Faustite is the zinc rich analogue of turquoise having almost four times as much zinc than copper in its crystal structure. Trivalent (ferric) iron may replace some of the aluminum. Minor amounts of calcium may also be present.
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Channel iron deposits are an important source of iron ore, with the deposits at Yandi and Robe River accounting for approximately 47% of iron ore mined from the Hamerley Iron province. Although channel iron deposits are typically low-grade at 53% to 57% Fe in-situ, they are composed of goethite-limonite which are hydrated iron oxide species. Ore typically contains around 8% to 12% water, and <5% SiO2, and <3% Al2O3. The hydrous iron oxides can be calcined, and the CID ore on a volatile-free basis is around 63% Fe or more.
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Six typical Brazilian flex-fuel models from several car makers, popularly called "flex" cars, that run on any blend of hydrous ethanol (E100) and gasoline (E20 to E25). Brazil is the world's second largest producer of ethanol fuel. Brazil and the United States have led the industrial production of ethanol fuel for several years, together accounting for 85 percent of the world's production in 2017. Brazil produced 26.72 billion liters (7.06 billion U.S. liquid gallons), representing 26.1 percent of the world's total ethanol used as fuel in 2017.
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Magnesite can also be formed by way of metasomatism in skarn deposits, in dolomitic limestones, associated with wollastonite, periclase, and talc. Resistant to high temperature and able to withstand high pressure, magnesite has been proposed to be one of the major carbonate bearing phase in Earth's mantle and possible carriers for deep carbon reservoirs. For similar reason, it is found in metamorphosed peridotite rocks in Central Alps, Switzerland and high pressure eclogitic rocks from Tianshan, China. Magnesite can also precipitate in lakes in presence of bacteria either as hydrous Mg-carbonates or magnesite.
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Thomsonite is the name of a series of tecto-silicate minerals of the zeolite group. Prior to 1997, thomsonite was recognized as a mineral species, but a reclassification in 1997 by the International Mineralogical Association changed it to a series name, with the mineral species being named thomsonite- Ca and thomsonite-Sr. Thomsonite-Ca, by far the more common of the two, is a hydrous sodium, calcium and aluminium silicate, NaCa2Al5Si5O20·6H2O. Strontium can substitute for the calcium and the appropriate species name depends on the dominant element.
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The CIPW Norm was developed in the early 1900s by the petrologists Cross, Iddings, Pirsson and the geochemist Washington. The CIPW normative mineralogy calculation is based on the typical minerals that may be precipitated from an anhydrous melt at low pressure, and simplifies the typical igneous geochemistry seen in nature with the following four constraints: # The magma crystallizes under anhydrous conditions so that no hydrous minerals (hornblende, biotite) are formed. # The ferromagnesian minerals are assumed to be free of Al2O3. # The Fe/Mg ratio for all ferromagnesian minerals is assumed to be the same.
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Annabergite is an arsenate mineral consisting of a hydrous nickel arsenate, Ni3(AsO4)2·8H2O, crystallizing in the monoclinic system and isomorphous with vivianite and erythrite. Crystals are minute and capillary and rarely met with, the mineral occurring usually as soft earthy masses and encrustations. A fine apple-green color is its characteristic feature. It was long known (since 1758) under the name nickel bloom; the name annabergite was proposed by H. J. Brooke and W H. Miller in 1852, from Annaberg in Saxony, one of the localities of the mineral.
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DG.05 #EvansiteQ (amorphous: 1864) 8.DF.10 (IUPAC: trialuminium hexahydro phosphate octahydrate) #Evdokimovite (IMA2013-041) 7.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: tetrathallium tri(oxovanadate) pentasulfate pentawater) #Eveite (andalusite: IMA1966-047) 8.BB.30 (IUPAC: dimanganese(II) hydroarsenate) #Evenkite (Y: 1953) 10.BA.50 #Evseevite (moraskoite: IMA2019-064) 8.0 [no] [no] (IUPAC: disodium magnesium fluoro arsenate) #Eveslogite (IMA2001-023) 9.DG.97 [no] #Ewaldite (IMA1969-013) 5.CC.05 #Ewingite (hydrous uranyl carbonate: IMA2016-012) 5.0 [no] [no] #Eylettersite (alunite, crandallite: IMA1969-035) 8.BL.10 #Eyselite (IMA2003-052) 4.
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Within subtropical and Arctic regions, it is unlikely gossans would be preserved or, if they are, would not contain carbonate minerals. Minerals such as gaspeite, hellyerite, otwayite, widgiemoolthalite and related hydrous nickel carbonates are diagnostic of nickel gossans, but are exceedingly rare. More usually, malachite, azurite, chalcocite and cobalt compounds are more persistent in boxworks and may provide diagnostic information. Nickel mineralisation in the regolith, in the upper saprolite typically exists as goethite, hematite, limonite and is often associated with polydymite and violarite, nickel sulfides which are of supergene association.
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Connellite is a rare mineral species, a hydrous copper chloro-sulfate, Cu19(OH)32(SO4)Cl4·3H2O, crystallizing in the hexagonal system. It occurs as tufts of very delicate acicular crystals of a fine blue color, and is associated with other copper minerals of secondary origin, such as cuprite and malachite. Its occurrence in Cornwall, England, was noted by Philip Rashleigh in 1802, and it was first examined chemically by Prof Arthur Connell FRSE in 1847, after whom it is named. The type locality is Wheal Providence at Carbis Bay in Cornwall.
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Franz Schmider, "Kein Ende der Hebungen in Staufen in Sicht", Badische-Zeitung, 13 July 2013 \- \- \- Data from the TerraSAR-X radar satellite before and after the changes have confirmed the localised nature of the situation. "A geochemical process called anhydrite swelling has been confirmed as the cause of these uplifts. This is a transformation of the mineral anhydrite (anhydrous calcium sulphate) into gypsum (hydrous calcium sulphate). A pre-condition for this transformation is that the anhydrite is in contact with water, which is then stored in its crystalline structure".
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Braunerite is a hydrous uranyl carbonate mineral discovered by Jakub Plášil of the Institute of Physics at the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and colleagues in the Svornost mine in the Jáchymov ore district, Western Bohemia, Czech Republic. Braunerite crystals are yellow and have a glassy luster. The mineral is chemically similar to línekite. The type material is deposited in the collections of the Department of Mineralogy and Petrology, National Museum, Prague, Czech Republic, and the mineralogical collections of the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County.
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The deep water cycle, or geologic water cycle, involves exchange of water with the mantle, with water carried down by subducting oceanic plates and returning through volcanic activity, distinct from the water cycle process that occurs above and on the surface of Earth. Some of the water makes it all the way to the lower mantle and may even reach the outer core. Mineral physics experiments show that hydrous minerals can carry water deep into the mantle in colder slabs and even "nominally anhydrous minerals" can store several oceans' worth of water.
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Hunt, V, D, The Gasohol Handbook, Industrial Press Inc., 1981, pp 9, 420,421, 442 At that time, other car manufacturers also provided engines for ethanol fuel use. Thereafter, and as a response to the 1973 and 1979 energy crises, the first modern vehicle capable of running with pure hydrous ethanol (E100) was launched in the Brazilian market, the Fiat 147, after testing with several prototypes developed by the Brazilian subsidiaries of Fiat, Volkswagen, General Motors and Ford. , there were 1.1 million neat ethanol vehicles still in use in Brazil. Since 2003, Brazilian newer flex-fuel vehicles are capable of running on pure hydrous ethanol (E100) or blended with any combination of E20 to E27.5 gasoline Print edition No. 1941 (a mixture made with anhydrous ethanol), the national mandatory blend. , there were 17.1 million flexible-fuel vehicles running on Brazilian roads. E100 imposes a limitation on normal vehicle operation, as ethanol's lower evaporative pressure (as compared to gasoline) causes problems when cold starting the engine at temperatures below . For this reason, both pure ethanol and E100 flex-fuel vehicles are built with an additional small gasoline reservoir inside the engine compartment to help in starting the engine when cold by initially injecting gasoline.
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The turquoise gemstone is the namesake for the color. Turquoise is an opaque, blue-to-green mineral that is a hydrous phosphate of copper and aluminium, with the chemical formula CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8·4H2O. It is rare and valuable in finer grades and has been prized as a gem and ornamental stone for thousands of years owing to its unique hue. Po-i-Kalyan Mosque with turquoise domes in Bukhara, Uzbekistan In many cultures of the Old and New Worlds, this gemstone has been esteemed for thousands of years as a holy stone, a bringer of good fortune or a talisman.
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A quarry of listwanite in the region of Aosta Valley, in Italy. A quarry of listwanite in the region of Aosta Valley, in Italy. Listwanite (also sometimes spelled listvenite, listvanite, or listwaenite) is an unusual rock type that forms when the groundmass of ultramafic rocks, most commonly mantle peridotites, is partially altered to carbonate minerals and cut by ubiquitous carbonate veins containing one or more of magnesite, calcite, dolomite, ankerite, and/or siderite. Original Pyroxene and olivine in the peridotite are commonly altered to Mg- or Ca-carbonate and hydrous Mg-silicates, such as serpentine and talc.
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Typical Brazilian flexible-fuel engine with secondary gasoline reservoir for cold starting the engine at temperatures below The Brazilian 2008 Honda Civicflex-fuel has outside access to the secondary reservoir gasoline tank in the front right side shown by the arrow. E100 is pure ethanol fuel. Straight hydrous ethanol as an automotive fuel has been widely used in Brazil since the late 1970s for neat ethanol vehicles and more recently for flexible-fuel vehicles. The ethanol fuel used in Brazil is distilled close to the azeotrope mixture of 95.63% ethanol and 4.37% water (by weight) which is approximately 3.5% water by volume.
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Rossman studies mineral spectroscopy, water and hydroxide in nominally anhydrous solids, analytical methods for OH analysis in minerals, x-ray amorphous minerals, and the effects of exposure on minerals to background levels of natural radiation. Paul Asimow, describing Rossman's work, wrote, "Within the general rubric of mineral spectroscopy, Rossman’s work can be grouped into three principal categories: the origin of color, the effects of natural and artificial radiation damage, and the concentration and crystal chemistry of hydrogen in minerals both hydrous and nominally anhydrous." He has received numerous awards for his work including Caltech's most prestigious teaching honor, the Feynman Prize.
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At places where temperatures fall below during the winter, it is recommended to install an engine heater system, both for gasoline and E85 vehicles. Sweden has a similar seasonal reduction, but the ethanol content in the blend is reduced to E75 during the winter months. Brazilian flex fuel vehicles can operate with ethanol mixtures up to E100, which is hydrous ethanol (with up to 4% water), which causes vapor pressure to drop faster as compared to E85 vehicles. As a result, Brazilian flex vehicles are built with a small secondary gasoline reservoir located near the engine.
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Mount Cleveland is located from the western end of the Aleutian Arc, a long volcanic chain extending off the coast of Alaska. Containing over 75 volcanoes, this volcanic arc occurs above the subduction zone where the Pacific Plate plunges under the North American plate. As the plate moves deeper into the earth, the increasing pressure results in the loss of volatiles, certain elements and compounds with low boiling points, from various hydrous minerals. One of these compounds is water; its addition to the mantle wedge formed between the subducting and overriding plates lowers the melting point enough to allow magma to form.
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Hydrous magmas composed of basalt and andesite are produced directly and indirectly as results of dehydration during the subduction process. Such magmas, and those derived from them, build up island arcs such as those in the Pacific Ring of Fire. These magmas form rocks of the calc-alkaline series, an important part of the continental crust. The addition of carbon dioxide is relatively a much less important cause of magma formation than the addition of water, but genesis of some silica-undersaturated magmas has been attributed to the dominance of carbon dioxide over water in their mantle source regions.
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This process is envisaged as, for instance, pyroxene-bearing restite inclusions 'soaking up' water and being converted to hydrous hornblende- bearing inclusions. Secondly, restite acts as a compositional buffer, providing elements to the surrounding magma as it is melted and ground up by erosive forces within the ascending magma. Restite can, in large enough amounts, retard the compositional changes of a magma either via providing more reagents or physically trapping crystals within the magma. Generally, restite is not present within magmas in large amounts and thus the effects of the above processes are not usually profound.
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Abellaite is a hydrous carbonate mineral discovered in the abandoned Eureka uranium mine in the village of Torre de Capdella (Lleida province), Catalonia, Spain. The ideal chemical formula of abellaite is NaPb2(CO3)2(OH). It is named in honor of Joan Abella i Creus, a Catalan gemmologist who has long studied minerals from the Eureka mine and first found abellaite in the mine. A team composed, among others, by Jordi Ibáñez-Insa from the Institute of Earth Sciences Jaume Almera (CSIC) and by Joan Viñals and Xavier Llovet from the University of Barcelona, identified and characterized the mineral’s structure and chemical composition.
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Diamond and coesite occur as trace constituents in some eclogites and record particularly high pressures. Such ultrahigh-pressure (UHP) metamorphism has been defined as metamorphism within the eclogite facies but at pressures more than the quartz-coesite transition (the two minerals have the same composition—silica). Some UHP rocks appear to record burial at depths greater than if diamond occurs in these rocks. Eclogites containing lawsonite (a hydrous calcium-aluminium silicate) are rarely exposed at Earth's surface, although they are predicted from experiments and thermal models to form during normal subduction of oceanic crust at depths between about .
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This soil in India, also known as the omnibus group, have been developed over Archaean granite, gneiss and other crystalline rocks, the sedimentaries of the Cuddapah and Vindhayan basins and mixed Dharwarian group of rocks. Their colour is mainly due to ferric oxides occurring as thin coatings on the soil particles while the iron oxide occurs as haematite or as hydrous ferric oxide, the color is red and when it occurs in the hydrate form as limonite the soil gets a yellow colour. Ordinarily the surface soils are red while the horizon below gets yellowish colour.
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Acetone causes the precipitation of the hydrous solid salt, which is green. At 490K it slowly decomposes to nitrogen and nickel metal powder, losing a half of the nitrogen in four hours. Nickel azide is complexed by one azo group when dissolved in water, but in other solvents, the nickel atom can have up to four azo groups attached. Nickel azide forms a dihydrate: Ni(N3)2 and a basic salt called nickel hydroxy azide Ni(OH)N3. Nickel amide, Ni(NH2)2 is a deep red compound that contains Ni6 clusters surrounded by 12 NH2 groups.
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This group, named after the Ivuna meteorite (Tanzania), have chemical compositions that are close to that measured in the solar photosphere (aside from gaseous elements, and elements such as lithium which are underrepresented in the Sun's photosphere by comparison to their abundance in CI chondrites). In this sense, they are chemically the most primitive known meteorites. CI chondrites typically contain a high proportion of water (up to 22%), and organic matter in the form of amino acids and PAHs. Aqueous alteration promotes a composition of hydrous phyllosilicates, magnetite, and olivine crystals occurring in a black matrix, and a possible lack of chondrules.
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Basalts may first metamorphose under zeolite facies conditions (50–150 °C and 1–5 km depth) during subduction. Zeolites are microporous silicate minerals that can be produced by the reaction of pore fluids with basalt and pelagic sediments. The zeolite facies conditions typically only affect pelitic sediments undergoing burial, but is commonly displayed by the production of zeolite minerals within the vesicles of vesicular basalt. The glassy rinds on pillow basalts are also susceptible to metamorphism under zeolite facies conditions, which produces the zeolites heulandite or stilbite and hydrous phyllosilicates such as celadonite, smectite, kaolinite, or montmorillonite plus secondary quartz.
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This in turn produced thicker oceanic crust and thicker regions of underlying depleted lithospheric mantle. As such, the density of the lithosphere was reduced due to both differentiation of the crust from the mantle and the ensuing relative depletion of the residual mantle in Fe and Al. These expected properties have led to suggestions that oceanic lithosphere was so light that it subducted very shallowly or not at all. Scientists who favour this hypothesis argue that felsic material formed from hydrous partial melting of thickened oceanic crust in the root zones of oceanic plateaus, and not from subduction zones as generally believed.
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Just 20% of imported fuels are used for road transportation, the rest being used by the bauxite industry, electricity generation, and aviation. 30,000 barrels/day of crude imports are processed into various motor fuels and asphalt by the Petrojam Refinery in Kingston. Jamaica produces enormous quantities of drinking alcohol (at least 5% water content), most of which appears to be consumed as beverages, and none used as motor fuel. Facilities exist to refine hydrous ethanol feedstock into anhydrous ethanol (0% water content), but as of 2007, the process appeared to be uneconomic and the production plant was idle.
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Genesis Rock brought back by Apollo 15 – older than any rocks on Earth The Apollo program collected of Moon rocks during the six crewed missions. Analyses by scientists worldwide all agree that these rocks came from the Moon – no published accounts in peer-reviewed scientific journals exist that dispute this claim. The Apollo samples are easily distinguishable from both meteorites and Earth rocks in that they show a lack of hydrous alteration products, they show evidence of having undergone impact events on an airless body, and they have unique geochemical traits. Furthermore, most are more than 200 million years older than the oldest Earth rocks.
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The Jemez Lineament consists of the San Carlos volcanic field, Springerville volcanic field, Red Hill volcanic field, Zuni-Bandera volcanic field, Mount Taylor volcanic field, Jemez volcanic field and possibly the Ocate volcanic field, Raton-Clayton volcanic field, and Mesa de Maya. These are all young (Cenozoic) volcanic fields, showing some progression in age from southeast to northwest (across the Lineament) but no systematic progression in age along the Lineament. The Lineament is interpreted as a hydrous subduction zone scar marking the southern boundary of the pre-1.70 GYa Yavapai basement. Seismic imaging shows both north- and south-dipping reflections that converge at the core-mantle boundary.
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The CID deposits relative lack of consolidation and proximity close to the surface in most cases renders them liable to bulk mining with little or no need for drilling and blasting. This then is a significant cost saving to miners, who can offset a lower revenue from Fe percentages in the ore via the ease of extraction. Also, in most cases, beneficiation can increase the in-situ iron grade several percent by washing out the majority of clay, carbonate and hydrous limonite cements. The key economic criteria for channel iron deposits are, firstly tonnage and location relative to infrastructure similar to other bulk commodities.
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Still other Reynolds firms provided a wide variety of design and building services, warehouse distribution, auto repair and detailing, upholstering, miscellaneous storage, aluminum smelting, structural steel and building erection, metal recovery, hydrous ammonia distribution and technical engineering service to a 30-state area, paving contracting, auction services, telecommunication products and services, general construction, tin mill processing, retail building products, distribution of vinyl and aluminum siding, warehousing, general contracting, and warehouse operations. Also operating under the Reynolds Development umbrella are the Reynolds Water Company and the Reynolds Disposal Company. The original water company had a supply of five million gallons available daily, which was enough to supply a small city.
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Further, because metasomatism is a mass transfer process, it is not restricted to the rocks which are changed by addition of chemical elements and minerals or hydrous compounds. In all cases, to produce a metasomatic rock some other rock is also metasomatised, if only by dehydration reactions with minimal chemical change. This is best illustrated by gold ore deposits which are the product of focused concentration of fluids derived from many cubic kilometres of dehydrated crust into thin, often highly metasomatised and altered shear zones and lodes. The source region is often largely chemically unaffected compared to the highly hydrated, altered shear zones, but both must have undergone complementary metasomatism.
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The first oceanic core complexes described were identified in the Atlantic Ocean.; Since then numerous such structures have been identified primarily in oceanic lithosphere formed at intermediate, slow- and ultra-slow spreading mid-ocean ridges, as well as back-arc basins.; Examples include 10-1000 square km expanses of ocean floor and therefore of the oceanic lithosphere, particularly along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Southwest Indian Ridge. Some of these structures have been drilled and sampled, showing that the footwall can be composed of both mafic plutonic and ultramafic rocks (gabbro and peridotite primarily, in addition to diabase), and a thin shear zone that includes hydrous phyllosilicates.
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Antlerite is a greenish hydrous copper sulfate mineral, with the formula Cu3(SO4)(OH)4. It occurs in tabular, acicular, or fibrous crystals with a vitreous luster. Originally believed to be a rare mineral, antlerite was found to be the primary ore of the oxidised zones in several copper mines across the world, including the Chuquicamata mine in Chile, and the Antler mine in Arizona, US from which it takes its name. It is chemically and optically similar in many respects to other copper minerals such as malachite and brochantite, though it can be distinguished from the former by a lack of effervescence in hydrochloric acid.
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Union Park, currently under construction north of U.S. 380 by Hillwood Communities, is expected to be open soon. Entrance to Beard Park in Little Elm, Texas. Beard Park, located at the intersection of Main Street and Eldorado Parkway, is home to the Hydrous wake board park, the Taphouse beer garden, Hula Hut, future trails, future historic village, and is the future home of Little Elm's Farmers Market, which is currently set up in the Hobby Lobby shopping center. McCord Park, located along FM 423, is a wooded 38 acre park containing gentle slopes, a creek, heavy tree cover, a fishing pond, and acres of open space.
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E85 flexible fuel vehicle commercially available in the European market. Flexible fuel vehicles are designed to operate smoothly using a wide range of available ethanol fuel mixtures—from pure gasoline to bioethanol-gasoline blends such as E85 (85% ethanol and 15% gasoline) or E100 (neat hydrous ethanol) in Brazil. Part of the challenge of successful marketing alternative and flexible fuel vehicles in the U.S. is the general lack of establishment of sufficient fueling stations, which would be essential for these vehicles to be attractive to a wide range of consumers. Significant efforts to ramp up production and distribution of E85 fuels are underway and expanding.
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The mineral as normally encountered is a solid solution series with end-members Ca12Al14O33 and Ca6Al7O16(OH). The latter composition loses water only at high temperature, and has lost most of it by the melting point (around 1400 °C). If material heated to this temperature is rapidly cooled to room temperature, the anhydrous composition is obtained. The rate of re-absorption of water to form the hydrous composition is negligible below 930 °C. C12A7 has a cubic crystal symmetry; Ca12Al14O33 has a lattice constant of 1.1989 nm and a density of 2.680 g·cm−3 while Ca6Al7O16(OH) has 1.1976 nm and 2.716 g·cm−3.
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The 1979 Brazilian Fiat 147 was the first modern car to run on pure hydrous ethanol fuel (E100) Fiat Automóveis S.A., a subsidiary of Fiat S.p.A., began making automobiles in Brazil in 1976 beginning with the production of the Fiat 147, the Brazilian version of the Italian Fiat 127, produced until 1986. More than 10,000,000 units have been produced in Fiat Automóveis factory in Betim since 1976, plus 232,807 units in the Fiat Argentina plant of Córdoba. The original factory, located in the city of Belo Horizonte, cost $250 million to build. The state of Minas Gerais had a 10–20% stake in the company and also provided special economic benefits to Fiat.
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During the transition from basalt to eclogite, these hydrous materials break down, producing copious quantities of water, which at such great pressure and temperature exists as a supercritical fluid. The supercritical water, which is hot and more buoyant than the surrounding rock, rises into the overlying mantle where it lowers the pressure in (and thus the melting temperature of) the mantle rock to the point of actual melting, generating magma. The magmas, in turn, rise (and become labeled diapirs) because they are less dense than the rocks of the mantle. The mantle-derived magmas (which are basaltic in composition) can continue to rise, ultimately to Earth's surface, resulting in a volcanic eruption.
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An example of a volcanic arc having both island and continental arc sections is found behind the Aleutian Trench subduction zone in Alaska. The arc magmatism occurs one hundred to two hundred kilometers from the trench and approximately one hundred kilometers above the subducting slab. This depth of arc magma generation is the consequence of the interaction between hydrous fluids, released from the subducting slab, and the arc mantle wedge that is hot enough to melt with the addition of water. It has also been suggested that the mixing of fluids from a subducted tectonic plate and melted sediment is already occurring at the top of the slab before any mixing with the mantle takes place.
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Precambrian provinces of western North America. The Jemez Lineament is coincident with the Yavapai-Mazatzal boundary. The Jemez Lineament is a chain of late Cenozoic volcanic fields, 600 km long, reaching from the Springerville and White Mountains volcanic fields in East-Central Arizona to the Raton- Clayton volcanic field in Northeastern New Mexico. It was long interpreted as a hot spot trace (Raton hot spot) due to its resemblance in length and azimuth to the Yellowstone hot spot trace, but there is no systematic progression in age along the trace and it is now interpreted as a hydrous subduction zone scar, separating basement rock of the Yavapai-Mazatzal transition zone from the Mazaztl Province proper.
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In the end, Amalthea's density was found to be as low as , so it must be either a relatively icy body or very porous "rubble pile" or, more likely, something in between. Recent measurements of infrared spectra from the Subaru telescope suggest that the moon indeed contains hydrous minerals, indicating that it cannot have formed in its current position, since the hot primordial Jupiter would have melted it. It is therefore likely to have formed farther from the planet or to be a captured Solar System body. No images were taken during this flyby (Galileos cameras had been deactivated due to radiation damage in January 2002), and the resolution of other available images is generally low.
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The Lincolnshire ironstone is found in the Lower Lias band in the Lower Jurassic series/period, it is a nearly horizontal bed, thick, averaging , and consists of calcareous haematite; near the surface the ores are converted to a hydrous form, limonite. The deposit is thought to have been originally created by the deposition by precipitation of Iron(II) containing waters, followed by oxidation via weathering to Iron(III). Characteristic fossils found in the ironstone beds included large Ammonites, and Gryphaea, Cardinia, and other mollusc species. The geological strata in Lincolnshire includes a number of iron bearing rocks including (downwards) the Claxby ironstone (Claxby, Lower Cretaceous period); the Lincoln ironstone; the Caythorpe ironstone (Caythorpe, Middle Lias period), below which is the 'Frodingham Ironstone' once mined at Scunthorpe.
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Hill, Mary (1999), pp. 168–69. As it sank, or subducted, beneath the western margin of the North American plate portions of the sea floor and overlying continental crust heated and melted, producing large molten masses (magma). Being lighter and hotter than the ancient continental crust above it, this magma forced its way upward, cooling as it rose, pp. 195–196. to become the granite rock found throughout the Sierra Nevada and other mountains in California today.Hill, Mary (1999), pp. 149–58 As the hot magma cooled, solidified, and came in contact with water, minerals with similar melting temperatures tended to concentrate together. As the magma solidified, gold became concentrated within hydrous silica solutions and was deposited within veins of quartz.Hill, Mary (1999), pp. 174–78.
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Diopside is a precursor of chrysotile (white asbestos) by hydrothermal alteration and magmatic differentiation; it can react with hydrous solutions of magnesium and chlorine to yield chrysotile by heating at 600 °C for three days. Some vermiculite deposits, most notably those in Libby, Montana, are contaminated with chrysotile (as well as other forms of asbestos) that formed from diopside. At relatively high temperatures, there is a miscibility gap between diopside and pigeonite, and at lower temperatures, between diopside and orthopyroxene. The calcium/(calcium+magnesium+iron) ratio in diopside that formed with one of these other two pyroxenes is particularly sensitive to temperature above 900 °C, and compositions of diopside in peridotite xenoliths have been important in reconstructions of temperatures in the Earth's mantle.
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Though technology exists to allow ethanol FFVs to run on any mixture of gasoline and ethanol, from pure gasoline up to 100% ethanol (E100), North American and European flex-fuel vehicles are optimized to run on E85, a blend of 85% anhydrous ethanol fuel with 15% gasoline. This upper limit in the ethanol content is set to reduce ethanol emissions at low temperatures and to avoid cold starting problems during cold weather, at temperatures lower than . The alcohol content is reduced during the winter in regions where temperatures fall below to a winter blend of E70 in the U.S. or to E75 in Sweden from November until March. Brazilian flex fuel vehicles are optimized to run on any mix of E20-E25 gasoline and up to 100% hydrous ethanol fuel (E100).
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81-82 and since July 2007 the mandatory blend is 25% of alcohol or gasohol E25. In 1979, and as a response to the second oil crisis, the first vehicle capable of running with pure hydrous ethanol (E100) was launched to the market, the Fiat 147, after testing with several prototypes developed by Fiat, Volkswagen, GM and Ford. The Brazilian government provided three important initial drivers for the ethanol industry: guaranteed purchases by the state-owned oil company Petrobras, low-interest loans for agro-industrial ethanol firms, and fixed gasoline and ethanol prices. After reaching more than 4 million cars and light trucks running on pure ethanol by the late 1980s, the use of E100-only vehicles sharply declined after increases in sugar prices produced shortages of ethanol fuel.
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Summary of the main ethanol blends used around the world Several common ethanol fuel mixtures are in use around the world. The use of pure hydrous or anhydrous ethanol in internal combustion engines (ICEs) is only possible if the engines are designed or modified for that purpose, and used only in automobiles, light-duty trucks and motorcycles. Anhydrous ethanol can be blended with gasoline (petrol) for use in gasoline engines, but with high ethanol content only after minor engine modifications. Ethanol fuel mixtures have "E" numbers which describe the percentage of ethanol fuel in the mixture by volume, for example, E85 is 85% anhydrous ethanol and 15% gasoline. Low- ethanol blends, from E5 to E25, although internationally the most common use of the term refers to the E10 blend.
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Although chondritic asteroids never became hot enough to melt based upon internal temperatures, many of them reached high enough temperatures that they experienced significant thermal metamorphism in their interiors. The source of the heat was most likely energy coming from the decay of short-lived radioisotopes (half-lives less than a few million years) that were present in the newly formed solar system, especially 26Al and 60Fe, although heating may have been caused by impacts onto the asteroids as well. Many chondritic asteroids also contained significant amounts of water, possibly due to the accretion of ice along with rocky material. As a result, many chondrites contain hydrous minerals, such as clays, that formed when the water interacted with the rock on the asteroid in a process known as aqueous alteration.
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In the metamorphic environment, metasomatism is created by mass transfer from a volume of metamorphic rock at higher stress and temperature into a zone with lower stress and temperature, with metamorphic hydrothermal solutions acting as a solvent. This can be envisaged as the metamorphic rocks within the deep crust losing fluids and dissolved mineral components as hydrous minerals break down, with this fluid percolating up into the shallow levels of the crust to chemically change and alter these rocks. This mechanism implies that metasomatism is open system behaviour, which is different from classical metamorphism which is the in-situ mineralogical change of a rock without appreciable change in the chemistry of the rock. Because metamorphism usually requires water in order to facilitate metamorphic reactions, metamorphism nearly always occurs with metasomatism.
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Carbonatites crystallize from CO-rich fluids, which can be produced by partial melting of hydrous-carbonated lherzolite to produce a CO-rich primary magma, by fractional crystallization of an alkaline primary magma, or by separation of a CO-rich immiscible liquid from. These liquids are most commonly forming in association with very deep Precambrian Cratons, like the ones found in Africa and the Canadian Shield. Ferrocarbonatites are the most common type of carbonatite to be enriched in REE, and are often emplaced as late-stage, brecciated pipes at the core of igneous complexes; they consist of fine-grained calcite and hematite, sometimes with significant concentrations of ankerite and minor concentrations of siderite. Large carbonatite deposits enriched in rare-earth elements include Mount Weld in Australia, Thor Lake in Canada, Zandkopsdrift in South Africa, and Mountain Pass in the USA.
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In this regard, the episodic formation of HT to UHT granulite-facies metamorphic rocks is temporally and spatially coupled with the breakup or attempting rupture of supercontinents in the plate tectonics context. Because UHT rocks are generally characterized by low water contents, this led to an illusion for the involvement of CO2-rich fluids in generating diagnostic UHT assemblages according to the finding of abundant pure CO2 fluid inclusions in these rocks. However, the extraction of liquid phases such as aqueous solutions and hydrous melts from anatectic systems during UHT metamorphism is so efficient that the common occurrence of pure CO2 fluid inclusions looks as if the incoming CO2 could have buffered the water activity and stabilized the anhydrous mineralogy of UHT rocks. Anatectic melts were variably extracted from anatectic systems, leading to granulite-migmatite-granite associations in accretionary and collisional orogens.
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In the early 1970s Herbert R. Appell and coworkers worked with hydrous pyrolysis methods, as exemplified by U. S. patent 3,733,255 (issued in 1973), which discusses the production of oil from sewer sludge and municipal refuse by heating the material in water, under pressure, and in the presence of carbon monoxide. An approach that exceeded break-even was developed by Illinois microbiologist Paul Baskis in the 1980s and refined over the next 15 years (see U. S. patent 5,269,947, issued in 1993). The technology was finally developed for commercial use in 1996 by Changing World Technologies (CWT). Brian S. Appel (CEO of CWT) took the technology in 2001 and expanded and changed it into what is now referred to as TCP (Thermal Conversion Process), and has applied for and obtained several patents (see, for example, published patent 8,003,833, issued August 23, 2011).
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Under the auspices of the BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport (BEST) project, the first ethanol-powered (E95 or ED95) bus began operations in São Paulo city in December 2007 as a one-year trial project. The bus is a Scania model with a modified diesel engine capable of running with 95% hydrous ethanol blended with a 5% ignition improver, with a Marcopolo body. Scania adjusted the compression ratio from 18:1 to 28:1, added larger fuel injection nozzles, and altered the injection timing. During the trial period performance and emissions were monitored by the National Reference Center on Biomass (CENBIO - ) at the Universidade de São Paulo, and compared with similar diesel models, with special attention to carbon monoxide and particulate matter emissions. Performance is also important as previous tests have shown a reduction in fuel economy of around 60% when E95 is compared to regular diesel.
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Poorly soluble hydrous ferric oxides are deposited at the surface of ice after the ferrous ions present in the unfrozen saltwater are oxidized in contact with atmospheric oxygen. The more soluble ferrous ions initially are dissolved in old seawater trapped in an ancient pocket remaining from the Antarctic Ocean when a fjord was isolated by the glacier in its progression during the Miocene period, some 5 million years ago when the sea level was higher than today. Unlike most Antarctic glaciers, the Taylor glacier is not frozen to the bedrock, probably because of the presence of salts concentrated by the crystallization of the ancient seawater imprisoned below it. Salt cryo- concentration occurred in the deep relict seawater when pure ice crystallised and expelled its dissolved salts as it cooled down because of the heat exchange of the captive liquid seawater with the enormous ice mass of the glacier.
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In some areas of the world, including Berlin, Germany, dropping salt is prohibited altogether except on the highest- risk roads; plain sand without any melting agents is spread instead. While this may protect the environment, it is more labour-intensive, as more gritting runs are needed; because the sand is insoluble, it tends to accumulate at the sides of the road, making it more difficult for buses to pull in at bus stops. Grit is often mixed with hydrous sodium ferrocyanide as an anticaking agent which, while harmless in its natural form, can undergo photodissociation in strong sunlight to produce the extremely toxic chemical hydrogen cyanide. Although sunlight is generally not intense enough to cause this in polar and temperate regions, salt deposits must kept as far as possible from waterways to avert the possibility of cyanide-tainted runoff water entering fisheries or farms.
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Bindi has numerous international collaborations, especially with Princeton University, Harvard University, and the California Institute of Technology. His research activity, condensed in more than 300 scientific publications, has been devoted to four different areas: a) mantle mineralogy (clinopyroxenes, garnets, akimotoite, bridgmanite, hiroseite, ahrensite, wadsleyite, post- spinel phases, dense hydrous magnesium silicates); b) aperiodic structures in the mineral kingdom (melilite, fresnoite, calaverite, natrite, muthmannite, pearceite-polybasite, icosahedrite, decagonite); c) superstructures, twinning, OD-phenomena and structural complexity in minerals (melilites, pearceite, polybasite, samsonite, calaverite, empressite, fettelite, quadratite, sinnerite, sartorite, meneghinite, zinkenite); d) structure solution of unknown structures and description of new mineral species (about 250 crystal structures solved and ~100 new mineral species described) Significant among his research works are the crystal-chemical studies of major mineral phases for the Earth's mantle, and studies of potassium-rich clinopyroxene, which had broad international resonance. He is also very well known for his studies on the complexity of mineral structures integrating mineralogy with the most- advanced fields of crystallography.
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Before 1815, Mount Tambora was dormant for several centuries as hydrous magma cooled gradually in a closed magma chamber. Inside the chamber, at depths of , cooling and partial crystallization of the magma exsolved high-pressure magmatic fluid. Overpressure of the chamber of about was generated as temperatures ranged from . In 1812, the crater began to rumble and generated a dark cloud. A moderate-sized eruption on 5 April 1815 was followed by thunderous detonation sounds that could be heard in Makassar on Sulawesi, at a distance of , Batavia (now Jakarta) on Java, away, and Ternate on the Molucca Islands at from Mount Tambora. What was first thought to be the sound of firing guns was heard on 10 and 11 April on Sumatra island (more than away). Cited by Oppenheimer (2003) On the morning of 6 April 1815, volcanic ash began to fall in East Java, with faint detonation sounds lasting until 10 April. The eruptions intensified at about 7:00 p.m.
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81–82 The percentage of ethanol mixed with gasoline has continued to change throughout the 21st century because of changing supply of sugarcane, making it possible for mixtures even within the same year to differ from 20-25%. The Brazilian government has worked with both public and private sectors to provide incentive for creative inventions that would make the most use of Brazil's ethanol boom. After testing in government fleets with several prototypes developed by local carmakers, and compelled by the second oil crisis, the Fiat 147, the first modern commercial neat ethanol car (E100 only) was launched to the market in July 1979. In order to establish ethanol as an alternative to gasoline, the Brazilian government provided three important initial drivers for the ethanol industry: guaranteed purchases by the state-owned oil company Petrobras, low-interest loans for agro-industrial ethanol firms, and fixed gasoline and ethanol prices where hydrous ethanol sold for 59% of the government-set gasoline price at the pump.
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Best-fit models for these absorption features suggest that Huya's surface consists of a mixture of cometary ice tholins (ice tholin II), nitrogen-rich Titan tholins, as well as water ice. Spectrographic observations of Huya's spectrum with the Very Large Telescope in 2001 and 2002 have tentatively identified weak absorption features at near-infrared wavelengths around 0.6–0.82 μm, possibly indicating the presence of phyllosilicate materials on its surface. The 0.6 μm absorption feature in Huya's spectrum resembles those in the spectra of stony S-type asteroids, which may suggest the presence of spinel group minerals, albeit in trace amounts as such minerals are unlikely to be abundant in trans-Neptunian objects. Other absorption features near 0.7 μm in Huya's spectrum appear akin to those in the spectra of dark asteroids, indicating the presence of hydrous silicate minerals such as phyllosilicates, which may have been aqueously altered through heating induced by impact events or the radioactive decay of radionuclides in Huya's interior.
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The possibility of using water isotope depletion with elevation to reconstruct paleoaltimetry was demonstrated as early as the late 1960s, when Caltech geochemist Samuel Epstein tried to collect rainwater at different elevations in a single storm. The δ18O and δD lapse rates vary within -1 to -5‰/km and -10 to -40‰/km respectively, but can vary with locations and seasons, and are not exactly linear with altitude. One of the first studies in stable isotope paleoaltimetry demonstrated a meteoric water δD signature of -90 to -139‰ in fluid inclusions in quartz and adularia in an epithermal gold-silver deposit in Nevada, and suggested the applicability of stable isotopes in reconstruction of ancient topography in the Great Basin. The hydrogen and oxygen isotopes of hydrous silicate minerals have since then been used to reconstruct topographic histories in mountain ranges across the world, including the North American Cordillera, the Rocky Mountains, the Himalayas, the European Alps, and Southern Alps in New Zealand.
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Gasoline engines were modified to support hydrous ethanol characteristics and changes included compression ratio, amount of fuel injected, replacement of materials that would get corroded by the contact with ethanol, use of colder spark plugs suitable for dissipating heat due to higher flame temperatures, and an auxiliary cold-start system that injects gasoline from a small tank in the engine compartment to help starting when cold. Within six years, around 75% of all Brazilian passenger cars were manufactured with ethanol engines. Production and sales of pure ethanol vehicles tumbled beginning in 1987 owing to several factors, including a sharp decline in gasoline prices as a result of the 1980s oil glut, and high sugar prices in the world market, shifting sugarcane ethanol production from fuel to sugar. By mid-1989, a shortage of ethanol fuel supply in the local market left thousands of vehicles in line at gas stations or out of fuel in their garages, forcing consumers to abandon ethanol vehicles.
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As an oceanic plate descends into the upper mantle, its minerals tend to lose water. How much water is lost and when depends on the pressure, temperature and mineralogy. Water is carried by a variety of minerals that combine various proportions of magnesium oxide (MgO), silicon dioxide (SiO2), and water. At low pressures (below 5 GPa), these include antigorite, a form of serpentine, and clinochlore (both carrying 13 wt% water); talc (4.8 wt%) and some other minerals with a lower capacity. At moderate pressure (5–7 GPa) the minerals include phlogopite (4.8 wt%), the 10Å phase (a high pressure product of talc and water, 10–13 wt%) and lawsonite (11.5 wt%). At pressures above 7 GPa, there is topaz-OH (Al2SiO4(OH)2, 10 wt%), phase Egg (AlSiO3(OH), 11–18 wt%) and a collection of dense hydrous magnesium silicate (DHMS) or "alphabet" phases such as phase A (12 wt%), D (10 wt%) and E (11 wt%).
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Honda's Brazilian subsidiary launched flexible-fuel versions for the Honda Civic and Honda Fit in late 2006. As other Brazilian flex-fuel vehicles, these models run on any blend of hydrous ethanol (E100) and E20-E25 gasoline. Initially, and in order to test the market preferences, the carmaker decided to produce a limited share of the vehicles with flex-fuel engines, 33 percent of the Civic production and 28 percent of the Fit models. Also, the sale price for the flex-fuel version was higher than the respective gasoline versions, around US$1,000 premium for the Civic, and US$650 for the Fit, despite the fact that all other flex-fuel vehicles sold in Brazil had the same tag price as their gasoline versions. In July 2009, Honda launched in the Brazilian market its third flexible-fuel car, the Honda City. During the last two months of 2006, both flex-fuel models sold 2,427 cars against 8,546 gasoline-powered automobiles, See Table 08 for flex-fuel sales and Table 07 for gasoline sales.
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In 1993 the mandatory blend was fixed by law at 22% anhydrous ethanol (E22) by volume in the entire country, but with leeway to the Executive to set different percentages of ethanol within pre-established boundaries. In 2003 these limits were set at a minimum of 20% and a maximum of 25%. Since July 1, 2007 the mandatory blend is 25% of anhydrous ethanol and 75% gasoline or E25 blend. The lower limit was reduced to 18% in April 2011 due to recurring ethanol supply shortages and high prices that take place between harvest seasons. By mid March 2015 the government raised temporarily the ethanol blend in regular gasoline from 25% to 27%. The Brazilian car manufacturing industry developed flexible-fuel vehicles that can run on any proportion of gasoline (E20-E25 blend) and hydrous ethanol (E100). Introduced in the market in 2003, flex vehicles became a commercial success, dominating the passenger vehicle market with a 94% market share of all new cars and light vehicles sold in 2013. See pp.
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President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva and King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden inspecting one of the 400 buses running on ED95 in Stockholm Under the auspices of the BEST project, the first ED95 bus began operations in São Paulo city in December 2007 as a trial project. The bus is a Scania with a modified diesel engine capable of running with 95% hydrous ethanol with 5% ignition improver. Scania adjusted the compression ratio from 18:1 to 28:1, added larger fuel injection nozzles, and altered the injection timing. During the first year trial period performance and emissions were monitored by the National Reference Center on Biomass (CENBIO - ) at the Universidade de São Paulo, and compared with similar diesel models, with special attention to carbon monoxide and particulate matter emissions. Performance is also important as previous tests have shown a reduction in fuel economy of around 60% when E95 is compared to regular diesel. In November 2009, a second ED95 bus began operating in São Paulo city.
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Stanley (1999) One perspective of how the cratonization process might have first begun in the Archean is given by Warren B. Hamilton: > Very thick sections of mostly submarine mafic, and subordinate ultramafic, > volcanic rocks, and mostly younger subaerial and submarine felsic volcanic > rocks and sediments were oppressed into complex synforms between rising > young domiform felsic batholiths mobilized by hydrous partial melting in the > lower crust. Upper-crust granite-and-greenstone terrains underwent moderate > regional shortening, decoupled from the lower crust, during compositional > inversion accompanying doming, but cratonization soon followed. Tonalitic > basement is preserved beneath some greenstone sections but supracrustal > rocks commonly give way downward to correlative or younger plutonic rocks... > Mantle plumes probably did not yet exist, and developing continents were > concentrated in cool regions. Hot-region upper mantle was partly molten, and > voluminous magmas, mostly ultramafic, erupted through many ephemeral > submarine vents and rifts focussed at the thinnest crust.... Surviving > Archean crust is from regions of cooler, and more depleted, mantle, wherein > greater stability permitted uncommonly thick volcanic accumulations from > which voluminous partial-melt, low-density felsic rocks could be > generated.
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Iron(III) oxyhydroxide precipitates from solutions of iron(III) salts at pH between 6.5 and 8.Tim Grundl and Jim Delwiche (1993): "Kinetics of ferric oxyhydroxide precipitation". Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, volume 14, issue 1, pages 71-87. . Thus the oxyhydroxide can be obtained in the lab by reacting an iron(III) salt, such as ferric chloride or ferric nitrate, with sodium hydroxide:K. H. Gayer and Leo Woontner (1956): "The Solubility of Ferrous Hydroxide and Ferric Hydroxide in Acidic and Basic Media at 25°". Journal of Physical Chemistry, volume 60, issue 11, pages 1569–1571. : + 3 NaOH → + 3 NaCl : + 3 NaOH → + 3 In fact, when dissolved in water, pure will hydrolyze to some extent, yielding the oxyhydroxide and making the solution acidic: : + 2 ↔ + 3 Therefore, the compound can also be obtained by the decomposition of acidic solutions of iron(III) chloride held near the boiling point for days or weeks:Egon Matijević and Paul Scheiner (1978): "Ferric hydrous oxide sols: III. Preparation of uniform particles by hydrolysis of Fe(III)-chloride, -nitrate, and -perchlorate solutions". Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, volume 63, issue 3, pages 509-524.
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