Vast brushes composed of dozens of horsetails are suspended from the ceiling of her studio.
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Rain lashed forests of horsetails and ferns, sweeping plants and animals out to sea and burying them in silt.
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"The Winton Formation itself, from which Savannasaurus and Diamantinasaurus were derived, is characterised by floras co-dominated by angiosperms and conifers, with ferns the next most diverse and abundant group, and ginkgoes, horsetails, and bennettitales also present but relatively rare," said Poropat.
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Riparian and lacustrine (aquatic) flora present in Lithuania include duckweed, horsetails, bullrushes, sedges, and grasses.
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Noeggerathiales have been previously linked to horsetails and ferns, but are currently believed to be progymnosperms.
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The beach is sandy with stones which contain Cretaceous fossils. The cliffs also feature Horsetails ferns.
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Equisetales is an order of subclass Equisetidae with only one living family, Equisetaceae, containing the genus Equisetum (horsetails).
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On the beach beside the harbour, there are fossilised trees related to Horsetails, dating back to the Carboniferous geological period.
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Calamites is a genus of extinct arborescent (tree-like) horsetails to which the modern horsetails (genus Equisetum) are closely related. Unlike their herbaceous modern cousins, these plants were medium-sized trees, growing to heights of 30-50 meters (100-160 feet). They were components of the understories of coal swamps of the Carboniferous Period (around ).
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PDF fulltext The toxicity appears to be due to thiaminase, which can cause thiamin (vitamin B1) deficiency. Equisetum species may have been a common food for herbivorous dinosaurs. With studies showing silicate within hadrosaur teeth and that horsetails are nutritionally of high quality, it is assumed that horsetails were an important component of herbivorous dinosaur diets.
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Their researchers discovered, amongst others, Arthropitys bistriata, a type of Calamites, giant horsetails that are ancestors of modern horsetails, found on this location with never seen multiple branches. Many more plants and animals from this excavation are still in an ongoing research. This exceptional find received the 2010 Fossil of the Year award of the German Paleontological Society. It was integrated into the permanent exhibition.
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More recent genetic studies demonstrated that the Lycopodiophyta are more distantly related to other vascular plants, having radiated evolutionarily at the base of the vascular plant clade, while both the whisk ferns and horsetails are as closely related to leptosporangiate ferns as the ophioglossoid ferns and Marattiaceae. In fact, the whisk ferns and ophioglossoid ferns are demonstrably a clade, and the horsetails and Marattiaceae are arguably another clade.
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Horsetail Glade, as the name suggests, is home to a large area of giant horsetails. There are numerous willow species, and common spotted orchid grows here in the summer.
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A pteridophyte is a vascular plant (with xylem and phloem) that disperses spores. Because pteridophytes produce neither flowers nor seeds, they are sometimes referred to as "cryptogams", meaning that their means of reproduction is hidden. Ferns, horsetails (often treated as ferns), and lycophytes (clubmosses, spikemosses, and quillworts) are all pteridophytes. However, they do not form a monophyletic group because ferns (and horsetails) are more closely related to seed plants than to lycophytes.
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There were also conifers like Pityophyllum, Rhipidiocladus, Elatocladus, Schizolepis, and Podozamites. Also, Lycopsids like Lycopodites and Sellaginellities, horsetails (Sphenopsida) like Equisetum, cycads like Anomozamites, and ferns (Filicopsida) like Todites and Coniopteris.
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Equisetaceae is the only surviving family of the Equisetales, a group with many fossils of large tree- like plants that possessed ribbed stems similar to modern horsetails. Pseudobornia is the oldest known relative of Equisetum; it grew in the late Devonian, about 375 million years ago and is assigned to its own order. All living horsetails are placed in the genus Equisetum. But there are some fossil species that are not assignable to the modern genus.
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The horsetails and their fossil relatives were long been recognized as distinct from other seedless vascular plants, such as the ferns (Polypodiopsida). Before the advent of modern molecular studies, the relationship of this group to other living and fossil plants was considered problematic. Because of their unclear relationships, the rank botanists assigned to the horsetails varied from order to division. When recognized as a separate division, the literature uses many possible names, including Arthrophyta, Calamophyta, Sphenophyta, or Equisetophyta.
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Equisetum sylvaticum, the wood horsetail, is a horsetail (family Equisetaceae) native to the Northern Hemisphere, occurring in North America and Eurasia. Because of its lacy appearance, it is considered among the most attractive of the horsetails.
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Equisetites is a "wastebin taxon" uniting all sorts of large horsetails from the Mesozoic; it is almost certainly paraphyletic and would probably warrant being subsumed in Equisetum. But while some of the species placed there are likely to be ancestral to the modern horsetails, there have been reports of secondary growth in other Equisetites, and these probably represent a distinct and now- extinct horsetail lineage. Equicalastrobus is the name given to fossil horsetail strobili, which probably mostly or completely belong to the (sterile) plants placed in Equisetites. (2005): Equisetites aequecaliginosus sp. nov.
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Native plants include the solomon's seal, horsetails and pennsylvania violet (Viola pennsylvanicum). More than 630 species of plants and animals have been observed in addition to the many species of dragonflies, spiders, mites, beetles, fungi, and ants living in the forest.
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The spores are spread by the wind (anemochory) and have four long ribbon-like structures attached to them. They sit on strobili which are rounded on the top. Marsh Horsetails often form subterranean runners and tubers, with which they also can proliferate vegetatively.
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At the same time, plants such as conifers, cordaitales, cycads, and horsetails, greened the New Mexican landscape. The early dinosaur Coelophysis inhabited the region. Prosauropods were also present but rare in Late Triassic New Mexico. The Jurassic of New Mexico is poorly known.
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The gardens include a Butterfly Garden, Daylily Garden, multiple Demonstration Gardens, Fountain Garden, Grass Garden, Hosta Garden, the Nancy Olson Children's Garden, the Ethel Johnson Lilac Garden, and a Prehistoric Garden (with Cycads, Baldcypress, Ferns, Ginkgo, Horsetails, Mosses, Bristlecone Pine, and Dawn Redwood).
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Members of ten orders of insects have been identified, including Valditermes, Archisphex, and Pterinoblattina. Other invertebrates include ostracods, isopods, conchostracans, and bivalves. The plants Weichselia and the aquatic, herbaceous Bevhalstia were common. Other plants found include ferns, horsetails, club mosses, and conifers.
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Notable components of the Bukobay fauna include "Mastodonsaurus" torvus (a giant capitosaur amphibian), Elephantosaurus jachimovitschi (a large dicynodont), and Chalishevia cothurnata (the youngest known erythrosuchid). The flora is also diverse, including Equisetites arenaceus (a species of giant horsetails) and Ladinian- age palynomorphs.
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Hamatophyton is a genus of the extinct Sphenophyllales horsetails. Unique to this genus among other Sphenophyllales is its lack of secondary xylem around the tips of the primary xylem arms.Thomas N. Taylor, Edith L. Taylor, Michael Krings: Paleobotany. The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants .
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A large collection of ferns can be found throughout the garden, especially in the two ferneries. Several species of ferns and tree ferns (especially the genus Cyathea) along with other closely related plants such as horsetails (Equisetum) are among the genera represented in the collection.
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The Year of the Horsetails is a historical novel, written by R.F. TapsellYear of the Horsetails, Kindle Edition, , Amazon.com, accessed August 22, 2017. and published in 1967 by Alfred A. Knopf, that is set on the Eurasian Steppe, probably in the area now known as Eastern Europe. The time frame of the book is not specified, but is probably set between the birth of Attila the Hun in 406 AD, and the rise of the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan in 1162 AD. The story begins with the central character Bardiya, a Saka tribesman, escaping westward across the steppe on horseback from the brutal Mongol-like Tugar people.
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Another way of looking at this relationship is as follows. Several groups of plants were considered "fern allies": the clubmosses, spikemosses, and quillworts in the Lycopodiophyta, the whisk ferns in Psilotaceae, and the horsetails in the Equisetaceae. Traditionally, three discrete groups of plants had been considered ferns: the adders-tongues, moonworts, and grape-ferns (Ophioglossales), the Marattiaceae, and the leptosporangiate ferns. More recent genetic studies have shown that the Lycopodiophyta are only distantly related to any other vascular plants, having radiated evolutionarily at the base of the vascular plant clade, while both the whisk ferns and horsetails are as much true ferns as are the Ophioglossoids and Marattiaceae.
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Twinflower, strawberries, bunchberries, horsetails and wintergreen form an attractive grown cover. The mineral soil is covered by a decaying cover of organic matter. Numerous consumers and decomposers create humus materials. Burrowing animals mix the new fertile materials with the soil to form a rich rooting compound.
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The situation became very difficult for them. The long siege decreased the people's food and fodder to the minimum. The horses were said to have eaten the horsetails off each other. On the third day after the German relief army had arrived the stronghold, the negotiations started.
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The fictional Tugars may have been modeled on the Avars (580-804 AD), a Turkic people who were a nomadic confederation also ruled by a Khagan (emperor).Holmes, Morgan "Year of the Horsetails", The Robert E. Howard United Press Association, March 22, 2009, accessed November 8, 2010.
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It feeds on grasses, lichens, horsetails and berries. It stores food in its burrows for the winter. Like the singing vole, this animal may give a warning call to alert other members of the colony of danger. The female vole has litters of 7 to 10 young.
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The extant horsetails represent a tiny fraction of horsetail diversity in the past. There were three orders of the Equisetidae. The Pseudoborniales first appeared in the late Devonian. The Sphenophyllales were a dominant member of the Carboniferous understory, and prospered until the mid and early Permian.
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The wetland areas are primarily grassy, with sedges and small shrubs. Horsetails such as Equisetum palustre and spikerush are also found. The drier forested upland portions of the park are mostly interior boreal forest, or taiga. The distribution of tree species is determined by fire frequency and extent.
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The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests of tree ferns, and ferns (gallery forests), to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the Araucaria-like conifer Brachyphyllum.
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Sphenophyllales is an extinct order of articulate land plants and a sister group to the present-day Equisetales (horsetails). They are fossils dating from the Devonian to the Triassic. They were common during the Late Pennsylvanian to Early Permian, with most of the fossils coming from the Carboniferous period.
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Ferns and horsetails were among the state's rich flora. Ohio was only about 5 degrees north of the equator. Sand and mud deposited on local river deltas gradually filled in the swamp. Later in the Permian Ohio was subjected to geologic uplift and its sediments were eroded away.
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Due to its shallowness, light penetrates to the loch floor. Consequently, many species of aquatic plants exist including water lobelia, quillwort and shoreweed. Around the perimeter reeds, sedges, horsetails, bulrushes and willow scrub are found. The loch is also home to pike, otters, migrating geese and other wildfowl.
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It is one of the largest horsetails, growing tall, exceeded only by the closely allied Equisetum myriochaetum (up to relying on surrounding plants' support). The stems are the stoutest of any horsetail, 1–2 cm diameter (up to 3.5 cm diameter in some populations), and bear numerous whorls of very slender branches; these branches are not further branched, but some terminate in spore cones. Unlike some other horsetails, it does not have separate photosynthetic sterile and non-photosynthetic spore-bearing stems. Populations from northern Chile with very stout stems up to 3.5 cm diameter have sometimes been treated as a separate species Equisetum xylochaetum,Equisetum xylochaetum at Flora Brasiliensis online but this is not widely regarded as distinct.
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During the Early Cretaceous the Gulf of Mexico began gradually expanding northward. On land, the eastern United States during resembled the modern Mississippi Delta. It was a lowlying plain divided by rivers. A thick coat of vegetation covered the region in plants like club mosses, conifers, cycads, ferns, ginkgoes, horsetails.
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The euphyllophytes are by far the largest group of vascular plants, in terms of both individuals and species. Euphyllophytes have large 'true' leaves (megaphylls), which develop through marginal or apical meristems (i.e., the leaves effectively grow from the sides or the apex). (Horsetails have secondarily reduced megaphylls resembling microphylls.), pp.
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The plants have intercalary meristems in each segment of the stem and rhizome that grow as the plant gets taller. This contrasts with the seed plants, which grow from an apical meristem - i.e. new growth comes only from growing tips (and widening of stems). Horsetails bear cones (technically strobili, sing.
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Due to its shallowness, light penetrates to the loch floor. Consequently, many species of aquatic plants exist including water lobelia, quillwort and shoreweed. In the summer white water lilies bloom on the loch. Around the perimeter reeds, sedges, horsetails, bulrushes and willow scrub are found and a beechwood forest fringes the edge.
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Ichthyosaurs were one of the most important groups of marine reptiles during the Triassic. Important ichthyosaur fossils of this age were preserved in Nevada. On land, North America's vegetation included plants like conifers, cycads, ferns, ginkgoes, and horsetails. The Triassic vegetation of the east coast indicated swampy conditions in the local rift valleys.
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Ferns and horsetails that grew in what is now Chatham County have been the source of exquisitely preserved fossils. Otozamites also grew in Chatham County. Other kinds of fossils preserved in the Triassic Pekin deposits include amphibians, fish scales, and petrified wood. The formation also preserves several kinds of Late Triassic reptiles.
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Per Karl Hjalmar Dusén (1855–1926) was a Swedish civil engineer, botanist and explorer. As a botanist his interests included pteridology, bryology, and paleobotany. He made botanical expeditions to Africa, Greenland, and South America. During his expeditions to Greenland, he visited Disko Island to catalogue the variety of flowering plants, horsetails and ferns.
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Starting in the Carboniferous period, a series of volcanic archipelagos formed in the region. Islands in these chains would have hosted warm, wet terrestrial environments. Fossils in Oregon's oldest floral assemblage, dating to the Late Carboniferous period, implies a lagoon ecosystem. Fossils in the assemblage include horsetails, ferns, scale trees, and conifer tree seeds.
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On land primitive plants grew in New Mexico. The state's Mississippian flora of New Mexico included horsetails and scale trees. Pennsylvanian New Mexico experienced both marine and terrestrial conditions over time. Marine life included more than 157 species of brachiopods, 41 bryozoans, 34 cephalopods, 34 corals, 118 foraminiferans, 87 gastropods, 25 ostracods and 85 pelecypods.
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Heterospory evolved during the Devonian period from isospory independently in several plant groups: the clubmosses, the arborescent horsetails, and progymnosperms. This occurred as part of the process of evolution of the timing of sex differentiation.Sussex, I.M. (1966) The origin and development of heterospory in vascular plants. Chapter 9 in Trends in Plant morphogenesis, ed.
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The Flora is dominated by horsetails, what can be due to a similar ecological niche to modern genus Phragmites, able to resist saline conditions. Storms or floods maybe where the major events that transported this flora to the sea. The macroflora of the Posidonia slate can be described as extremely poor in species.Wilde, V. (2001).
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A clubmoss, from the Lycopodiopsida Isoëtes lacustris, a quillwort, from the Isoetopsida Equisetum fluviatile, from the Equisetopsida (horsetails) Psilotum nudum, from the Psilotopsida (whisk ferns) Fern allies are a diverse group of seedless vascular plants that are not true ferns. Like ferns, a fern ally disperses by shedding spores to initiate an alternation of generations.
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Vessel-like cells have also been found in the xylem of Equisetum (horsetails), Selaginella (spike-mosses), Pteridium aquilinum (bracken fern), Marsilea and Regnellidium (aquatic ferns), and the enigmatic fossil group Gigantopteridales. In these cases, it is generally agreed that the vessels evolved independently. It is possible that vessels may have appeared more than once among the angiosperms as well.
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Spiraea douglasii is native to western North America from Alaska across southwestern Canada and the Pacific Northwest. It occurs most often in riparian habitat types, such as swamps, streambanks, bogs and mudflats.US Forest Service Fire Ecology It was introduced to Europe, where it is considered invasive. It grows among sedges, horsetails, wild blueberries, and other swamp flora.
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The name Fjärnebo is the ancient name of the village of Österfärnebo ("East Färnebo"), situated near the park; its name changed in the 17th century to distinguish it from a Färnebo in Västmanland, which was itself rebaptized Västerfärnebo ("West Färnebo"). The name of the village means "habitation (bo) next to the fjärd of horsetails (fräken, which became Färne)".
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Most ferns are leptosporangiate ferns. They produce coiled fiddleheads that uncoil and expand into fronds. The group includes about 10,560 known extant species. Ferns are defined here in the broad sense, being all of the Polypodiopsida, comprising both the leptosporangiate (Polypodiidae) and eusporangiate ferns, the latter group including horsetails or scouring rushes, whisk ferns, marattioid ferns, and ophioglossoid ferns.
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Despite its small size, Davidof is heavily vegetated, with variations of moss, lichen, and heath.Nelson, W. H., page 8. Spread throughout the island are grass and sedges, which cover much of the lower surface. Fungi, liverworts, horsetails, and ferns, can be found on the island, along with flowering plants, such as the narcissus anemone, lupines, and orchids.
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Plant fossils are common from Michigan rocks of Pennsylvanian age. The flora of Michigan back then included club moss trees, ferns, and horsetails. Contemporary vegetation was preserved in the Midland and Saginaw regions. Fossil lungfish burrows are another interesting find from the Pennsylvanian coal swamp deposits near Grand Ledge in Clinton County but these tend to be poorly preserved.
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Until they either died or were overwhelmed by the accumulating sediments, these trees would likely continue to regenerate by adding height and new roots with each increment of sediment, eventually leaving several meters of former "trunk" buried underground as sediments accumulated.Gastaldo, R.A., 1992, Regenerative growth in fossil horsetails (Calamites) following burial by alluvium. Historical Biology, 6(3):203-220.
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Petrified tree trunks of Protojuniperoxylon ischigualastianus of more than tall attest to a rich vegetation at that time. Fossil ferns and horsetails have also been found in the formation. Coprolites were found in Valle Pintado in the upper part of the formation. Analysis of the coprolites revealed that plant remains were absent and bone material and apatite were sparse.
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On land, the surviving vascular plants included the lycophytes, the dominant cycadophytes, ginkgophyta (represented in modern times by Ginkgo biloba), ferns, horsetails and glossopterids. The spermatophytes, or seed plants, came to dominate the terrestrial flora: in the northern hemisphere, conifers, ferns and bennettitales flourished. Glossopteris (a seed fern) was the dominant southern hemisphere tree during the Early Triassic period.
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The Marattiaceae are a group of tropical ferns with a large, fleshy rhizome, and are now thought to be a sister group to the main group of ferns, the leptosporangiate ferns. The whisk ferns and Ophioglossids are demonstrably a clade, however, the relationships between these this group, the leptosporangiate ferns+marattiaceae, and the horsetails remains uncertain.
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These horsetails are commonly found in wet or swampy forest, open woodlands, and meadow areas. The species name sylvaticum is Latin for "of the forests", emphasizing that the wood horsetail is most commonly found in forested habitats. The plant is an indicator of boreal and cool-temperate climates, and very moist to wet, nitrogen-poor soils.
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They referred to the ferns (now including horsetails) as monilophytes, dividing them into four groups, with the vast majority of species being placed in a taxon they called "Polypodiopsida". The four-fold grouping has persisted through subsequent systems, despite changes in nomenclature. Polypodiopsida is now used for all ferns (sensu lato), with Smith et al.'s group being subclass Polypodiidae.
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In the pit of a former Bad Sobernheim brickworks, superb fossils of plants from Rotliegend times (Permian) some 290,000,000 years ago have been unearthed. The name of one of these species, Sobernheimia, recalls its discovery site. At times, whole phyla of horsetails and sequoias have come to light there. Fossil plants from Sobernheim are presented at the Palaeontological Museum in Nierstein.
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Shells of bivalves and aquatic snails are also common. The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests in otherwise treeless settings (gallery forests) with tree ferns, and ferns, to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the Araucaria-like conifer Brachyphyllum.
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The state was briefly out of the sea during the Ordovician, but by the Silurian it was once again submerged. During this second period of inundation the state was home to brachiopods, trilobites and entire reef systems. During the mid-to-late Carboniferous the state gradually became a swampy environment. During the Triassic, the state was covered vegetated by horsetails and trees.
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Early mammals were present in this region, such as docodonts, multituberculates, symmetrodonts, and triconodonts. The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests of tree ferns, and ferns (gallery forests), to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the Araucaria-like conifer Brachyphyllum.
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Early mammals present were docodonts (such as Docodon), multituberculates, symmetrodonts, and triconodonts. The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests of tree ferns, and ferns (gallery forests), to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the Araucaria-like conifer Brachyphyllum.
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The climate Kuehneotherium lived in was hot and dry during this part of the early Mesozoic. Conifer plants thrived and spread throughout Pangaea. As the continents rifted apart during the Early Jurassic the climate was more humid. Ferns, horsetails, cycads, and mosses were common in both the Triassic and Jurassic, however they were more prevalent in the more humid Jurassic Period.
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Palm Garden: This garden displays nearly 400 species of cold hardy and semi-tender palms suited for the central Florida climate. This collection ranks among the most extensive collections in the United States. Besides the palms, this garden contains the cycad collection, bamboo collection, and pandan collection. Planted amongst the cycads are other prehistoric plants such as conifers, ferns, horsetails, and tree ferns.
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In the horsetails, elaters are four ribbon-like appendages attached to the spores. These appendages develop from an outer spiral layer of the spore wall. At maturity, the four strips peel away from the inner wall, except at a single point on the spore where all four strips are attached. Under moist conditions, the elaters curl tightly around the spore.
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When treated as a class, the names Equisetopsida s.s. and Sphenopsida have also been used. They are now recognized as rather close relatives of the ferns (Polypodiopsida) of which they form a specialized lineage. However, the division between the horsetails and the other ferns is so ancient that many botanists, especially paleobotanists, still regard this group as fundamentally separate at the higher level.
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Other authors regarded the same group as a class, either within a division consisting of the vascular plants or, more recently, within an expanded fern group. When ranked as a class, the group has been termed the Equisetopsida or Sphenopsida. Modern phylogenetic analysis, back to 2001, demonstrated that horsetails belong firmly within the fern clade of vascular plants. Smith et al.
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It also lived alongside the theropods Kryptops, Suchomimus, and Eocarcharia, and a yet-unnamed noasaurid. Crocodylomorphs like Sarcosuchus, Anatosuchus, Araripesuchus, and Stolokrosuchus also lived there. In addition, remains of a pterosaur, chelonians, fish, a hybodont shark, and freshwater bivalves have been found. Grass did not evolve until the late Cretaceous, making ferns, horsetails, and angiosperms (which had evolved by the middle Cretaceous) potential food for Nigersaurus.
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During the Pennsylvanian epoch Tennessee was home to vast river systems flowing toward the west. These rivers formed huge deltas covered in swamps. The contemporary local swamps were densely vegetated with a flora that included horsetails and scale trees. The rich vegetation growing during this interval of time left behind a great abundance of fossils in what are now the rocks of the Cumberland Plateau.
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D. M. Wilkinson and G. D. Ruxton considered the available nutrients as a driving factor for sauropod gigantism. Sauropods appeared during the late triassic period and became extinct at the end of the cretaceous period. During this time period, herbivorous plant matter such as conifers, ginkgos, cycads, ferns and horsetails may have been dietary choice of Sauropods. These plants have a high carbon/ nitrogen content.
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This listing contains taxa of plants in the division Pteridophyta, recorded from South Africa. A pteridophyte is a vascular plant (with xylem and phloem) that disperses spores. Because pteridophytes produce neither flowers nor seeds, they are sometimes referred to as "cryptogams", meaning that their means of reproduction is hidden. Ferns, horsetails (often treated as ferns), and lycophytes (clubmosses, spikemosses, and quillworts) are all pteridophytes.
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Discovered the 1960s, the rich green tsavorite variety of grossular is also very popular. Both grossular and andradite are isotropic and have relatively high RIs (around 1.74 and 1.89 respectively) and high dispersions (0.027 and 0.057), with demantoid's exceeding diamond. However, both have a low hardness (6.5–7.5) and invariably possess inclusions atypical for diamond—the byssolite "horsetails" seen in demantoid are one striking example.
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Since 1977, the rich vertebrate fauna found at Baden-Württemberg reflect a moist region of the Middle Triassic in Germany. Along with Batrachotomus, palaeontologists recovered remains of fishes, amphibians, such as Gerrothorax and Mastodonsaurus, and even animals like nothosaurs and the distinct marine reptile Tanystropheus. Flora of the locality consisted of horsetails, ferns, cycads and conifers, suggesting that there was rich vegetation.Rozynek (2008), p. 4.
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Emberger's scientific contributions cover four main areas of research, cytology, biogeography, comparative morphology and phylogeny, and biosystematics. His cytological work focussed on the ferns, horsetails, and the lycopods. His biogeographical work concentrated on the vegetation of the Mediterranean basin and in particular the western High Atlas region of Morocco. He published work on the distribution and classification of Moroccan flora, in particular, halfah grass (Stipa tenacissima).
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Psaronius is in included in the fern family Marattiaceae. Living representatives of this family include many large ferns but none are a 'tree form' like Psaronius. Recent molecular studies indicate that this group of ferns have a very old lineage and may be a sister group to the horsetails Equisetum. Modern tree ferns have many similarities to Psaronius but are in a younger fern family, the Cyatheales.
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Die Landpflanzen-Taphozönose aus dem Posidonienschiefer des Unteren Jura (Schwarzer Jura [Epsilon], Unter-Toarcium) in Deutschland und ihre Deutung. Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde. Apart from the remains of Horsetails, it is without exception the remains of coarse branches and fronds from gymnosperms, in which one has a certain can assume transport resistance. Remains of Ferns are completely missing, except for tall arboreal ferns (Peltaspermales).
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22, no. 1-4, pp. 121–143. The Dry Mesa Quarry has produced the remains of the sauropods Apatosaurus, Diplodocus, Barosaurus, Supersaurus, Dystylosaurus and Camarasaurus, the iguanodonts Camptosaurus and Dryosaurus, and the theropods Allosaurus, Tanycolagreus, Koparion, Stokesosaurus, Ceratosaurus and Ornitholestes, as well as Othnielosaurus, Gargoyleosaurus and Stegosaurus. The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, ferns, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers.
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Calamitaceae is an extinct family of plants related to the modern horsetails. Some members of this family attained tree-like stature during the Carboniferous Period (around ) and in Permian Period, reaching heights of up to 20 meters. The family takes its name from its principal genus Calamites. Because some proposed species are based on partial fossil records, it is not clear if these are merely different parts of the same type.
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Equisetum arvense (field horsetail) Equisetum leaves are greatly reduced and usually non-photosynthetic. They contain a single, non-branching vascular trace, which is the defining feature of microphylls. However, it has recently been recognised that horsetail microphylls are probably not ancestral as in lycophytes (clubmosses and relatives), but rather derived adaptations, evolved by reduction of megaphylls. The leaves of horsetails are arranged in whorls fused into nodal sheaths.
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When the last ice age ended many species moved to northern territories of Europe, but peat bogs provided good conditions for some of them here too. The area is surrounded with woods consisting mainly of spruces, which are replaced with mountain pines towards the centre. The meadows are very rich in species of various plants. Among the most common ones there are horsetails, wood club-rush, Cirsium rivulare and meadowsweet.
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During the Devonian another period of uplift raised the state out of the sea, before erosion and subsidence brought it back under. One final episode of uplift during the Paleozoic occurred at the boundary between the Carboniferous and Permian. Maryland was home to creatures like brachiopods and bryozoans during periods where the state was under seawater. While the sea was absent, horsetails and scale trees grew across the state.
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Slinfold Stream and Quarry is a geological Site of Special Scientific Interest west of Horsham in West Sussex. It is a Geological Conservation Review site. This site exposes the Horsham Stone member of the Lower Weald Clay, dating to the Early Cretaceous, around 130 million years ago. It preserves the fossils of horsetails in their upright position, suggesting that they grew in a fresh water reedswamp with a maximum depth of .
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Cycads from the Fremouw Formation are similar to the living Bowenia from Australia Well-preserved plants are common in the Fremouw Formation. Logs have been found in channel deposits and roots and stems have been found in permineralized soil. Smaller fossils on Fremouw Peak include cycads, horsetails, seed ferns, Osmundaceae ferns, and even fungi. One cycad called Antarcticycas is similar in appearance to the living Bowenia of Australia.
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Plant pharmacological studies have suggested that Calendula extracts may have anti- viral, anti-genotoxic, and anti-inflammatory properties in vitro. In an in vitro assay, the methanol extract of C. officinalis exhibited antibacterial activity and both the methanol and the ethanol extracts showed antifungal activities. Along with horsetails (Equisetum arvense), pot marigold is one of the few plants which is considered astringent despite not being high in tannins.
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Her most famous work is The flowering plants, grasses, sedges, and ferns of Great Britain and their allies the club mosses, pepperworts, and horsetails. London: Frederick Warne and Co. Charles Roach Smith (1806–1890) notable amateur archaeologist, died in Strood. He was born at Shanklin, Isle of Wight, the youngest of 10 children. In 1826 he moved to London, and established his own business as a chemist in 1834.
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Equisetidae is one of the four subclasses of Polypodiopsida (ferns), a group of vascular plants with a fossil record going back to the Devonian. They are commonly known as horsetails. They typically grow in wet areas, with whorls of needle-like branches radiating at regular intervals from a single vertical stem. The Equisetidae were formerly regarded as a separate division of spore plants and called Equisetophyta, Arthrophyta, Calamophyta or Sphenophyta.
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The pattern of spacing of nodes in horsetails, wherein those toward the apex of the shoot are increasingly close together, inspired John Napier to invent logarithms. A superficially similar but entirely unrelated flowering plant genus, mare's tail (Hippuris), is occasionally referred to as "horsetail", and adding to confusion, the name "mare's tail" is sometimes applied to Equisetum. Despite centuries of use in traditional medicine, there is no evidence that Equisetum has any medicinal properties.
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The island is sparsely populated in vegetation; plant life consists mainly of grassland and small shrubs, which are regularly grazed by livestock. The most common tree native to Greenland is the European white birch (Betula pubescens) along with gray-leaf willow (Salix glauca), rowan (Sorbus aucuparia), common juniper (Juniperus communis) and other smaller trees, mainly willows. Greenland's flora consists of about 500 species of "higher" plants, i.e. flowering plants, ferns, horsetails and lycopodiophyta.
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Most vertebrates showed a tendency to climb trees or become arboreal, including many tree-dwelling birds, and climbing mammals and lizards. Plant life reached its Jehol biota peak in the Yixian. Five species of flowering plant were present (three of Archaefructus, one of Archaeamphora and one of Hyrcantha (formerly Sinocarpus), as were a variety of horsetails that closely resembled modern species. It is possible that increasing animal and plant diversity were linked.
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The Ottoman reconquest was easy and swift, and was recognized by Venice in the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718.Bées & Savvides (1993), p. 240 The Peloponnese now became the core of the Morea Eyalet, headed by the Mora valesi, who until 1780 was a pasha of the first rank (with three horsetails) and held the title of vizier. After 1780 and until the Greek War of Independence, the province was headed by a muhassil.
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Nigersaurus was probably a browser, and fed with its head close to the ground. The region of its brain that detected smell was underdeveloped, although its brain size was comparable to that of other dinosaurs. There has been debate on whether its head was habitually held downwards, or horizontally like other sauropods. It lived in a riparian habitat, and its diet probably consisted of soft plants, such as ferns, horsetails, and angiosperms.
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Oregon's paleoenvironment in the Cenozoic reflected the era's overall global cooling trend, shifting from tropical to temperate to glacial climates. Westward shift in the state's shoreline brought a more diverse terrestrial fauna, including a variety of extinct land mammals. The state's earliest Paleogene deposits record an environment that was warm and wet, similar to the modern American southeast. Fossils from this time include pollen and leaves from ferns, spongeplants, hazelnuts, water elms, laurels, and horsetails.
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During the middle part of the Permian the seas returned to a more typical state. At this time a huge reef system began to form at El Capitan in the southeastern part of the state. Most of New Mexico was under seawater during the ensuing Permian. More than 300 kinds of marine life have been discovered in the state. On land, at least 20 kinds of plants including early conifers, horsetails, and seed ferns grew.
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Bd. 111, S. 1-15. Because this embryo-nurturing feature of the life cycle is common to all land plants they are known collectively as the embryophytes. Cleistocarpous sporophyte of the moss Physcomitrella patens Most algae have dominant gametophyte generations, but in some species the gametophytes and sporophytes are morphologically similar (isomorphic). An independent sporophyte is the dominant form in all clubmosses, horsetails, ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms that have survived to the present day.
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Colors of Autumn The sixth and seventh ecological zones are characterized by their shrubs and trees, and Presque Isle State Park is home to 633 plant species (195 monocotyledons, 410 dicotyledons, 5 gymnosperms, 5 horsetails, 13 ferns, and 5 mosses). The sixth zone, thicket and sub-climax forest, forms when shrubs grow on dying marshes, followed by small trees. The trees shade and thin out the thickets of shrubs, leading to a sub-climax forest.
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Tall lycopods and horsetails dominated the wetlands of Gondwana in the Early Permian. Insects co-evolved with glossopterids across Gondwana and diversified with more than 200 species in 21 orders by the Late Permian, many known from South Africa and Australia. Beetles and cockroaches remained minor elements in this fauna. Tetrapod fossils from the Early Permian have only been found in Laurasia but they became common in Gondwana later during the Permian.
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It is thought they may have propelled themselves with their forelimbs, dragging their hindquarters in a similar manner to that used by the elephant seal. In the early Carboniferous (360 to 345 million years ago), the climate became wet and warm. Extensive swamps developed with mosses, ferns, horsetails and calamites. Air-breathing arthropods evolved and invaded the land where they provided food for the carnivorous amphibians that began to adapt to the terrestrial environment.
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Vegetation consisted of ferns, horsetails, and giant conifers, which formed highland forests along the banks of rivers. Herrerasaurus remains appear to have been the most common among the carnivores of the Ischigualasto Formation. Sereno (1993) noted that Pisanosaurus was found in "close association" with therapsids, rauisuchians, archosaurs, Saurosuchus and the dinosaurs Herrerasaurus and Eoraptor, all of whom lived in its paleoenvironment. Bonaparte (1976) postulated that Pisanosaurus played a role in a fauna dominated by therapsids.
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Bées & Savvides (1993), pp. 239–240 The Morea Eyalet was re-established, headed by the Mora valesi, who until 1780 was a pasha of the first rank (with three horsetails) and held the title of vizier. After 1780 and until the Greek War of Independence, the province was headed by a muhassil. The pasha of the Morea was aided by a number of subordinate officials, including a Christian translator (dragoman), who was the senior Christian official of the province.
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Annularia is a form taxon name given to leaves of Calamites. In that species, the leaves formed radiating leaf whorls at each stem node, in a similar way to the branches of Equisetum, an extant genus of horsetails. Annularia leaves are arranged in whorls of between 8-13 leaves. The leaf shape is quite variable, being oval in Annularia sphenophylloides and linear to lanceolate in Annularia radiata, but they are always flat and of varying lengths.
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The Yixian is characterized by extensive forests, dominated by trees such as ginkgoes, conifers, cycads, and seed fern trees. Ground cover plants included lycopods, horsetails, ferns, and primitive flowering plants, which were rare compared to the others. This plant life grew around a series of freshwater lakes, provided with abundant minerals thanks to periodic volcanic eruptions. Volcanic activity, along with periodic wildfires, and noxious gasses released from the lake bottoms caused the ecosystem to be continually destroyed and regrown.
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Early-Mid Jurassic (170 Ma) An insect, Platyperla propera,Sinitshenkova, 1987 fish (Palaeonisciformes) and pterosaur remains of the family Anurognathidae have been recovered from the formation.Bakhurina & Unwin, 1995Barret et al., 2008 The formation has also provided many fossil flora in its coal layers, known as the Tsagan-Ovoo Flora containing 32 megafossil plant taxa belonging to horsetails, ferns, cycadaleans, ginkgoaleans, leptostrobaleans, conifers and gymnosperms. Three new species were named; Ginkgo badamgaravii, Pseudotorellia gobiense and P. mongolica.
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Mazothairos a Carboniferous member of the now extinct order Palaeodictyoptera. The Carboniferous () is famous for its wet, warm climates and extensive swamps of mosses, ferns, horsetails, and calamites. Glaciations in Gondwana, triggered by Gondwana's southward movement, continued into the Permian and because of the lack of clear markers and breaks, the deposits of this glacial period are often referred to as Permo-Carboniferous in age. The cooling and drying of the climate led to the Carboniferous rainforest collapse (CRC).
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Phenolic compounds are mostly found in vascular plants (tracheophytes) i.e. Lycopodiophyta (lycopods), Pteridophyta (ferns and horsetails), Angiosperms (flowering plants or Magnoliophyta) and Gymnosperms (conifers, cycads, Ginkgo and Gnetales). In ferns, compounds such as kaempferol and its glucoside can be isolated from the methanolic extract of fronds of Phegopteris connectilis or kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, a known bitter-tasting flavonoid glycoside, can be isolated from the rhizomes of Selliguea feei.Flavonoids and a proanthrocyanidin from rhizomes of Selliguea feei.
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It is not known if this was carried out at Stevenston, however very large quantities of ash were produced from coal used by the magnesia and salt works at Saltcoats. The mine waste from the colliery has been integrated into the dune system and when exposed by wave action the shale waste often contains plant fossils such as species of Equisetum or horsetails. The site is owned by North Ayrshire Council, including the beach below the high water mark.
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Fossil ferns and horsetails have also been found. Rhynchosaurs and cynodonts (especially rhynchosaur Hyperodapedon and cynodont Exaeretodon) are by far the predominant findings among the tetrapod fossils in the park. A study from 1993 found dinosaur specimens to comprise only 6% of the total tetrapod sample; subsequent discoveries increased this number to approximately 11% of all findings. Carnivorous dinosaurs are the most common terrestrial carnivores of the Ischigualasto Formation, with herrerasaurids comprising 72% of all recovered terrestrial carnivores.
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This first colonisation occurred exclusively around the Equator on landmasses then limited to Laurasia and, in Gondwana, to Australia. In the Late Silurian two distinctive linages, zosterophylls and rhyniophytes, had colonised the tropics. The former evolved into the lycopods, that were to dominate the Gondwanan vegetation over a long period, whilst the latter evolved into horsetails and gymnosperms. Most of Gondwana was located far from the Equator during this period and remained a lifeless and barren landscape.
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It may have eaten ferns, cycadeoids, seed ferns, horsetails, and algae. Stevens and Parish (2005) speculate that these sauropods fed from riverbanks on submerged water plants. A 2015 study of the necks of Apatosaurus and Brontosaurus found many differences between them and other diplodocids, and that these variations may have shown that the necks of Apatosaurus and Brontosaurus were used for intraspecific combat. Various uses for the single claw on the forelimb of sauropods have been proposed.
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Cephalaspis, a jawless fish The Devonian spans from 419 million years to 359 million years ago. Also informally known as the "Age of the Fish", the Devonian features a huge diversification in fish, including armored fish like Dunkleosteus and lobe- finned fish which eventually evolved into the first tetrapods. On land, plant groups diversified; the first trees and seeds evolved. By the Middle Devonian, shrub-like forests of primitive plants existed: lycophytes, horsetails, ferns, and progymnosperm.
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Beautifully preserved fossils of dinosaurs, pterosaurs, salamanders, insects, arachnidsNotably Mongolarachne jurassica. and other invertebrates, conifers, ginkgoes, cycads, horsetails, and ferns, and even the earliest known gliding mammal (Volaticotherium) and an aquatic protomammal (Castorocauda) have been discovered in these rocks. These organisms were part of the Daohugou Biota, which formed the local ecosystem of that Jurassic time. The tuffaceous composition of some rock layers show that this was a volcanic area, occasionally experiencing heavy ashfalls from eruptions.
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Snowshoe hare eating grass in summer In Alaska, snowshoe hares consume new leaves of blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), new shoots of field horsetails (Equisetum arvense), and fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium) in spring. Grasses are not a major item due to low availability associated with sites that have adequate cover. In summer, leaves of willows, black spruce, birches, and bog Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum) are also consumed. Black spruce is the most heavily used and the most common species in the area.
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The enamel's thickness is not completely uniform; it is thinnest at the crown of the teeth. This would have allowed wear facets to have been acquired early in life, to facilitate slicing and grinding plant matter. The study suggested that Eilenodon and other opisthodonts may have fed on horsetails of the genus Equisetum, which were nutritious and common in the Morrison Formation, but also high in silica, necessitating sharp and fracture-resistant teeth to process the plants.
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The in-stream vegetation includes fool's water cress (Apium nodiflorum), water starwort and duckweed species in areas of low flow. Fringing the river is fool’s water cress, water dropwort (Oenanthe crocata), water mint, clustered dock (Rumex conglomeratus, soft rush, marsh-bedstraw (Galium palustre), horsetails (Equisetum spp.), ash (Fraxinus excelsior), willows (Salix spp) and silver birch (Betula pendula). Brown trout (Salmo trutta) and salmon (Salmo salar) are the fish species most likely to be found in the Finnery.
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These latrines have been reported as reaching dimensions of with a height of up to . Nests may be built on the surface of the ground or on hummocks, and this allows the vole to live in seasonally-flooded areas where its burrows are sometimes underwater. Both underground and surface nests are made of grasses. Townsend's vole feeds on soft green plant material such as rushes, tules, grasses, sedges, horsetails, clovers, alfalfa, blue-eyed grass and purple-eyed grass.
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The horsetails comprise photosynthesising, "segmented", hollow stems, sometimes filled with pith. At the junction ("node", see diagram) between each segment is a whorl of leaves. In the only extant genus Equisetum, these are small leaves (microphylls) with a singular vascular trace, fused into a sheath at each stem node. However, the leaves of Equisetum probably arose by the reduction of megaphylls, as evidenced by early fossil forms such as Sphenophyllum, in which the leaves are broad with branching veins.
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The living members of the genus Equisetum are divided into three distinct lineages, which are usually treated as subgenera. The name of the type subgenus, Equisetum, means "horse hair" in Latin, while the name of the other large subgenus, Hippochaete, means "horse hair" in Greek. Hybrids are common, but hybridization has only been recorded between members of the same subgenus. While plants of subgenus Equisetum are usually referred to as horsetails, those of subgenus Hippochaete are often called scouring rushes, especially when unbranched.
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Dinosaurs known from the Morrison include the theropods Ceratosaurus, Ornitholestes, and Torvosaurus, the sauropods Apatosaurus, Brachiosaurus, Camarasaurus, and Diplodocus, and the ornithischians Camptosaurus, Dryosaurus, and Stegosaurus. Other vertebrates that shared this paleoenvironment included ray-finned fishes, frogs, salamanders, turtles, sphenodonts, lizards, terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans, and several species of pterosaurs. Shells of bivalves and aquatic snails are also common. The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers.
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Some plants have rhizomes that grow above ground or that lie at the soil surface, including some Iris species, and ferns, whose spreading stems are rhizomes. Plants with underground rhizomes include gingers, bamboo, the Venus flytrap, Chinese lantern, western poison-oak, hops, and Alstroemeria, and the weeds Johnson grass, Bermuda grass, and purple nut sedge. Rhizomes generally form a single layer, but in giant horsetails, can be multi-tiered. Many rhizomes have culinary value, and some, such as zhe'ergen, are commonly consumed raw.
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The first fossils identified in this order were discovered in the Middle Jurassic Gristhorpe bed of the Cloughton formation in Cayton Bay, Yorkshire – hence the name CAYTONiales. They have since been found in Mesozoic rocks all over world. It is likely that Caytoniales flourished in wetland areas, because they are often found with other moisture-loving plants such as horsetails in waterlogged paleosols. The first fossil Caytoniales were preserved as compressions in shale with excellent preservation of cuticles allowing study of cellular histology.
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The climate was probably highly seasonal due to monsoonal influences, with warm, wet summers and dry winters. The climate enabled the growth of a richly forested environment; the forest would have been dominated by Araucaria trees, with the undergrowth being occupied by Coniopteris tree ferns, Anglopteris and Osmunda ferns, Equisetites horsetails, and Elatocladus shrubs. The environment of the Shishugou Formation hosted a diverse assemblage of animals. More than 35 species of vertebrates are known from fossils, including at least 14 dinosaur species.
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The location of the state of Maryland Paleontology in Maryland refers to paleontological research occurring within or conducted by people from the U.S. state of Maryland. The invertebrate fossils of Maryland are similar to those of neighboring Delaware. For most of the early Paleozoic era, Maryland was covered by a shallow sea, although it was above sea level for portions of the Ordovician and Devonian. The ancient marine life of Maryland included brachiopods and bryozoans while horsetails and scale trees grew on land.
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In the Ischigualasto Formation, dinosaurs constituted only about 6% of the total number of fossils, but by the end of the Triassic Period, dinosaurs were becoming the dominant large land animals, and the other archosaurs and synapsids declined in variety and number. Studies suggest that the paleoenvironment of the Ischigualasto Formation was a volcanically active floodplain covered by forests and subject to strong seasonal rainfalls. The climate was moist and warm, though subject to seasonal variations. Vegetation consisted of ferns (Cladophlebis), horsetails, and giant conifers (Protojuniperoxylon).
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Vascular plants (from Latin vasculum: duct), also known as tracheophytes (from the equivalent Greek term trachea), form a large group of plants ( 300,000 accepted known species) that are defined as land plants that have lignified tissues (the xylem) for conducting water and minerals throughout the plant. They also have a specialized non-lignified tissue (the phloem) to conduct products of photosynthesis. Vascular plants include the clubmosses, horsetails, ferns, gymnosperms (including conifers) and angiosperms (flowering plants). Scientific names for the group include Tracheophyta,Abercrombie, Hickman & Johnson. 1966.
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Iguanodontids are low-browsing herbivores that fed extensively on gymnosperms like ferns and horsetails, especially during the early Cretaceous period. These dinosaurs were very effective as herbivores due in part to their combination of bilateral dental occlusion with the transverse power stroke of their chewing mechanism. Additionally, iguanodontids lack a rigid secondary palate, which helps to mitigate torsional stresses during occlusion, a feature that enhanced their ability to break down plant matter. Additionally, the iguanodontids co-evolved with the radiation of angiosperms in the Cretaceous period.
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A modern mangrove swamp; K. guimarotae would have inhabited a similar environment The Guimarota locality is located in the eastern Lusitanian Basin, which is part of the Iberian Meseta. The vertebrate- bearing Guimarota-strata was deposited in a brackish lagoon that periodically received both freshwater and saltwater influxes. Ecologically, the environment would have been akin to a modern mangrove swamp. Plants known from megafossils include the horsetails Equisetum and Schizoneura; the seed fern Caytonia; the cycad Otozamites; the araucaria Brachyphyllum; Ginkgo; and the charophyte algae Porochara.
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There were also conifers like Pityophyllum, Rhipidiocladus, Elatocladus, Schizolepis, and Podozamites. Also, Lycopsids like Lycopodites and Sellaginellities, horsetails (Sphenopsida) like Equisetum, cycads like Anomozamites, and ferns (Filicopsida) like Todites and Coniopteris. The only Chinese anchiornithid to not have been discovered in the Tiaojishan Formation is Yixianosaurus longimanus, which was found in the 125 million-year-old Early Cretaceous Yixian Formation, in the same area. Only one genus of anchiornithid has been found outside of China: Ostromia, which is found in the Painten Formation from Riedenburg, Bavaria, Germany.
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Central and southern New York were home to a westward-flowing river system during the Devonian accompanied by a delta known as the Catskill Delta. This delta was home to some of the world's oldest known forests, such as the Gilboa Forest. It consisted of plants like seed ferns in the genus Eospermatopteris, two species of lycopods that resembled ground pines and club mosses, creeping vines, ferns, and relatives of modern horsetails. The Carboniferous and Permian periods span a gap in the local rock record.
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This interpretation of the beak has been rejected, as the furrows and ridges are more like those of herbivorous turtle beaks than the flexible structures seen in filter-feeding birds. Because scratches dominate the microwear texture of the teeth, Williams et al. suggested Edmontosaurus was a grazer instead of a browser, which would be predicted to have fewer scratches due to eating less abrasive materials. Candidates for ingested abrasives include silica-rich plants like horsetails and soil that was accidentally ingested due to feeding at ground level.
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It had no teeth in the front of its jaws, but instead had a beak-like tip that arched upwards. This would have allowed it to uproot plants in a similar manner to a modern pig. The peg-like teeth at the back of its mouth would have been suitable for chewing tough vegetation, including horsetails, ferns, and the newly evolved cycads. Restoration of S. robertsoni, based on Scott Hartman's skeletal A 2018 paper suggested that Stagonolepis olenkae's forelimb morphology is an adaptation for scratch-digging.
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The earliest land plants such as Cooksonia consisted of leafless, dichotomous axes and terminal sporangia and were generally very short-statured, and grew hardly more than a few centimetres tall. By the Middle Devonian, shrub-like forests of primitive plants existed: lycophytes, horsetails, ferns, and progymnosperms had evolved. Most of these plants had true roots and leaves, and many were quite tall. The earliest-known trees appeared in the Middle Devonian These included a lineage of lycopods and another arborescent, woody vascular plant, the cladoxylopsids.
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Rhamnogalacturonan-II (RG-II) is a complex polysaccharide termed a pectin that is found in the primary walls of dicotyledenous and monocotyledenous plants and gymnosperms. RG-II is also likely to be present in the walls of some lower plants (ferns, horsetails, and lycopods). Its structure is conserved across vascular plants. RG-II is composed of 12 different glycosyl residues including D-rhamnose, apiose, D-galactose, L-galactose, Kdo, galacturonic acid, L-arabinose, xylose, and L-aceric acid, linked together by at least 21 distinct glycosidic linkages.
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Fructification () are the generative parts of the plant (flower and fruit) (as opposed to its vegetative parts: trunk, roots and leaves). Sometimes it is applied more broadly to the generative parts of gymnosperms, ferns, horsetails, and lycophytes, though they produce neither fruit nor flower. Since the works of Andrea Caesalpino (1519–1603) the characters of fructification have been extensively used as a basis for the scientific classification of plants. Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) raised the description of the parts of fructification to an unprecedented level of precision.
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Suchomimus coexisted with other theropods like the abelisaurid Kryptops palaios, the carcharodontosaurid Eocarcharia dinops, and an unknown noasaurid. Herbivorous dinosaurs of the region included iguanodontians like Ouranosaurus nigeriensis, Elrhazosaurus nigeriensis, Lurdusaurus arenatus, and two sauropods: Nigersaurus taqueti, and an unnamed titanosaur. Crocodylomorphs were abundant; represented by the giant pholidosaur species Sarcosuchus imperator, as well as small notosuchians like Anatosuchus minor, Araripesuchus wegeneri, and Stolokrosuchus lapparenti. The local flora probably consisted mainly of ferns, horsetails, and angiosperms, based on the dietary adaptations of the large diplodocoids that lived there.
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In contrast to a flexible lower jaw joint prevalent in today's mammals, hadrosaurs had a unique hinge between the upper jaws and the rest of its skull. The team found the dinosaur's upper jaws pushed outwards and sideways while chewing, as the lower jaw slid against the upper teeth. The study also concluded that hadrosaurs likely grazed on horsetails and vegetation close to the ground, rather than browsing higher- growing leaves and twigs. However, Purnell said these conclusions were less secure than the more conclusive evidence regarding the motion of teeth while chewing.
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Immediately they began to study the best means of preserving the tracks. They were mapped and casts were made, and then they were reburied to prevent further deterioration due to exposure to the elements. A major funding drive was undertaken and many volunteers helped to develop the site and around it as a Cretaceous habitat. The plants chosen to populate the garden were those believed to have existed at the time the dinosaurs would have walked through the area, including ferns, horsetails, liverworts, cycads, conifers, ginkgos, as well as magnolias and palms.
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Instead, they believed horsetails, a common plant at the time containing the above characteristics, was probably an important food for the dinosaur. The results of the study were published online on June 30, 2009, in The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the official journal of the United States National Academy of Sciences. The study was published under the title, "Quantitative analysis of dental microwear in hadrosaurid dinosaurs, and the implications for hypotheses of jaw mechanics and feeding". It was the first quantitative analysis of tooth microwear in dinosaurs.
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Allosaurus, which accounted for 70 to 75% of theropod specimens and was at the top trophic level of the Morrison food web. Other vertebrates that shared this paleoenvironment included ray-finned fishes, frogs such as Eobatrachus, salamanders, turtles, sphenodonts, lizards, terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans like Goniopholis, and several species of pterosaur like Kepodactylus. Early mammals were present in this region, such as Fruitafossor, docodonts, multituberculates, symmetrodonts, and triconodonts. The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers.
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With the diversity of plant life in the Yixian well known, including examples of a variety of petrified wood and growth rings, and with the help of chemical analysis, scientists have been able to determine the climate of the formation. The Yixian flora was dominated by conifers closely related to modern species that are found mainly in subtropical and temperate upland forests. The presence of ferns, cycads, and horsetails indicates a generally humid climate. However, evidence from the growth rings of petrified wood indicates that the humidity and water supply dropped regularly.
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Division is a taxonomic rank in biological classification that is used differently in zoology and in botany. In botany and mycology, division refers to a rank equivalent to phylum. The use of either term is allowed under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, and both are commonly used in scientific literature. The main Divisions of land plants, in the order in which they probably evolved, are the Marchantiophyta (liverworts), Anthocerotophyta (hornworts), Bryophyta (mosses), Filicophyta (ferns), Sphenophyta (horsetails), Cycadophyta (cycads), Ginkgophyta (ginkgo)s, Pinophyta (conifers), Gnetophyta (gnetophytes), and the Magnoliophyta (Angiosperms, flowering plants).
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The invertebrate fauna consisted of ants, bees, beetles, earwigs, caddisflies, crane flies, damselflies, lantern flies, mayflies, grasshoppers, leafhoppers, mosquitoes, snails, and wasps. Contemporary vertebrate fossils included feathers and, once in a while, a bird. Among the Oligocene flora of Montana were ailanthus, ash, beech, cattails, cedar, cinquefoil, dogwood, elm, ferns, milfoil fernbush, gooseberry, climbing grapes, grasses, greenbriers, horsetails, ironwood, katsura tree, liverwort, mountain mahogany, maple, false mermaid, mosses, oak, pennycress, pondweed, dawn redwood, roses, sedges, smoke tree, snowberry, spiraea, false strawberry, and vetches. Similar floras are known from the Florissant of Colorado and Oregon.
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Allosaurus, which accounted for 70 to 75% of all theropod specimens, was at the top trophic level of the Morrison food web. Other vertebrates that shared this paleoenvironment included ray-finned fishes, frogs, salamanders, turtles like Dorsetochelys, sphenodonts, lizards, terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans such as Hoplosuchus, and several species of pterosaurs such as Harpactognathus and Mesadactylus. Shells of bivalves and aquatic snails are also common. The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers.
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Other vertebrates that shared this paleoenvironment included bivalves, snails, ray-finned fishes, frogs, salamanders, turtles, sphenodonts, lizards, terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans, and several species of pterosaur. Early mammals were present in this region, such as docodonts, multituberculates, symmetrodonts, and triconodonts. The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests of tree ferns, and ferns (gallery forests), to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the Araucaria-like conifer Brachyphyllum.
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Significant differences between Psilotum and the rhyniophytes and trimerophytes are that the development of its vascular strand is exarch, while it is centrarch in rhyniophytes and trimerophytes. The sporangia of Psilotum are trilocular synangia resulting from the fusion of three adjacent sporangia, and these are borne laterally on the axes. In the rhyniophytes and trimerophytes the sporangia were single and in a terminal position on branches. Molecular evidence strongly confirms that Psilotum is a fern (in the broad sense that includes horsetails) and that psilophytes are sister to ophioglossoid ferns.
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The majority of Jehol flora has been discovered in the lower Yixian Formation. This flora includes most groups of Mesozoic plants, including mosses, clubmosses, horsetails, ferns, seed ferns, Czekanowskiales, ginkgo trees, cycadeoids, Gnetales, conifers, and a small number of flowering plants. Fauna that were present in the Jehol Biota include ostracods, gastropods, bivalves, insects, fish, salamanders, mammals, lizards, choristoderes, pterosaurs, and dinosaurs (including birds). These dinosaur fossils are exceptionally well preserved, frequently preserving feather impressions and sometimes even pigmentation, such as in Microraptor (an aerial predator), Psittacosaurus (a small ceratopsian), and Sinosauropteryx (a compsognathid).
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Other vertebrates that are known to have shared this paleo-environment include ray-finned fishes, frogs, salamanders, turtles, sphenodonts, lizards, terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans, and several species of pterosaur. Shells of bivalves and aquatic snails are also common. The flora of the period has been evidenced in fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests of tree ferns with fern understory (gallery forests), to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the Araucaria-like conifer Brachyphyllum.
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Often, these stacks are instead constructed on low-lying branches, or on exposed tree roots, helping to keep them dry. The stacks of grasses slowly dry out, producing hay, and may include other food materials, such as horsetails or lupines. The voles begin to construct the stacks around August, and by the winter, they may have reached considerable size, with piles of up to in height having been reported. The piles are a source of nutritious food through the winter, although they are liable to be raided by other animals.
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Equisetum arvense, the field horsetail or common horsetail, is an herbaceous perennial plant in the Equisetopsida (the horsetails), native throughout the arctic and temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. It has separate sterile non-reproductive and fertile spore-bearing stems growing from a perennial underground rhizomatous stem system. The fertile stems are produced in early spring and are non-photosynthetic, while the green sterile stems start to grow after the fertile stems have wilted and persist through the summer until the first autumn frosts.Hyde, H. A., Wade, A. E., & Harrison, S. G. (1978).
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In contrast to a flexible lower jaw joint prevalent in today's mammals, hadrosaurs had a unique hinge between the upper jaws and the rest of its skull. The team found the dinosaur's upper jaws pushed outwards and sideways while chewing, as the lower jaw slid against the upper teeth. The study also found that hadrosaurs likely grazed on horsetails and vegetation close to the ground, rather than browsing higher-growing leaves and twigs. However, Purnell said these conclusions were less secure than the more conclusive evidence regarding the motion of teeth while chewing.
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Seed ferns or Pteridospermatophyta include Cyclopteris, Neuropteris, Alethopteris, and Sphenopteris. The Equisetales included the common giant form Calamites, with a trunk diameter of 30 to 60 cm and a height of up to 20 meters. Sphenophyllum was a slender climbing plant with whorls of leaves, which was probably related both to the calamites and the modern horsetails. Cordaites, a tall plant (6 to over 30 meters) with strap-like leaves, was related to the cycads and conifers; the catkin-like inflorescence, which bore yew-like berries, is called Cardiocarpus.
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Besides Cristatusaurus lapparenti and Suchomimus tenerensis, theropods such as the abelisaurid Kryptops palaios, the carcharodontosaurid Eocarcharia dinops, and an unknown noasaurid have been found. Herbivorous dinosaurs of the region included iguanodontians like Ouranosaurus nigeriensis, Elrhazosaurus nigeriensis, Lurdusaurus arenatus, and two sauropods: Nigersaurus taqueti, and an unnamed titanosaur. Crocodylomorphs were abundant; represented by the giant pholidosaur species Sarcosuchus imperator, as well as small notosuchians like Anatosuchus minor, Araripesuchus wegeneri, and Stolokrosuchus lapparenti. The local flora probably consisted mainly of ferns, horsetails, and angiosperms, based on the dietary adaptations of the sauropods that lived there.
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The falls start off by dropping 40 feet in a simple plunge before fanning out and falling 80 feet into a short but deep canyon. After flowing through the canyon the falls drop another 50 feet in two horsetails. The lower tiers were significantly altered by the floods of 2001 while neither tier was altered much by the floods of 2003 and 2006. Accessing the upper tiers can be sketchy since one has to stand at the edge of the canyon, 150 feet above the raging creek, to see them.
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Plant species present include the horsetails Neocalamites carcinoides, N. narthosi, and Equisetum sp.; the tree ferns Coniopteris hymenophyloides and C. margaretae; the cycad Zamites gigas; the enigmatic gymnosperms Czekanowskia ketova, C. ridiga, and Phoenicopsis speciosa; the ginkgo Sphenobaiera kazachstanica; the cypress Protaxodioxylon jianchangense; and the indeterminate conifer Xenoxylon peidense. Collectively, they indicate a cool, temperate, wet, and seasonal climate with a mean temperature below 15 °C. This is consistent with a trend of global cooling around this time, but contrasts with the warm, dry climate of the earlier Haifanggou.
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Traditionally, three discrete groups have been denominated ferns: two groups of eusporangiate ferns, the families Ophioglossaceae (adder's tongues, moonworts, and grape ferns) and Marattiaceae; and the leptosporangiate ferns. The Marattiaceae are a primitive group of tropical ferns with large, fleshy rhizomes and are now thought to be a sibling taxon to the leptosporangiate ferns. Several other groups of species were considered fern allies: the clubmosses, spikemosses, and quillworts in Lycopodiophyta; the whisk ferns of Psilotaceae; and the horsetails of Equisetaceae. Since this grouping is polyphyletic, the term fern allies should be abandoned, except in a historical context.
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Generalised locations of spinosaurid fossil discoveries from the Albian-Cenomanian, 113 to 93.9 million years ago, marked on a map of that time span. The Late Cretaceous deposits of the Alcântara Formation have been interpreted as a humid habitat of tropical forests dominated by conifers, ferns, and horsetails. These forests were surrounded by an arid-to-semi-arid landscape that was probably subjected to brief periods of heavy rainfall followed by lengthy dry periods. A great abundance and variety of animal taxa, such as dinosaurs, pterosaurs, snakes, molluscs, crocodilians, notosuchids, and fish have been discovered in the formation.
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Like Onchopristis (model pictured), Atlanticopristis coexisted with spinosaurids Atlanticopristis originates from the Alcântara Formation, which is dated to the Cenomanian stage of the Middle Cretaceous Period, sometime between 100.5 and 93.9 million years ago. Like most modern sawfishes, it inhabited an estuarine environment of fresh to brackish water. Atlanticopristis likely came from the shallow marine regions of the southern Atlantic Ocean, and periodically entered estuarine waters. The area that is now Laje do Coringa locality would have comprised tidal estuaries of rivers and lagoons, alongside these would have been large forests of conifers, horsetails, and ferns.
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Mountains to the north were being worn down by rivers, creating enormous deltas that were colonised by plant life. A tropical forest took hold all over Shropshire, with ancient tree ferns and horsetails. Shropshire eventually crossed the equator during this era, and became a part of Pangaea during the Permian; the area would have been very similar to the Sahara Desert, and would have been in the vicinity, around 20° to 30° north of the equator. The Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary were very quiet in Shropshire, and very little evidence can be found from these periods.
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Valle de la Luna, Argentina During the Late Triassic Period, the Ischigualasto Formation was a volcanically active floodplain covered by forests, with a warm and humid climate, but subject to seasonal variations including strong rainfall. Vegetation consisted of ferns, horsetails, and giant conifers, which formed highland forests along the banks of rivers. Herrerasaurus remains appear to have been the most common among the carnivores of the Ischigualasto Formation. Sereno (1993) noted that Eoraptor was found in "close association" with therapsids, rauisuchians, archosaurs, Saurosuchus and the dinosaurs Herrerasaurus and Pisanosaurus, all of whom lived in its paleoenvironment.
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Later, uplift exposed the Moenkopi Formation to erosion and Utah became part of a large interior basin drained by north and northwest-flowing rivers in the Upper Triassic. Shallow river deposition along with volcanic ash eventually became the mineral-rich Chinle Formation. The irregular contact zone, or unconformity, between the Chinle and the underlying Moenkopi can be seen between Rockville and Grafton in southwestern Utah. Chinle Formation Petrified wood and fossils of animals adapted to swampy environments, such as phytosaurs, lungfish, and lacustrine bivalves, have been found in this formation as well as conifer trees, cycads, ferns, and horsetails.
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The Morrison Formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons, and flat floodplains. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests of conifers, tree ferns, and ferns, to fern savannas with rare trees. It has been a rich fossil hunting ground, holding fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, ferns, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Other fossils discovered include bivalves, snails, ray-finned fishes, frogs, salamanders, turtles such as Uluops, sphenodonts, lizards, terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans like Fruitachampsa, several species of pterosaur like Kepodactylus, numerous dinosaur species, and early mammals such as docodonts, multituberculates, symmetrodonts, and triconodonts.
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Seep willow (Baccharis salicifolia) Vegetation in the Paria Canyon-Vermilion Cliffs Wilderness can be divided into three different zones of riparian vegetation communities, which run parallel to each side of the river. Plants found closest to the water include cattails, common reeds, sedges, rushes, and horsetails. Drier soil farther from the water makes a good environment for woody vegetation which has survived the repeated flooding, such as coyote willow, cottonwood, ash, tamarisk, and seep-willow. This zone is referred to as the "regeneration site" because some of the trees that grow here survive to produce the next generation of mature canopy.
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The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests of tree ferns, and ferns (gallery forests), to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the Araucaria-like conifer Brachyphyllum. Assistant Curator David Evans mounted the ROM specimen conservatively, with a relatively low head to give the dinosaur moderate blood pressure. The extremely long neck, 10 metres (30 feet) may have developed to enable Barosaurus to feed over a wide area without moving around; it may also have enabled the dinosaurs to radiate excess body heat.
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Sultan Abdul Hamid I appointed al-Jazzar muhafiz of Acre, and prior to his departure to Constantinople, Hasan Kapudan Pasha, the Ottoman admiral who led the campaign against Zahir, handed control of Acre over to al-Jazzar. Al-Jazzar, using his influence in Constantinople, managed to secure promotion as the administrator of Sidon Eyalet with the rank of vezir (minister), but not wali (governor), in March 1776. He was also officially ranked as a pasha of three horsetails, the highest pasha rank, in the spring of 1776. While the administrative capital of Sidon Eyalet was nominally Sidon, al-Jazzar made Acre his seat of power.
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Many of the dinosaurs of the Morrison Formation are the same genera as those seen in Portuguese rocks of the Lourinha Formation (mainly Allosaurus, Ceratosaurus, Torvosaurus, and Stegosaurus), or have a close counterpart (Brachiosaurus and Lusotitan, Camptosaurus and Draconyx). Other vertebrates that shared this paleoenvironment included ray-finned fishes, frogs, salamanders, turtles like Dorsetochelys, sphenodonts, lizards, terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans such as Hoplosuchus, and several species of pterosaur like Harpactognathus and Mesadactylus. Shells of bivalves and aquatic snails are also common. The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers.
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However, they do not form a monophyletic group because ferns (and horsetails) are more closely related to seed plants than to lycophytes. "Pteridophyta" is thus no longer a widely accepted taxon, but the term pteridophyte remains in common parlance, as do pteridology and pteridologist as a science and its practitioner, respectively. Ferns and lycophytes share a life cycle and are often collectively treated or studied, for example by the International Association of Pteridologists and the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group. 23,420 species of vascular plant have been recorded in South Africa, making it the sixth most species-rich country in the world and the most species-rich country on the African continent.
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The fossil remains of Epidexipteryx, Scansoriopteryx and Yi were all recovered from the Tiaojishan Formation of northeastern China, and the former two were specifically found in the Daohugou Beds. A study published in 2008 refined the possible age range of this formation, finding that the lower boundary of the Tiaojishan was formed 165 Ma ago, and the upper boundary somewhere between 156-153 Ma ago. The known scansoriopterygids of the Daohugou biota inhabited a humid, temperate forest made up of a variety of prehistoric trees including species of ginkgo and conifer. The understory would have been dominated by plants such as club mosses, horsetails, cycads, and ferns.
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The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, ferns, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Animal fossils discovered include bivalves, snails, ray-finned fishes, frogs, salamanders, turtles, sphenodonts, lizards, terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans, several species of pterosaur, numerous dinosaur species, and early mammals such as docodonts, multituberculates, symmetrodonts, and triconodonts. Dinosaurs known from the Morrison include the theropods Ceratosaurus, Ornitholestes, Tanycolagreus, and Torvosaurus, the sauropods Haplocanthosaurus, Camarasaurus, Cathetosaurus, Brachiosaurus, Suuwassea, Apatosaurus, Brontosaurus, Barosaurus, Diplodocus, Supersaurus, Amphicoelias, and Maraapunisaurus, and the ornithischians Camptosaurus, Dryosaurus, and Stegosaurus. Allosaurus is commonly found at the same sites as Apatosaurus, Camarasaurus, Diplodocus, and Stegosaurus.
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The Yixian Formation is well known for its great diversity of well-preserved specimens and its dinosaurs, such as the tyrannosauroids Dilong and Yutyrannus, the dromaeosaurids Sinornithosaurus, oviraptorosaurs including Caudipteryx, compsognathids including Sinocalliopteryx, avialans including Confuciusornis and some non-theropod dinosaurs, such as Psittacosaurus and Dongbeititan. Other contemporaries of Beipiaosaurus included ancient shrimp, snails and slugs, as well as a diverse group of insects, and fish such as Lycoptera. Most vertebrates in this formation showed a tendency to become arboreal, including many tree-dwelling birds, and climbing mammals and lizards. The flora was dominated by conifers related to modern species that are found mainly in subtropical and temperate upland forests, with the presence of ferns, cycads, and horsetails.
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It occurs in many types of coniferous and deciduous forests, bogs, and other wetlands. It is found in spruce forests on the taiga of Alaska and it is an indicator of continental boreal and cool temperate climate in British Columbia. It is found alongside plant species such as American green alder (Alnus viridis ssp. crispa), bog Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum), bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), crowberry (Empetrum nigrum), twinflower (Linnaea borealis), prickly rose (Rosa acicularis), mountain cranberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea), bog blueberry (Vaccinium uliginosum), highbush cranberry (Viburnum edule), bunchberry (Cornus canadensis), one-sided wintergreen (Orthilia secunda), bluejoint reedgrass (Calamagrostis canadensis), horsetails (Equisetum spp.), feathermosses (Hylocomium splendens and Pleurozium schreberi), and lichens (Cladonia spp.
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Lull and Wright eliminated the soft plants as the primary choice of diet, and eliminated grasses on the grounds that the beak was unlike that of grazing birds like geese, and that the quantity of available grasses appeared insufficient to feed hadrosaurids. Instead, they proposed equisetaleans (horsetails) as the major food source, as these plants existed in the same times and places as hadrosaurids, are known to be rich in starch, and contain abrasive silica which would necessitate teeth that could be replaced. Softer land and water plants were proposed as secondary foods. Lull and Wright found that their proposed feeding ecology was comparable to that of a modern moose, which browses on trees and feeds on water plants in wetlands.
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While studying into the chewing methods of hadrosaurids in 2009, the paleontologists Vincent Williams, Paul Barrett, and Mark Purnell found that hadrosaurs likely grazed on horsetails and vegetation close to the ground, rather than browsing higher-growing leaves and twigs. This conclusion was based upon the evenness of scratches on hadrosaur teeth, which suggested the hadrosaur used the same series of jaw motions over and over again. As a result, the study determined that the hadrosaur diet was probably made of leaves and lacked the bulkier items such as twigs or stems, which might have required a different chewing method and created different wear patterns. However, Purnell said these conclusions were less secure than the more conclusive evidence regarding the motion of teeth while chewing.
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During the Callovian, the climate of the Shishugou Formation is considered to have been mesic (moderately and seasonally wet), with the environment at Wucaiwan having been an alluvial plain or marsh. Juliane Hinz and colleagues in 2010 reconstructed a petrified forest preserved in overlying Oxfordian rocks, located north of Jiangjunmiao. It would have consisted of Araucaria trees, with the undergrowth being occupied by Coniopteris tree ferns, Anglopteris and Osmunda ferns, Equisetites horsetails, and Elatocladus shrubs. Three theropod dinosaurs have been discovered near Jiangjunmiao: Monolophosaurus, considered to have been no younger than the late Callovian and thus closest temporally to Klamelisaurus; Aorun, from layers in the "middle beds" that have been re-dated from the Callovian to the Oxfordian; and Sinraptor, from the Oxfordian "upper beds".
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Richard L. Hauke (1930-2017) was for many years a Professor of Botany at the University of Rhode Island in Kingston, Rhode Island. He was considered one of the world's leading experts on the plants known as horsetails (Equisetum spp.) Born in Detroit, Michigan in 1930. B.S. in Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1952 M.S. in Botany, University of California, Berkeley, 1954 PhD in Botany, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1960 Professor at University of Rhode Island, Kingston, 1959-1989 sabbaticals in Costa Rica, Jordan and Kenya After Hauke's retirement, his plant specimens were donated to the Herbarium at the New York Botanical Garden. Most of his professional papers have been donated to the University of Rhode Island Library.
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While greater quantities of sand would preserve taller trunks, the higher mass would crush the tree's roots, which is why Stigmaria fossils are only found around shorter trunks. Scour hollows up to 1 m (3.3 ft) deep and 4 m (13.1 ft) long surround some well-preserved trunks. Though lycopsid trunks are among the best known plants from the Joggins Formation, the fern genus Calamites represents more fossils than almost any other organism preserved in the Joggins Cliffs. Resembling the modern-day horsetails they are related to, the stems Calamites plants typically grew to be 10-12 cm (3.9-4.7 in) in diameter and more than 1.5 m (4.9 ft) tall, though one specimen was found to be 90 cm (35.4 in) thick and nearly 3 m (9.8 ft) tall.
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End walls excluded, the tracheids of prevascular plants were able to operate under the same hydraulic conductivity as those of the first vascular plant, Cooksonia. The size of tracheids is limited as they comprise a single cell; this limits their length, which in turn limits their maximum useful diameter to 80 μm. Conductivity grows with the fourth power of diameter, so increased diameter has huge rewards; vessel elements, consisting of a number of cells, joined at their ends, overcame this limit and allowed larger tubes to form, reaching diameters of up to 500 μm, and lengths of up to 10 m. Vessels first evolved during the dry, low periods of the late Permian, in the horsetails, ferns and Selaginellales independently, and later appeared in the mid Cretaceous in angiosperms and gnetophytes.
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Early restoration by Charles R. Knight of hadrosaurs as semi-aquatic animals that could only chew soft water plants, a popular idea at the time. While studying the chewing methods of hadrosaurids in 2009, the paleontologists Vincent Williams, Paul Barrett, and Mark Purnell found that hadrosaurs likely grazed on horsetails and vegetation close to the ground, rather than browsing higher-growing leaves and twigs. This conclusion was based on the evenness of scratches on hadrosaur teeth, which suggested the hadrosaur used the same series of jaw motions over and over again. As a result, the study determined that the hadrosaur diet was probably made of leaves and lacked the bulkier items, such as twigs or stems, that might have required a different chewing method and created different wear patterns.
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The climate was probably highly seasonal due to monsoonal influences, with warm, wet summers and dry winters. The climate enabled the growth of a richly forested environment; the forest would have been dominated by Araucaria trees, with the undergrowth being occupied by Coniopteris tree ferns, Anglopteris and Osmunda ferns, Equisetites horsetails, and Elatocladus shrubs. The environment of the Shishugou Formation hosted a diverse assemblage of animals. More than 35 species of vertebrates are known from fossils, including at least 14 dinosaur species.. Contemporaries of The unnamed crocodyliform in the Wucaiwan locality include the theropods Limusaurus, Haplocheirus, Zuolong, and Guanlong, the latter of which is, like Limusaurus, frequently found in mud deposits; the sauropod Mamenchisaurus; the ornithischians Gongbusaurus and Yinlong; the cynodont Yuanotherium; the mammal Acuodulodon; the crocodyliforms Sunosuchus, Junggarsuchus, Nominosuchus; and the turtles Xinjiangchelys and Annemys.
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Gray Creek begins at about 1,400 feet on the southeastern slopes of Vulture Ridge(1,481 feet), first flowing southeasterly, it parallels the north side of Mill Creek Road, as it passes Venado less than a mile from its headwaters, drains through a culvert to the south side of the road, then curves around the east and south ridges of Rabbit Knoll, as it changes to a southwesterly course, and flows down a steep-sided V-shaped canyon vegetated mainly by bay trees. Streamside vegetation is abundant with horsetails, azaleas, ferns, wild grapes, oaks and redwoods. Closely paralleling a dirt road along its journey, Gray Creek drains an area of approximately 5.1 square miles, and enters East Austin Creek on the left, just inside the northern boundary of the Austin Creek State Recreation Area, at an elevation of about 340 feet. Located in the northeastern section of the Austin Creek watershed, Gray Creek is a 4.8 mile long tributary to East Austin Creek, which flows into Austin Creek, the Russian River and Pacific Ocean.
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