118 Sentences With "g factor" | Random Sentence Generator

The magnetic moment is studied with a property called the "g-factor," which would be equal to two if not for that little extra quantum piece.

But no matter how it arises, the G-factor is real in the sense it can predict outcomes in our lives — how much money you'll make, how productive of a worker you might be, and, most chillingly, how likely you are to die an earlier death.

Genetic influence has been documented to greatly influence g factor on intelligence.

The g factor loadings in Long- Evans rats has been shown to range from .43 to as high as .70 in cognitive ability tasks.Jensen, A. R. The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability (Praeger, Westport, Connecticut, 1998).

G-factor ranks university and college web presence by counting the number of links only from other university websites, using Google search engine data. G-factor is an indicator of the popularity or importance of each university's website from the combined perspectives of other institutions. It claims to be an objective peer review of a university through its website—in social network theory terminology, G-factor measures the centrality of each university's website in the network of university websites.

In physics, the Landé g-factor is a particular example of a g-factor, namely for an electron with both spin and orbital angular momenta. It is named after Alfred Landé, who first described it in 1921. In atomic physics, the Landé g-factor is a multiplicative term appearing in the expression for the energy levels of an atom in a weak magnetic field. The quantum states of electrons in atomic orbitals are normally degenerate in energy, with these degenerate states all sharing the same angular momentum.

Jensen, A.R. (1998). The g factor: The science of mental ability. Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 99–100.Abdi, H. (2007).

Because of the above-mentioned findings, some researchers have proposed a general factor of fitness analogous to the g-factor for general mental ability/intelligence. This factor is supposed to combine fertility factors, health factors, and the g-factor. For instance, one study found a small but significant correlation between three measures of sperm quality and intelligence.

Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2(2), 136-141. and neurologicalAnderson, B. (2000). The g factor in non-human animals. The nature of intelligence, (285), 79.

Several different theories of intelligence have historically been important for psychometrics. Often they emphasized more factors than a single one like in g factor.

2005 The terms IQ, general intelligence, general cognitive ability, general mental ability, and simply intelligence are often used interchangeably to refer to this common core shared by cognitive tests.Deary et al. 2010 The g factor targets a particular measure of general intelligence. The existence of the g factor was originally proposed by the English psychologist Charles Spearman in the early years of the 20th century.

Evidence of a general factor of intelligence has been observed in non-human animals. The general factor of intelligence, or g factor, is a psychometric construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual's scores on a wide range of cognitive abilities. First described in humans, the g factor has since been identified in a number of non-human species.Reader, S. M., Hager, Y., & Laland, K. N. (2011).

The g factor, or general factor, of intelligence is a psychometric construct that summarizes observed correlations between an individual’s scores on various measures of cognitive abilities. First described in humans, a g factor has since been identified in a number of non-human species.Reader, S. M., Hager, Y., & Laland, K. N. (2011). The evolution of primate general and cultural intelligence. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 366(1567), 1017-1027.

Vernon puts emphasis on the g factor in all the mental abilities. He extracted the g factor from an ability test, then found that could be divided into two separate parts. He named those two orthogonal group factors as verbal-educational factor (v:ed) and perceptual- mechanical skill factor (k:m). v:ed factor: verbal and educational abilities k:m factor: spatial, practical, and mechanical abilities This is a rough distinction between verbal and non-verbal intelligence measurement.

Her research validates the psychological construct of a higher-level g factor that is not closely associated with any specific test, but rather reflects shared variance across multiple mental ability tests.

A popular combination, as implemented in commercial X-band ESR spectrometers, is approximately 0.3 T (static field) and 10 GHz (microwave frequency) for a typical material with electron g-factor close to 2.

Research that has examined whether g factor and IQ gains from the Flynn effect are related have found there is a negative correlation between the two, which may indicate that group differences and the Flynn effect are possibly due to differing causes. The Flynn effect has also been part of the discussions regarding Spearman's hypothesis, which states that differences in the g factor are the major source of differences between blacks and whites observed in many studies of race and intelligence.

The g-factor is the unit-less proportionality factor relating the system's angular momentum to the intrinsic magnetic moment; in classical physics it is just 1. In nuclear physics the g-factor of a given system includes the effect of the nucleon spins, their orbital angular momenta, and their couplings. Generally, the g-factors are very difficult to calculate for such many-body systems, but they have been measured to high precision for most nuclei. The Larmor frequency is important in NMR spectroscopy.

According to a 2006 study, many of Gardner's "intelligences" correlate with the g factor, supporting the idea of a single dominant type of intelligence. According to the study, each of the domains proposed by Gardner involved a blend of g, of cognitive abilities other than g, and, in some cases, of non-cognitive abilities or of personality characteristics. The Johnson O'Connor Research Foundation has tested hundreds of thousands of people to determine their "aptitudes" ("intelligences"), such as manual dexterity, musical ability, spatial visualization, and memory for numbers. There is correlation of these aptitudes with the g factor, but not all are strongly correlated; correlation between the g factor and "inductive speed" ("quickness in seeing relationships among separate facts, ideas, or observations") is only 0.5, considered a moderate correlation.

Garcia (2002) argues that there might be a small insignificant sex difference in intelligence in general (IQ) but this may not necessarily reflect a sex difference in general intelligence or g factor. Although most researchers distinguish between g and IQ, those that argued for greater male intelligence asserted that IQ and g are synonymous (Lynn & Irwing 2004) and so the real division comes from defining IQ in relation to g factor. In 2008 Lynn and Irwing proposed that since working memory ability correlates highest with g factor, researchers would have no choice but to accept greater male intelligence if differences on working memory tasks are found. As a result, a neuroimaging study published by Schmidt (2009) conducted an investigation into this proposal by measuring sex differences on an n-back working memory task.

Alfred Landé (13 December 1888 - 30 October 1976) was a German-American physicist known for his contributions to quantum theory. He is responsible for the Landé g-factor and an explanation of the Zeeman effect.

The g factor, together with group factors, best represents the empirically established fact that, on average, overall ability differences between individuals are greater than differences among abilities within individuals, while a factor solution with orthogonal factors without g obscures this fact. Moreover, g appears to be the most heritable component of intelligence.Jensen 1982 Research utilizing the techniques of confirmatory factor analysis has also provided support for the existence of g. A g factor can be computed from a correlation matrix of test results using several different methods.

This fortuitous meeting was the starting point for the integration of the two theories. The integration of the two theories evolved through a series of bridging events that occurred over two decades. Although there are many similarities between the two models, Horn consistently and unyieldingly argued against a single general ability g factor (McGrew, 2005, p. 174). Charles Spearman first proposed the existence of the g-factor (also known as general intelligence) in the early 20th century after discovering significant positive correlations between children's scores in seemingly unrelated academic subjects (Spearman, 1904).

The presence of this g factor across different cognitive measures is well-established and uncontroversial in statistical research. It may be that this g factor highlights domain-general learning (cognitive mechanisms involved in all cognition), and that this general learning accounts for the positive correlations across seemingly different cognitive tasks. It is important to note, however, there currently is no consensus to what causes the positive correlations. An illustration of frame Spearman's work was expanded upon by Raymond B. Cattell, who broke g into two broad abilities: fluid intelligence (Gf) and crystallized intelligence (Gc).

In quantum electrodynamics (QED), the anomalous magnetic moment of a particle stems from the small contributions of quantum mechanical fluctuations to the magnetic moment of that particle.See section 6.3 in The g-factor for a "Dirac" magnetic moment is predicted to be for a negatively charged, spin 1/2 particle. For particles such as the electron, this "classical" result differs from the observed value by a small fraction of a percent; the difference compared to the classical value is the anomalous magnetic moment. The actual g-factor for the electron is measured to be .

The calculation was discovered by Julian Schwinger in 1948. Computed to fourth order, the QED prediction for the electron's anomalous magnetic moment agrees with the experimentally measured value to more than 10 significant figures, making the magnetic moment of the electron one of the most accurately verified predictions in the history of physics. Compared to the electron, the anomalous magnetic moments of the nucleons are enormous. The g-factor for the proton is 5.6, and the chargeless neutron, which should have no magnetic moment at all, has a g-factor of -3.8.

Scales such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children has been compared with Spearman's g, which shows that there has a decrease in statistic significance. Research has been adapted to incorporate modern psychological topics into Spearman's Two Factor Theory of Intelligence. Nature versus Nurture is one topic that has been cross studied with Spearman's g factor. Research shows that although environmental factors influence the g factor differently, it has been found that it is affected if influenced early in life, rather than adulthood where there is little to no impact.

A number of researchers have suggested that the proportion of variation accounted for by g may not be uniform across all subgroups within a population. Spearman's law of diminishing returns (SLODR), also termed the cognitive ability differentiation hypothesis, predicts that the positive correlations among different cognitive abilities are weaker among more intelligent subgroups of individuals. More specifically, (SLODR) predicts that the g factor will account for a smaller proportion of individual differences in cognitive tests scores at higher scores on the g factor. (SLODR) was originally proposed by Charles Spearman,Spearman, C. (1927).

Perhaps the most famous critique of the construct of g is that of the paleontologist and biologist Stephen Jay Gould, presented in his 1981 book The Mismeasure of Man. He argued that psychometricians have fallaciously reified the g factor as a physical thing in the brain, even though it is simply the product of statistical calculations (i.e., factor analysis). He further noted that it is possible to produce factor solutions of cognitive test data that do not contain a g factor yet explain the same amount of information as solutions that yield a g.

Beginning in 2008, Rushton researched the structure of personality. Over about a dozen papers, he argued that variation in personality can be explained by variation in a single underlying "general factor," similar to the g factor of psychometrics.

The general factor of intelligence, or g factor, is a psychometric construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual’s scores on various measures of cognitive abilities. First described in humans, the g factor has since been identified in a number of nonhuman species. Primates in particular have been the focus of g research due to their close taxonomic links to humans. A principal component analysis run in a meta-analysis of 4,000 primate behaviour papers including 62 species found that 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability tests was accounted for by a single factor, controlling for socio-ecological variables.

The g-factor of the muon is extracted using the same physical principle as for the electron above – namely, that the difference between the cyclotron frequency and the spin precession frequency in a magnetic field is proportional to g−2. The most precise measurement comes from Brookhaven National Laboratory's muon g−2 experiment,Pictorial overview of the Brookhaven muon g−2 experiment, . in which polarized muons are stored in a cyclotron and their spin orientation is measured by the direction of their decay electrons. As of February 2007, the current world average muon g-factor measurement is,Muon g−2 experiment homepage, .

Vernon's verbal-perceptual model is a theory about the structure of intelligence proposed by Philip E. Vernon in 1964 (Vernon, 1964, 1965).Vernon, P. E. (1964). The structure of human abilities. London: Methuen It was influenced by the theory of g factor.

Jensen, A. R. (1998). The G factor: The science of mental ability. New York: Praeger. Changes in these very mechanisms seem able to explain, to a considerable extent, the changes in the quality of understanding and problem solving at successive age levels.

Non-human models of g such as mice are used to study genetic influences on intelligence and neurological developmental research into the mechanisms behind and biological correlates of g.Anderson, B. (2000). The g factor in non-human animals. The nature of intelligence, (285), 79.

The g factor (also known as general intelligence, general mental ability or general intelligence factor) is a construct developed in psychometric investigations of cognitive abilities and human intelligence. It is a variable that summarizes positive correlations among different cognitive tasks, reflecting the fact that an individual's performance on one type of cognitive task tends to be comparable to that person's performance on other kinds of cognitive tasks. The g factor typically accounts for 40 to 50 percent of the between-individual performance differences on a given cognitive test, and composite scores ("IQ scores") based on many tests are frequently regarded as estimates of individuals' standing on the g factor.Kamphaus et al.

This area has to do with logic, abstractions, reasoning, numbers and critical thinking. This also has to do with having the capacity to understand the underlying principles of some kind of causal system. Logical reasoning is closely linked to fluid intelligence and to general intelligence (g factor).

This theory is still greatly present in today's modern psychology. Researchers are examining this theory and recreating it in modern research. The g factor is still frequently studied in current research. For example, a study could use and be compared with various other similar intelligence measures.

The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability (1998) is a book on the general intelligence factor (g). The book deals with the intellectual history of g and various models of how to conceptualize intelligence, and with the biological correlates of g, its heritability, and its practical predictive power.

The salt was magnetized along the axis of high g-factor, and the temperature was lowered to 1.2 K by pumping the helium to low pressure. Shutting off the horizontal magnetic field resulted in the temperature decreasing to about 0.003 K. The horizontal magnet was opened up, allowing room for a vertical solenoid to be introduced and switched on to align the cobalt nuclei either upwards or downwards. Only a negligible increase in temperature was caused by the solenoid magnetic field, since the magnetic field orientation of the solenoid was in the direction of low g-factor. This method of achieving high polarization of 60Co nuclei had been originated by Gorter and Rose.

Thus factor analysis alone cannot establish what the underlying structure of intelligence is. In choosing between different factor solutions, researchers have to examine the results of factor analysis together with other information about the structure of cognitive abilities.Carroll 1995 There are many psychologically relevant reasons for preferring factor solutions that contain a g factor. These include the existence of the positive manifold, the fact that certain kinds of tests (generally the more complex ones) have consistently larger g loadings, the substantial invariance of g factors across different test batteries, the impossibility of constructing test batteries that do not yield a g factor, and the widespread practical validity of g as a predictor of individual outcomes.

Myopia is about twice as common in Jewish people than in people of non-Jewish ethnicity.Jensen, A.R. (1998) The g Factor. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, Myopia is less common in African people and associated diaspora. In Americans between the ages of 12 and 54, myopia has been found to affect African Americans less than Caucasians.

Vernon's model about intelligence looks similar to the fluid-crystallized (Gf-Gc) intelligence theory because they both agree with g factor and have two more different dimensions on intelligence structure. In fact, Gf-Gc model has more broad factors such as special visualization (Gv), retrieval (Gr) or speed factor (Gs).Horn, J. L. (1985). Remodeling old models of intelligence.

The properties of geonium are different from a typical atom. The charge undergoes cyclotron motion around the trap axis and oscillates along the axis. An inhomogeneous magnetic "bottle field" is applied to measure the quantum properties by the "continuous Stern-Gerlach" technique. Energy levels and g-factor of the particle can be measured with high precision.

Research in the field of behavioral genetics has established that the construct of g is highly heritable. It has a number of other biological correlates, including brain size. It is also a significant predictor of individual differences in many social outcomes, particularly in education and employment. The most widely accepted contemporary theories of intelligence incorporate the g factor.

Gould, S. J. (1981). The Mismeasure of Man, p. 24. 1996, p. 56. Examples of reification include the intelligence quotient (IQ) and the general intelligence factor (g factor), which have been the cornerstones of much research into human intelligence. The second fallacy is that of “ranking”, which is the “propensity for ordering complex variation as a gradual ascending scale”.

Due to their close taxonomic proximity to humans, primates (great apes in particular) have been the focus of a large part of the research into the prevalence of a g factor in non-human animals. A meta-analysis of 4000 primate behaviour academic papers searching for instances of innovation, social learning, tool use, and extractive foraging was conducted to investigate the components of these behaviours in 62 species of primates. A Principal Components Analysis of these cognitive measures (as well as three socio-ecological variables, (diet breadth, percentage fruit in diet, and group size) revealed a single factor explaining 47% of the variance onto which the cognitive measures and diet breadth (somewhat) loaded. This would suggest that non-human primates, as a whole, have a g factor similar to that observed in humans.

In Gravion, Eiji Shigure is sent a letter from his missing older sister Ayaka Shigure. Responding to its message, his search for her leads him to Klein Sandman, a mysterious billionaire and Eiji secretly infiltrates his enormous Saint-Germain Castle while he is hosting a party for Earth Federation Alliance (EFA) leaders, in order to find her. He ends up piloting the G-Attacker, a vehicle that is one of a group of five, called Gran Divas, that were secretly created by Sandman himself, during a mission of Sandman's Earthgertz team to defeat the invading mechanical extraterrestrials called the Zeravire. Sandman explains to Eiji that his unique G-Factor allows him to pilot machines such as the G-Attacker and his sister, who also had the G-Factor, was secretly part of Earthgertz.

Charles Edward Spearman, FRS (10 September 1863 – 17 September 1945) was an English psychologist known for work in statistics, as a pioneer of factor analysis, and for Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. He also did seminal work on models for human intelligence, including his theory that disparate cognitive test scores reflect a single General intelligence factor and coining the term g factor.

Various researchers have criticized the statistical techniques used by Guilford. According to Jensen (1998), Guilford's contention that a g-factor was untenable was influenced by his observation that cognitive tests of U.S. Air Force personnel did not show correlations significantly different from zero. According to one reanalysis, this resulted from artifacts and methodological errors. Applying more robust methodologies, the correlations in Guilford's data sets are positive.

Oskar Klein and Walter Gordon proposed the Klein–Gordon equation to describe quantum particles in the framework of relativity. Another important contribution by Gordon was to the theory of the Dirac equation, where he introduced the Gordon decomposition of the current into its center of mass and spin contributions, and so helped explain the g=2 g-factor value in the electron's gyromagnetic ratio.

In the United States examples include the SSAT, the SAT, the ACT, the GRE, the MCAT, the LSAT, and the GMAT. Regardless of the method used, almost any test that requires examinees to reason and has a wide range of question difficulty will produce intelligence scores that are approximately normally distributed in the general population.Jensen, A. R. (1998). The g factor: The science of mental ability.

The muon, like its lighter sibling the electron, acts like a spinning magnet. The parameter known as the "g-factor" indicates how strong the magnet is and the rate of its gyration. The value of g is slightly larger than 2, hence the name of the experiment. This difference from 2 (the "anomalous" part) is caused by higher-order contributions from quantum field theory.

An illustration of Spearman's two-factor intelligence theory. Each small oval is a hypothetical mental test. The blue areas correspond to test-specific variance (s), while the purple areas represent the variance attributed to g. Factor analysis is a family of mathematical techniques that can be used to represent correlations between intelligence tests in terms of a smaller number of variables known as factors.

In the early 2000s Bohensky became involved with a number of technology and startup companies in Israel. He was the founder and chief technology officer for Fontik Data and co-founded G-Factor Technology Incubator. From 2000 to 2001 he was the vice president of R&D; for Evelon Technologies. In July 2003 he co-founded the company Unicoders, serving as their CEO until March 2007.

Arthur Jensen and Bernard Davis argued that if the g factor (general intelligence factor) were replaced with a model that tested several types of intelligence, it would change results less than one might expect. Therefore, according to Jensen and Davis, the results of standardized tests of cognitive ability would continue to correlate with the results of other such standardized tests, and that the intellectual achievement gap between black and white people would remain. Psychologist J. Philippe Rushton accused Gould of "scholarly malfeasance" for misrepresenting and for ignoring contemporary scientific research pertinent to the subject of his book, and for attacking dead hypotheses and methods of research. He faulted The Mismeasure of Man because it did not mention the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies that showed the existence of statistical correlations among brain-size, IQ, and the g factor, despite Rushton having sent copies of the MRI studies to Gould.

According to Gardner, an intelligence is "a biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture." According to a 2006 study, each of the domains proposed by Gardner involves a blend of the general g factor, cognitive abilities other than g, and, in some cases, non-cognitive abilities or personality characteristics.

A g-factor (also called g value or dimensionless magnetic moment) is a dimensionless quantity that characterizes the magnetic moment and angular momentum of an atom, a particle or the nucleus. It is essentially a proportionality constant that relates the observed magnetic moment μ of a particle to its angular momentum quantum number and a unit of magnetic moment (to make it dimensionless), usually the Bohr magneton or nuclear magneton.

He observed that children's performance ratings, across seemingly unrelated school subjects, were positively correlated, and reasoned that these correlations reflected the influence of an underlying general mental ability that entered into performance on all kinds of mental tests. Spearman suggested that all mental performance could be conceptualized in terms of a single general ability factor, which he labeled g, and many narrow task-specific ability factors. Soon after Spearman proposed the existence of g, it was challenged by Godfrey Thomson, who presented evidence that such intercorrelations among test results could arise even if no g-factor existed. Today's factor models of intelligence typically represent cognitive abilities as a three-level hierarchy, where there are many narrow factors at the bottom of the hierarchy, a handful of broad, more general factors at the intermediate level, and at the apex a single factor, referred to as the g factor, which represents the variance common to all cognitive tasks.

In real systems, electrons are normally not solitary, but are associated with one or more atoms. There are several important consequences of this: # An unpaired electron can gain or lose angular momentum, which can change the value of its g-factor, causing it to differ from g_e . This is especially significant for chemical systems with transition-metal ions. # Systems with multiple unpaired electrons experience electron–electron interactions that give rise to "fine" structure.

Zorić made his professional debut with Sutjeska Nikšić in 2010 at the age of 17. After just playing seven games with Sutjeska, he transferred to city rivals Čelik Nikšić, with whom Zorić would reach two Montenegrin Cup finals. Throughout the winter of 2013-2014, negotiations took place between Zorić and Inter Milan G Factor: Darko Zoric, il giovane montenegrino sul taccuino di Inter e Borussia Dortmund 7 December 2013 and Red Star Belgrade. Janković, Nikola.

The Ian Dempsey Breakfast Show is an Irish breakfast radio show broadcast on weekday mornings from 07:00 – 09:00 on Today FM. Presented by Ian Dempsey, it is noted for its Gift Grub feature, performed by Mario Rosenstock."TDFM028 GIFT GRUB – THE G FACTOR ". Today FM. Retrieved 24 October 2008. It is the tenth most popular radio programme in Ireland and was named best breakfast programme at the 2007 PPI Radio Awards.

He also considered the possibility of a ninth intelligent ability, existential intelligence. Gardner proposed that individuals who excelled in one ability would lack in another. Instead, his results showed that each of his eight intelligences correlate positively with each other. After further analysis, Gardner found that logic, spatial abilities, language, and mathematics are all linked in some way, giving support for an underlying g factor that is prominent in almost all intelligence in general.

Landé's work contained several new important ideas, including the rule of vector addition of two quantum-mechanical angular momenta J1 and J2. His findings and postulates were later confirmed by quantum theory. Landé's Frankfurt investigations (December 1920 until April 1921) ended with the discovery of the well-known Landé g-formula and an explanation for the anomalous Zeeman effect. The Landé g-factor is now defined through mJ, the magnetic quantum number.

Anke Kracke (born Anke Wagner, 8 September 1983 in Mainz) is a German experimental physicist affiliated with the Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics, Heidelberg (MPIK). Kracke studied physics at the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz. In 2007, she began doctoral work with Klaus Blaum at MPIK. She defended her thesis, The g-factor of the valence electron bound in lithiumlike silicon 28Si11+: The most stringent test of relativistic many- electron calculations in a magnetic field, in 2013.

Magn Reson Med. 2007 May;57(5):939–49. .Larkman DJ, Batchelor PG, Atkinson D, Rueckert D, Hajnal JV. Beyond the g-factor limit in sensitivity encoding using joint histogram entropy. Magn Reson Med. 2006 Jan;55(1):153–60. .Penney GP, Batchelor PG, Hill DL, Hawkes DJ, Weese J. Validation of a two- to three-dimensional registration algorithm for aligning preoperative CT images and intraoperative fluoroscopy images. Med Phys. 2001 Jun;28(6):1024–32. .

Editorial staff (9 May 1997). The personal views of a 'scientific racist.' Times Higher Education Brand also wrote that "women are inclined to deceitful promiscuity" and that Sigmund Freud was therefore right to ascribe weaker super-egos to women than to men. His 1996 book The g Factor: General Intelligence and Its Implications led to accusations of scientific racism and sexism, and his university lectures were protested and closed by the Anti-Nazi League of Edinburgh.

The g-factor is a dimensionless factor associated to the nuclear magnetic moment. This parameter contains the sign of the nuclear magnetic moment, which is very important in nuclear structure since it provides information about which type of nucleon (proton or neutron) is dominating over the nuclear wave function. The positive sign is associated to the proton domination and the negative sign with the neutron domination. The values of g(l) and g(s) are known as the g-factors of the nucleons.

Gottfredson took a position at Hopkins' Center for Social Organization of Schools and investigated issues of occupational segregation and typology based on skill sets and intellectual capacity. She married Robert A. Gordon, who worked in a related area at Hopkins, and they divorced by the mid-90s. In 1985, Gottfredson participated in a conference called "The g Factor in Employment Testing". The papers presented were published in the December 1986 issue of the Journal of Vocational Behavior, which she edited.

Stratum III (general intelligence): g factor, accounts for the correlations among the broad abilities at Stratum II. Stratum II (broad abilities): 8 broad abilities—fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, general memory and learning, broad visual perception, broad auditory perception, broad retrieval ability, broad cognitive speediness, and processing speed. Stratum I (specific level): more specific factors under the stratum II. Kevin McGrew (2005)McGrew, Cognitive Abilities. In D. P. Flanagan & P. L. Harrison (Eds.). (2012). Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues. (pp. 151–179).

This systematic computational procedure is known as renormalization and can be applied to arbitrary order in perturbation theory. By applying the renormalization procedure, calculations were finally made to explain the electron's anomalous magnetic moment (the deviation of the electron g-factor from 2) and vacuum polarisation. These results agreed with experimental measurements to a remarkable degree, thus marking the end of a "war against infinities". At the same time, Feynman introduced the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics and Feynman diagrams.

His work has been built on, expanded, and linked to many other factors related to intelligence. Intelligence testing measuring the g factor has been studied recently to re-explore Spearman's law of diminishing returns. This study investigates how g test scores will most likely decrease as g increases. Research has been done to investigate if g scores are made up of scores from Differential Ability Scales, s factors, and how the law of diminishing returns compare to Spearman's Law of diminishing returns.

Following a brief struggle with Hugi, he accidentally destroys the control device to the Genocidron System, making the machines indiscriminately destroying both worlds. Upon escaping Llambias, Sandman and Raven flee to Earth. In order to conceal his identity, he takes the name and appearance of the actual Klein Sandman, an 18th-century aristocrat. To provide himself the means to prepare for the Zeravire, Sandman genetically suppresses his own G-Factor, giving him immortality and turning his hair purple from its original blond.

The Bohr magneton is the magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment of an electron orbiting an atom with such angular momentum. According to the Bohr model, this is the ground state, i.e. the state of lowest possible energy. The spin angular momentum of an electron is ħ, but the intrinsic electron magnetic moment caused by its spin is also approximately one Bohr magneton since the electron spin g-factor, a factor relating spin angular momentum to corresponding magnetic moment of a particle, is approximately two.

Psychometric analysis of measurements of human cognitive abilities (intelligence) may suggest that there is a single underlying mechanism that impacts how humans learn. In the early 20th century, Charles Spearman noticed that children's scores on different measures of cognitive abilities were positively correlated. Spearman believed that these correlations could be attributed to a general mental ability or process that is utilized across all cognitive tasks. Spearman labeled this general mental ability as the g factor, and believed g could represent an individual's overall cognitive functioning.

Thus it is difficult to unravel the interconnected relationship of IQ and education where both seem to affect one another. Those who do better on childhood intelligence tests tend to have a lower drop out rate, and complete more years of school and are predictive of school success. For instance, one of the largest ever studies found a correlation of 0.81 between the general intelligence or g-factor and GCSE results. On the other hand, education has been shown to improve performance on intelligence tests.

The causal links between psychometric ability and social outcomes may be indirect. Children with poor scholastic performance may feel alienated. Consequently, they may be more likely to engage in delinquent behavior, compared to other children who do well. In his book The g Factor (1998), Arthur Jensen cited data which showed that, regardless of race, people with IQs between 70 and 90 have higher crime rates than people with IQs below or above this range, with the peak range being between 80 and 90.

As an evolutionary biologist and historian of science, Gould accepted biological variability (the premise of the transmission of intelligence via genetic heredity), but opposed biological determinism, which posits that genes determine a definitive, unalterable social destiny for each man and each woman in life and society. The Mismeasure of Man is an analysis of statistical correlation, the mathematics applied by psychologists to establish the validity of IQ tests, and the heritability of intelligence. For example, to establish the validity of the proposition that IQ is supported by a general intelligence factor (g factor), the answers to several tests of cognitive ability must positively correlate; thus, for the g factor to be a heritable trait, the IQ-test scores of close-relation respondents must correlate more than the IQ-test scores of distant-relation respondents. However, correlation does not imply causation; for example, Gould said that the measures of the changes, over time, in "my age, the population of México, the price of Swiss cheese, my pet turtle’s weight, and the average distance between galaxies" have a high, positive correlation—yet that correlation does not indicate that Gould’s age increased because the Mexican population increased.

The high degree of comorbidity between disorders in categorical models such as the DSM and ICD have led some to propose dimensional models. Studying comorbidity between disorders have demonstrated two latent (unobserved) factors or dimensions in the structure of mental disorders that are thought to possibly reflect etiological processes. These two dimensions reflect a distinction between internalizing disorders, such as mood or anxiety symptoms, and externalizing disorders such as behavioral or substance abuse symptoms. A single general factor of psychopathology, similar to the g factor for intelligence, has been empirically supported.

Schematic illustration of the Wu experiment The experimental challenge in this experiment was to obtain the highest possible polarization of the 60Co nuclei. Due to the very small magnetic moments of the nuclei as compared to electrons, high magnetic fields were required at extremely low temperatures, far lower than could be achieved by liquid helium cooling alone. The low temperatures were achieved using the method of adiabatic demagnetization. Radioactive cobalt was deposited as a thin surface layer on a crystal of cerium-magnesium nitrate, a paramagnetic salt with a highly anisotropic Landé g-factor.

This interpretation of g as a common cause of test performance is still dominant in psychometrics. (Although, an alternative interpretation was recently advanced by van der Maas and colleagues. Their mutualism model assumes that intelligence depends on several independent mechanisms, none of which influences performance on all cognitive tests. These mechanisms support each other so that efficient operation of one of them makes efficient operation of the others more likely, thereby creating the positive manifold.) IQ tasks and tests can be ranked by how highly they load on the g factor.

Charles Spearman developed his two-factor theory of intelligence using factor analysis. His research not only led him to develop the concept of the g factor of general intelligence, but also the s factor of specific intellectual abilities. L. L. Thurstone, Howard Gardner, and Robert Sternberg also researched the structure of intelligence, and in analyzing their data, concluded that a single underlying factor was influencing the general intelligence of individuals. However, Spearman was criticized in 1916 by Godfrey Thomson, who claimed that the evidence was not as crucial as it seemed.

Jensen 1998, 18–19, 35–36, 38. The idea of a general, unitary mental ability was introduced to psychology by Herbert Spencer and Francis Galton in the latter half of the 19th century, but their work was largely speculative, with little empirical basis. Following Spearman, Arthur Jensen maintained that all mental tasks tap into g to some degree. According to Jensen, the g factor represents a "distillate" of scores on different tests rather than a summation or an average of such scores, with factor analysis acting as the distillation procedure.

Charles Spearman developed factor analysis in order to study correlations between tests. Initially, he developed a model of intelligence in which variations in all intelligence test scores are explained by only two kinds of variables: first, factors that are specific to each test (denoted s); and second, a g factor that accounts for the positive correlations across tests. This is known as Spearman's two-factor theory. Later research based on more diverse test batteries than those used by Spearman demonstrated that g alone could not account for all correlations between tests.

The broad abilities recognized by the model are fluid intelligence (Gf), crystallized intelligence (Gc), general memory and learning (Gy), broad visual perception (Gv), broad auditory perception (Gu), broad retrieval ability (Gr), broad cognitive speediness (Gs), and processing speed (Gt). Carroll regarded the broad abilities as different "flavors" of g. Through factor rotation, it is, in principle, possible to produce an infinite number of different factor solutions that are mathematically equivalent in their ability to account for the intercorrelations among cognitive tests. These include solutions that do not contain a g factor.

His 1996 book The g Factor garnered considerable media attention with its claim that inherited general intelligence was like psychological money. Brand wrote that general intelligence is an important factor in determining life outcomes for those with lower scores. He attributed socio-economic differences among people of African descent to differences in general intelligence. Brand was a Fellow of the Galton Institute. From 2000 to 2004, Brand was a research consultant to the CRACK programme based in Baltimore, Maryland, which pays drug-addicted mothers $200 to be sterilised.

The handsome, billionaire businessman and commander of the Earthgertz, Klein Sandman's knowledge of science and technology allows him to build the Gran Divas and the Gran Kaiser to battle the Zeravire. Sandman selects people with a high tolerance on the effects of gravity, a genetically inherited trait he calls the G-Factor, to become the pilots of his machines. When it seems the Zeravire are too much to handle for Earthgertz, Sandman approves of combining the Gran Divas and the Gran Kaiser into Gravion. In Gravion Zwei, he pilots the Gran Sigma.

The electron relative atomic mass can be measured directly in a Penning trap. It can also be inferred from the spectra of antiprotonic helium atoms (helium atoms where one of the electrons has been replaced by an antiproton) or from measurements of the electron g-factor in the hydrogenic ions 12C5+ or 16O7+. The electron relative atomic mass is an adjusted parameter in the CODATA set of fundamental physical constants, while the electron rest mass in kilograms is calculated from the values of the Planck constant, the fine-structure constant and the Rydberg constant, as detailed above.

University lecturer Chris Brand, who had published controversial work on race and intelligence, and had castigated perceived feminist promiscuity, single-parenting and paedohysteria, was asked to leave the university in 1997 for bringing it into "disrepute". The Student had been instrumental in calling for his sacking after his book, The g Factor, was published. Finally, Brand was compensated for unfair dismissal; and The Student published in 2003 a further example of his psychorealism, urging girls to 'keep their (pubic) hair on' so as to improve their romantic chances.'IQ Researcher Suspended for Views on Paedophilia by Holden, Constance (22 November 1996). '. Science.

Group member average scores of theory of mind abilities, measured with the Reading the Mind in the Eyes test Pdf. (RME), are suggested as drivers of successful group performance. In particular, high group average scores on the RME are shown to be correlated with the collective intelligence factor c defined as a group's ability to perform a wide range of mental tasks, a group intelligence measure similar to the g factor for general individual intelligence. RME is a Theory of Mind test for adults that shows sufficient test-retest reliability and constantly differentiates control groups from individuals with functional autism or Asperger syndrome.

Differences in human intelligence have long been a topic of debate among researchers and scholars. With the advent of the concept of g factor or general intelligence, many researchers have argued that there are no significant sex differences in general intelligence, although ability in particular types of intelligence does appear to vary. While some test batteries show slightly greater intelligence in males, others show greater intelligence in females. In particular, studies have shown female subjects performing better on tasks related to verbal ability, and males performing better on tasks related to rotation of objects in space, often categorized as spatial ability.

Another question that is currently attracting interest from students of both animal and human behavior is whether different types of behavioral plasticities are correlated with one another across individuals: i.e., whether some individuals are generally more plastic than others. Although there is some evidence that certain types of cognitive traits tend to be positively correlated with one another across individuals (see the g factor in humans), at present there is scant evidence that other types of plasticity (e.g. contextual plasticity and ontogenetic plasticity) are correlated with one another across individuals or genotypes in humans or animals.

Gould cited Leon Kamin's study which argued that Cyril Burt (above) fabricated data. The Mismeasure of Man presents a historical evaluation of the concepts of the intelligence quotient (IQ) and of the general intelligence factor (g factor), which were and are the measures for intelligence used by psychologists. Gould proposed that most psychological studies have been heavily biased, by the belief that the human behavior of a race of people is best explained by genetic heredity. He cites the Burt Affair, about the oft-cited twin studies, by Cyril Burt (1883–1971), wherein Burt claimed that human intelligence is highly heritable.

New York: New York University Press, 2006, p. 259 Both Pierre Lévy (2007) and Henry Jenkins (2008) support the claim that collective intelligence is important for democratization, as it is interlinked with knowledge-based culture and sustained by collective idea sharing, and thus contributes to a better understanding of diverse society. Similar to the g factor (g) for general individual intelligence, a new scientific understanding of collective intelligence aims to extract a general collective intelligence factor c factor for groups indicating a group's ability to perform a wide range of tasks. Definition, operationalization and statistical methods are derived from g.

B. Odom, D. Hanneke, B. D'Urso, and G. Gabrielse, New Measurement of the Electron Magnetic Moment Using a One-Electron Quantum Cyclotron, Phys. Rev. Lett. 97, 030801 (2006). The difference between the electron's cyclotron frequency and its spin precession frequency in a magnetic field is proportional to g−2. An extremely high precision measurement of the quantized energies of the cyclotron orbits, or Landau levels, of the electron, compared to the quantized energies of the electron's two possible spin orientations, gives a value for the electron's spin g-factor: : g/2 = , a precision of better than one part in a trillion.

This then is what the G term means, a score-factor and nothing more. > But this meaning is sufficient to render the term well defined so that the > underlying thing is susceptible to scientific investigation; we can proceed > to find out facts about this score-factor, or G factor. We can ascertain the > kind of mental operations in which it plays a dominant part as compared with > the other or specific factor. And so the discovery has been made that G is > dominant in such operations as reasoning, or learning Latin; whereas it > plays a very small part indeed in such operation (sic) as distinguishing one > tone from another. . .

Therefore, it is safe to assume that higher SES, as well as higher IQ, generally predicts better health. Measurability: g factor can be extracted from any broad set of mental tests and has provided a common, reliable source for measuring general intelligence in any population. Falsifiability: theoretically, if g theory would conceive health self-care as a job, as a set of instrumental tasks performed by the individuals, it could predict g to influence the health performance in the same way as it predicts performance in education and job. Chronic illnesses are the major illnesses in developed countries today, and their major risk factors are health habits and lifestyle.

The idea that one gender is on average inherently, genetically intellectually inferior is controversial and critics of the idea attribute it to historical or contemporary sexism. Most researchers have argued for no significant sex differences in g factor or general intelligence, while others have argued for greater intelligence for males, and others for females. These results depend on the methodology, tests researchers used for their claims, and the personal performances of the participants. Assuming there are real gender differences in general intelligence, it is difficult to answer the nature versus nurture question - whether any such differences are inherently genetic, or are caused by environmental factors.

Interviewees may differ on any number of dimensions commonly assessed by job interviews and evidence suggests that these differences affect interview ratings. Many interviews are designed to measure some specific differences between applicants, or individual difference variables, such as Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities needed to do the job well. Other individual differences can affect how interviewers rate the applicants even if that characteristic is not meant to be assessed by the interview questions. For instance, General Mental Ability G factor (psychometrics) is moderately related to structured interview ratings and strongly related to structured interviews using behavioral description and situational judgment interview questions, because they are more cognitively intensive interview types.

Spearman proposed the principle of the indifference of the indicator, according to which the precise content of intelligence tests is unimportant for the purposes of identifying g, because g enters into performance on all kinds of tests. Any test can therefore be used as an indicator of g. Following Spearman, Arthur Jensen more recently argued that a g factor extracted from one test battery will always be the same, within the limits of measurement error, as that extracted from another battery, provided that the batteries are large and diverse.Mackintosh 2011, 151 According to this view, every mental test, no matter how distinctive, calls on g to some extent.

James Flynn has argued that intelligence should be conceptualized at three different levels: brain physiology, cognitive differences between individuals, and social trends in intelligence over time. According to this model, the g factor is a useful concept with respect to individual differences but its explanatory power is limited when the focus of investigation is either brain physiology, or, especially, the effect of social trends on intelligence. Flynn has criticized the notion that cognitive gains over time, or the Flynn effect, are "hollow" if they cannot be shown to be increases in g. He argues that the Flynn effect reflects shifting social priorities and individuals' adaptation to them.

In quantum electrodynamics, the anomalous magnetic moment of a particle is a contribution of effects of quantum mechanics, expressed by Feynman diagrams with loops, to the magnetic moment of that particle. (The magnetic moment, also called magnetic dipole moment, is a measure of the strength of a magnetic source.) The "Dirac" magnetic moment, corresponding to tree-level Feynman diagrams (which can be thought of as the classical result), can be calculated from the Dirac equation. It is usually expressed in terms of the g-factor; the Dirac equation predicts g = 2. For particles such as the electron, this classical result differs from the observed value by a small fraction of a percent.

Because the mechanisms of spin–orbit coupling are well understood, the magnitude of the change gives information about the nature of the atomic or molecular orbital containing the unpaired electron. In general, the g factor is not a number but a second-rank tensor represented by 9 numbers arranged in a 3×3 matrix. The principal axes of this tensor are determined by the local fields, for example, by the local atomic arrangement around the unpaired spin in a solid or in a molecule. Choosing an appropriate coordinate system (say, x,y,z) allows one to "diagonalize" this tensor, thereby reducing the maximal number of its components from 9 to 3: gxx, gyy and gzz.

Associated factors include childhood conduct disorder, adult antisocial personality disorder (also associated with each other), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, minor depression, clinical depression, depression in the family, suicidal tendencies and schizophrenia. The American Psychological Association's 1995 report Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns stated that the correlation between IQ and crime was -0.2. This association is generally regarded as small and prone to disappear or be substantially reduced after controlling for the proper covariates, being much smaller than typical sociological correlates. In his book The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability (1998), Arthur Jensen cited data which showed that IQ was generally negatively associated with crime among people of all races, peaking between 80 and 90.

Instead of conceptualizing psychopathology as consisting of several discrete categories of mental disorders, groups of psychological and psychiatric scientists have proposed a "general psychopathology" construct, named the p factor, because of its conceptual similarity with the g factor of general intelligence. Although researchers initially conceived a tripartite (three factor) explanation for psychopathology generally, subsequent study provided more evidence for a unitary factor that is sequentially comorbid, recurrent/chronic, and exists on a continuum of severity and chronicity. Thus, the p factor is a dimensional, as opposed to a categorical, construct. Higher scores on the p factor dimension have been found to be correlated with higher levels of functional impairment, greater incidence of problems in developmental history, and more diminished early-life brain function.

Whitney was a frequent contributor to magazines such as Mankind Quarterly, The g Factor Newsletter and The William McDougall Newsletter (named after eugenicist psychologist William McDougall). While outgoing president of the Behavior Genetics Association in 1995, some members of this group demanded his resignation after his presidential address suggested the need to investigate the possibility of genetic factors behind the high incidence of black crime in America.Secretary's Report on The 25th Annual Meeting of the Behavior Genetics Association, Richmond, Virginia Whitney wrote the foreword for My Awakening (1998), an autobiography by David Duke, a white nationalist politician and former National Director of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. In the book, Duke uses scientific racism to push for the re-segregation of schools.

Dirac's theory was hugely successful in explaining both the emission and absorption of radiation by atoms; by applying second-order perturbation theory, it was able to account for the scattering of photons, resonance fluorescence, as well as non- relativistic Compton scattering. Nonetheless, the application of higher-order perturbation theory was plagued with problematic infinities in calculations. In 1928, Dirac wrote down a wave equation that described relativistic electrons—the Dirac equation. It had the following important consequences: the spin of an electron is 1/2; the electron g-factor is 2; it led to the correct Sommerfeld formula for the fine structure of the hydrogen atom; and it could be used to derive the Klein–Nishina formula for relativistic Compton scattering.

Appearing in Gravion Zwei, Faye Xin Lu is captain of the G-Soldiers squadron in the EFA military. Very serious and committed to her line of duty, she was an orphan at the same orphanage sponsored by Sandman, meeting Toga Tenkuji for the first time, protecting him from frequent bullies. In fact, Faye was initially selected to be trained as the pilot of the Gran Kaiser, for she had a similar, if not, higher G-Factor than Toga, but Sandman made a last-minute decision and selected him, instead. This last-minute switch leaves Faye feeling embittered towards both Toga and Sandman, causing her to attempt to surpass Toga and even at one point take advantage of his fragile mental state.

Charles Murray (1998) showed a more substantial effect of IQ on income independent of family background. In a meta-analysis, Strenze (2006) reviewed much of the literature and estimated the correlation between IQ and income to be about 0.23. Some studies claim that IQ only accounts for (explains) a sixth of the variation in income because many studies are based on young adults, many of whom have not yet reached their peak earning capacity, or even their education. On pg 568 of The g Factor, Arthur Jensen claims that although the correlation between IQ and income averages a moderate 0.4 (one sixth or 16% of the variance), the relationship increases with age, and peaks at middle age when people have reached their maximum career potential.

In addition, those with higher levels of the p factor are more likely to have inherited a genetic predisposition to mental illness. The existence of the p factor may explain why it has been "... challenging to find causes, consequences, biomarkers, and treatments with specificity to individual mental disorders." The p factor has been likened to the g factor of general intelligence, which is also a dimensional system by which overall cognitive ability can be defined. As psychopathology has typically been studied and implemented as a categorical system, like the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual system developed for clinicians, the dimensional system of the p factor provides an alternative conceptualization of mental disorders that might improve our understanding of psychopathology in general; lead to more precise diagnoses; and facilitate more effective treatment approaches.

As the cognitive ability and intelligence in non-human animals cannot be measured with verbal scales, it has been measured using a variety of methods that involve such things as habit reversal, social learning, and responses to novelty. Principal Component Analysis and factor analytic studies have shown that a single factor of intelligence is responsible for 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability measures in primates and between 55% and 60% of the variance in mice. These values are similar to the accepted variance in IQ explained by a similar single factor known as the general factor of intelligence in humans (40-50%). The general factor of intelligence, or g factor, is a psychometric construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual's scores on various measures of cognitive abilities.

Raymond Cattell, a student of Charles Spearman's, rejected the unitary g factor model and divided g into two broad, relatively independent domains: fluid intelligence (Gf) and crystallized intelligence (Gc). Gf is conceptualized as a capacity to figure out novel problems, and it is best assessed with tests with little cultural or scholastic content, such as Raven's matrices. Gc can be thought of as consolidated knowledge, reflecting the skills and information that an individual acquires and retains throughout his or her life. Gc is dependent on education and other forms of acculturation, and it is best assessed with tests that emphasize scholastic and cultural knowledge.Jensen 1998, 122–123 Gf can be thought to primarily consist of current reasoning and problem solving capabilities, while Gc reflects the outcome of previously executed cognitive processes.

The purpose is to simplify the correlation matrix by using hypothetical underlying factors to explain the patterns in it. When all correlations in a matrix are positive, as they are in the case of IQ, factor analysis will yield a general factor common to all tests. The general factor of IQ tests is referred to as the g factor, and it typically accounts for 40 to 50 percent of the variance in IQ test batteries.Mackintosh 2011, 44–45 The presence of correlations between many widely varying cognitive tests has often been taken as evidence for the existence of g, but McFarland (2012) showed that such correlations do not provide any more or less support for the existence of g than for the existence of multiple factors of intelligence.

Gc was, in Cattell's thinking, the result of a person "investing" his or her Gf in learning experiences throughout life.Horn & McArdle 2007Jensen 1998, 123 Cattell, together with John Horn, later expanded the Gf-Gc model to include a number of other broad abilities, such as Gq (quantitative reasoning) and Gv (visual-spatial reasoning). While all the broad ability factors in the extended Gf-Gc model are positively correlated and thus would enable the extraction of a higher order g factor, Cattell and Horn maintained that it would be erroneous to posit that a general factor underlies these broad abilities. They argued that g factors computed from different test batteries are not invariant and would give different values of g, and that the correlations among tests arise because it is difficult to test just one ability at a time.

Therefore, heritability is not a measure of phenotypic (physiognomy and physique) differences among racial and ethnic groups, but of differences between genotype and phenotype in a given population. Furthermore, he dismissed the proposition that an IQ score measures the general intelligence (g factor) of a person, because cognitive ability tests (IQ tests) present different types of questions, and the responses tend to form clusters of intellectual acumen. That is, different questions, and the answers to them, yield different scores—which indicate that an IQ test is a combination method of different examinations of different things. As such, Gould proposed that IQ-test proponents assume the existence of "general intelligence" as a discrete quality within the human mind, and thus they analyze the IQ-test data to produce an IQ number that establishes the definitive general intelligence of each man and of each woman.

Thus a composite score of a number of different tests will load onto g more strongly than any of the individual test scores, because the g components cumulate into the composite score, while the uncorrelated non-g components will cancel each other out. Theoretically, the composite score of an infinitely large, diverse test battery would, then, be a perfect measure of g.Jensen 1998, 31 In contrast, L.L. Thurstone argued that a g factor extracted from a test battery reflects the average of all the abilities called for by the particular battery, and that g therefore varies from one battery to another and "has no fundamental psychological significance."Mackintosh 2011, 151–153 Along similar lines, John Horn argued that g factors are meaningless because they are not invariant across test batteries, maintaining that correlations between different ability measures arise because it is difficult to define a human action that depends on just one ability.

Critics have also suggested that Gould did not understand the purpose of factor analysis, and that he was ignorant of relevant methodological advances in the field. While different factor solutions may be mathematically equivalent in their ability to account for intercorrelations among tests, solutions that yield a g factor are psychologically preferable for several reasons extrinsic to factor analysis, including the phenomenon of the positive manifold, the fact that the same g can emerge from quite different test batteries, the widespread practical validity of g, and the linkage of g to many biological variables.Korb 1994 John Horn and John McArdle have argued that the modern g theory, as espoused by, for example, Arthur Jensen, is unfalsifiable, because the existence of a common factor like g follows tautologically from positive correlations among tests. They contrasted the modern hierarchical theory of g with Spearman's original two-factor theory which was readily falsifiable (and indeed was falsified).

Since individuals' g factor scores are highly correlated with full- scale IQ scores, which are in turn regarded as good estimates of g, this measurement of collective intelligence can also be seen as an intelligence indicator or quotient respectively for a group (Group-IQ) parallel to an individual's intelligence quotient (IQ) even though the score is not a quotient per se. Mathematically, c and g are both variables summarizing positive correlations among different tasks supposing that performance on one task is comparable with performance on other similar tasks. c thus is a source of variance among groups and can only be considered as a group's standing on the c factor compared to other groups in a given relevant population. The concept is in contrast to competing hypotheses including other correlational structures to explain group intelligence, such as a composition out of several equally important but independent factors as found in individual personality research.