The gas leak was caused when water was added on Sunday to the restricted fumigant, which contained aluminum phosphide.
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And some of these chemicals, like methyl bromide, a fumigant, are also greenhouse gases and deplete the ozone layer.
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"Moonstone" is as ethereal and elusive as the clouds of fumigant that a doctor asks Mani Steinn to release in the Reykjavik cinemas, or a dream that has fled.
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The molecule in question, which was identified through an analysis of radio telescope data, is propylene oxide, which is commonly used here on Earth in making plastic and as a fumigant in almond processing.
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And because he cannot use a fumigant to kill off the navel orangeworm, a pest that works its way into almonds after they are harvested, he ships the nuts to a freezing facility that normally flash-freezes freshly harvested broccoli, cauliflower and bell peppers to prevent spoilage.
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Patent #US5989597 Ambrose Rajamannan was the inventor of the novel process of continuously and instantaneously sterilizing soil using a water-activated fumigant. Dazomet is one water-activated fumigant that could be used. This process ensures 100% activation of the fumigant. Therefore, less fumigant would be needed to ensure that the soil would be completely sterilized.
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While the fumigant pack may be safe and spent, the space will still hold the fumigant gas until it has been ventilated.
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Cyanogen fluoride is a very volatile fumigant, disinfectant and animal pest killer.
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Dazomet is a common soil fumigant that acts as a herbicide, fungicide, and nematicide.
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The insecticidal action of anethole is greater as a fumigant than as a contact agent. trans-Anethole is highly effective as a fumigant against the cockroach Blattella germanica and against adults of the weevils Sitophilus oryzae, Callosobruchus chinensis and beetle Lasioderma serricorne. As well as an insect pesticide, anethole is an effective insect repellent against mosquitos.
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Stibine is used in the semiconductor industry to dope silicon with small quantities of antimony via the process of chemical vapour deposition (CVD). It has also been used as a silicon dopant in epitaxial layers. Reports claim the use of SbH3 as a fumigant but its instability and awkward preparation contrast with the more conventional fumigant phosphine.
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Ethylene bromide, obtained by addition of bromine to ethylene, was once of commercial significance as a component of leaded gasoline. It was also a popular fumigant in agriculture, displacing 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane ("DBCP"). Both applications are declining owing to environmental and health considerations. Methyl bromide is also an effective fumigant, but its production and use are controlled by the Montreal Protocol.
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The process can take up to a week depending on the fumigant used, which is in turn, dependent on the temperature and the pest.
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Methyl bromide is used as a fumigant for whole logs destined for export. There has been lobbying to stop its use due to concerns for human health.
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AlP is used as a rodenticide, insecticide, and fumigant for stored cereal grains. It is used to kill small verminous mammals such as moles and rodents. The tablets or pellets, known as "wheat pills", typically also contain other chemicals that evolve ammonia which helps to reduce the potential for spontaneous ignition or explosion of the phosphine gas. AlP is used as both a fumigant and an oral pesticide.
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When the chemical is used as an insecticide, it is in the form of an impregnated smoke fumigant. Sulfotep is used in greenhouses as a fumigant formulation to control aphids, spider mites, whiteflies and thrips. It is formulated as impregnated material in smoke generators containing 14 to 15% active ingredient. Smoke generators are placed in the greenhouses and then ignited using inserted sparklers to generate a thick white smoke for fumigation.
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In addition to food, the plant can be used to produce dye and as a green manure crop for biomass and a bio-fumigant for control of selected species of nematodes.
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Fumigation generally involves the following phases: First, the area intended for fumigation is covered to create a sealed environment. Next, the fumigant is released into the space to be fumigated. The space is held for a set period while the fumigant gas percolates through the space and acts on/kills any infestation in the area. Finally, the space is ventilated so that the poisonous gases are allowed to escape from the space, rendering it safe for humans to enter.
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Zhang, Z., et al. (2004). Phosphine as a fumigant to control Hylastes ater and Arhopalus ferus, pests of export logs. New Zealand Plant Protection 57, 257-59. Traps baited with turpentine may also be an option.
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This reaction, that must be done under low temperature conditions, is employed in the industrial synthesis of allyl bromide: :HOCH2CH=CH2 \+ HBr → BrCH2CH=CH2 \+ H2O Methyl bromide, another fumigant, is generated from methanol and hydrogen bromide.
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Because the previously popular fumigant methyl bromide has been phased out in some countries under the Montreal Protocol, phosphine is the only widely used, cost-effective, rapidly acting fumigant that does not leave residues on the stored product. Pests with high levels of resistance toward phosphine have become common in Asia, Australia and Brazil. High level resistance is also likely to occur in other regions, but has not been as closely monitored. Genetic variants that contribute to high level resistance to phosphine have been identified in the dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase gene.
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In New Zealand, bromomethane is used as a fumigant for whole logs destined for export. Environmental groups and the Green Party oppose its use. In May 2011 the Environmental Risk Management Authority (ERMA) introduced new rules for its use which restrict the level of public exposure to the fumigant, set minimum buffer zones around fumigation sites, provide for notification to nearby residents and require users to monitor air quality during fumigations and report back to ERMA each year. All methyl bromide fumigations must use recapture technology by 2021.
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Crop rotation with small grains is also another management tool for Paratylenchus hamatus since they typically parasitize on fruit and vegetable crops. For post-planting control some non-fumigant nematicides can be used, but the effectiveness is not always consistent.
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1,3-Dichloropropene, sold under diverse trade names, is an organochlorine compound. It is colorless liquid with a sweet smell. It dissolves in water and evaporates easily. It is used mainly in farming as a pesticide, specifically as a preplant fumigant and nematicide.
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In California experience with acute effects of chloropicrin when used as a soil fumigant for strawberries and other crops led to the release of regulations in January 2015 creating buffer zones and other precautions to minimize exposure of farm workers, neighbors, and passersby.
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Cinnamaldehyde has been tested as a safe and effective insecticide against mosquito larvae. A concentration of 29 ppm of cinnamaldehyde kills half of Aedes aegypti mosquito larvae in 24 hours. Trans- cinnamaldehyde works as a potent fumigant and practical repellant for adult mosquitos.
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Aluminium phosphide is a highly toxic inorganic compound with the chemical formula used as a wide band gap semiconductor and a fumigant. This colorless solid is generally sold as a grey-green-yellow powder due to the presence of impurities arising from hydrolysis and oxidation.
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More specifically, the powdered root is used as a fumigant in Tantric rituals intended to cure insanity, nervous breakdown and 'hysteria'.Quattrocchi, Umberto (2012). CRC World dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms and etymology. Volume 5 R-Z.
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Malathion used as a fumigant was not associated with increased cancer risk. Between 1993 and 1997, as part of the Agricultural Health Study, researchers surveyed 19,717 pesticide applicators about their past pesticide exposures and health histories and no clear association between malathion exposure and cancer was reported.
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They are used as flame retardants, fire extinguishants, refrigerants, propellants, solvents, and pharmaceuticals. Subsequent to the widespread use in commerce, many halocarbons have also been shown to be serious pollutants and toxins. For example, the chlorofluorocarbons have been shown to lead to ozone depletion. Methyl bromide is a controversial fumigant.
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1,1,1-Trichloroethane is also used as an insecticidal fumigant. It was also the standard cleaner for photographic film (movie/slide/negatives, etc.). Other commonly available solvents damage emulsion, and thus are not suitable for this application. The standard replacement, Forane 141 is much less effective, and tends to leave a residue.
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Kanpyō available in the United States is sometimes chemically bleach-dried to a very white color, as opposed to the creamy color of the naturally-dried kind. Sulfur dioxide is used sometimes used as a fumigant but must not be used in concentrations exceeding 5.0 g per 1 kg of dry matter.
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Most states require a license or certification for the individual applying the fumigant. The concentration is continuously monitored and maintained at the specified level using electronic equipment. Possible leakages are also checked by low range electronic detectors. Reentry to the home is allowed when the concentration level is at or below 5 ppm.
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From 1959 to 1985, a grain fumigant consisting primarily of carbon tetrachloride, a volatile organic compound (VOC) which is a significant hepatotoxin (substance toxic to the liver), was used which contaminated the soil and groundwater. It was proposed as a Superfund site on April 27, 2005, and it was listed September 14, 2005.
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DMDS is used as a food additive in onion, garlic, cheese, meats, soups, savory flavors, and fruit flavors., OSHA Industrially, DMDS is used in oil refineries as a sulfiding agent.Dimethyl Disulfide (DMDS) , Arkema, Inc. DMDS is also an effective soil fumigant in agriculture, registered in many states in the U.S. as well as globally.
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The hydrogen attached to carbon in chloroform participates in hydrogen bonding. Worldwide, chloroform is also used in pesticide formulations, as a solvent for fats, oils, rubber, alkaloids, waxes, gutta-percha, and resins, as a cleansing agent, grain fumigant, in fire extinguishers, and in the rubber industry. CDCl3 is a common solvent used in NMR spectroscopy.
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During the 1920s, scientists working at his institute developed the cyanide gas formulation Zyklon A, which was used as an insecticide, especially as a fumigant in grain stores. Haber received much criticism for his involvement in the development of chemical weapons in pre-World War II Germany, both from contemporaries and from modern-day scientists.
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Sulfuryl fluoride (also spelled sulphuryl fluoride) is an inorganic compound with the formula SO2F2. It is an easily condensed gas and has properties more similar to sulfur hexafluoride than sulfuryl chloride, being resistant to hydrolysis even up to 150 °C. It is neurotoxic and a potent greenhouse gas, but is widely used as a fumigant insecticide to control termites.
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Bromomethane has poor fungicidal properties. Bromomethane is the only fumigant allowed (heat treatment is only other option) under ISPM 15 regulations when exporting solid wood packaging (forklift pallets, crates, bracing) to ISPM 15 compliant countries. Bromomethane is used to prepare golf courses, particularly to control Bermuda grass. The Montreal Protocol stipulates that bromomethane use be phased out.
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It has been used as a pesticide in soil and on various crops. The applications were initiated after the forced retirement of 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP). Most of these uses have been stopped in the U.S. It continues to be used as a fumigant for treatment of logs for termites and beetles, for control of moths in beehives.
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Raised vegetable beds covered in plastic mulch. Plastic mulch is a product used, in a similar fashion to mulch, to suppress weeds and conserve water in crop production and landscaping. Certain plastic mulches also act as a barrier to keep methyl bromide, both a powerful fumigant and ozone depleter, in the soil. Crops grow through slits or holes in thin plastic sheeting.
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Aluminum Phosphide tablets. Acute aluminium phosphide poisoning (AAlPP) is a large, though under-reported, problem throughout the world, particularly in the Indian and Nepalese subcontinent. Aluminium phosphide (AlP), which is readily available as a fumigant for stored cereal grains, sold under various brand names such as QuickPhos , Salphos and Celphos, is highly toxic, especially when consumed from a freshly opened container.
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1,1-Dibromoethane is a clear, slightly brown, flammable chemical compound. It is classified as the organobromine compound, and has the chemical formula CHBr and it is a position isomer of 1,2-dibromoethane. It is commonly seen in industrial chemistry, where it is used as a fuel additive. It is also used as a grain and soil fumigant for insect control.
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Sulfotep (also known as tetraethyldithiopyrophosphate and TEDP) is a pesticide commonly used in greenhouses as a fumigant. The substance is also known as Dithione, Dithiophos, and many other names. Sulfotep has the molecular formula C8H20O5P2S2 and belongs to the organophosphate class of chemicals. It has a cholinergic effect, involving depression of the cholinesterase activity of the peripheral and central nervous system of insects.
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Industrial Specialties segment produces major chemical intermediates such as thiochemicals (for animal nutrition, gas natural odorant), fluorochemicals (for refrigeration, air conditioning, blowing agent for insulating foam), PMMA (or acrylic glass for furnitures, automotive applications, noise barriers), and hydrogen peroxide (pulp and textile bleaching, chemical synthesis, water treatment). The business segment's flagship brands include Altuglas (PMMA), Albone (hydrogen peroxide), DMDS (agricultural fumigant) and Forane (refrigerants).
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Therefore, selective herbicides cannot be used. Although bromomethane is dangerous, it is considerably safer and more effective than some other soil sterilants. Its loss to the seed industry has resulted in changes to cultural practices, with increased reliance on soil steam sterilization, mechanical rogueing, and fallow seasons. Bromomethane was also used as a general-purpose fumigant to kill a variety of pests including rats and insects.
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Journal of Economic Entomology, 109(6): 2561-2571. Other alternatives such as the use of ozone as a fumigant is also being tested on immature stages, larvae or pupae, which are more prone to being effected as compared to adults.Subramanyam, B., Xinyi, E., Savoldelli, S., & Sehgal, B. (2017). Efficacy of ozone against Rhyzopertha dominica adults in wheat. Journal of Stored Products Research, 70(1):53-59.
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Among the chemicals farmers get exposed, Dibromochloropropane (DBCP), a soil fumigant used to control nematodes can lead to "testicular toxicity and human reproductive dysfunction." Other health problems from their exposure to chemicals include "acute systemic poisoning, nausea, dermatitis, fatigue and abnormalities in liver and kidney function", farmers and their family are exposed to toxic chemicals when the farm worker leaves the field and has contact with family members wearing contaminated clothes.
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The most efficient control method is preplant soil fumigation with methyl bromide (Mbr). That can reduce the M. incognita reproduction by almost 100%. However, the soil fumigant methyl bromide has been phased out in 2005 because of its negative effects on the ozone layer. A 1995 economic study declared that banning methyl bromide without an alternative method of controlling nematodes would cost the nation's bell pepper industry $127 million in losses.
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Tobacco smoke is an aerosol produced by the incomplete combustion of tobacco during the smoking of cigarettes and other tobacco products. Temperatures in burning cigarettes range from about 400 °C between puffs to about 900 °C during a puff. During the burning of the cigarette tobacco (itself a complex mixture), thousands of chemical substances are generated by combustion, distillation, pyrolysis and pyrosynthesis. Tobacco smoke is used as a fumigant and inhalant.
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Starting in 1941, gas chambers were used at extermination camps in Poland for the mass killing of Jews, Roma, and other victims of the Holocaust. Gas vans were used at the Chełmno extermination camp. The Operation Reinhard extermination camps at Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka used exhaust fumes from stationary diesel engines. In search of more efficient killing methods, the Nazis experimented with using the hydrogen cyanide-based fumigant Zyklon B at the Auschwitz concentration camp.
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It is mainly used as a feedstock in chemical synthesis, chiefly of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. It is also used as a solvent for plastics, oils and fats, as a degreaser, as a fumigant in insecticide sprays, in halon fire extinguishers, and in cementing of rubber. It is used in manufacturing of high-vacuum resistant rubber and for extraction of temperature-sensitive substances. Thermal cracking at 400–500 °C and 10 MPa yields vinyl chloride.
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Fumigation is a hazardous operation. Generally it is a legal requirement that the operator who carries out the fumigation operation holds official certification to perform the fumigation, as the chemicals used are toxic to most forms of life, including humans. Post operation ventilation of the area is a critical safety aspect of fumigation. It is important to distinguish between the pack or source of the fumigant gas and the environment which has been fumigated.
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1,2-Dibromoethane, also known as ethylene dibromide (EDB), is an organobromine compound with the chemical formula . Although trace amounts occur naturally in the ocean, where it is formed probably by algae and kelp, it is mainly synthetic. It is a dense colorless liquid with a faint sweet odor, detectable at 10 ppm, is a widely used and sometimes-controversial fumigant. The combustion of 1,2-dibromoethane produces hydrogen bromide gas that is significantly corrosive.
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It is believed that fenugreek was known in the Indian cuisine even 3,000 years ago. Its growth in the wild is reported from Kashmir, Punjab and the Upper Gangetic plains Its use is also reported in ancient Egypt and India, and later in Greece and Rome. A notable practice reported is its use as fumigant in incense burning in religious ceremonies in Egypt to spread "Holy Smoke". It was also used for embalming.
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Quickphos, Celphos, Fostox, Fumitoxin, Phostek, Phostoxin, Talunex, Fieldphos, and Weevil-Cide. It generates phosphine gas according to the following hydrolysis equation. :2 AlP + 6 H2O → Al2O3∙3 H2O + 2 PH3 It is used as a fumigant when other pesticide applications are impractical and when structures and installations are being treated, such as in ships, aircraft, and grain silos. All of these structures can be effectively sealed or enclosed in a gastight membrane, thereby containing and concentrating the phosphine fumes.
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Several cars made contact with the water, including a tank car. On the morning of July 15, it became apparent that the tank car had ruptured and spilled its entire contents into the river - approximately 19,000 gallons of a soil fumigant - metam sodium. Ultimately, over a million fish, and tens of thousands of amphibians and crayfish were killed. Millions of aquatic invertebrates, including insects and mollusks, which form the basis of the river's ecosystem, were destroyed.
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On the other hand, because of its high adsorption capacity, biochar may reduce the efficacy of soil applied pesticides that are used for weed and pest control.Graber, E.R., Tsechansky, L., Gerstl, Z., Lew, B. (2011) High surface area biochar negatively impacts herbicide efficacy. Plant and Soil, 353:95-106Graber, E.R., Tsechansky, L., Khanukov, J., Oka, Y. (2011) Sorption, volatilization and efficacy of the fumigant 1,3-dichloropropene in a biochar-amended soil. Soil Science Society of America Journal.
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Many scientists worry about possible contamination of the lake. Lake Waccamaw's water is within the acceptable, pre-established, heath guidelines and legal limits established by the Safe Drinking Water Act. However, there is a high level of chloroform present in the Lake, at 4.43 ppb (parts per billion) out of an allowed 14 ppb. Chloroform is a Trihalomethane that is often used as a fumigant for wheat products, a coolant, and as a cleaning spot remover.
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Epichlorohydrin is a versatile precursor in the synthesis of many organic compounds. For example, it is converted to glycidyl nitrate, an energetic binder used in explosive and propellant compositions.Gould, R.F. Advanced Propellant Chemistry, ACS Chemistry Series 54, 1966 The epichlorohydrin is reacted with an alkali nitrate, such as sodium nitrate, producing glycidyl nitrate and alkali chloride. It is used as a solvent for cellulose, resins, and paints, and it has found use as an insect fumigant.
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During storage the temperature of the silo is measured and monitored over time as a temperature increase can indicate insect activity. Additional equipment may be used to keep the grain temperature below 18 °C to inhibit insect growth. Silos are normally fitted with a system for rotating grain from one silo to another to break-up hot spots within the grain. A fumigation system can be used to administer a fumigant (normally phosphine) to the silo.
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The fumigant phosphine is key to controlling R. dominica since it targets all insect life stages, is easy to utilize, effective, feasible, and is a residue- free tactic. Unfortunately, due to active dispersal, R. dominica has distributed resistance genes to certain fumigants and insecticides.Ridley, A. W., Hereward, J. P., Daglish, G. J., Raghu, S., McCulloch, G. A., & Walter, G. H. (2016). Flight of Rhyzopertha dominica (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae)—A spatio- temporal analysis with pheromone trapping and population genetics.
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Dewar engaged in an embittered controversyA letter to Thomas Trotter, M.D : occasioned by his proposal for destroying the fire and choak damps of coal mines with Thomas TrotterA Proposal for Destroying the Fire and Choak-Damps of Coal Mines…Addressed to the Agents and Owners of Coal Works (Newcastle: J. Mitchell, 1805); and his "second address". on the chemistry of choke damp and fire damp. Trotter had proposed "oxygenated muriatic gas" (i.e. hydrochloric acid) as a fumigant.
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Hazard Definition Grain storage structures can develop potentially hazardous atmospheres due to gases produced from fermenting grains and/or fumigation. Fumigants in grain storage bins are commonly used for insect control. Exposure to fumigants can cause central nervous system damage, heart and vascular disease, and lung edema as well as cancer. In addition to the direct health risks associated with fumigant exposure, exposure to these gases can also result in worker incapacitation and subsequently suffering injury from falling or suffocation from engulfment.
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The direct use of ethylene oxide accounts for only 0.05% (2004 data) of its global production. Ethylene oxide is used as a sterilizing agent, disinfecting agent and fumigant as a mixture with carbon dioxide (8.5–80% of ethylene oxide), nitrogen or dichlorodifluoromethane (12% ethylene oxide). It is applied for gas-phase sterilization of medical equipment and instruments, packaging materials and clothing, surgical and scientific equipment; for processing of storage facilities (tobacco, packages of grain, sacks of rice, etc.), clothing, furs and valuable documents.
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These cases show that flowers of sulfur was one of the earliest fungicides and insecticides used agriculturally. More recent sources also show that flowers of sulfur acts a fungicide, insecticide, and fumigant, as well as an agent in the treatment of numerous skin diseases. Flowers of Sulfur (FoS) Tests have also been used to test porosity of metallic finishes over silver, copper, and copper alloy substrates. The original FoS test method was standardized by ASTM through ASTM-B809 which was established in 1990.
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Chlorine dioxide may be used as a fumigant treatment to "sanitize" fruits such as blueberries, raspberries, and strawberries that develop molds and yeast. Chlorine dioxide may be used to disinfect poultry by spraying or immersing it after slaughtering. Chlorine dioxide may be used for the disinfection of endoscopes, such as under the trade name Tristel. It is also available in a trio consisting of a preceding pre-clean with surfactant and a succeeding rinse with deionized water and a low-level antioxidant.
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Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) was used in fire extinguishers and glass "anti-fire grenades" from the late nineteenth century until around the end of World War II. Experimentation with chloroalkanes for fire suppression on military aircraft began at least as early as the 1920s. Freon is a trade name for a group of CFCs which are used primarily as refrigerants, but also have uses in fire-fighting and as propellants in aerosol cans. Bromomethane is widely used as a fumigant. Dichloromethane is a versatile industrial solvent.
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In Australia, bromomethane is the preferred fumigant of the Department of Agriculture and Water Resources for most organic goods imported into Australia. The department conducts methyl bromide fumigation certification for both domestic and foreign fumigators who can then fumigate containers destined for Australia. A list of alternative fumigants is available for goods imported from Europe (in what's known as the BICON database), where methyl bromide fumigation has been banned. Alternatively, the department allows containers from Europe to be fumigated with methyl bromide on arrival to Australia.
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Protections include the training of certified applicators supervising pesticide application, the use of buffer zones, posting before and during pesticide application, fumigant management plans, and compliance assistance and assurance measures. Used as a preplant soil treatment measure, chloropicrin suppresses soilborne pathogenic fungi and some nematodes and insects. With a half-life of hours to days, it is completely digested by soil organisms before the crop is planted, making it safe and efficient. Contrary to popular belief, chloropicrin does not sterilize soil and does not deplete the ozone layer, as the compound is destroyed by sunlight.
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Originally developed by the Dow Chemical Company, sulfuryl fluoride is in widespread use as a structural fumigant insecticide to control drywood termites, particularly in warm-weather portions of the southwestern and southeastern United States and in Hawaii. Less commonly, it can also be used to control rodents, powderpost beetles, deathwatch beetles, bark beetles, and bedbugs. Its use has increased as a replacement for methyl bromide, which was phased out because of harm to the ozone layer. It is an alternative to the use of phosphine, which is acutely toxic.
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Strobel has embarked on collection trips and research into the use of endophytes for various applications. He has licensed more than 20 specimens to pharmaceutical and chemical companies, and his discoveries have included a specimen that grows on the Yew tree that produces taxol, one that produces a fumigant, and another that produces volatile gases (hydrocarbons). The amount of gas produced relative to the food inputs is much lower for the endophyte than other biodiesel production methods, but research into bioengineering the biodiesel production traits into fast reproducing yeast is ongoing.
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Metam sodium is an organosulfur compound (formally a dithiocarbamate), which is used as a soil fumigant, pesticide, herbicide, and fungicide. It is one of the most widely used pesticides in the United States, with approximately 60 million pounds used in 2001.2000-2001 Pesticide Market Estimates , U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Metam sodium is the sodium salt of methyl dithiocarbamate. Metam sodium can be prepared from methylamine, carbon disulfide, and sodium hydroxide; or from methyl isothiocyanate and sodium thiolate. Upon exposure to the environment, metam sodium decomposes to form methyl isothiocyanate.
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The company started as Rollins Broadcasting in 1948, founded by entrepreneur John W. Rollins and his brother, O. Wayne Rollins. The company, originally financed in large part by John Rollins' auto dealerships, began as Rollins Broadcasting when the brothers purchased a 1460 WRAD, an AM radio station based in the rural town of Radford, Virginia. The company grew to include other radio stations, a television station, Orkin, Inc., Western Pest Services, The Industrial Fumigant Company, a trucking concern (later sold to Penske Truck Leasing), a hazardous waste disposal service, an oil services business, and a cable television company.
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At the same meeting, methyl bromide (MeBr), a fumigant used primarily in agricultural production, was added to the list of controlled substances. For all substances controlled under the protocol, phaseout schedules were delayed for less developed ('Article 5(1)') countries, and phaseout in these countries was supported by transfers of expertise, technology, and money from non-Article 5(1) Parties to the Protocol. Additionally, exemptions from the agreed schedules could be applied for under the Essential Use Exemption (EUE) process for substances other than methyl bromide and under the Critical Use Exemption (CUE) process for methyl bromide.
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In 2008 the US EPA re-approved chloropicrin as safe for use in agricultural settings, stating that treatments "can provide benefits to both food consumers and growers. For consumers, it means more fresh fruits and vegetables can be cheaply produced domestically year-round because several severe pest problems can be efficiently controlled." To ensure chloropicrin is used safely, the EPA requires a strict set of protections for handlers, workers, and persons living and working in and around farmland during treatments. EPA protections were increased in both 2011 and 2012, reducing fumigant exposures and significantly improving safety.
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Chloroform is known to form as a by-product of water chlorination along with a range of other disinfection by-products and as such is commonly present in municipal tap water and swimming pools. Reported ranges vary considerably but are generally below the current health standard for total trihalomethanes of 100μg/L. Nonetheless, the presence of chloroform in drinking water at any concentration is considered controversial by some. Historically chloroform exposure may well have been higher due to its common use as an anesthetic, as an ingredient in cough syrups, and as a constituent of tobacco smoke where p,p'-DDT had previously been used as a fumigant.
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It was common knowledge that certain seasonings had antimicrobial properties, but Hall and co-worker Carroll L. Griffith found that some spices carried many bacteria, as well as yeast and mold spores. To counter these problems, they patented in 1938 a means to sterilize spices through exposure to ethylene oxide gas, a fumigant. This method was all but abandoned upon the discovery that ethylene oxide was a toxic carcinogen. Hall and Griffith later promoted the use of ethylene oxide for the sterilization of medical equipment,United States Patent and Trademark Office Publication Number: 02189947 helping to advance an idea that had been around for several years.
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Rollins, Inc. is a North American consumer and commercial services company. Through its wholly owned subsidiaries, Orkin, Inc., PCO Services in Canada, HomeTeam Pest Defense, Western Pest Services, Industrial Fumigant Company, TruTech, Critter Control, Crane, Waltham, OPC Services, PermaTreat, Northwest Exterminating, and Clark Pest Control, as well UK subsidiaries Safeguard Pest Control, Guardian Pest Control, Ames, and Kestrel, with Australian subsidiaries Allpest, Scientific Pest Control, Murray Pest Control and Statewide Pest Control, and Singapore subsidiary Aardwolf Pestkare, the company provides pest control services and protection against termite damage, rodents and insects to over 2 million customers in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, the Middle East and Asia from over 500 locations.
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Iodomethane had also been proposed for use as a fungicide, herbicide, insecticide, nematicide, and as a soil disinfectant, replacing methyl bromide (also known as bromomethane) (banned under the Montreal Protocol). Manufactured by Arysta LifeScience and sold under the brand name MIDAS, iodomethane is registered as a pesticide in the U.S., Mexico, Morocco, Japan, Turkey, and New Zealand and registration is pending in Australia, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Chile, Egypt, Israel, South Africa and other countries. The first commercial applications of MIDAS soil fumigant in California began in Fresno County, in May, 2011. Iodomethane had been approved for use as a pesticide by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in 2007 as a pre-plant biocide used to control insects, plant parasitic nematodes, soil borne pathogens, and weed seeds.
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1916 disinfected PoW cover from interned Russian in Linz handstamped Desinfizirt Disinfected mail or fumigated mail is mail that has had some form of disinfection or fumigation applied to it by postal authorities, with the intention of preventing the spread of epidemics via letters sent from infected areas. The usual practice was to puncture the envelope with small holes, often in a grid pattern, or to snip off one or more corners, in order to let the fumigation gases in. In addition, a special postal marking may note the disinfection process. The process did not necessarily have a scientific basis; the practice dates from before an understanding of the cause of contagious diseases, and the fumigant was as likely to be based on folklore.
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To control already present infestations, the infested material needs to be identified and disposed of, or frozen- as all life stages of the beetle can be killed by being frozen for six days. In food processing operations and warehouses other means of control may be necessary and fumigation is commonly used, in large-scale grain storage operations a pesticide application may be needed for storage over six months. Fumigation is commonly used to control stored product pests in food and grain, this involves the treatment of product with gasses which are able to diffuse throughout the treated area. The gasses used in fumigation (most often phosphine) are highly toxic to both insects and mammals (including humans) but when applied properly, no fumigant will remain in product after treatment is complete.
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The first grafts in the early 20th century were made in order to diminish attacks by infectious organisms, such as Fusarium oxysporum on watermelons. [2] However, research has shown that this technique can be effective against a variety of fungal, bacterial, viral, and nematode diseases.King, S. R., Davis, A. R., Liu, W. G., and Levi, A. 2008. Grafting for disease resistance. HortScience. Pg 1673-1676 Furthermore, many researchers are looking to utilize specific rootstocks as an alternative to methyl bromide-a soil fumigant that has been widely used until recently.[4] Grafting has been highly effective at overcoming abiotic sources of stress, such as soil salinity, temperature extremes, and excessive soil moisture.[2] Grafting has also been utilized to reduce the effects of flooding in areas where a wet season may occur.Black, L.L., D.L. Wu, J.F. Wang, T. Kalb, D. Abbass, and J.H. Chen.
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U.S. EPA has made many assumptions about toxicology and exposure in the risk assessment that have not been examined by independent scientific peer reviewers for adequacy or accuracy. Additionally, none of U.S. EPA’s calculations account for the extra vulnerability of the unborn fetus and children to toxic insults." EPA Assistant Administrator Jim Gulliford replied saying, "We are confident that by conducting such a rigorous analysis and developing highly restrictive provisions governing its use, there will be no risks of concern," and in October the EPA approved the use of iodomethane as a soil fumigant in the United States. The California Department of Pesticide Regulation (DPR) concluded that iodomethane is "highly toxic," that "any anticipated scenario for the agricultural or structural fumigation use of this agent would result in exposures to a large number of the public and thus would have a significant adverse impact on the public health", and that adequate control of the chemical in these circumstances would be "difficult, if not impossible.
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