TLA+ is essentially a formal language for doing just that.
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With the Times you get this more institutional, formal language.
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It could be the foundation of real apps in the formal language.
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If you don't use the formal language, it gives maybe the wrong impression.
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They just give it a removed, formal language that's becoming a signature in Lanthimos' work.
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At the outset of her career, each of her series attempted its own formal language.
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A formal language is designed to not be redundant and designed to be very concise.
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But by midday it appeared that formal language imposing new tariffs was ready to sign.
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Except in the most formal language—think courtrooms and prayers—this little word may not survive.
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Typically, a speaker will use much more formal language in an interview than when hanging out with peers.
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But emotion, not formal language, sets the latest work apart from what Mr. Morris executed earlier in his career.
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Trisha's development of an abstract narrative and a formal language resonated with a lot of people in the visual arts.
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The analytics staffers wanted their relevant vocabulary ("contrato" means "contract" and "agente libre" means "free agent") plus more formal language instruction.
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Advertise on Hyperallergic with Nectar Ads A dominant formal language of visual representation has established itself around animals on screen in recent years.
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Especially if you use a signature line, that can signal some of those letter-like components and cue us to use more formal language.
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"In formal emails, you don't get to clarify tone, so you are aiming for maximal clarity there, because formal language can't tolerate ambiguity," Curzan said.
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Formal language of the legislation, expected to add at least $210 trillion to the $2000-trillion national debt over a decade, has not been released.
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A number of news outlets, in turn, published articles employing Trump's formal language to question whether he had the authority to make such a command.
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So my early work was about this process of learning to knit as a formal language, and translating knitting from language to image to object.
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After a year of formal language classes, she passed the civil integration exams, and the social workers at Orionis asked her what she might like to do.
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She and other experts add that although watching shows goes a long way, it's best to pair it with formal language training to learn grammar and structure.
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Translating the specification into formal language that a computer can apply is much harder—and accounts for a main challenge when writing any piece of software in this way.
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It's a bit counterintuitive, but using formal language may undermine the sincerity of the apology; in order to convey the "right" message, it's important to know the proper protocols.
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The difference, of course, is that for hundreds of years now there has been no independent Scottish state to standardize and promote Scots as a formal language distinct from Scottish-accented English.
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Less defensible reasons are mere inertia or, even worse, the belief on the part of a few judges that cumbersome formal language is needed to give jurors a sense of the majesty of the law.
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LANGSEC posits that the only path to trustworthy software that takes untrusted inputs is treating all valid or expected inputs as a formal language, and the respective input-handling routines as a recognizer for that language.
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While it remains unclear whether the two artists ever met, they shared a commitment to developing a new formal language that drew on feminist iconographies and minimalist aesthetics, pushing the boundaries of what sculpture could be.
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Nomura said that injecting any kind of formal language on the stability of the yuan into a trade deal would be an attempt to keep China from devaluing the currency and to curb "excessive interventions" in it.
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Combining the exquisite formal language of classical Cambodian dance — the bent knees, flexed wrists and elegantly curved fingers — with the rippling isolations and gymnastic feats of hip-hop, Mr. Ros creates an unusual and fascinating movement style.
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Before moving to Egypt, Leslie and I had enrolled in the Middlebury College summer program, where we spent two months studying fusha , the classical Arabic that is used as a literary and formal language across the Arab world.
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Because he was eager to prove that photography deserved the same respect as painting or sculpture, he applied his considerable technical skill to composing studio portraits, nudes and still lives in the formal language of classical works of art.
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The latter is shaped like a carved door with large padlocks (another iconic feature of Tanavoli's formal language), and is reminiscent of Iran's traditional street water fountains, also called saqqakhana, while referencing the ancient Babylonian Hammurabi tablet as well.
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In more formal language, leaders used the nine-point guidelines they agreed at the summit to support May's call for a two-year transition out of the bloc, which aims to help British business and citizens adjust to life after the European Union.
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" So did "Alice Donovan," who pointed to documents from Mr. Soros's Open Society Foundations that she said showed its pro-American tilt and — in rather formal language for Facebook — "describe eventual means and plans of supporting opposition movements, groups or individuals in various countries.
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There's a lot of yelling in family court—judges telling lawyers to shut up and sit down; judges scolding caseworkers for not doing their job; lawyers sniping at one another in barbed, formal language; parents shouting that accusations are untrue, or about the unfairness of the system.
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I will use all lowercase when I'm texting somebody informally, when I'm texting with my husband or my best friend, but when I'm texting with, for example, my stepmother, who uses very formal language in her text message, then I will accommodate to her and try to do that back, so that we're speaking the same language.
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Whereas Macdonald's previous work relied on the viewer's recognition of typological generalities to make the connection with toys, the recent sculpture is more varied and, while not particularly literal, speaks the formal language of vehicles as specialized tools with forms that follow their function: earth moving equipment, armored car, limousine, street sweeper, bread truck, padded wagon, parade float, Zamboni.
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Now, Hiroyuki Doi: Soul, a presentation of Doi's newest ink-on-paper abstractions at Ricco/Maresca, a gallery in Chelsea, offers an opportunity to catch up with the latest developments in the sprawling clusters of minuscule circles that have become this Japanese artist's signature creations, and the determination with which he has continued to explore the expressive power of this distinctive formal language.
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" But if the Guardian author had read the work's description, he would have known the ad campaign uses the formal language of the heavily-branded juice bar to "[comment] on the displacement of value, food as a luxury item, and the marketing and economic structures that underlie trends and health products," and to "[take] on the perennial "greenwashing" of commodities and how social consciousness is reinforced by consumer habits.
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A theory is a set of sentences in a formal language.
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A formal theory is a set of sentences in a formal language.
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In information science an ontology is formal if it is specified in a formal language, otherwise it is informal. In philosophy, a separate distinction between formal and nonformal ontologies exists, which does not relate to the use of a formal language.
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Each string concatenated from symbols of this alphabet is called a word, and the words that belong to a particular formal language are sometimes called well-formed words or well- formed formulas. A formal language is often defined by means of a formal grammar such as a regular grammar or context-free grammar, which consists of its formation rules. The field of formal language theory studies primarily the purely syntactical aspects of such languages—that is, their internal structural patterns. Formal language theory sprang out of linguistics, as a way of understanding the syntactic regularities of natural languages.
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If our formal language did not have the parentheses in it, it would have amphibolies.
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A formal language is an organized set of symbols, the symbols of which precisely define it by shape and place. Such a language therefore can be defined without reference to the meanings of its expressions; it can exist before any interpretation is assigned to it—that is, before it has any meaning. First order logic is expressed in some formal language. A formal grammar determines which symbols and sets of symbols are formulas in a formal language.
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Springer, 2006. 16\. J. Dassow, Gh. Păun. Regulated Rewriting in Formal Language Theory. Springer-Verlag, 1990. 17\.
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In formal language theory, the empty string, or empty word, is the unique string of length zero.
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In 2006 Barth, Datta, Mitchell and Nissenbaum presented a formal language that could be used to reason about the privacy rules in privacy law. They analyzed the privacy provisions of the Gramm-Leach- Bliley act and showed how to translate some of its principles into the formal language.
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A formal language is expressively complete if it can express the subject matter for which it is intended.
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Regular expressions describe regular languages in formal language theory. They have the same expressive power as regular grammars.
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The first formal language is thought to be the one used by Gottlob Frege in his Begriffsschrift (1879), literally meaning "concept writing", and which Frege described as a "formal language of pure thought." Axel Thue's early semi-Thue system, which can be used for rewriting strings, was influential on formal grammars.
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Formation rules (also called formal grammar) are a precise description of the well-formed formulas of a formal language. They are synonymous with the set of strings over the alphabet of the formal language that constitute well formed formulas. However, it does not describe their semantics (i.e. what they mean).
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Formation rules are a precise description of which strings of symbols are the well-formed formulas of a formal language. It is synonymous with the set of strings over the alphabet of the formal language which constitute well formed formulas. However, it does not describe their semantics (i.e. what they mean).
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A formal grammar (also called formation rules) is a precise description of the well- formed formulas of a formal language. It is synonymous with the set of strings over the alphabet of the formal language which constitute well formed formulas. However, it does not describe their semantics (i.e. what they mean).
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Symbols of a formal language must be capable of being specified without any reference to any interpretation of them.
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A formal language consists of a possibly infinite set of sentences (variously called words or formulas) built from a fixed set of letters or symbols. The inventory from which these letters are taken is called the alphabet over which the language is defined. To distinguish the strings of symbols that are in a formal language from arbitrary strings of symbols, the former are sometimes called well-formed formulæ (wff). The essential feature of a formal language is that its syntax can be defined without reference to interpretation.
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The logical positivists thought of scientific theories as statements in a formal language. First-order logic is an example of a formal language. The logical positivists envisaged a similar scientific language. In addition to scientific theories, the language also included observation sentences ("the sun rises in the east"), definitions, and mathematical statements.
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The formal language for propositional logic consists of formulas built up from propositional symbols (also called sentential symbols, sentential variables, and propositional variables) and logical connectives. The only non-logical symbols in a formal language for propositional logic are the propositional symbols, which are often denoted by capital letters. To make the formal language precise, a specific set of propositional symbols must be fixed. The standard kind of interpretation in this setting is a function that maps each propositional symbol to one of the truth values true and false.
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In formal language theory, a grammar (when the context is not given, often called a formal grammar for clarity) describes how to form strings from a language's alphabet that are valid according to the language's syntax. A grammar does not describe the meaning of the strings or what can be done with them in whatever context—only their form. A formal grammar is defined as a set of production rules for strings in a formal language. Formal language theory, the discipline that studies formal grammars and languages, is a branch of applied mathematics.
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Device Description Language (DDL) is the formal language describing the service and configuration of field devices for process and factory automation.
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Sintzoff, M. "Existence of van Wijngaarden syntax for every recursively enumerable set", Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles 2 (1967), 115-118. Two-level grammar can also refer to a formal grammar for a two-level formal language, which is a formal language specified at two levels, for example, the levels of words and sentences.
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Ginsburg turned his attention to formal language theory in the 1960s. He studied context-free grammars and published a well-known comprehensive overview of context-free languages in 1966. Ginsburg was the first to observe the connection between context-free languages and "ALGOL-like" languages. This brought the field of formal language theory to bear on programming language research.
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The symbols and strings of symbols may be broadly divided into nonsense and well-formed formulas. A formal language can be thought of as identical to the set of its well-formed formulas. The set of well-formed formulas may be broadly divided into theorems and non-theorems. A theorem may be expressed in a formal language (or "formalized").
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The term DDL is also used in a generic sense to refer to any formal language for describing data or information structures.
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Pictograms are used in many areas of modern life for commodity purposes, often as a formal language (see the In mathematics section).
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The history monoid is the free object that is generically able to represent the histories of individual communicating processes. A process calculus is then a formal language imposed on a history monoid in a consistent fashion. That is, a history monoid can only record a sequence of events, with synchronization, but does not specify the allowed state transitions. Thus, a process calculus is to a history monoid what a formal language is to a free monoid (a formal language is a subset of the set of all possible finite-length strings of an alphabet generated by the Kleene star).
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In mathematics and computer science, the syntactic monoid M(L) of a formal language L is the smallest monoid that recognizes the language L.
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Rather, they were condensed and emblematised, absorbed into a formal language that drew inspiration from American modernism, particularly the paintings of Morris Louis and Kenneth Noland.
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Vacation is legally vested per formal language in the California Labor Code. Vacation cannot be forfeited once earned, and unused balances must be paid out upon termination.
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Younger generations have English as a first language and make little distinction between Panyjima and its closely related neighbouring languages. There's a formal language register known as padupadu.
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In computer science, more particularly in formal language theory, a cyclic language is a set of strings that is closed with respect to repetition, root, and cyclic shift.
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Although neo- realistic in the theme, in works like this "Vespeira already shows a formal language that indicates surrealizing atmospheres".A.A.V.V. – Os anos 40 na arte portuguesa, tomo 1.
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In theoretical computer science and formal language theory, a regular grammar is a formal grammar that is right-regular or left-regular. Every regular grammar describes a regular language.
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A Deterministic finite automaton (DFA) can be seen as a special kind of NFA, in which for each state and alphabet, the transition function has exactly one state. Thus, it is clear that every formal language that can be recognized by a DFA can be recognized by a NFA. Conversely, for each NFA, there is a DFA such that it recognizes the same formal language. The DFA can be constructed using the powerset construction.
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A formula of a formal language is a valid formula if and only if it is true under every possible interpretation of the language. In propositional logic, they are tautologies.
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In formal language theory, given an alphabet A, the free monoid of words over A can be considered as a graded monoid, where the gradation of a word is its length.
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There are several entities commonly expressed in a metalanguage. In logic usually the object language that the metalanguage is discussing is a formal language, and very often the metalanguage as well.
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Y, P(X,Y))\rightarrow (\forall A, \exists B, \forall C, \forall D, P(C,D)\rightarrow (C \in A \rightarrow D \in B)). This version of the axiom schema of replacement is now suitable for use in a formal language that doesn't allow the introduction of new function symbols. Alternatively, one may interpret the original statement as a statement in such a formal language; it was merely an abbreviation for the statement produced at the end.
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Symbols of a formal language need not be symbols of anything. For instance there are logical constants which do not refer to any idea, but rather serve as a form of punctuation in the language (e.g. parentheses). Symbols of a formal language must be capable of being specified without any reference to any interpretation of them. A symbol or string of symbols may comprise a well- formed formula if it is consistent with the formation rules of the language.
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An example of an IR query language is Contextual Query Language (CQL), a formal language for representing queries to information retrieval systems such as web indexes, bibliographic catalogs and museum collection information.
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Nyiyaparli (Nyiyabali, Njijabali, or misspelled Nijadali) is a nearly extinct Pama–Nyungan language spoken by the Palyku (Bailko) and Niabali (Jana) people of Western Australia. There's a formal language register known as padupadu.
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The is a Japanese symbol in the form of a small hiragana or katakana tsu. In less formal language it is called or , meaning "small tsu". It serves multiple purposes in Japanese writing.
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R. Jakobi, Gnomon 73, 2001, 407. The text sets out the rights of a parasite (a hanger-on) for injuries sustained at a feast, humorously phrased in the formal language of Roman laws.
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A formal language is an organized set of symbols the essential feature being that it can be precisely defined in terms of just the shapes and locations of those symbols. Such a language can be defined, then, without any reference to any meanings of any of its expressions; it can exist before any interpretation is assigned to it—that is, before it has any meaning. A formal grammar determines which symbols and sets of symbols are formulas in a formal language.
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In theoretical computer science and formal language theory, the equivalence problem is the question of determining, given two representations of formal languages, whether they denote the same formal language. The complexity and decidability of this decision problem depends upon the type of representation under consideration. For instance, in the case of finite-state automata, equivalence is decidable, and the problem is PSPACE-complete, whereas it is undecidable for pushdown automata, context-free grammars, etc.J. E. Hopcroft and J. D. Ullman.
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In logic, a metatheorem is a statement about a formal system proven in a metalanguage. Unlike theorems proved within a given formal system, a metatheorem is proved within a metatheory, and may reference concepts that are present in the metatheory but not the object theory. A formal system is determined by a formal language and a deductive system (axioms and rules of inference). The formal system can be used to prove particular sentences of the formal language with that system.
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A formal language for higher-order predicate logic looks much the same as a formal language for first-order logic. The difference is that there are now many different types of variables. Some variables correspond to elements of the domain, as in first-order logic. Other variables correspond to objects of higher type: subsets of the domain, functions from the domain, functions that take a subset of the domain and return a function from the domain to subsets of the domain, etc.
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Automath ("automating mathematics") is a formal language, devised by Nicolaas Govert de Bruijn starting in 1967, for expressing complete mathematical theories in such a way that an included automated proof checker can verify their correctness.
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Overt prestige is related to standard and "formal" language features, and expresses power and status; covert prestige is related more to vernacular and often patois, and expresses solidarity, community and group identity more than authority.
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In formal language theory, and in particular the theory of nondeterministic finite automata, it is known that the union of two regular languages is a regular language. This article provides a proof of that statement.
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English lacks grammatical gender, but can be considered to have a pronominal gender system with semantic gender represented in the pronouns. This system of gender is quite minimal compared to languages with grammatical gender. Historically, "he" referred to a generic person whose gender is unspecified in formal language, but the gender-neutral singular they has long been common in informal language, and is becoming increasingly so in formal language. The use of the neuter pronoun 'it' in reference to a person is considered dehumanizing.
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In theoretical computer science and formal language theory, a formal language is empty if its set of valid sentences is the empty set. The emptiness problem is the question of determining whether a language is empty given some representation of it, such as a finite-state automaton. For an automaton having n states, this is a decision problem that can be solved in O(n^2) time. However, variants of that question, such as the emptiness problem for non- erasing stack automata, are PSPACE-complete.
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In the formal language of the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms, the axiom reads: :\exists x\, \forall y\, \lnot (y \in x) or in words: :There is a set such that no element is a member of it.
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Oxford University Press. Web. 25 March 2015 This later generation of artists are usually referred to as Mannerists. They showed a greater feeling for proportion and used a simpler formal language then the first generation of Romanists.
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Carbondale, Illinois. p. 79-82 Characters who are poorly educated, like Hester, Jabber, and Amiga Gringa use less complex words and syntax. The more educated characters like the Doctor and Reverend D. use a more formal language.
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The province was gradually Latinised. Latin remained the formal language of the area until the end of the 3rd century. Pisidia became an important early Christian centre. Paul the Apostle preached in Antioch on his first journey.
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In all of these uses, it is understood that the various terms refer to a mathematical object and not the corresponding semiotic sign or syntactic expression. In formal semantic theories of truth, a truth predicate is a predicate on the sentences of a formal language, interpreted for logic, that formalizes the intuitive concept that is normally expressed by saying that a sentence is true. A truth predicate may have additional domains beyond the formal language domain, if that is what is required to determine a final truth value.
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The concept of proof is formalized in the field of mathematical logic.. See in particular p. 3: "The study of Proof Theory is traditionally motivated by the problem of formalizing mathematical proofs; the original formulation of first- order logic by Frege [1879] was the first successful step in this direction." A formal proof is written in a formal language instead of a natural language. A formal proof is a sequence of formulas in a formal language, starting with an assumption, and with each subsequent formula a logical consequence of the preceding ones.
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The Dyck language in formal language theory is named after him, as are Dyck's theorem and Dyck's surface in the theory of surfaces, together with the von Dyck groups, the Dyck tessellations, Dyck paths, and the Dyck graph.
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Jean Berstel (born 1941) is a French mathematician and theoretical computer scientist known for his contributions to combinatorics on words and formal language theory. He is a currently a professor emeritus at the University of Marne-la-Vallée.
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Although she often takes personal attributes or historical events as a starting point, Cranston’s work equally deals with the formal language of art and the role of the artist in helping us see the world in new ways.
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In formal language theory, a context-free language (CFL) is a language generated by a context-free grammar (CFG). Context-free languages have many applications in programming languages, in particular, most arithmetic expressions are generated by context-free grammars.
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In formal language theory, a context-sensitive language is a language that can be defined by a context-sensitive grammar (and equivalently by a noncontracting grammar). Context-sensitive is one of the four types of grammars in the Chomsky hierarchy.
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Alexander Wagner (born 1978) is a German fine artist. Both painting and drawing play a central part in his artistic oeuvre. In his work Wagner returns repeatedly to a geometric formal language that is reduced in its composition and abstractly constructed.
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This is a common trade-off in formal language design. The way shown above ("IN") is by far not the only one to extend the language. An alternative way is e.g. to introduce a "JOIN" operator, that is: select distinct g.
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Its most common use is in Abraham Robinson's nonstandard analysis of the hyperreal numbers, where the transfer principle states that any sentence expressible in a certain formal language that is true of real numbers is also true of hyperreal numbers.
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However, TLA+ specifications are written in a formal language of logic and mathematics, and the precision of specifications written in this language is intended to uncover design flaws before system implementation is underway. Since TLA+ specifications are written in a formal language, they are amenable to finite model checking. The model checker finds all possible system behaviours up to some number of execution steps, and examines them for violations of desired invariance properties such as safety and liveness. TLA+ specifications use basic set theory to define safety (bad things won't happen) and temporal logic to define liveness (good things eventually happen).
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Other deductive systems describe term rewriting, such as the reduction rules for λ calculus. The definition of theorems as elements of a formal language allows for results in proof theory that study the structure of formal proofs and the structure of provable formulas. The most famous result is Gödel's incompleteness theorems; by representing theorems about basic number theory as expressions in a formal language, and then representing this language within number theory itself, Gödel constructed examples of statements that are neither provable nor disprovable from axiomatizations of number theory. syntactic entities that can be constructed from formal languages.
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A specification language is a formal language in computer science used during systems analysis, requirements analysis, and systems design to describe a system at a much higher level than a programming language, which is used to produce the executable code for a system.
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In theoretical computer science, a pattern language is a formal language that can be defined as the set of all particular instances of a string of constants and variables. Pattern Languages were introduced by Dana Angluin in the context of machine learning.
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Likewise, Oppenheim used versatile symbols, partly influenced by Carl Jung, that provided mystery and ambiguity. Similarly, unlike other Surrealists Oppenheim used symbols with a “fluid and changeable impact” and produced works that were cohesive through frequent and organized ideas rather than formal language.
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This is because by definition, a pidgin is not learned natively. The coexistence of basilectal Singlish and acrolectal Standard Singapore English can also be analysed as a diglossia, which is a split between a "high" formal language and a "low" informal language.
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The language of the magazine is unique in that it uses everyday speech and not the formal language of most Hungarian journalism. It has a great effect on the Hungarian liberal-libertarian intellectual society. It includes articles mainly on politics, culture and sociology.
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Universal Networking Language (UNL) is a declarative formal language specifically designed to represent semantic data extracted from natural language texts. It can be used as a pivot language in interlingual machine translation systems or as a knowledge representation language in information retrieval applications.
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The national language of the Republic of Vanuatu is Bislama. The official languages are Bislama, English and French. The principal languages of education are English and French. The use of English or French as the formal language is split along political lines.
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The ontologies have to be available in a common formal language. In practice, that means that ontologies that are part of the OBO foundry need to describe items unsing the formats OWL/OWL2 or OBO using a RDF/XML syntax to maximize interoperability.
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In formal language theory and computer programming, string concatenation is the operation of joining character strings end-to-end. For example, the concatenation of "snow" and "ball" is "snowball". In certain formalisations of concatenation theory, also called string theory, string concatenation is a primitive notion.
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Expressing this in less formal language, it is a written order from one party (the drawer) to another (the drawee) to pay a specified sum on demand or on a specified date to the drawer or to a third party specified by the drawer.
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On the other hand, `ר` has two rules that can change it, thus it is nonterminal. A formal language defined or generated by a particular grammar is the set of strings that can be produced by the grammar and that consist only of terminal symbols.
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Formal semantics is a framework which offers a theoretical account of how sentences' meanings are derived from the meanings of their parts. Formal semantics is practiced in linguistics, mathematical logic and philosophy, drawing on earlier work in philosophy of language, formal language theory, and logic.
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From a formal linguistics perspective, Saussure's concept of language and speech can be thought of as corresponding, respectively, to a formal language and the sentences it generates. De Saussure argued before Course in General Linguistics that linguistic expressions might be algebraic. Building on his insights, Louis Hjelmslev proposed in his 1943 Prolegomena to a Theory of Language a model of linguistic description and analysis based on work of mathematicians David Hilbert and Rudolf Carnap in formal language theory. The structuralist endeavor is, however, more comprehensive, ranging from the mathematical organisation of the semantic system to phonology, morphology, syntax, and the whole discourse or textual arrangement.
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Personal pronouns are used extensively in spoken Finnish whereas in formal forms the pronoun is often optional (indicated in brackets in this article). Furthermore, the pronouns themselves in spoken Finnish are different from those used in formal Finnish. Personal pronouns mä and sä are used extensively in colloquial Finnish in place of minä and sinä (I and singular you). The pronouns se and ne, which in the formal language are used only as impersonal pronouns meaning (impersonal it and they) are used in the spoken language as personal pronouns (which in the formal language would be hän and he (personal pronouns he/she and they).
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In mathematics, logic and computer science, a formal language (a set of finite sequences of symbols taken from a fixed alphabet) is called recursive if it is a recursive subset of the set of all possible finite sequences over the alphabet of the language. Equivalently, a formal language is recursive if there exists a total Turing machine (a Turing machine that halts for every given input) that, when given a finite sequence of symbols as input, accepts it if it belongs to the language and rejects it otherwise. Recursive languages are also called decidable. The concept of decidability may be extended to other models of computation.
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Kaplan proved that it is nonfirstorderizable (the proof can be found in that article). Hence its paraphrase into a formal language commits us to quantification over (i.e. the existence of) sets. But some find it implausible that a commitment to sets is essential in explaining these sentences.
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Attributional calculus is a logic and representation system defined by Ryszard S. Michalski. It combines elements of predicate logic, propositional calculus, and multi-valued logic. Attributional calculus provides a formal language for natural induction, an inductive learning process whose results are in forms natural to people.
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In theoretical computer science and formal language theory, a regular tree grammar (RTG) is a formal grammar that describes a set of directed trees, or terms. A regular word grammar can be seen as a special kind of regular tree grammar, describing a set of single-path trees.
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Like hardly any other architect, Ungers has remained true to his once chosen formal language for decades. He was one of the leading theoreticians of Second Modernism. Well-known students of Ungers include Max Dudler, Jo. Franzke, Hans Kollhoff, Rem Koolhaas, Christoph Mäckler, Jürgen Sawade and Eun Young Yi.
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The problem consists in deciding whether the given graph is connected or not. The formal language associated with this decision problem is then the set of all connected graphs — to obtain a precise definition of this language, one has to decide how graphs are encoded as binary strings.
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In computer science, in particular in formal language theory, a quotient automaton can be obtained from a given nondeterministic finite automaton by joining some of its states. The quotient recognizes a superset of the given automaton; in some cases, handled by the Myhill–Nerode theorem, both languages are equal.
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In computability theory, the term "Gödel numbering" is used in settings more general than the one described above. It can refer to: #Any assignment of the elements of a formal language to natural numbers in such a way that the numbers can be manipulated by an algorithm to simulate manipulation of elements of the formal language. #More generally, an assignment of elements from a countable mathematical object, such as a countable group, to natural numbers to allow algorithmic manipulation of the mathematical object. Also, the term Gödel numbering is sometimes used when the assigned "numbers" are actually strings, which is necessary when considering models of computation such as Turing machines that manipulate strings rather than numbers.
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There are two equivalent major definitions for the concept of a recursive language: # A recursive formal language is a recursive subset in the set of all possible words over the alphabet of the language. # A recursive language is a formal language for which there exists a Turing machine that, when presented with any finite input string, halts and accepts if the string is in the language, and halts and rejects otherwise. The Turing machine always halts: it is known as a decider and is said to decide the recursive language. By the second definition, any decision problem can be shown to be decidable by exhibiting an algorithm for it that terminates on all inputs.
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Retrieved November 14, 2018. Several writers trace that ambiguity to seemingly incompatible impulses: a "strangely primal, poetic urge" to infuse her economical formal language with the energy of totemic ritual and mystery, a contemporary, punk-like angst, and an eccentric, postmodern humor.Gardner, Colin. "The Galleries", Los Angeles Times, January 24, 1986.
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In formal language theory, the Chomsky-Schützenberger enumeration theorem is a theorem derived by Noam Chomsky and Marcel-Paul Schützenberger about the number of words of a given length generated by an unambiguous context-free grammar. The theorem provides an unexpected link between the theory of formal languages and abstract algebra.
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The modus ponens rule may be written in sequent notation as :P \to Q,\; P\;\; \vdash\;\; Q where P, Q and P → Q are statements (or propositions) in a formal language and ⊢ is a metalogical symbol meaning that Q is a syntactic consequence of P and P → Q in some logical system.
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The inventory from which these letters are taken is the alphabet through which the language is defined. A formal language is often defined by means of a formal grammar, but it does not describe their semantics (i.e., what they mean). Words as units in the lexicon are the subject matter of lexicology.
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In logic, especially mathematical logic, a signature lists and describes the non-logical symbols of a formal language. In universal algebra, a signature lists the operations that characterize an algebraic structure. In model theory, signatures are used for both purposes. Signatures play the same role in mathematics as type signatures in computer programming.
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Marcel-Paul "Marco" Schützenberger (October 24, 1920 – July 29, 1996) was a French mathematician and Doctor of Medicine. He worked in the fields of formal language, combinatorics, and information theory.Herbert Wilf, Dominique Foata, et al., "In Memoriam: Marcel-Paul Schützenberger, 1920-1996 ," Electronic Journal of Combinatorics, served from University of Pennsylvania Dept.
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It is a formal language, i.e., it can express arbitrary statements in first order logic and can support reasoners that can prove the consistency of a set of KIF statements. KIF also supports non-monotonic reasoning. KIF was created by Michael Genesereth, Richard Fikes and others participating in the DARPA knowledge sharing Effort.
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A growing body of research is documenting the ways in which primarily young people are learning languages via their social media, on their own, outside of formal language learning classes or programs. Social media studied include: online role-playing games, fan fiction writing, instant messaging, fan websites, virtual worlds, chat, and the like.
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The notation in this field is not standardized. The notations used in formal language theory, logic, category theory, and linguistics, conflict with each other. In logic, arrows point to the more general from the more particular, that is, to the conclusion from the hypotheses. In this article, this convention is followed, i.e.
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The Portuguese language makes abundant use of diminutives, which connote small size, endearment or insignificance. Diminutives are very commonly used in informal language. On the other hand, most uses of diminutives are avoided in written and otherwise formal language. The most common diminutive endings are -inho and -inha, replacing -o and -a, respectively.
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The source code for a simple computer program written in the C programming language. When compiled and run, it will give the output "Hello, world!". A programming language is a formal language comprising a set of instructions that produce various kinds of output. Programming languages are used in computer programming to implement algorithms.
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A formal language is a set of finite sequences of symbols. Such a language can be defined without reference to any meanings of any of its expressions; it can exist before any interpretation is assigned to it - that is, before it has any meaning. Formal proofs are expressed in some formal languages.
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In theoretical computer science and formal language theory, a regular language (also called a rational language) is a formal language that can be expressed using a regular expression, in the strict sense of the latter notion used in theoretical computer science (as opposed to many regular expressions engines provided by modern programming languages, which are augmented with features that allow recognition of languages that cannot be expressed by a classic regular expression). Alternatively, a regular language can be defined as a language recognized by a finite automaton. The equivalence of regular expressions and finite automata is known as Kleene's theorem (after American mathematician Stephen Cole Kleene). In the Chomsky hierarchy, regular languages are defined to be the languages that are generated by Type-3 grammars (regular grammars).
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AudioFile pg. 8, 1999 In its review of "The Mummy", Billboard described Phillips’ on-air performance as “a cultured voice that’s appropriate to Stoker’s formal language but is able to convey the appropriate tone of horror,” adding that “subtle and mysterious music adds to the atmosphere”.Trudi Miller Rosenblum: "Reviews & Previews". Billboard Magazine Sept.
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He produced a translation of the New Testament from the Greek sources, titled God's New Covenant: A New Testament Translation. His translation is also noted for its formal language. Below is a sample passage, Matthew 7:24-25. Cassirer's translation efforts began with a topic-based collation of Paul's letters, divided into forty categories.
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In this, the key section of the book, Goodman expands on his idea of a notational system introduced in the previous chapter. For Goodman, a symbol system is a formal language with a grammar consisting of syntactic rules and semantics rules. A symbol system is called notational if it meets certain properties, notably that its symbols are non-compact.
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No matter which symbols surround it, the single nonterminal on the left hand side can always be replaced by the right hand side. This is what distinguishes it from a context-sensitive grammar. A formal grammar is essentially a set of production rules that describe all possible strings in a given formal language. Production rules are simple replacements.
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In mathematical logic, formation rules are rules for describing which strings of symbols formed from the alphabet of a formal language are syntactically valid within the language. These rules only address the location and manipulation of the strings of the language. It does not describe anything else about a language, such as its semantics (i.e. what the strings mean).
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Khmer is primarily an analytic language with no inflection. Syntactic relations are mainly determined by word order. Old and Middle Khmer used particles to mark grammatical categories and many of these have survived in Modern Khmer but are used sparingly, mostly in literary or formal language. Khmer makes extensive use of auxiliary verbs, "directionals" and serial verb construction.
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Mathematical logic and linguistics make use of metalanguages, which are languages for describing the nature of other languages. In mathematical logic, the object language is usually a formal language. The language which a metalanguage is used to describe is the object language. It is called that because that language is the object under discussion using the metalanguage.
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In his formal language, Ungers explicitly referred to elementary architectural design elements that are independent of contemporary tastes. His historical role models in the history of architecture come mainly from Roman-Greek antiquity. His work was therefore occasionally criticized as formalistic. In connection with his construction on the Frankfurt Messe grounds, there was often talk of a "new clarity".
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Jan's death was to change the rest of Simon's life; he would never fully overcome the trauma it caused. After the war he again started to write columns for Het Parool. He signed them as 'Kronkel' (Twist, Kink). His Kronkels became very famous for their melancholic, sometimes sombre tone and the ironic use of formal language.
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These stories, written in the 1920s and 1930s, concerned gangsters, gamblers, and other characters of the New York underworld. Runyon was known for the unique dialect he employed in his stories, mixing highly formal language and slang.Stempel, 434 Frank Loesser, who had spent most of his career as a lyricist for movie musicals, was hired as composer and lyricist.
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This diagram shows the syntactic entities which may be constructed from formal languages.Dictionary Definition The symbols and strings of symbols may be broadly divided into nonsense and well-formed formulas. A formal language is identical to the set of its well-formed formulas. The set of well-formed formulas may be broadly divided into theorems and non-theorems.
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Computers follow programs, sets of instructions in a formal language. The development of a programming language involves the use of a metalanguage. The act of working with metalanguages in programming is known as metaprogramming. Backus–Naur form, developed in the 1960s by John Backus and Peter Naur, is one of the earliest metalanguages used in computing.
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In formal language theory, deterministic context-free languages (DCFL) are a proper subset of context-free languages. They are the context-free languages that can be accepted by a deterministic pushdown automaton. DCFLs are always unambiguous, meaning that they admit an unambiguous grammar. There are non- deterministic unambiguous CFLs, so DCFLs form a proper subset of unambiguous CFLs.
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In mathematics, more precisely in formal language theory, the profinite words are a generalization of the notion of finite words into a complete topological space. This notion allows the use of topology to study languages and finite semigroups. For example, profinite words are used to give an alternative characterization of the algebraic notion of a variety of finite semigroups.
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In set theory and mathematical logic, the Lévy hierarchy, introduced by Azriel Lévy in 1965, is a hierarchy of formulas in the formal language of the Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, which is typically called just the language of set theory. This is analogous to the arithmetical hierarchy which provides the classifications but for sentences of the language of arithmetic.
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In formal language theory, computer science and linguistics, the Chomsky hierarchy (occasionally referred to as the Chomsky–Schützenberger hierarchy) is a containment hierarchy of classes of formal grammars. This hierarchy of grammars was described by Noam Chomsky in 1956. It is also named after Marcel- Paul Schützenberger, who played a crucial role in the development of the theory of formal languages.
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Possibly the most applied result in combinatorics on words is the Chomsky hierarchy, developed by Noam Chomsky. He studied formal language in the 1950s. His way of looking at language simplified the subject. He disregards the actual meaning of the word, does not consider certain factors such as frequency and context, and applies patterns of short terms to all length terms.
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In theoretical computer science and formal language theory, a ranked alphabet is a pair of an ordinary alphabet F and a function Arity: F→ℕ. Each letter in F has its arity so it can be used to build terms. Nullary elements (of zero arity) are also called constants. Terms built with unary symbols and constants can be considered as strings.
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Another time, Graf's car is towed while he is investigating a murder scene. The resulting invective he uses towards the authorities responsible is caustic. Where Graf is very amiable towards Moser's team, this relationship progressively changes as Brandtner arrives. Early episodes featuring Brandtner show Alex and Leo using formal language - generally involving the German "Sie" form of address (the polite form).
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Since natural language allows the expression of tasks which are impossible to compute in a formal language there are no means to automate this translation in a general way. Moreover, the examination of languages within the Chomsky hierarchy indicates that there is no formal and consequently automated way of translating from one language into another above a certain level of expressional power.
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A formal language can be formally defined as a set A of strings (finite sequences) on a fixed alphabet α. Some authors, including Rudolf Carnap, define the language as the ordered pair <α, A>.Rudolf Carnap (1958) Introduction to Symbolic Logic and its Applications, p. 102. Carnap also requires that each element of α must occur in at least one string in A.
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In mathematical logic such concepts as a primitive recursive function and a μ-recursive function represent integer-valued functions of several natural variables or, in other words, functions on . Gödel numbering, defined on well-formed formulae of some formal language, is a natural-valued function. Computability theory is essentially based on natural numbers and natural (or integer) functions on them.
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Seymour Ginsburg (December 12, 1927 – December 5, 2004) was an American pioneer of automata theory, formal language theory, and database theory, in particular; and computer science, in general. His work was influential in distinguishing theoretical Computer Science from the disciplines of Mathematics and Electrical Engineering. During his career, Ginsburg published over 100 papers and three books on various topics in theoretical Computer Science.
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Informal arguments as studied in informal logic, are presented in ordinary language and are intended for everyday discourse. Formal arguments are studied in formal logic (historically called symbolic logic, more commonly referred to as mathematical logic today) and are expressed in a formal language. Informal logic emphasizes the study of argumentation; formal logic emphasizes implication and inference. Informal arguments are sometimes implicit.
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In any case, Lechner say that its aim was to create a Hungarian style. "There was no Hungarian form language, but it will be. Because it has to be. This conviction leads me to a running in life, whose sole purpose is to pave the way for the formation of the Hungarian formal language", he wrote in the Művészet Journal in 1906.
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In mathematics and computer science, a rational series is a generalisation of the concept of formal power series over a ring to the case when the basic algebraic structure is no longer a ring but a semiring, and the indeterminates adjoined are not assumed to commute. They can be regarded as algebraic expressions of a formal language over a finite alphabet.
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Expository essay is used to inform, describe or explain a topic, using important facts and teaching reader about the topic. Mostly written in third-person, using "it", "he", "she", "they". Expository essay uses formal language to discuss someone or something. Examples of expository essays are: a medical or biological condition, social or technological process, life or character of a famous person.
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Grammatical differences between informal spoken Quebec French and the formal language abound. Some of these, such as omission of the negative particle ne, are also present in the informal language of speakers of standard European French, while other features, such as use of the interrogative particle -tu, are either peculiar to Quebec or Canadian French or restricted to nonstandard varieties of European French.
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An interpretation of a formal system is the assignment of meanings to the symbols, and truth values to the sentences of a formal system. The study of interpretations is called formal semantics. Giving an interpretation is synonymous with constructing a model. An interpretation is expressed in a metalanguage, which may itself be a formal language, and as such itself is a syntactic entity.
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In the 1970s, Grand Ronde elders began teaching Chinook Jargon language classes in the community. In the 1990s the Confederated tribes of Grand Ronde regained federal recognition as a sovereign tribe. As part of their renewal, they established a formal language program for children, which they could support through revenues generated from gaming. They renamed Chinook Jargon as Chinuk Wawa (Talking Chinuk).
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A formal theorem is the purely formal analogue of a theorem. In general, a formal theorem is a type of well-formed formula that satisfies certain logical and syntactic conditions. The notation S is often used to indicate that S is a theorem. Formal theorems consist of formulas of a formal language and the transformation rules of a formal system.
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There is more consensus on the "characterization" of the notion of "simple algorithm". All algorithms need to be specified in a formal language, and the "simplicity notion" arises from the simplicity of the language. The Chomsky (1956) hierarchy is a containment hierarchy of classes of formal grammars that generate formal languages. It is used for classifying of programming languages and abstract machines.
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Edward Stabler was a Professor of Linguistics at the University of California, Los Angeles." Oak Park grad writes book on the college admissions process". The Acorn, by Stephanie Bertholdo His primary areas of research are (1) Natural Language Processing (NLP), (2) Parsing and formal language theory,"Book Reviews: The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences". aclweb.org. and (3) Philosophy of Logic and Language.
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After he served at the United States Navy as an officer in the Pacific Fleet, Sussenguth joined IBM in 1959. Sussenguth started in 1959 in the Research Division in the development of formal language descriptions. This work led to Sussenguth meeting Kenneth E. Iverson and Adin Falkoff. Iverson had developed a formal notation, which was documented in a book A Programming Language.
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Sir Charles Antony Richard Hoare (born 11 January 1934) is a British computer scientist. He developed the sorting algorithm quicksort in 1959–1960. He also developed Hoare logic for verifying program correctness, and the formal language communicating sequential processes (CSP) to specify the interactions of concurrent processes (including the dining philosophers problem) and the inspiration for the programming language occam.
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Three views of an antimatroid: an inclusion ordering on its family of feasible sets, a formal language, and the corresponding path poset. In mathematics, an antimatroid is a formal system that describes processes in which a set is built up by including elements one at a time, and in which an element, once available for inclusion, remains available until it is included. Antimatroids are commonly axiomatized in two equivalent ways, either as a set system modeling the possible states of such a process, or as a formal language modeling the different sequences in which elements may be included. Dilworth (1940) was the first to study antimatroids, using yet another axiomatization based on lattice theory, and they have been frequently rediscovered in other contexts;Two early references are and ; Jamison was the first to use the term "antimatroid".
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Formal language theory mostly studies formalisms to describe sets of strings, such as context-free grammars and regular expressions. Each instance of a formalism, e.g. each grammar and each regular expression, describes a particular set of strings. In this context, the expressive power of a formalism is the set of sets of strings its instances describe, and comparing expressive power is a matter of comparing these sets.
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Transition monoids and syntactic monoids are used in describing finite-state machines. Trace monoids and history monoids provide a foundation for process calculi and concurrent computing. In theoretical computer science, the study of monoids is fundamental for automata theory (Krohn–Rhodes theory), and formal language theory (star height problem). See Semigroup for the history of the subject, and some other general properties of monoids.
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Thus, a decision problem informally phrased in terms of a formal language is also equivalent to a set of natural numbers. To keep the formal definition simple, it is phrased in terms of subsets of the natural numbers. Formally, a decision problem is a subset of the natural numbers. The corresponding informal problem is that of deciding whether a given number is in the set.
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Giovanni Pighizzini is an Italian theoretical computer scientist known for his work in formal language theory and particularly in state complexity of two-way finite automata. He earned his PhD in 1993 from the University of Milan, where he is a full professor since 2001. Pighizzini serves as the Steering Committee Chair of the annual Descriptional Complexity of Formal Systems academic conference since 2006.
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In metalogic, formal languages are sometimes called object languages. The language used to make statements about an object language is called a metalanguage. This distinction is a key difference between logic and metalogic. While logic deals with proofs in a formal system, expressed in some formal language, metalogic deals with proofs about a formal system which are expressed in a metalanguage about some object language.
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Later and with his recommendation Licht could change in the studio of the architect Richard Lucae in Berlin. In contrast to the orientation of Adler at the work of Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Lucae favored the formal language of the Italian Renaissance. Later he moved to Vienna and worked with the architect Heinrich von Ferstel. From 1869 until the end of 1870 Licht traveled through Italy.
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He followed this with positions at the National Cash Register Corporation, Hughes Aircraft, and System Development Corporation. At SDC, Ginsburg first concentrated on the theory of abstract machines. He subsequently formed and led a research project dedicated to formal language theory and the foundations of Computer Science. Members of the research group included: Sheila Greibach, Michael A. Harrison, Gene Rose, Ed Spanier, and Joe Ullian.
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In theoretical computer science, in particular in formal language theory, Kleene's algorithm transforms a given nondeterministic finite automaton (NFA) into a regular expression. Together with other conversion algorithms, it establishes the equivalence of several description formats for regular languages. Alternative presentations of the same method include the "elimination method" attributed to Brzozowski and McCluskey, the algorithm of McNaughton and Yamada, and the use of Arden's lemma.
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His formal language created a rapprochement between the erotic and the fantastic. In his depiction of an underwater world he excelled in the illustration of the phantasmagorical and the grotesque. His technical prowess with glazed figural stoneware remains unparalleled to this day as were his experiments in polychrome glaze work. Paienne cultures as diverse of China and Peru were amongst his many sources of inspiration.
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The objective is to decide, with the aid of an algorithm, whether a given input string is a member of the formal language under consideration. If the algorithm deciding this problem returns the answer yes, the algorithm is said to accept the input string, otherwise it is said to reject the input. An example of a decision problem is the following. The input is an arbitrary graph.
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As soon as 1963, he was attracted to abstraction. He was appointed as a teacher in the École des Arts Décoratifs (Decorative Arts School) of Nice in 1964 and decided to create a new formal language questioning the conventions of classical painting. He then started working systematically with one shape affixed on canvas without stretchers. His first personal exhibition took place at Nice’s Galerie A in 1966.
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Model theory is the branch of mathematical logic that deals with the relation between a formal theory and its interpretations, called models.Chang and Keisler, p. 1 A theory consists of a set of sentences in a formal language, which consists generally of the axioms of the theory, and all theorems that can be deduced from them. A model is a realization of the theory inside another theory.
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In 1931, Kurt Gödel published the incompleteness theorems, which he proved in part by showing how to represent the syntax of formal logic within first- order arithmetic. Each expression of the formal language of arithmetic is assigned a distinct number. This procedure is known variously as Gödel numbering, coding and, more generally, as arithmetization. In particular, various sets of expressions are coded as sets of numbers.
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As a language with infinitely long formulae is being presented, it is not possible to write such formulae down explicitly. To get around this problem a number of notational conveniences, which, strictly speaking, are not part of the formal language, are used. \cdots is used to point out an expression that is infinitely long. Where it is unclear, the length of the sequence is noted afterwards.
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An automaton is a finite representation of a formal language that may be an infinite set. Automata are often classified by the class of formal languages they can recognize, typically illustrated by the Chomsky hierarchy, which describes the relations between various languages and kinds of formalized logics. Automata play a major role in theory of computation, compiler construction, artificial intelligence, parsing and formal verification.
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The calculus of communicating systems (CCS) is a process calculus introduced by Robin Milner around 1980 and the title of a book describing the calculus. Its actions model indivisible communications between exactly two participants. The formal language includes primitives for describing parallel composition, choice between actions and scope restriction. CCS is useful for evaluating the qualitative correctness of properties of a system such as deadlock or livelock.
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Alice Könitz (born 1970, Essen, Germany) is an artist based in Los Angeles. Her sculptures, films, and collages use a formal language that is influenced by the contemporary built environment and early modernism. Könitz studied at the Kunstakademie in Duesseldorf and at Cal Arts. She received an Akademiebrief from the Kunstakademie in Duesseldorf in 1996 and an MFA from California Institute of the Arts in 1999.
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Conjunctive grammars are a class of formal grammars studied in formal language theory. They extend the basic type of grammars, the context-free grammars, with a conjunction operation. Besides explicit conjunction, conjunctive grammars allow implicit disjunction represented by multiple rules for a single nonterminal symbol, which is the only logical connective expressible in context-free grammars. Conjunction can be used, in particular, to specify intersection of languages.
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Usually such patterns are used by string-searching algorithms for "find" or "find and replace" operations on strings, or for input validation. It is a technique developed in theoretical computer science and formal language theory. The concept arose in the 1950s when the American mathematician Stephen Cole Kleene formalized the description of a regular language. The concept came into common use with Unix text- processing utilities.
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This led to a process of Romanization of the natives who dwelt in cities in Illyria and Pannonia, whilst Greek was the formal language in Thrace, Epirus, and Macedonia (Roman province). In the countryside, many of the natives would join the foreign elements in raiding imperial territory. Later, there was an extensive Slavonization of the Balkans. Nevertheless, small pockets of people preserved an archaic language.
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Kai T. Salomaa is a Finnish Canadian theoretical computer scientist, known for his numerous contributions to the state complexity of finite automata. His highly cited 1994 joint paper with Yu and Zhuang laid the foundations of the area. He has published over 100 papers in scientific journals on various subjects in formal language theory. Salomaa is a full professor at Queen's University (Kingston, Ontario).
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A formal system (also called a logical calculus, or a logical system) consists of a formal language together with a deductive apparatus (also called a deductive system). The deductive apparatus may consist of a set of transformation rules (also called inference rules) or a set of axioms, or have both. A formal system is used to derive one expression from one or more other expressions.
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There are different opinions about the origin of the word Dari. The majority of scholars believes that Dari refers to the Persian word dar or darbār (), meaning "Court", as it was the formal language of the Sassanids. The original meaning of the word dari is given in a notice attributed to Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ (cited by Ibn al-Nadim in Al-Fehrest).Ebn al-Nadim, ed.
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Moreover, these forms are organic, but seem rather than being symbols or signs, are images of simple plantlike and animal life forms. The pictures bear titles such as Rock Garden, Eidos, or Primordial Vegetable. As an indefatigable researcher and collector, Baumeister also owned examples of African sculpture, in which he, as in the case of the prehistorical artifacts, saw universal images for life, development, and human existence. Correspondingly, their formal language entered Baumeister’s work in the early 1940s—highly abstracted, at first chromatically restrained (African Tale, 1942), and with time, became increasingly colorful and in part very complex in their formal design (Owambo 1944–1948). Both the titles and formal language reveal Baumeister’s preoccupation with other old (Latin American) cultures (Peruvian Wall, 1946, and Aztec Couple, 1948). Another example of his search for the “foundations of art” is Baumeister’s transposition of the Gilgamesh Epic, one of the oldest surviving literary works.
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In this acceptor, the only accepting state is state 7. A (possibly infinite) set of symbol sequences, called a formal language, is a regular language if there is some acceptor that accepts exactly that set. For example, the set of binary strings with an even number of zeroes is a regular language (cf. Fig. 5), while the set of all strings whose length is a prime number is not.
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Kleene and Rosser were able to show that both systems are able to characterize and enumerate their provably total, definable number-theoretic functions, which enabled them to construct a term that essentially replicates the Richard paradox in formal language. Curry later managed to identify the crucial ingredients of the calculi that allowed the construction of this paradox, and used this to construct a much simpler paradox, now known as Curry's paradox.
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Morphology is the study of the formal means of expression in a language; in the context of historical linguistics, how the formal means of expression change over time; for instance, languages with complex inflectional systems tend to be subject to a simplification process. This field studies the internal structure of words as a formal means of expression.A formal language is a set of words, i.e. finite strings of letters or symbols.
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The second stage in the proof is to use the Gödel numbering, described above, to show that the notion of provability can be expressed within the formal language of the theory. Suppose the theory has deduction rules: . Let be their corresponding relations, as described above. Every provable statement is either an axiom itself, or it can be deduced from the axioms by a finite number of applications of the deduction rules.
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The principle of the modern computer was first described by computer scientist Alan Turing, who set out the idea in his seminal 1936 paper,. Online versions: Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society Another version online. On Computable Numbers. Turing reformulated Kurt Gödel's 1931 results on the limits of proof and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became known as Turing machines.
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In addition, the Han Ch'ŏng mun'gam (漢清文鑑) was a glossary of Chinese, Korean and Manchu. The Pangŏn chipsŏk (徐命膺編) covered Korean and all four of the foreign languages. In choosing textbooks, the focus was on fluency in the spoken language. Where foreign works were used, vernacular literature or elementary school texts were preferred to scholarly literature written in formal language (usually Chinese).
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Kari's thesis research was in formal language theory. In the mid-1990s, inspired by an article by Leonard Adleman in Science, she shifted her interests to DNA computing. In her research, together with Laura Landweber, she has initiated and explored the study of computational power of DNA processing in ciliates,. using her expertise to show that the DNA operations performed by genetic recombination in these organisms are Turing complete.
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Richard's casualness in speech is also noted by another writer. However, Lull does not make the comparison between Richmond and Richard as Haeffner does, but between Richard and the women in his life. However, it is important to the women share the formal language that Richmond uses. She makes the argument that the difference in speech "reinforces the thematic division between the women's identification with the social group and Richard's individualism".
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This form of simple use of language exists and is practiced in several languages in India. A news anchor, or a stage speaker, might for instance, construct sentences using advanced grammatical or literary phrases. These advanced constructions are found widely in literature, however, not required for day-to-day communication, and can be acquired and understood overtime. (Note that this is NOT the difference between colloquial and formal language).
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P′′ has also a pair of instructions for a cycle, inspecting the blank symbol. Despite its minimalistic nature, it has become the parental formal language of an implemented and (for entertainment) used programming language called Brainfuck. In addition to the general computational models, some simpler computational models are useful for special, restricted applications. Regular expressions, for example, specify string patterns in many contexts, from office productivity software to programming languages.
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During the first decade of the 20th century he often frequented and worked in the Tyrol, particularly in the Ötz Valley. In 1909 he joined the Vienna Secession. Under the influence of Ferdinand Hodler, Egger-Lienz developed a formal language of monumental expressiveness, showing a preference for heroic figures enclosed in stage-like spaces. Strongly outlined, massive forms were painted using a nearly monochromatic palette of earth colors.
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Shablul's lyrics were another expression of musical innovation and changes in Israeli music. The words were written in popular rather than official and formal language, as was used in Israeli songs before. Along with the extraordinary lyrics, one old-style song was in the album – HaBalada Al Yoel Moshe Salomon (The Ballad About Yoel Moshe Salomon). Plastelina, the second Einstein-Hanoch album, was recorded four months after the first.
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The same concept applies for technical documents, which can be more easily translated by SMT because of their formal language. In certain applications, however, e.g., product descriptions written in a controlled language, a dictionary-based machine- translation system has produced satisfactory translations that require no human intervention save for quality inspection.Muegge (2006), "Fully Automatic High Quality Machine Translation of Restricted Text: A Case Study," in Translating and the computer 28.
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Many features found in virtually all modern regular expression libraries provide an expressive power that exceeds the regular languages. For example, many implementations allow grouping subexpressions with parentheses and recalling the value they match in the same expression ('). This means that, among other things, a pattern can match strings of repeated words like "papa" or "WikiWiki", called squares in formal language theory. The pattern for these strings is `(.+)\1`.
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"string" is a substring of "substring" In formal language theory and computer science, a substring is a contiguous sequence of characters within a string. For instance, "the best of" is a substring of "It was the best of times". This is not to be confused with subsequence, which is a generalization of substring. For example, "Itwastimes" is a subsequence of "It was the best of times", but not a substring.
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In formal language theory, in particular in algorithmic learning theory, a class C of languages has finite thickness if every string is contained in at most finitely many languages in C. This condition was introduced by Dana Angluin as a sufficient condition for C being identifiable in the limit. (citeseer.ist.psu.edu); here: Condition 3, p.123 mid. Angluin's original requirement (every non-empty string set be contained in at most finitely many languages) is equivalent.
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The design of feedback control systems up through the Industrial Revolution was by trial-and-error, together with a great deal of engineering intuition. Thus, it was more of an art than a science. In the mid-19th century mathematics was first used to analyze the stability of feedback control systems. Since mathematics is the formal language of automatic control theory, we could call the period before this time the prehistory of control theory.
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During the following decades it remained as a tabloid newspaper, with a language close to the middle class. In 2003 La Tercera adopted its current format, from tabloid to Berliner format and adopting a more formal language, also increased significantly the number of pages in an attempt to reach the higher social strata. In October 2007 the newspaper made changes to the design of its layout, giving it a more minimalist look.
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The Latin term Francorum Rex was the official Latin title of the "King of the Franks" after the accession of the Carolingian Dynasty (sometimes taking the form of Rex Francorum); this title was used in official documents until French replaced Latin as the formal language of legal documents, and remained used on coins until the 18th century. However, from as early as the 12th century, the form Franciae Rex ("King of France") was also used.
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A formal system (also called a logical calculus, or a logical system) consists of a formal language together with a deductive apparatus (also called a deductive system). The deductive apparatus may consist of a set of transformation rules (also called inference rules) or a set of axioms, or have both. A formal system is used to derive one expression from one or more other expressions. Propositional and predicate calculi are examples of formal systems.
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Not only that, but they will also correspond with any other inference of this form, which will be valid on the same basis this inference is. Propositional logic may be studied through a formal system in which formulas of a formal language may be interpreted to represent propositions. A system of axioms and inference rules allows certain formulas to be derived. These derived formulas are called theorems and may be interpreted to be true propositions.
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To "blazon" arms means to describe them using the formal language of heraldry. This language has its own vocabulary and syntax, or rules governing word order, which becomes essential for comprehension when blazoning a complex coat of arms. The verb comes from the Middle English blasoun, itself a derivative of the French blason meaning "shield". The system of blazoning arms used in English-speaking countries today was developed by heraldic officers in the Middle Ages.
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A formal proof or derivation is a finite sequence of propositions (called well-formed formulas in the case of a formal language) each of which is an axiom or follows from the preceding sentences in the sequence by a rule of inference. The last sentence in the sequence is a theorem of a formal system. The concept of natural deduction is a generalization of the concept of proof.The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, deduction.
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Characteristica universalis, commonly interpreted as universal characteristic, or universal character in English, is a universal and formal language imagined by the German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz able to express mathematical, scientific, and metaphysical concepts. Leibniz thus hoped to create a language usable within the framework of a universal logical calculation or calculus ratiocinator. Leibniz's diagrammatic reasoning. Since the characteristica universalis is diagrammatic and employs pictograms (below left), the diagrams in Leibniz's work warrant close study.
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Annadurai and Karunanidhi introduced Tamil close to formal language and void of Sanskrit influence. According to Professor Robert Hardgrave Jr, the popularity of their movie dialogues made both Annadurai and Karunanidhi "stars in their own right." After the death of Annadurai, Karunanidhi assumed the office of the Chief Minister in Tamil Nadu, and with intermediate periods of in and out of power, he served his 5th term as the chief minister from 2006-2011.
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In the Dutch language, the gender of a noun determines the articles, adjective forms and pronouns that are used in reference to that noun. Gender is a complicated topic in Dutch, because depending on the geographical area or each individual speaker, there are either three genders in a regular structure or two genders in a dichotomous structure (neuter/common with vestiges of a three-gender structure). Both are identified and maintained in formal language.
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He continued his work on formal language theory and automata through the 1970s. At USC in the 1980s, Ginsburg created a research group dedicated to Database theory. He organized the first PODS (Symposium on Principles of Database Systems) in Marina del Rey in 1982 and was a moving force at the conference into the 1990s. He was honored with a surprise session at the 1992 PODS on the occasion of his 64th birthday.
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The empty string is a syntactically valid representation of zero in positional notation (in any base), which does not contain leading zeros. Since the empty string does not have a standard visual representation outside of formal language theory, the number zero is traditionally represented by a single decimal digit 0 instead. Zero-filled memory area, interpreted as a null-terminated string, is an empty string. Empty lines of text show the empty string.
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In formal language theory, a leftist grammar is a formal grammar on which certain restrictions are made on the left and right sides of the grammar's productions. Only two types of productions are allowed, namely those of the form a \to ba (insertion rules) and cd \to d (deletion rules). Here, a,b,c and d are terminal symbols. This type of grammar was motivated by accessibility problems in the field computer security.
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These are certain formulas in a formal language that are universally valid, that is, formulas that are satisfied by every assignment of values. Usually one takes as logical axioms at least some minimal set of tautologies that is sufficient for proving all tautologies in the language; in the case of predicate logic more logical axioms than that are required, in order to prove logical truths that are not tautologies in the strict sense.
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As of 2011, New Delhi city (the area under NDMC) has a population of 257,803 while New Delhi district has a population of 142,004. Hindi is the most widely spoken language in New Delhi and the lingua franca of the city. English is primarily used as the formal language by business and government institutes. New Delhi has a literacy rate of 89.38% according to 2011 census, which is the highest in Delhi.
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Locke supposes in An Essay Concerning Human UnderstandingLocke, Essay, Bk. III, Ch. iv that the names of simple concepts do not admit of any definition. More recently Bertrand Russell sought to develop a formal language based on logical atoms. Other philosophers, notably Wittgenstein, rejected the need for any undefined simples. Wittgenstein pointed out in his Philosophical Investigations that what counts as a "simple" in one circumstance might not do so in another.
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A Post canonical system, as created by Emil Post, is a string-manipulation system that starts with finitely-many strings and repeatedly transforms them by applying a finite set j of specified rules of a certain form, thus generating a formal language. Today they are mainly of historical relevance because every Post canonical system can be reduced to a string rewriting system (semi-Thue system), which is a simpler formulation. Both formalisms are Turing complete.
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In theoretical computer science and formal language theory, a prefix grammar is a type of string rewriting system, consisting of a set of string rewriting rules, and similar to a formal grammar or a semi-Thue system. What is specific about prefix grammars is not the shape of their rules, but the way in which they are applied: only prefixes are rewritten. The prefix grammars describe exactly all regular languages.M. Frazier and C. D. Page.
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Manfred Sellink, Johannes van der Straet, Gevierd Brugs schilder in Florence in: Ons Erfdeel. Volume 51 (2008) In 1545 he was registered under the name Hans vander Straten as a master painter in the Antwerp guild of Saint Luke. In Antwerp he moved in the circle of the Romanists, i.e. Northern artists who had traveled to Italy and upon their return to their home country created a Renaissance style, which assimilated Italian formal language.
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Example Boolean circuit. The \wedge nodes are AND gates, the \vee nodes are OR gates, and the eg nodes are NOT gates In computational complexity theory and circuit complexity, a Boolean circuit is a mathematical model for combinational digital logic circuits. A formal language can be decided by a family of Boolean circuits, one circuit for each possible input length. Boolean circuits are also used as a formal model for combinational logic in digital electronics.
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Boolean grammars, introduced by , are a class of formal grammars studied in formal language theory. They extend the basic type of grammars, the context- free grammars, with conjunction and negation operations. Besides these explicit operations, Boolean grammars allow implicit disjunction represented by multiple rules for a single nonterminal symbol, which is the only logical connective expressible in context-free grammars. Conjunction and negation can be used, in particular, to specify intersection and complement of languages.
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Logic, especially in the field of proof theory, considers theorems as statements (called formulas or well formed formulas) of a formal language. The statements of the language are strings of symbols and may be broadly divided into nonsense and well-formed formulas. A set of deduction rules, also called transformation rules or rules of inference, must be provided. These deduction rules tell exactly when a formula can be derived from a set of premises.
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Business rule mining example Business rule mining is the process of extracting essential intellectual business logic in the form of business rules from packaged or legacy software applications, recasting them in natural or formal language, and storing them in a source rule repository for further analysis or forward engineering. The goal is to capture these legacy business rules in a way that the business can validate, control and change them over time.
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The form "per cent." is still in use in the highly formal language found in certain documents like commercial loan agreements (particularly those subject to, or inspired by, common law), as well as in the Hansard transcripts of British Parliamentary proceedings. The term has been attributed to Latin per centum. The concept of considering values as parts of a hundred is originally Greek. The symbol for percent (%) evolved from a symbol abbreviating the Italian per cento.
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In a formal language, a well-formed formula (or wff) is a string of symbols constituted in accordance with the rules of syntax of the language. A term is a variable, an individual constant or a n-place function letter followed by n terms. An atomic formula is a wff consisting of either a sentential letter or an n-place predicate letter followed by n terms. A sentence is a wff in which any variables are bound.
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Formal languages are entirely syntactic in nature but may be given semantics that give meaning to the elements of the language. For instance, in mathematical logic, the set of possible formulas of a particular logic is a formal language, and an interpretation assigns a meaning to each of the formulas—usually, a truth value. The study of interpretations of formal languages is called formal semantics. In mathematical logic, this is often done in terms of model theory.
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Membership is offered to US citizens who are at least 18 years old and fluent in English and another language. As part of the enrollment process, applicants seeking NLSC membership certify their language skills by self-assessing their speaking, reading, listening and writing abilities. Formal language proficiency certification is determined by the NLSC. As a general rule, NLSC Members possess professional working proficiency rating at a Level 3 or higher on the Interagency Language Roundtable (ILR) scale.
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A decision problem is any arbitrary yes-or-no question on an infinite set of inputs. Because of this, it is traditional to define the decision problem equivalently as the set of inputs for which the problem returns yes. These inputs can be natural numbers, but also other values of some other kind, such as strings of a formal language. Using some encoding, such as a Gödel numbering, the strings can be encoded as natural numbers.
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In the formal languages used in mathematical logic and computer science, a well-formed formula or simply formula is an idea, abstraction or concept which is expressed using the symbols and formation rules (also called the formal grammar) of a particular formal language. To say that a string of symbols S is a well-formed formula with respect to a given formal grammar G is equivalent to saying that S belongs to the language generated by G.
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A grammar is left-recursive if and only if there exists a nonterminal symbol A that can derive to a sentential form with itself as the leftmost symbol. Notes on Formal Language Theory and Parsing, James Power, Department of Computer Science National University of Ireland, Maynooth Maynooth, Co. Kildare, Ireland.JPR02 Symbolically, : A \Rightarrow^+ A\alpha, where \Rightarrow^+ indicates the operation of making one or more substitutions, and \alpha is any sequence of terminal and nonterminal symbols.
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Ginsburg's results on context-free grammars and push-down acceptors are considered to be some of the deepest and most beautiful in the area. They remain standard tools for many computer scientists working in the areas of formal languages and automata. Many of his papers at this time were co- authored with other prominent formal language researchers, including Sheila Greibach, and Michael A. Harrison. The unification of different views of formal systems was a constant theme in Ginsburg's work.
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In formal language theory his papers examined the relationships between grammar-based systems, acceptor-based systems, and algebraic characterizations of families of languages. The culmination of this work was the creation of one of the deepest branches of Computer Science, Abstract Families of Languages, in collaboration with Sheila Greibach in 1967. In 1974, Ginsburg, along with Armin B. Cremers, developed the theory of Grammar Forms. In the 1980s, Ginsburg became an early pioneer in the field of Database Theory.
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In computer science, extended Backus–Naur form (EBNF) is a family of metasyntax notations, any of which can be used to express a context-free grammar. EBNF is used to make a formal description of a formal language such as a computer programming language. They are extensions of the basic Backus–Naur form (BNF) metasyntax notation. The earliest EBNF was developed by Niklaus Wirth incorporating some of the concepts (with a different syntax and notation) from Wirth syntax notation.
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In a frequently cited body of work, Foley and Wallace describe a "linguistic model" for user interface management consisting of a Presentation Layer, a Dialog Control layer and an Application layer. These layers correspond to the lexical, syntactic and semantic layers from formal language theory. While Foley's model is theoretically enlightening, it does not propose a specific practical system for separating code. There are also many interesting border cases that don't fall cleanly into one of these layers.
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The Latin term characteristica universalis, commonly interpreted as universal characteristic, or universal character in English, is a universal and formal language imagined by Gottfried Leibniz able to express mathematical, scientific, and metaphysical concepts. Leibniz thus hoped to create a language usable within the framework of a universal logical calculation or calculus ratiocinator. The characteristica universalis is a recurring concept in the writings of Leibniz. When writing in French, he sometimes employed the phrase spécieuse générale to the same effect.
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Computability studies what can be computed in principle, and has close ties to logic, while complexity studies the time, space, and other resources taken by computations. Automata theory and formal language theory are closely related to computability. Petri nets and process algebras are used to model computer systems, and methods from discrete mathematics are used in analyzing VLSI electronic circuits. Computational geometry applies algorithms to geometrical problems, while computer image analysis applies them to representations of images.
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Baby Modula-3 is a functional programming sublanguage of Modula-3 (safe subset) programming language based on ideals invented by Martín Abadi. It is an object oriented language for studying programming language design; one part of it is implicitly prototype-oriented programming language, and the other is explicitly statically typed designed for studying computer science type theories. It has been checked as a formal language of metaprogramming systems. It comes from the "Scandinavian School" of object-oriented programming languages.
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The figure at right illustrates a finite-state machine, which belongs to a well-known type of automaton. This automaton consists of states (represented in the figure by circles) and transitions (represented by arrows). As the automaton sees a symbol of input, it makes a transition (or jump) to another state, according to its transition function, which takes the current state and the recent symbol as its inputs. Automata theory is closely related to formal language theory.
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Romeo's infatuation with her stands in obvious contrast to his later love for Juliet. This provides a comparison through which the audience can see the seriousness of Romeo and Juliet's love and marriage. Paris' love for Juliet also sets up a contrast between Juliet's feelings for him and her feelings for Romeo. The formal language she uses around Paris, as well as the way she talks about him to her Nurse, show that her feelings clearly lie with Romeo.
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By doing this, she searches for true expression, rather than a poetic exaggeration of their love. Juliet uses monosyllabic words with Romeo but uses formal language with Paris. Other forms in the play include an epithalamium by Juliet, a rhapsody in Mercutio's Queen Mab speech, and an elegy by Paris. Shakespeare saves his prose style most often for the common people in the play, though at times he uses it for other characters, such as Mercutio.
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The database schema of a database is its structure described in a formal language supported by the database management system (DBMS). The term "schema" refers to the organization of data as a blueprint of how the database is constructed (divided into database tables in the case of relational databases). The formal definition of a database schema is a set of formulas (sentences) called integrity constraints imposed on a database. These integrity constraints ensure compatibility between parts of the schema.
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The form of theories is studied formally in mathematical logic, especially in model theory. When theories are studied in mathematics, they are usually expressed in some formal language and their statements are closed under application of certain procedures called rules of inference. A special case of this, an axiomatic theory, consists of axioms (or axiom schemata) and rules of inference. A theorem is a statement that can be derived from those axioms by application of these rules of inference.
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A metavariable (or metalinguistic or metasyntactic variable) is a symbol or set of symbols in a metalanguage which stands for a symbol or set of symbols in some object language. For instance, in the sentence: :Let A and B be arbitrary formulas of a formal language L. The symbols A and B are not symbols of the object language L, they are metavariables in the metalanguage (in this case, English) that is discussing the object language L.
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A common risk with software development includes communication breakdowns between Developers and Business Stakeholders. BDD uses the specification of desired behavior as a ubiquitous language for the project Team members. This is the reason that BDD insists on a semi-formal language for behavioral specification: some formality is a requirement for being a ubiquitous language. In addition, having such a ubiquitous language creates a domain model of specifications, so that specifications may be reasoned about formally.
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In computer science, communicating sequential processes (CSP) is a formal language for describing patterns of interaction in concurrent systems. It is a member of the family of mathematical theories of concurrency known as process algebras, or process calculi, based on message passing via channels. CSP was highly influential in the design of the occam programming language, INMOS document 72 occ 45 03. and also influenced the design of programming languages such as Limbo, RaftLib, Go, Crystal, and Clojure's core.async.
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At its core, mathematical logic deals with mathematical concepts expressed using formal logical systems. These systems, though they differ in many details, share the common property of considering only expressions in a fixed formal language. The systems of propositional logic and first-order logic are the most widely studied today, because of their applicability to foundations of mathematics and because of their desirable proof-theoretic properties.Ferreirós (2001) surveys the rise of first-order logic over other formal logics in the early 20th century.
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The Mizar system consists of a formal language for writing mathematical definitions and proofs, a proof assistant, which is able to mechanically check proofs written in this language, and a library of formalized mathematics, which can be used in the proof of new theorems. The system is maintained and developed by the Mizar Project, formerly under the direction of its founder Andrzej Trybulec. In 2009 the Mizar Mathematical Library was the largest coherent body of strictly formalized mathematics in existence.
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A language of first-order logic is a formal language over the alphabet consisting of its non-logical symbols and its logical symbols. The latter include logical connectives, quantifiers, and variables that stand for statements. A non-logical symbol only has meaning or semantic content when one is assigned to it by means of an interpretation. Consequently, a sentence containing a non-logical symbol lacks meaning except under an interpretation, so a sentence is said to be true or false under an interpretation.
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A formal proof is a sequence of well-formed formulas of a formal language, the last of which is a theorem of a formal system. The theorem is a syntactic consequence of all the well formed formulae that precede it in the proof system. For a well formed formula to qualify as part of a proof, it must result from applying a rule of the deductive apparatus of some formal system to the previous well formed formulae in the proof sequence.
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The Journal of Automata, Languages and Combinatorics (JALC) is a peer-reviewed scientific journal of computer science. It was established in 1965 as the Journal of Information Processing and Cybernetics (German: Elektronische Informationsverarbeitung und Kybernetik) and obtained its current title in 1996 with volume numbering reset to 1. The main focus of the journal is on automata theory, formal language theory, and combinatorics. The editor-in- chief of the journal was, until 2015, Jürgen Dassow of the Otto von Guericke University of Magdeburg.
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The international prospect and an interest in contemporary art and architecture contributed to the fact that at the age of 23, Helmer-Petersen, as one of the first Danish photographers, began to work with an abstract formal language. Inspired by the Bauhaus and Albert Renger-Patzsch, he published in 1948, the bilingual book 122 Farvefotografier/122 Colour Photographs. This was an audacious début by an autodidactic photographer who wanted to assert the position of photography as an independent art form.
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An interpretation is an assignment of meaning to the symbols of a formal language. Many formal languages used in mathematics, logic, and theoretical computer science are defined in solely syntactic terms, and as such do not have any meaning until they are given some interpretation. The general study of interpretations of formal languages is called formal semantics. The most commonly studied formal logics are propositional logic, predicate logic and their modal analogs, and for these there are standard ways of presenting an interpretation.
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Alexander Meduna (born 1957 in Olomouc, Czech Republic) is a theoretical computer scientist and expert on compiler design, formal languages and automata. He is a professor of Computer Science at the Brno University of Technology. Formerly, he taught theoretical computer science at various European and American universities, including the University of Missouri, where he spent a decade teaching advanced topics of formal language theory. He is the author of several books and over sixty papers related to the subject matter.
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The foundations of GBAC go back to a research project named CoCoSOrg (Configurable Cooperation System) [] (in English language please see ) at Bamberg University. In CoCoSOrg an organization is represented as a semantic graph and a formal language is used to specify agents and their access rights in a workflow environment. Within the C-Org- Project at Hof University's Institute for Information Systems (iisys), the approach was extended by features like separation of duty, access control in virtual organizations and subject-oriented access control.
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It also brought the field of formal language theory to bear on programming language research. In 1975, he developed the HRU security model (named after its authors Harrison, Ruzzo, Ullman), an operating system level computer security model dealing with the integrity of access rights in the system. With his Ph.D. student Pehong Chen at Berkeley, he founded the "Gain Technology" company (acquired by Sybase in 1992).Bloomberg Businessweek Currently, he is professor emeritus and also professor in the graduate school at Berkeley.
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A few lines and dark splashes of colour are sufficient in this woodcut for Sallaert to give a strong character to the faces, bodies and garments. The work has an unconventional, even modern outlook. Sallaert's formal language sometimes borders on the caricature and his use of a rare, tinted paper accentuates the experimental character of his woodcuts. Mythological scene with Neptune and River Gods, monotype There is still no certainty as to who was the inventor of the monotype process.
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A formal language is a syntactic entity which consists of a set of finite strings of symbols which are its words (usually called its well-formed formulas). Which strings of symbols are words is determined by the creator of the language, usually by specifying a set of formation rules. Such a language can be defined without reference to any meanings of any of its expressions; it can exist before any interpretation is assigned to it – that is, before it has any meaning.
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There are a number of factors that make this piece of writing unique. First of all, the language of the text is not of classical modern Irish like most pieces of literature from the era. Writing poetry and prose was largely dominated by the professional poets and so the vast majority of surviving texts were written in their high-register. It is unlike the formal language of professional poetry, but similar to the language that was spoken at the time.
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The SVO construct has its history in the study of interdependent decision making, i.e. strategic interactions between two or more people. The advent of Game theory in the 1940s provided a formal language for describing and analyzing situations of interdependence based on utility theory. As a simplifying assumption for analyzing strategic interactions, it was generally presumed that people only consider their own outcomes when making decisions in interdependent situations, rather than taking into account the interaction partners' outcomes as well.
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The architect was Johann Michael Fischer and the interior decoration was done by Cosmas Damian Asam, Egid Quirin Asam und Johann Baptist Straub. The work started in 1727 as a gesture of thanks for the birth of the heir to the Bavarian crown, Maximilian III Joseph. The building blended for the first time longitudinal and central construction into a new type. Fischer thus broke with one of his early masterpieces the established formal language of the architecture of his time.
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Wilkie's results from his paper show, in more formal language, that the "only gap" in the high school axioms is the inability to manipulate polynomials with negative coefficients. R. Gurevič showed in 1988 that there is no finite axiomisation for the valid equations for the positive natural numbers with 1, addition, multiplication, and exponentiation.R. Gurevič, Equational theory of positive numbers with exponentiation is not finitely axiomatizable, Annals of Pure and Applied Logic, 49:1–30, 1990.Fiore, Cosmo, and Balat.
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In computational complexity theory, the language TQBF is a formal language consisting of the true quantified Boolean formulas. A (fully) quantified Boolean formula is a formula in quantified propositional logic where every variable is quantified (or bound), using either existential or universal quantifiers, at the beginning of the sentence. Such a formula is equivalent to either true or false (since there are no free variables). If such a formula evaluates to true, then that formula is in the language TQBF.
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In model checking, a subfield of computer science, a signal or timed state sequence is an extension of the notion of words, in a formal language, in which letters are continuously emitted. While a word is traditionally defined as a function from a set of non-negative integers to letters, a signal is a functions from a set of real number to letters. This allow to use formalism similar to the ones of automata theory to deal with continuous signal.
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The English word language derives ultimately from Proto-Indo-European "tongue, speech, language" through Latin , "language; tongue", and Old French . The word is sometimes used to refer to codes, ciphers, and other kinds of artificially constructed communication systems such as formally defined computer languages used for computer programming. Unlike conventional human languages, a formal language in this sense is a system of signs for encoding and decoding information. This article specifically concerns the properties of natural human language as it is studied in the discipline of linguistics.
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Harris played baseball as a boy and often wrote about the game and was known for writing realistically about the sport in his novels. For this novel, Harris chose to write it in the vernacular of pitcher Henry Wiggen, who narrates the story in an inimitable fashion. Harris called it "ungrammar" and said that the book was written "out of a rebellion against formal language." The title of the novel was inspired by lines from the song "Streets of Laredo", which is about a dying cowboy.
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Entrance of the Alliance française in Washington DC. All instructors are native French speakers emphasizing conversation and a contextual approach to language learning. The Alliance Française de Washington provides: \- Formal language acquisition classes \- Language workshops \- Literature and conversation groups It uses new technologies like Smart Boards and web 2.0 such as Skype for group and individual classes, for both adults and children. The Alliance also offers the Test d'évaluation du français certificate (TEF), a diploma delivered by the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Paris.
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Alexander Wagner completed his studies at the Universität der Künste Berlin (Berlin University of the Arts) in 2006 having been a ‘Meisterschüler’ there. Even prior to his graduation Wagner took part in group exhibitions in Berlin, Zurich and Istanbul, as well as group shows in the United States and Italy. Alexander Wagner engages predominantly with the subject of painting. Thus drawings, watercolours, silkscreen prints, gouache and acrylic paintings have a fixed place in Wagner’s repertoire. The artist’s work is particularly notable for its formal language.
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The Nurse recognizes that Juliet shows no interest in Paris' courting and is the only member of the older generation to take Juliet's feelings into consideration…that is, until she suddenly betrays Juliet's trust by saying that she should marry Paris. Only to the nurse does Juliet confide her feelings about both Paris and Romeo. The formal language Juliet uses around Paris, as well as the way she talks about him to her Nurse, show that her feelings clearly lie with Romeo.Halio, 20–30.
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A related phenomenon is the final consonant sandhi. It improves the rhythm of speech and allows the speech to not to "get stuck" to word boundaries, and because of this, may be heard even in formal language. When a word ends in a stressed mora, which ends in a vowel or an omittable consonant, the consonant beginning the next word is doubled and it connects the words. The two words end up being pronounced with auxiliary stress is on the syllables beginning the words.
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Many of the commonly studied interpretations associate each sentence in a formal language with a single truth value, either True or False. These interpretations are called truth functional; they include the usual interpretations of propositional and first- order logic. The sentences that are made true by a particular assignment are said to be satisfied by that assignment. In classical logic, no sentence can be made both true and false by the same interpretation, although this is not true of glut logics such as LP.Priest, Graham, 2008.
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In German language- speaking countries, the word Doktor refers to a doctorate awardee in formal language (similar to a PhD). It is distinct from Arzt, since a doctoral degree is not a requirement for medical practitioners, though colloquial use of the word Doktor for physician is common and ordinary people often incorrectly assume that only Doktors may practice medicine. For this reason, 80% of all students in medicine write "doctoral" dissertations, often comparable to a master's thesis in science,U. Beisiegel: Promovieren in der Medizin.
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The origin of the ' goes back to Gottfried Leibniz, who in the seventeenth century, after having constructed a successful mechanical calculating machine, dreamt of building a machine that could manipulate symbols in order to determine the truth values of mathematical statements.Davis 2000: pp. 3–20 He realized that the first step would have to be a clean formal language, and much of his subsequent work was directed toward that goal. In 1928, David Hilbert and Wilhelm Ackermann posed the question in the form outlined above.
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An FSA defines a formal language by defining a set of accepted strings, while an FST defines relations between sets of strings. An FST will read a set of strings on the input tape and generates a set of relations on the output tape. An FST can be thought of as a translator or relater between strings in a set. In morphological parsing, an example would be inputting a string of letters into the FST, the FST would then output a string of morphemes.
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A language is a subset of the collection of all words on a fixed alphabet. For example, the collection of all binary strings that contain exactly 3 ones is a language over the binary alphabet. A key property of a formal language is the level of difficulty required to decide whether a given word is in the language. Some coding system must be developed to allow a computable function to take an arbitrary word in the language as input; this is usually considered routine.
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Data encryption and decryption and hardware emulation are software functions that might run at wire speed (or close to it) when embedded in a microchip. The wire speed is rarely achieved in connections between computers due to CPU limitations, disk read/write overhead, or contention for resources. However, it is still a useful concept for estimating the theoretical best throughput, and how far the real-life performance falls short of the maximum. The term wire speed (or wirespeed) is considered a non-formal language term.
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In mathematics, logic and computer science, a formal language is called recursively enumerable (also recognizable, partially decidable, semidecidable, Turing-acceptable or Turing-recognizable) if it is a recursively enumerable subset in the set of all possible words over the alphabet of the language, i.e., if there exists a Turing machine which will enumerate all valid strings of the language. Recursively enumerable languages are known as type-0 languages in the Chomsky hierarchy of formal languages. All regular, context- free, context-sensitive and recursive languages are recursively enumerable.
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A symbol is an idea, abstraction or concept, tokens of which may be marks or a metalanguage of marks which form a particular pattern. Symbols of a formal language need not be symbols of anything. For instance there are logical constants which do not refer to any idea, but rather serve as a form of punctuation in the language (e.g. parentheses). A symbol or string of symbols may comprise a well-formed formula if the formulation is consistent with the formation rules of the language.
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However, many tools, libraries, and engines that provide such constructions still use the term regular expression for their patterns. This has led to a nomenclature where the term regular expression has different meanings in formal language theory and pattern matching. For this reason, some people have taken to using the term regex, regexp, or simply pattern to describe the latter. Larry Wall, author of the Perl programming language, writes in an essay about the design of Raku: Other features not found in describing regular languages include assertions.
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It was considered to be of little importance and was accordingly poorly documented. House to the three Romans (Markt 40) To the west of the chicken market there are two reconstructions followed by six new buildings. The southwestern corner house on Hühnermarkt is called Schlegel (Markt 26). The replica of a predecessor built around 1830 in the strict formal language of the classicist building code issued by city architect Johann Georg Christian Hess in 1809 comes from Hans Kollhoff, Berlin and Jourdan & Müller, Frankfurt am Main.
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A logical graph is a special type of diagrammatic structure in any one of several systems of graphical syntax that Charles Sanders Peirce developed for logic. In his papers on qualitative logic, entitative graphs, and existential graphs, Peirce developed several versions of a graphical formalism, or a graph-theoretic formal language, designed to be interpreted for logic. In the century since Peirce initiated this line of development, a variety of formal systems have branched out from what is abstractly the same formal base of graph-theoretic structures.
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MK was first set out in and popularized in an appendix to J. L. Kelley's (1955) General Topology, using the axioms given in the next section. The system of Anthony Morse's (1965) A Theory of Sets is equivalent to Kelley's, but formulated in an idiosyncratic formal language rather than, as is done here, in standard first order logic. The first set theory to include impredicative class comprehension was Quine's ML, that built on New Foundations rather than on ZFC.The locus citandum for ML is the 1951 ed.
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Behavior-driven development borrows the concept of the ubiquitous language from domain driven design. A ubiquitous language is a (semi-)formal language that is shared by all members of a software development team -- both software developers and non-technical personnel. The language in question is both used and developed by all team members as a common means of discussing the domain of the software in question. In this way BDD becomes a vehicle for communication between all the different roles in a software project.
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Terra Nova Playground Hapa Collective describes Terra Nova as a park that "responds to its setting, its constituents, and the ‘imperfect grid’ formal language" of the area. It is a "place for off-leash kids" that encourages imaginative and energetic play, making it suitable for all ages. Toddlers can get dirty in the water and sand areas, get lost in the meadow maze or chase dragonflies and try to spot some frogs. Older children are able to take full advantage of the adventurous park.
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St. Luke painting the Madonna by Jan Gossaert Romanism is a term used by art historians to refer to painters from the Low Countries who had travelled in the 16th century to Rome. In Rome they had absorbed the influence of leading Italian artists of the period such as Michelangelo and Raphael and his pupils. Upon their return home, these Northern artists (referred to as ‘Romanists’) created a Renaissance style, which assimilated Italian formal language. The style continued its influence until the early 17th century when it was swept aside by the Baroque.
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Quoted from Doris von Drathen: When the invisible becomes tangible, in: HD Schrader: Cubecracks. DG Hyp, Hamburg, 2003 Adopting an approach rooted in constructive concrete art, when Schrader begins to conceive a work of art he subjects himself to a prescribed system of rules. In the case of his Cubecracks this would be equivalent to specifying that each individual element should derive from a systematic process of dissecting the surface of a cuboid. The Cubecracks series vividly illustrates that while the ensuing formal language can be explained rationally it cannot be developed from simple deduction.
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He went on to write, "This state of affairs does not seem to be very satisfactory. The idea that some of our rules of inference should depend on empirical information, which may not be forthcoming, is so foreign to the character of logical inquiry that a thorough re-examination of the two inferences (existential generalization and universal instantiation) may prove worth our while." (parenthesis not Lejewski's). He then elaborates a very creative formal language: Take a domain consisting of a and b, and two signs 'a' and 'b' which refer to these elements.
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A formal language that can be described by a context-sensitive grammar, or, equivalently, by a noncontracting grammar or a linear bounded automaton, is called a context-sensitive language. Some textbooks actually define CSGs as non-contracting, although this is not how Noam Chomsky defined them in 1959. This choice of definition makes no difference in terms of the languages generated (i.e. the two definitions are weakly equivalent), but it does make a difference in terms of what grammars are structurally considered context-sensitive; the latter issue was analyzed by Chomsky in 1963.
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One persistent misunderstanding recurs in discussion of semantics is "the confusion of words and meanings". The meanings of words change, sometimes rapidly. But a formal language such as used in an ontology can encode the meanings (semantics) of concepts in a form that does not change. In order to determine what is the meaning of a particular word (or term in a database, for example) it is necessary to label each fixed concept representation in an ontology with the word(s) or term(s) that may refer to that concept.
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Grzegorz Rozenberg (born 14 March 1942, Warsaw)Grzegorz Rozenberg at Leiden University website. is a Polish Dutch computer scientist. Grzegorz Rozenberg with his decoration of a Knight of the Order of the Netherlands Lion His primary research areas are natural computing, formal language and automata theory, graph transformations, and concurrent systems. He is referred to as the guru of natural computing, as he was promoting the vision of natural computing as a coherent scientific discipline already in the 1970s, gave this discipline its current name, and defined its scope.
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At times, he intertwined bricks with details molded from cement. Such touches are found at the former riding hall at 8, Strēlnieku Street (1895), the city orphan's home at 8, Zeļļu Street (1888; in collaboration with architect Karl Neuburger), the gas holder at 106, Matisa Street (1901), and others. Strict, heavily rustic formal language of the Florentine Renaissance style was employed in the designs of the former Zigra bath-houses at 10, Vaļņu Street (1887), the apartment house at 4, Basteja Boulevard (1898), and several other facades of his buildings.
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The formal language of proof draws repeatedly from a small pool of ideas, many of which are invoked through various lexical shorthands in practice. ; aliter: An obsolescent term which is used to announce to the reader an alternative method, or proof of a result. In a proof, it therefore flags a piece of reasoning that is superfluous from a logical point of view, but has some other interest. ; by way of contradiction (BWOC), or "for, if not, ...": The rhetorical prelude to a proof by contradiction, preceding the negation of the statement to be proved.
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In theoretical computer science and formal language theory, a tree transducer (TT) is an abstract machine taking as input a tree, and generating output – generally other trees, but models producing words or other structures exist. Roughly speaking, tree transducers extend tree automata in the same way that word transducers extend word automata. Manipulating tree structures instead of words enable TT to model syntax-directed transformations of formal or natural languages. However, TT are not as well-behaved as their word counterparts in terms of algorithmic complexity, closure properties, etcetera.
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A logical graph is a special type of graph-theoretic structure in any one of several systems of graphical syntax that Charles Sanders Peirce developed for logic. In his papers on qualitative logic, entitative graphs, and existential graphs, Peirce developed several versions of a graphical formalism, or a graph-theoretic formal language, designed to be interpreted for logic. In the century since Peirce initiated this line of development, a variety of formal systems have branched out from what is abstractly the same formal base of graph-theoretic structures.
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In formal language theory, a grammar is in Kuroda normal form if all production rules are of the form: :AB -> CD or :A -> BC or :A -> B or :A -> a where A, B, C and D are nonterminal symbols and a is a terminal symbol. Some sources omit the A -> B pattern. It is named after Sige-Yuki Kuroda, who originally called it a linear bounded grammar—a terminology that was also used by a few other authors thereafter. Every grammar in Kuroda normal form is noncontracting, and therefore, generates a context-sensitive language.
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ACE can serve as knowledge representation, specification, and query language, and is intended for professionals who want to use formal notations and formal methods, but may not be familiar with them. Though ACE appears perfectly natural – it can be read and understood by any speaker of English – it is in fact a formal language. ACE and its related tools have been used in the fields of software specifications, theorem proving, text summaries, ontologies, rules, querying, medical documentation and planning. Here are some simple examples: # Every woman is a human.
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The term was first used by the Tokugawa shogunate in an attempt to extricate Japan from the Sino-centric system of relations. As Shogun, he certainly could not call himself the , but he also could not use the term . As formal language is extremely important in diplomacy, the connotations of most alternative terms were found to be inappropriate, and so taikun was chosen to best represent the shogun in formal diplomatic communications. A modified version of this word appears in the English language as tycoon, referring to a wealthy business manager.
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John Warner Backus (December 3, 1924 – March 17, 2007) was an American computer scientist. He directed the team that invented and implemented FORTRAN, the first widely used high-level programming language, and was the inventor of the Backus–Naur form (BNF), a widely used notation to define formal language syntax. He later did research into the function-level programming paradigm, presenting his findings in his influential 1977 Turing Award lecture "Can Programming Be Liberated from the von Neumann Style?" The IEEE awarded Backus the W. W. McDowell Award in 1967 for the development of FORTRAN.
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Contextual Query Language (CQL), previously known as Common Query Language,CQL: the Contextual Query Language: Specifications SRU: Search/Retrieval via URL, Standards, Library of Congress is a formal language for representing queries to information retrieval systems such as search engines, bibliographic catalogs and museum collection information. Based on the semantics of Z39.50, its design objective is that queries be human readable and writable, and that the language be intuitive while maintaining the expressiveness of more complex query languages. It is being developed and maintained by the Z39.50 Maintenance Agency, part of the Library of Congress.
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In computer science, a parsing expression grammar (PEG), is a type of analytic formal grammar, i.e. it describes a formal language in terms of a set of rules for recognizing strings in the language. The formalism was introduced by Bryan Ford in 2004 and is closely related to the family of top-down parsing languages introduced in the early 1970s. Syntactically, PEGs also look similar to context-free grammars (CFGs), but they have a different interpretation: the choice operator selects the first match in PEG, while it is ambiguous in CFG.
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ALGOL 68 was defined using a two-level grammar formalism invented by Adriaan van Wijngaarden and which bears his name. Van Wijngaarden grammars use a context-free grammar to generate an infinite set of productions that will recognize a particular ALGOL 68 program; notably, they are able to express the kind of requirements that in many other programming language standards are labelled "semantics" and have to be expressed in ambiguity-prone natural language prose, and then implemented in compilers as ad hoc code attached to the formal language parser.
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In computer science, in particular in formal language theory, the pumping lemma for context-free languages, also known as the Bar-Hillel lemma, is a lemma that gives a property shared by all context-free languages and generalizes the pumping lemma for regular languages. The pumping lemma can be used to construct a proof by contradiction that a specific language is not context-free. Conversely, the pumping lemma does not suffice to guarantee that a language is context-free; there are other necessary conditions, such as Ogden's lemma, or the Interchange lemma.
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A decision problem has only two possible outputs, yes or no (or alternately 1 or 0) on any input. Decision problems are one of the central objects of study in computational complexity theory. A decision problem is a special type of computational problem whose answer is either yes or no, or alternately either 1 or 0. A decision problem can be viewed as a formal language, where the members of the language are instances whose output is yes, and the non-members are those instances whose output is no.
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A lineage of formal language can be traced from Elenberg Fraser's treatment of Liberty Tower through their immediately following work to their more recent projects. The Westgate apartments, completed in 2005, can be viewed as a further development in the use of a perforated metal skin. Elenberg Fraser's projects, A'beckett Street Tower, Abode 318, Sky Lofts, Light House, 50 albert Road, Victoria 1 and Tower Melbourne can all be seen as a continuation on the idea of a rippling facade, a theme birthed in the vertical crease of the western facade of Liberty Tower.
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A decision problem is a yes-or-no question on an infinite set of inputs. It is traditional to define the decision problem as the set of possible inputs together with the set of inputs for which the answer is yes. These inputs can be natural numbers, but can also be values of some other kind, like binary strings or strings over some other alphabet. The subset of strings for which the problem returns "yes" is a formal language, and often decision problems are defined as formal languages.
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In the formal language of the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms, the axiom reads: :\forall A \, \forall B \, \exists C \, \forall D \, [D \in C \iff (D = A \lor D = B)] In words: :Given any set A and any set B, there is a set C such that, given any set D, D is a member of C if and only if D is equal to A or D is equal to B. Or in simpler words: :Given two sets, there is a set whose members are exactly the two given sets.
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In mathematical logic, a theory (also called a formal theory) is a set of sentences in a formal language. In most scenarios, a deductive system is first understood from context, after which an element \phi\in T of a theory T is then called a theorem of the theory. In many deductive systems there is usually a subset \Sigma \subset T that is called "the set of axioms" of the theory T, in which case the deductive system is also called an "axiomatic system". By definition, every axiom is automatically a theorem.
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In formal language theory, a string is defined as a finite sequence of members of an underlying base set; this set is called the alphabet of a string or collection of strings. The members of the set are called symbols, and are typically thought of as representing letters, characters, or digits. For example, a common alphabet is {0,1}, the binary alphabet, and a binary string is a string drawn from the alphabet {0,1}. An infinite sequence of letters may be constructed from elements of an alphabet as well.
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In computer science, particularly in human-computer interaction, presentation semantics specify how a particular piece of a formal language is represented in a distinguished manner accessible to human senses, usually human vision. For example, saying that ` ... ` must render the text between these constructs using some bold typeface is a specification of presentation semantics for that syntax. Many markup languages, including HTML, DSSSL, and XSL-FO, have presentation semantics, but others, such as XML, do not. H. P. Alesso, Craig Forsythe Smith, Developing Semantic Web services, A K Peters, Ltd.
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The program begins with a two-day pre-departure orientation in Washington, D.C. Immediately following the orientation program, students are flown to their respective locations where they delve into the intensive language programs. The program itself involves approximately 20 hours a week of formal language instruction. In addition, CLS participants engage in a variety of language enhancement activities, including conversation partners, guest lectures, film viewings, host family visits (some sites), and cultural excursions. Some institutes require students to take a language pledge, which requires students to speak in the target language at designated times.
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In logic, a model is a type of interpretation under which a particular statement is true. Logical models can be broadly divided into ones which only attempt to represent concepts, such as mathematical models; and ones which attempt to represent physical objects, and factual relationships, among which are scientific models. Model theory is the study of (classes of) mathematical structures such as groups, fields, graphs, or even universes of set theory, using tools from mathematical logic. A system that gives meaning to the sentences of a formal language is called a model for the language.
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A discourse is represented in a discourse representation structure (DRS), a box with variables at the top and the sentences in the formal language below in the order of the original discourse. Sub-DRS can be used for different types of sentences. One of the major advantages of DRT is its ability to account for donkey sentences (Geach 1962) in a principled fashion: :(5) Every farmer who owns a donkey beats it. Sentence (5) can be paraphrased as follows: Every farmer who owns a donkey beats the donkey that he/she owns.
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Google Translate is not as reliable as human translation. When text is well-structured, written using formal language, with simple sentences, relating to formal topics for which training data is ample, it often produces conversions similar to human translations between English and a number of high-resource languages. Accuracy decreases for those languages when fewer of those conditions apply, for example when sentence length increases or the text uses familiar or literary language. For many other languages vis-à-vis English, it can produce the gist of text in those formal circumstances.
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For pseudovarieties, there is no general finitary counterpart to Birkhoff's theorem, but in many cases the introduction of a more complex notion of equations allows similar results to be derived.E.g. Banaschewski, B. (1983), "The Birkhoff Theorem for varieties of finite algebras", Algebra Universalis, Volume 17(1): 360-368, DOI 10.1007/BF01194543 Pseudovarieties are of particular importance in the study of finite semigroups and hence in formal language theory. Eilenberg's theorem, often referred to as the variety theorem, describes a natural correspondence between varieties of regular languages and pseudovarieties of finite semigroups.
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A formal system (also called a logical calculus, or a logical system) consists of a formal language together with a deductive apparatus (also called a deductive system). The deductive apparatus may consist of a set of transformation rules (also called inference rules) or a set of axioms, or have both. A formal system is used to derive one expression from one or more other expressions. Formal systems, like other syntactic entities may be defined without any interpretation given to it (as being, for instance, a system of arithmetic).
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Formal methods may be used to give a description of the system to be developed, at whatever level(s) of detail desired. This formal description can be used to guide further development activities (see following sections); additionally, it can be used to verify that the requirements for the system being developed have been completely and accurately specified. or formalising system requirements by expressing them in a formal language with a precise and unambiguously defined syntax and semantics. The need for formal specification systems has been noted for years.
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Since its publication, the theory of rational voter has encountered numerous empirical challenges, as research suggests that the average voter is not equipped with the necessary information to make rational decisions as defined by Downs. Specifically, most American voters are unable to think in ideological terms—i.e., to articulate their political positions using coherent belief systems. Drawing from social cognition theories, some scholars have argued voters might be still able to make rational decisions even if they are incapable of putting their perceptions, beliefs, and rationales into the formal language of political elites.
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Theories in various fields of study are expressed in natural language, but are always constructed in such a way that their general form is identical to a theory as it is expressed in the formal language of mathematical logic. Theories may be expressed mathematically, symbolically, or in common language, but are generally expected to follow principles of rational thought or logic. Theory is constructed of a set of sentences that are entirely true statements about the subject under consideration. However, the truth of any one of these statements is always relative to the whole theory.
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In formal language theory, a cone is a set of formal languages that has some desirable closure properties enjoyed by some well-known sets of languages, in particular by the families of regular languages, context-free languages and the recursively enumerable languages. The concept of a cone is a more abstract notion that subsumes all of these families. A similar notion is the faithful cone, having somewhat relaxed conditions. For example, the context-sensitive languages do not form a cone, but still have the required properties to form a faithful cone.
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David Hilbert founded metamathematics as a discipline for discussing formal systems. Any language that one uses to talk about a formal system is called a metalanguage. The metalanguage may be a natural language, or it may be partially formalized itself, but it is generally less completely formalized than the formal language component of the formal system under examination, which is then called the object language, that is, the object of the discussion in question. Once a formal system is given, one can define the set of theorems which can be proved inside the formal system.
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Eun-ji has a spoiled princess complex and she doesn't think Sun-poong is her type, but when he doesn't seem interested in her, her ego takes a blow and his obliviousness makes him attractive to her. The youngest son is 19-year-old Mi- poong, who just graduated from high school and has failed to be accepted to university, so he's in the middle of studying for a retest. He's extremely sensitive, and speaks to everyone in super-formal language. Gifted in sewing and crafts, Mi-poong often gets mocked for being too girly.
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In formal language theory, a growing context-sensitive grammar is a context- sensitive grammar in which the productions increase the length of the sentences being generated. These grammars are thus noncontracting and context- sensitive. A growing context-sensitive language is a context-sensitive language generated by these grammars. In these grammars the "start symbol" S does not appear on the right hand side of any production rule and the length of the right hand side of each production exceeds the length of the left side, unless the left side is S. Here: p.
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To describe such recognizers, formal language theory uses separate formalisms, known as automata theory. One of the interesting results of automata theory is that it is not possible to design a recognizer for certain formal languages.. For more on this subject, see undecidable problem. Parsing is the process of recognizing an utterance (a string in natural languages) by breaking it down to a set of symbols and analyzing each one against the grammar of the language. Most languages have the meanings of their utterances structured according to their syntax--a practice known as compositional semantics.
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A recursive grammar is a grammar that contains production rules that are recursive. For example, a grammar for a context-free language is left-recursive if there exists a non-terminal symbol A that can be put through the production rules to produce a string with A as the leftmost symbol. Notes on Formal Language Theory and Parsing, James Power, Department of Computer Science National University of Ireland, Maynooth Maynooth, Co. Kildare, Ireland.JPR02 An example of recursive grammar is a clause within a sentence separated by two commas.
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He is now an Emeritus Professor there, and is also a principal researcher at Microsoft Research in Cambridge, England.Microsoft home page – short biographyOral history interview with C. A. R. Hoare at Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. – The original article on monitors Hoare's most significant work has been in the following areas: his sorting and selection algorithm (Quicksort and Quickselect), Hoare logic, the formal language communicating sequential processes (CSP) used to specify the interactions between concurrent processes, structuring computer operating systems using the monitor concept, and the axiomatic specification of programming languages.
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In model checking, a subfield of computer science, a timed word is an extension of the notion of words, in a formal language, in which each letter is associated with a positive time tag. The sequence of time tag must be non- decreasing, which intuitively means that letters are received. For example, a system receiving a word over a network may associate to each letter the time at which the letter is received. The non-decreasing condition here means that the letters are received in the correct order.
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With his translations, Smith goes to great lengths to preserve the experience of the original text as much as possible, especially if it has a distinct feel. For The Devotion of Suspect X, he mirrored Higashino's "sparse, methodical tone of Japanese" by using more elevated and formal language. He draws on his academic background in classical Japanese literature to inform some of these translations. When it comes to the question of leaving Japan-specific terms untranslated, Smith is careful to either translate around it or provide a concise description of the term.
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Prior to World War II, it was called , "Tenchō Festival". Tenchōsetsu paralleled , "Chikyū Festival", which referred to the Empress consort's birthday. The two names originate from the Chinese idiom 天長地久, borrowed from Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching during the reign of Emperor Kōnin, meaning "The sky and the earth, the universe is eternal", and expressed a hope for the eternal longevity of the reigning Emperor. After the war, the new government renamed it to Tennō tanjōbi, in less formal language with a more literal meaning in 1948, when it was established as a holiday by law.
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Architects also design organic-looking buildings in the attempt to develop a new formal language. Another trend is the exploration of those computational techniques that are influenced by algorithms relevant to biological processes and sometimes referred to as Digital morphogenesis. Trying to utilize Computational creativity in architecture, Genetic algorithms developed in computer science are used to evolve designs on a computer, and some of these are proposed and built as actual structures. Since these new architectural tendencies emerged, many theorists and architects have been working on these issues, developing theories and ideas such as Patrick Schumacher's Parametricism.
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In mathematical logic, a Gödel numbering is a function that assigns to each symbol and well-formed formula of some formal language a unique natural number, called its Gödel number. The concept was used by Kurt Gödel for the proof of his incompleteness theorems. () A Gödel numbering can be interpreted as an encoding in which a number is assigned to each symbol of a mathematical notation, after which a sequence of natural numbers can then represent a sequence of symbols. These sequences of natural numbers can again be represented by single natural numbers, facilitating their manipulation in formal theories of arithmetic.
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A compiler usually has two distinct components. A lexical analyzer, sometimes generated by a tool like `lex`, identifies the tokens of the programming language grammar, e.g. identifiers or keywords, numeric and string literals, punctuation and operator symbols, which are themselves specified by a simpler formal language, usually by means of regular expressions. At the most basic conceptual level, a parser, sometimes generated by a parser generator like `yacc`, attempts to decide if the source program is syntactically valid, that is if it is well formed with respect to the programming language grammar for which the compiler was built.
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Logical analysis was further advanced by Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead in their groundbreaking Principia Mathematica, which attempted to produce a formal language with which the truth of all mathematical statements could be demonstrated from first principles. Russell differed from Frege greatly on many points, however. He rejected Frege's sense-reference distinction. He also disagreed that language was of fundamental significance to philosophy, and saw the project of developing formal logic as a way of eliminating all of the confusions caused by ordinary language, and hence at creating a perfectly transparent medium in which to conduct traditional philosophical argument.
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When in 1959 he got an unsolicited offer of a faculty position at Cornell University, he accepted, in part because on his previous visit to the campus he had thought "it was the prettiest place I'd ever seen". Nerode is Goldwin Smith Professor of Mathematics at Cornell, having been named to that chair in 1991. His interests are in mathematical logic, the theory of automata, computability and complexity theory, the calculus of variations, and distributed systems. With John Myhill, Nerode proved the Myhill–Nerode theorem specifying necessary and sufficient conditions for a formal language to be regular.
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It is also common to witness such errors in mass media works, from typographical errors in news articles to grammatical errors in advertisements and even internet slang in drama dialogues. The more the internet is incorporated into daily life, the greater the impact it has on formal language. This is especially true in modern Language Arts classes through the use of smart phones, tablets, and social media. Students are exposed to the language of the internet more than ever, and as such, the grammatical structure and slang of the internet are bleeding into their formal writing.
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They have even been accepted into Chinese, a language usually resistant to loanwords, because their foreign origin was hidden by their written form. Often different compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before a winner emerged, and sometimes the final choice differed between countries. The proportion of vocabulary of Chinese origin thus tends to be greater in technical, abstract, or formal language. For example, in Japan, Sino-Japanese words account for about 35% of the words in entertainment magazines, over half the words in newspapers, and 60% of the words in science magazines.
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The Linux development community uses Git to manage the source code. Git users clone the latest version of Torvalds' tree with git-clone(1) and keep it up to date using git-pull(1). Contributions are submitted as patches, in the form of text messages on the LKML (and often also on other mailing lists dedicated to particular subsystems). The patches must conform to a set of rules and to a formal language that, among other things, describes which lines of code are to be deleted and what others are to be added to the specified files.
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To get around this, the courts have developed exceptions to this rule for situations when the settlor has done "all that he could do", the trustees or beneficiaries have acquired the property in a different way, or where the gift was made donatio mortis causa. Formality refers to the specific language or forms used when transferring property. For chattels, no formal language or documentation is needed, unless it is made as a will. For land, the transfer must be drafted in line with the Law of Property Act 1925 and the Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1989.
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The term complex adaptive systems, or complexity science, is often used to describe the loosely organized academic field that has grown up around the study of such systems. Complexity science is not a single theory--it encompasses more than one theoretical framework and is highly interdisciplinary, seeking the answers to some fundamental questions about living, adaptable, changeable systems. Complex adaptive systems may adopt hard or softer approaches. Hard theories use formal language that is precise, tend to see agents as having tangible properties, and usually see objects in a behavioral system that can be manipulated in some way.
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His articles were fun to read because he wrote spontaneously, clearly, and humorously. Before submitting anything for publishing, he read his work over and over again, attempting to do so through the different perspectives of his potential readers. He strongly felt that if he didn’t believe his article was a good read, neither would his audience. ‘Awwad said “I write which means I am,” as well as “words in my mouth taste like kisses.” Tawfiq says the most difficult writing style is attempting to incorporate the subtle differences in slang while writing a conversational dialogue, and sometimes adding formal language to the discussion.
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The work that came out of this group distinguished Computer Science theory from other fields, putting Ginsburg at the center of what became the theoretical Computer Science community. It was during the SDC years that a young Jeff Ullman spent one summer working for Ginsburg, learning both formal language theory and a broad approach to research in Computer Science theory. Al Aho credited Ullman's summer with Ginsburg as being highly influential on Aho's career in Computer Science. In an interview, Aho recalled that there was little Computer Science at Princeton while he was studying for his PhD.
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Characterization by a cutting sequence with a line of slope 1/\varphi or \varphi-1, with \varphi the golden ratio. A Fibonacci word is a specific sequence of binary digits (or symbols from any two-letter alphabet). The Fibonacci word is formed by repeated concatenation in the same way that the Fibonacci numbers are formed by repeated addition. It is a paradigmatic example of a Sturmian word and specifically, a morphic word. The name “Fibonacci word” has also been used to refer to the members of a formal language L consisting of strings of zeros and ones with no two repeated ones.
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Moreover, his publications primarily center on the formal language of logic and improving the structure of its symbols. Specifically, he focuses on the deliberate engineering of a constructed language for logic called the X-stem Logic Alphabet (XLA). He emphasizes, with the mounting global prevalence of computers or “logic machines”, the importance of adopting a higher standard for the way we write and communicate logic. He brings to light the importance of a carefully constructed user-friendly notation that would allow students, at earlier stages of cognitive development, to learn and incorporate the fundamental skills of logic.
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In computer science, more specifically in automata and formal language theory, nested words are a concept proposed by Alur and Madhusudan as a joint generalization of words, as traditionally used for modelling linearly ordered structures, and of ordered unranked trees, as traditionally used for modelling hierarchical structures. Finite-state acceptors for nested words, so-called nested word automata, then give a more expressive generalization of finite automata on words. The linear encodings of languages accepted by finite nested word automata gives the class of visibly pushdown languages. The latter language class lies properly between the regular languages and the deterministic context-free languages.
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From the post of Minister for Education he oversaw the educational reform, the institution of the Demotic Greek as the formal language in schools and the administration, replacing the Katharevousa, and the reform of the school curricula. Following the 1977 election, he served first as Minister for Coordination, before becoming Minister for Foreign Affairs in May 1978. He was the first Greek Foreign Minister to visit the Soviet Union, in October 1978, and negotiated Greece's accession to the EEC, signing Greece's accession agreement in May 1979. He also worked to restore relations with Bulgaria and Yugoslavia.
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Metamath is a formal language and an associated computer program (a proof checker) for archiving, verifying, and studying mathematical proofs. Several databases of proved theorems have been developed using Metamath covering standard results in logic, set theory, number theory, algebra, topology and analysis, among others. As of July 2020, the set of proved theorems using Metamath is one of the largest bodies of formalized mathematics, containing in particular proofs of 74Metamath 100. of the 100 theorems of the "Formalizing 100 Theorems" challenge, making it third after HOL Light and Isabelle, but before Coq, Mizar, ProofPower, Lean, Nqthm, ACL2, and Nuprl.
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The alphabet for the formal language consists of logical constants, the equality relation symbol =, all the symbols from the signature, and an additional infinite set of symbols known as variables. For example, in the language of rings, there are constant symbols 0 and 1, two binary function symbols + and ·, and no binary relation symbols. (Here the equality relation is taken as a logical constant.) Again, we might define a first-order language L, as consisting of individual symbols a, b, and c; predicate symbols F, G, H, I and J; variables x, y, z; no function letters; no sentential symbols.
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Given a signature σ, the corresponding formal language is known as the set of σ-formulas. Each σ-formula is built up out of atomic formulas by means of logical connectives; atomic formulas are built from terms using predicate symbols. The formal definition of the set of σ-formulas proceeds in the other direction: first, terms are assembled from the constant and function symbols together with the variables. Then, terms can be combined into an atomic formula using a predicate symbol (relation symbol) from the signature or the special predicate symbol "=" for equality (see the section "Interpreting equality" below).
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After 1918, the formal language of the Hagenbund came to dominate artistic activity in Vienna, and in the 1920s it provided the most important focus for new artistic currents. Among its members during this period were Theodore Fried, Oskar Laske, Anton Hanak, Carry Hauser, Georg Mayer-Marton, George Merkel, Sergius Pauser, Fritz Schwarz-Waldegg, Otto Rudolf Schatz, Albin Egger-Lienz and Oskar Kokoschka. They disassociated themselves from both the Secession and Expressionism on essential questions of aesthetics. They may have approved of the Expressionists’ search for realism, but the expressive formal solutions they found conflicted with the Hagenbund’s own artistic objectives.
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Both hiragana and katakana are phonetic syllabaries derived from the Chinese of the 5th century.Yookoso! An Invitation to Contemporary Japanese 1st edition McGraw- Hill, page 13 "Linguistic Note: The Origins of Hiragana and Katakana" Hiragana and katakana were developed from simplified kanji; hiragana emerged somewhere around the 9th century and was mainly used by women for informal language, with katakana mainly used by men for formal language. By the 10th century, both were commonly used by everyone. The Latin alphabet is often used in modern Japanese, especially for company names and logos, advertising, and when inputting Japanese into a computer.
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Finite model theory (FMT) is the subarea of model theory (MT) that deals with its restriction to interpretations on finite structures, which have a finite universe. Since many central theorems of model theory do not hold when restricted to finite structures, FMT is quite different from MT in its methods of proof. Central results of classical model theory that fail for finite structures under FMT include the compactness theorem, Gödel's completeness theorem, and the method of ultraproducts for first-order logic. The main application areas of FMT are descriptive complexity theory, database theory and formal language theory.
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Administration Building (formerly Science Building), 2011 The Science Wing is a two-storeyed Collegiate Gothic building adjoining the eastern wing of the Main Building to the north. Complementing the Main Building in form, the Science Wing is made of brick with light masonry dressings, and employs a similar formal language of parapeted gabled bays with corners buttresses to the north, east and west. It has a pitched tiled roof, with a pyramidal fleche rising above the roof line. The western and eastern elevations consist of single gable ends, with two large pointed arch windows surmounted by three small lancets.
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The generally agreed upon language border is, in other words, politically shaped. This is also because of the strong influence of the standard languages, particularly in Denmark and Sweden. Even if the language policy of Norway has been more tolerant of rural dialectal variation in formal language, the prestige dialect often referred to as "Eastern Urban Norwegian", spoken mainly in and around the Oslo region, is sometimes considered normative. The influence of a standard Norwegian is nevertheless less so than in Denmark and Sweden, since the prestige dialect in Norway has moved geographically several times over the past 200 years.
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Computational Complexity by Wagner and Wechsung, section 13.3 (1986, ) In particular, the language {anbncn} can be parsed by an algorithm which verifies first that there are the same number of a's and b's, then rewinds and verifies that there are the same number of b's and c's. With the further aid of nondeterminism the machine can parse any context-free language. With two infinite stacks the machine is Turing equivalent and can parse any recursive formal language. If the machine is allowed to have multiple tape heads, it can parse any language in L or NL, according to whether nondeterminism is allowed.
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Characters who spend a lot of their lives in a more formal setting often use a more formal language all the time, while others never do. Tone of voice, volume, rate of delivery, vocabulary, inflection, emphasis, pitch, topics of conversation, idioms, colloquialisms, and figures of speech: all of these are expressions of who the character is on the inside. A character's manner of speech must grow from the inside out. The speaking is how his or her essential personality leaks out for the world to see; it is not the sum total of his or her personality.
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Reference notes. A reference card or reference sheet (or quick reference card) or crib sheet is a concise bundling of condensed notes about a specific topic, such as mathematical formulas to calculate area/volume, or common syntactic rules and idioms of a particular computer platform, application program, or formal language. It serves as an ad hoc memory aid for an experienced user. In spite of what the name reference card may suggest, such as a 3x5 index card (), the term also applies to sheets of paper or online pages, as in the context of programming languages or markup languages.
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Nataša Jonoska (born 1961,Birth year from Library of Congress catalog entry, retrieved 2018-12-10. also spelled Natasha Jonoska) is a mathematician and professor at the University of South Florida known for her work in DNA computing. Her research is about how biology performs computation, "in particular using formal models such as cellular or other finite types of automata, formal language theory symbolic dynamics, and topological graph theory to describe molecular computation." She received her Bachelor's degree in mathematics and computer science from Ss. Cyril and Methodius University of Skopje in Yugoslavia (now North Macedonia) in 1984.
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Computer programs were later written to compute Feynman diagrams, providing a tool of unprecedented power. It is possible to write such programs because the Feynman diagrams constitute a formal language with a formal grammar. Marc Kac provided the formal proofs of the summation under history, showing that the parabolic partial differential equation can be re-expressed as a sum under different histories (that is, an expectation operator), what is now known as the Feynman–Kac formula, the use of which extends beyond physics to many applications of stochastic processes. To Schwinger, however, the Feynman diagram was "pedagogy, not physics".
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There are at least three different algorithms that decide whether and how a given regex matches a string. The oldest and fastest relies on a result in formal language theory that allows every nondeterministic finite automaton (NFA) to be transformed into a deterministic finite automaton (DFA). The DFA can be constructed explicitly and then run on the resulting input string one symbol at a time. Constructing the DFA for a regular expression of size m has the time and memory cost of O(2m), but it can be run on a string of size n in time O(n).
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Syntactic pattern recognition or structural pattern recognition is a form of pattern recognition, in which each object can be represented by a variable- cardinality set of symbolic, nominal features. This allows for representing pattern structures, taking into account more complex interrelationships between attributes than is possible in the case of flat, numerical feature vectors of fixed dimensionality, that are used in statistical classification. Syntactic pattern recognition can be used instead of statistical pattern recognition if there is clear structure in the patterns. One way to present such structure is by means of a strings of symbols from a formal language.
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Starting in the 1870s, the term gradually came to be associated with Cantorian set theory. Mathematical rigour can be modelled as amenability to algorithmic proof checking. Indeed, with the aid of computers, it is possible to check some proofs mechanically.Hardware memory errors are caused by high-energy radiation from outer space, and can generally be expected to affect one bit of data per month, per gigabyte of DRAM.. Formal rigour is the introduction of high degrees of completeness by means of a formal language where such proofs can be codified using set theories such as ZFC (see automated theorem proving).
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Each formal system uses primitive symbols (which collectively form an alphabet) to finitely construct a formal language from a set of axioms through inferential rules of formation. The system thus consists of valid formulas built up through finite combinations of the primitive symbols—combinations that are formed from the axioms in accordance with the stated rules.Encyclopædia Britannica, Formal system definition, 2007. More formally, this can be expressed as the following: # A finite set of symbols, known as the alphabet, which concatenate formulas, so that a formula is just a finite string of symbols taken from the alphabet.
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In mathematical logic, propositional logic and predicate logic, a well-formed formula, abbreviated WFF or wff, often simply formula, is a finite sequence of symbols from a given alphabet that is part of a formal language.Formulas are a standard topic in introductory logic, and are covered by all introductory textbooks, including Enderton (2001), Gamut (1990), and Kleene (1967) A formal language can be identified with the set of formulas in the language. A formula is a syntactic object that can be given a semantic meaning by means of an interpretation. Two key uses of formulas are in propositional logic and predicate logic.
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Gellish is an ontology language for data storage and communication, designed and developed by Andries van Renssen since mid-1990sVan Renssen, 2006. It started out as an engineering modeling language ("Generic Engineering Language", giving it the name, "Gellish") but evolved into a universal and extendable conceptual data modeling language with general applications. Because it includes domain-specific terminology and definitions, it is also a semantic data modelling language and the Gellish modeling methodology is a member of the family of semantic modeling methodologies. Although its concepts have 'names' and definitions in various natural languages, Gellish is a natural-language-independent formal language.
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Formal science is a branch of science studying formal language disciplines concerned with formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, statistics, theoretical computer science, artificial intelligence, information theory, game theory, systems theory, decision theory, and theoretical linguistics. Whereas the natural sciences and social sciences seek to characterize physical systems and social systems, respectively, using empirical methods, the formal sciences are language tools concerned with characterizing abstract structures described by symbolic systems. The formal sciences aid the natural and social sciences by providing information about the structures the latter use to describe the world, and what inferences may be made about them.
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Universities are increasingly experimenting with language exchanges as part of the language learning curriculum. In this respect, language exchanges have a similar role as study abroad programs and language immersion programs in creating an environment where the language student must use the foreign language for genuine communication outside of a classroom setting. Language Travelling has increased significantly over the last three years, with an increase of 67%.\- Study Travel Magazine Report However, there are also concerns that language exchanges cannot be used as a substitute for formal language education, given the difficulty of using language exchanges in learning formal grammar and writing skills.
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In formal language theory and computer science, Iota and Jot (from Greek iota ι, Hebrew yodh י, the smallest letters in those two alphabets) are languages, extremely minimalist formal systems, designed to be even simpler than other more popular alternatives, such as the lambda calculus and SKI combinator calculus. Thus, they can also be considered minimalist computer programming languages, or Turing tarpits, esoteric programming languages designed to be as small as possible but still Turing-complete. Both systems use only two symbols and involve only two operations. Both were created by professor of linguistics Chris Barker in 2001.
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Enterprise Privacy Authorization Language (EPAL) is a formal language for writing enterprise privacy policies to govern data handling practices in IT systems according to fine-grained positive and negative authorization rights. It was submitted by IBM to the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) in 2003 to be considered for recommendation. In 2004, a lawsuit was filed by Zero-Knowledge Systems claiming that IBM breached a copyright agreement from when they worked together in 2001 - 2002 to create Privacy Rights Markup Language (PRML). EPAL is based on PRML, which means Zero-Knowledge argued they should be a co-owner of the standard.
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In formal language theory, the terminal yield (or fringe) of a tree is the sequence of leaves encountered in an ordered walk of the tree. Parse trees and/or derivation trees are encountered in the study of phrase structure grammars such as context-free grammars or linear grammars. The leaves of a derivation tree for a formal grammar G are the terminal symbols of that grammar, and the internal nodes the nonterminal or variable symbols. One can read off the corresponding terminal string by performing an ordered tree traversal and recording the terminal symbols in the order they are encountered.
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One view is that feudalism's reciprocal obligation system gave rise to the idea of the individual and the citizen. According to a related view, the Magna Carta, while a sort of "feudal document", marked a transition away from feudalism since the document was not a personal unspoken bond between nobles and the king, but rather was more like a contract between two parties, written in formal language, describing how different parties were supposed to behave towards each other. The Magna Carta posited that the liberty, security and freedom of individuals were "inviolable". Gradually the personal ties linking vassals with lords were replaced with contractual and more impersonal relationships.
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Rudolf Carnap introduced a terminology distinguishing between logical and non-logical symbols (which he called descriptive signs) of a formal system under a certain type of interpretation, defined by what they describe in the world. A descriptive sign is defined as any symbol of a formal language which designates things or processes in the world, or properties or relations of things. This is in contrast to logical signs which do not designate any thing in the world of objects. The use of logical signs is determined by the logical rules of the language, whereas meaning is arbitrarily attached to descriptive signs when they are applied to a given domain of individuals.
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A transformation language is a computer language designed to transform some input text in a certain formal language into a modified output text that meets some specific goal. Program transformation systems such as Stratego/XT, TXL, Tom, DMS, and ASF+SDF all have transformation languages as a major component. The transformation languages for these systems are driven by declarative descriptions of the structure of the input text (typically a grammar), allowing them to be applied to wide variety of formal languages and documents. Macro languages are a kind of transformation languages to transform a meta language into specific higher programming language like Java, C++, Fortran or into lower-level Assembly language.
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The titles for people are -chan (most often for female close friends, young girls or infants of either gender), -kun (most often for male close friends, or young boys), -san (for adults in general) and -sama (for customers, and also used for feudal lords, gods or buddhas). Letter addresses, even those sent to close friends, are normally written in quite formal language. Unless some other title is available (sensei, for example, which can mean "doctor" or "professor" among other things) the standard title used with the addressee's name is the very formal -sama (様). Letters addressed to a company take the title after the company name.
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It is possible to generalize the definition of a formal language from a set of finite sequences over a finite basis to include many other sets of mathematical structures, so long as they are built up by finitary means from finite materials. What's more, many of these families of formal structures are especially well-suited for use in logic. For example, there are many families of graphs that are close enough analogues of formal languages that the concept of a calculus is quite easily and naturally extended to them. Indeed, many species of graphs arise as parse graphs in the syntactic analysis of the corresponding families of text structures.
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It was a wealthy town, enjoying many fine public buildings and luxurious private houses with lavish decorations, furnishings and works of art which were the main attractions for the early excavators. Organic remains, including wooden objects and human bodies, were entombed in the ash. Over time, they decayed, leaving voids which archaeologists found could be used as moulds to make plaster casts of unique — and often gruesome — figures in their final moments of life. The numerous graffiti carved on the walls and inside rooms provide a wealth of examples of the largely lost Vulgar Latin spoken colloquially at the time, contrasting with the formal language of the classical writers.
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Thomas Campbell (1777–1844) was a Scottish poet and the editor of the New Monthly Magazine, where several of the essays that were later incorporated into The Spirit of the Age were first published. With the 1799 publication of his poem "The Pleasures of Hope", written in the formal language and rhymed couplets characteristic of an earlier period (though also with some traits of the emerging Romantic period),Harvey 1980, pp. 45, 73. Campbell was catapulted into fame, becoming one of the most popular poets of the day, far more so than his Romantic contemporaries Wordsworth and Coleridge, whose Lyrical Ballads had been issued the previous year.
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In computer science theory – particularly formal language theory – the Glushkov Construction Algorithm, invented by Victor Mikhailovich Glushkov, transforms a given regular expression into an equivalent nondeterministic finite automaton (NFA). Thus, it forms a bridge between regular expressions and nondeterministic finite automata: two abstract representations of the same class of formal languages. A regular expression may be used to conveniently describe an advanced search pattern in a "find and replace"–like operation of a text processing utility. Glushkov's algorithm can be used to transform it into an NFA, which furthermore is small by nature, as the number of its states equals the number of symbols of the regular expression, plus one.
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Evangelika riots in Athens, 1901 An Orthodox Christian from birth, Queen Olga became aware, during visits to wounded servicemen in the Greco-Turkish War (1897), that many were unable to read the Bible. The version used by the Church of Greece included the Septuagint version of the Old Testament and the original Greek-language version of the New Testament. Both were written in Koine Greek while her contemporaries used either Katharevousa or the so-called Demotic version of Modern Greek. Katharevousa was a formal language that contained archaized forms of modern words, was purged of "non-Greek" vocabulary from other European languages and Turkish, and had a (simplified) archaic grammar.
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However, after Ullman returned from his summer with Ginsburg, he stated that Ullman "essentially taught Hopcroft, and me, formal language theory".An interview of Al Aho by Professor M.S. Mahoney Ginsburg joined the faculty of University of Southern California in 1966 where he helped to establish the Computer Science department in 1968. He was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1974 and spent the year touring the world, lecturing on the areas of theoretical Computer Science which he had helped to create. Ginsburg was named the first Fletcher Jones Professor of Computer Science at USC in 1978, a chair he held until his retirement in 1999.
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A blue plaque at the college was unveiled on the centenary of his birth on 23 June 2012 and is now installed at the college's Keynes Building on King's Parade. In 1936, Turing published his paper "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem". It was published in the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society journal in two parts, the first on 30 November and the second on 23 December. In this paper, Turing reformulated Kurt Gödel's 1931 results on the limits of proof and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became known as Turing machines.
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Words or phrases written in Bahasa Rojak are often printed in boldface to enable readers to identify them. By the end of 2003, Gempak magazine began using a more formal language style and minimizing use of Bahasa Rojak, including the usage of bold lettering for words deemed colloquial. During the Standard Malay Language Framework Congress held in November 2017, former Malaysian Deputy Prime Minister Ahmad Zahid Hamidi expressed his disappointment at the poor usage of the national language. Despite Malaysia having achieved 60 years of independence, there are still many Malaysians (especially Malays) who could not speak proper Malay despite being born, raised, and educated in Malaysia.
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Only two fragments of the overall plan were realized: the Finlandia Hall concert hall (1976) fronting Töölö Bay, and an office building in the Kamppi district for the Helsinki Electricity Company (1975). The Miesian formal language of geometric grids employed in the buildings was also used by Aalto for other sites in Helsinki, including the Enso-Gutzeit building (1962), the Academic Bookstore (1962) and the SYP Bank building (1969). Following Aalto's death in 1976 his office continued to operate under the direction of his widow Elissa, completing works already (to some extent) designed. These works include the Jyväskylä City Theatre and Essen opera house.
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In the formal language of the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms, the axiom reads: :\forall A\, \exists B\, \forall c\, (c \in B \iff \exists D\, (c \in D \land D \in A)\,) or in words: :Given any set A, there is a set B such that, for any element c, c is a member of B if and only if there is a set D such that c is a member of D and D is a member of A. or, more simply: :For any set A, there is a set \bigcup A\ which consists of just the elements of the elements of that set A.
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Dialect awareness teaching is composed of three general components: # Building respect for different languages and language varieties # Understanding basic sociolinguistic concepts # Practice style-shifting from one language variety to another (typically from informal language to formal language) Dialect awareness instruction may use the contrastive analysis method to compare and contrast language features. Dialect awareness instruction has been shown to increase instances of Standard English in academic writing. The dialect awareness approach has been criticized for lack of attention to language and power issues; some researchers advocate for a critical language pedagogy that explicitly deals with issues of linguistic prejudice, use of vernacular language varieties in education, and linguistic identity.
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Interactive programming techniques are especially useful in cases where no clear specification of the problem that is to be solved can be given in advance. In such situations (which are not unusual in research), the formal language provides the necessary environment for the development of an appropriate question or problem formulation. Interactive programming has also been used in applications that need to be rewritten without stopping them, a feature which the computer language Smalltalk is famous for. Generally, dynamic programming languages provide the environment for such an interaction, so that typically prototyping and iterative and incremental development is done while other parts of the program are running.
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Thanks to the "perfect seismic performance of buildings designed and built" by them,"The Broad beach Homes ", Myriam Waisberg, p. 98 they did work on public buildings, commercial and office buildings, in addition to many houses in the hills of , Concepcion, and the great British avenue of Cerro Playa Ancha. His work is characterized by the adaptation of the style of Victorian architecture to the topography of Valparaiso, as part of a formal language similar to the Colonial Victorian construction styles used in San Francisco, Auckland, Sydney and Wellington. Many of the buildings and houses that he designed are still adorning Valparaiso, full of class, charm, elegance and structural quality.
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In computational complexity theory, a sparse language is a formal language (a set of strings) such that the complexity function, counting the number of strings of length n in the language, is bounded by a polynomial function of n. They are used primarily in the study of the relationship of the complexity class NP with other classes. The complexity class of all sparse languages is called SPARSE. Sparse languages are called sparse because there are a total of 2n strings of length n, and if a language only contains polynomially many of these, then the proportion of strings of length n that it contains rapidly goes to zero as n grows.
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Cyclic codes are a kind of block code with the property that the circular shift of a codeword will always yield another codeword. This motivates the following general definition: For a string s over an alphabet Σ, let shift(s) denote the set of circular shifts of s, and for a set L of strings, let shift(L) denote the set of all circular shifts of strings in L. If L is a cyclic code, then shift(L) ⊆ L; this is a necessary condition for L being a cyclic language. The operation shift(L) has been studied in formal language theory. For instance, if L is a context-free language, then shift(L) is again context-free.
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The educational perspective of internet linguistics examines the Internet's impact on formal language use, specifically on Standard English, which in turn affects language education. The rise and rapid spread of Internet use has brought about new linguistic features specific only to the Internet platform. These include, but are not limited to, an increase in the use of informal written language, inconsistency in written styles and stylistics and the use of new abbreviations in Internet chats and SMS text messaging, where constraints of technology on word count contributed to the rise of new abbreviations. Such acronyms exist primarily for practical reasons — to reduce the time and effort required to communicate through these mediums apart from technological limitations.
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The Court Circular (CC) is the official record that lists the engagements carried out by the monarch of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms; the Royal Family; and appointments to their staff and to the court. It is issued by Buckingham Palace and printed a day in arrears at the back of The Times, The Daily Telegraph and The Scotsman newspapers. An archive of the circular back to 1998 is provided on the British monarchy's website. The circular is traditionally written in very formal language, and describes persons with their official styles and titles at all times (Michael Ancram, for instance, was referred to as "the Marquess of Lothian MP" from 2004 to 2010).
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Bousquet-Mélou won the bronze medal of the CNRS in 1993, and the silver medal in 2014. Linköping University gave her an honorary doctorate in 2005, and the French Academy of Sciences gave her their Charles- Louis de Saulces de Freycinet Prize in 2009. In 2006, she was an invited speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians in the section on combinatorics.. Her presentation at the congress concerned connections between enumerative combinatorics, formal language theory, and the algebraic structure of generating functions, according to which enumeration problems whose generating functions are rational functions are often isomorphic to regular languages, and problems whose generating functions are algebraic are often isomorphic to unambiguous context-free languages.
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The earliest description of continuations was made by Adriaan van Wijngaarden in September 1964. Wijngaarden spoke at the IFIP Working Conference on Formal Language Description Languages held in Baden bei Wien, Austria. As part of a formulation for an Algol 60 preprocessor, he called for a transformation of proper procedures into continuation-passing style, though he did not use this name, and his intention was to simplify a program and thus make its result more clear. Christopher Strachey, Christopher P. Wadsworth and John C. Reynolds brought the term continuation into prominence in their work in the field of denotational semantics that makes extensive use of continuations to allow sequential programs to be analysed in terms of functional programming semantics.
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The two side scenes help to integrate this interpretation; the scene on the left, with the matron that controls the temperature of the water in the basin, probably alludes to the ceremony of accepting the bride in her husband's house (aqua et igni accipi, acceptance of water and fire) according to the Roman tradition of deductio in domum mariti, while the scene on the right, is interpreted as a sacrifice for auspicious fortune, possibly in the presence of the recumbent god (Hymen) as the lyre plays the wedding song that accompanied the bride into her new home. The formal language and style of the work suggest the work dates to the early Augustan age.
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The generalized star-height problem in formal language theory is the open question whether all regular languages can be expressed using generalized regular expressions with a limited nesting depth of Kleene stars. Here, generalized regular expressions are defined like regular expressions, but they have a built-in complement operator. For a regular language, its generalized star height is defined as the minimum nesting depth of Kleene stars needed in order to describe the language by means of a generalized regular expression, hence the name of the problem. More specifically, it is an open question whether a nesting depth of more than 1 is required, and if so, whether there is an algorithm to determine the minimum required star height.
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In the formal language of the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms, the axiom reads: :\forall A \, \forall B \, ( \forall X \, (X \in A \iff X \in B) \implies A = B) or in words: :Given any set A and any set B, if for every set X, X is a member of A if and only if X is a member of B, then A is equal to B. :(It is not really essential that X here be a set -- but in ZF, everything is. See Ur-elements below for when this is violated.) The converse, \forall A \, \forall B \, (A = B \implies \forall X \, (X \in A \iff X \in B) ), of this axiom follows from the substitution property of equality.
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Netherlandish and Italian Renaissance painting has always been a key source of inspiration for Sylke von Gaza. With her large-scale abstract oil paintings she positions herself within the tradition of the Old Masters without, however, referencing them directly in her formal language. Oscillating between past and present, Venice provides an ideal creative environment for the artist, whose works not only probe the questions of tradition and identity in painting, but also provoke a discussion of the intrinsic value of art and society.Schmidt (2007): Die Schleier der Sylke von Gaza & Giloy-Hirtz (2008): From the Grey to the Colourful & Drexler (2013): Sylke von Gaza in Conversation & Sinninghe Damsté (2013): Sacraments of a Deeper Reality.
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In 1917, the Norwegian parliament passed the first major standard for both Norwegian languages. The standard for riksmål was for the most part a continuation of the 1907 reforms and added some optional forms that were closer to Norwegian dialects, but those for landsmål sought to reduce forms that were considered idiosyncratic for Western Norway. As it turned out, the reforms within riksmål themselves caused controversy - between those who held that the written language should closely approximate the formal language of the educated elite on the one hand, and those who held that it should reflect the everyday language of commoners on the other. A distinction was made between "conservative" and "radical" riksmål.
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A logical system or language (not be confused with the kind of "formal language" discussed above which is described by a formal grammar), is a deductive system (see section above; most commonly first order predicate logic) together with additional (non-logical) axioms and a semantics. According to model-theoretic interpretation, the semantics of a logical system describe whether a well-formed formula is satisfied by a given structure. A structure that satisfies all the axioms of the formal system is known as a model of the logical system. A logical system is sound if each well-formed formula that can be inferred from the axioms is satisfied by every model of the logical system.
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The Egyptian revolution of 1952, led by Mohammed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser, further enhanced the significance of Arab nationalism, making it a central element of Egyptian state policy. The importance of Modern Standard Arabic was reemphasised in the public sphere by the revolutionary government, and efforts to accord any formal language status to the Egyptian vernacular were ignored. Egyptian Arabic was identified as a mere dialect, one that was not spoken even in all of Egypt, as almost all of Upper Egypt speaks Sa'idi Arabic. Though the revolutionary government heavily sponsored the use of the Egyptian vernacular in films, plays, television programmes, and music, the prerevolutionary use of Modern Standard Arabic in official publications was retained.
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In logic and mathematics, a formal proof or derivation is a finite sequence of sentences (called well-formed formulas in the case of a formal language), each of which is an axiom, an assumption, or follows from the preceding sentences in the sequence by a rule of inference. It differs from a natural language argument in that it is rigorous, unambiguous and mechanically checkable. If the set of assumptions is empty, then the last sentence in a formal proof is called a theorem of the formal system. The notion of theorem is not in general effective, therefore there may be no method by which we can always find a proof of a given sentence or determine that none exists.
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Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi (, 11 April 1938 – 21 April 2015) was a popular Egyptian poet, and later a children's books writer. He was one of a generation of poets who favored to write their work in the Egyptian dialect (in Abnudi's case, Upper Egyptian dialect) rather than Standard Arabic, the formal language of the state. This literary stance was associated with a militant political engagement: Abnudi and other Egyptian writers of this school sought to make their literary production part of the process of political development and movement towards popular democracy in Egypt. He married the former President of the Egyptian Television Network and television presenter and interviewer Nehal Kamal, and they had two children: Aya and Nour.
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That is, any formal language which can be recognized by a 2DFA can be recognized by a DFA which only examines and consumes each character in order. Since DFAs are obviously a special case of 2DFAs, this implies that both kinds of machines recognize precisely the class of regular languages. However, the equivalent DFA for a 2DFA may require exponentially many states, making 2DFAs a much more practical representation for algorithms for some common problems. 2DFAs are also equivalent to read-only Turing machines that use only a constant amount of space on their work tape, since any constant amount of information can be incorporated into the finite control state via a product construction (a state for each combination of work tape state and control state).
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A study in 2009 published by the British Journal of Developmental Psychology found that students who regularly texted (sent messages via SMS using a mobile phone) displayed a wider range of vocabulary and this may lead to a positive impact on their reading development. Though the use of the Internet resulted in stylistics that are not deemed appropriate in academic and formal language use, Internet use may not hinder language education but instead aid it. The Internet has proven in different ways that it can provide potential benefits in enhancing language learning, especially in second or foreign language learning. Language education through the Internet in relation to Internet linguistics is, most significantly, applied through the communication aspect (use of e-mails, discussion forums, chat messengers, blogs, etc.).
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Computationally, a context-sensitive language is equivalent to a linear bounded nondeterministic Turing machine, also called a linear bounded automaton. That is a non-deterministic Turing machine with a tape of only kn cells, where n is the size of the input and k is a constant associated with the machine. This means that every formal language that can be decided by such a machine is a context-sensitive language, and every context-sensitive language can be decided by such a machine. This set of languages is also known as NLINSPACE or NSPACE(O(n)), because they can be accepted using linear space on a non-deterministic Turing machine.. The class LINSPACE (or DSPACE(O(n))) is defined the same, except using a deterministic Turing machine.
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In a Hilbert system, the premises and conclusion of the inference rules are simply formulae of some language, usually employing metavariables. For graphical compactness of the presentation and to emphasize the distinction between axioms and rules of inference, this section uses the sequent notation (\vdash) instead of a vertical presentation of rules. The formal language for classical propositional logic can be expressed using just negation (¬), implication (→) and propositional symbols. A well-known axiomatization, comprising three axiom schemata and one inference rule (modus ponens), is: (CA1) ⊢ A → (B → A) (CA2) ⊢ (A → (B → C)) → ((A → B) → (A → C)) (CA3) ⊢ (¬A → ¬B) → (B → A) (MP) A, A → B ⊢ B It may seem redundant to have two notions of inference in this case, ⊢ and →.
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The purpose of the pep tool is to parse and transform text patterns. The text patterns conform to the rules provided in a formal language and include many context free languages. Whereas traditional Unix tools (such as awk, sed, grep, etc.) process text one line at a time, and use regular expressions to search or transform text, the pep tool processes text one character at a time and can use context free grammars to transform (or compile) the text. However, in common with the Unix philosophy, the pep tool works upon plain text streams, encoded according to the locale of the local computer, and produces as output another plain text stream, allowing the pep tool to be used as part of a standard pipeline.
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In the formal language theory of computer science, left recursion is a special case of recursion where a string is recognized as part of a language by the fact that it decomposes into a string from that same language (on the left) and a suffix (on the right). For instance, 1+2+3 can be recognized as a sum because it can be broken into 1+2, also a sum, and {}+3, a suitable suffix. In terms of context-free grammar, a nonterminal is left-recursive if the leftmost symbol in one of its productions is itself (in the case of direct left recursion) or can be made itself by some sequence of substitutions (in the case of indirect left recursion).
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In computer science, type punning is a common term for any programming technique that subverts or circumvents the type system of a programming language in order to achieve an effect that would be difficult or impossible to achieve within the bounds of the formal language. In C and C++, constructs such as pointer type conversion and `union` — C++ adds reference type conversion and `reinterpret_cast` to this list — are provided in order to permit many kinds of type punning, although some kinds are not actually supported by the standard language. In the Pascal programming language, the use of records with variants may be used to treat a particular data type in more than one manner, or in a manner not normally permitted.
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In a formal system a symbol may be used as a token in formal operations. The set of formal symbols in a formal language is referred to as an alphabet (hence each symbol may be referred to as a "letter")John Hopcroft, Rajeev Motwani and Jeffrey Ullman, Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation, 2000 A formal symbol as used in first-order logic may be a variable (member from a universe of discourse), a constant, a function (mapping to another member of universe) or a predicate (mapping to T/F). Formal symbols are usually thought of as purely syntactic structures, composed into larger structures using a formal grammar, though sometimes they may be associated with an interpretation or model (a formal semantics).
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Hellenisation became Latinization during the Roman period, and it was succeeded best in Antioch. The city was divided into seven districts called "vici" each of which was founded on one of the city's seven hills like the seven hills of Rome. The formal language was Latin until the end of the 3rd century AD. The fertility of the land and the peace brought by Augustus (Pax Romana: Roman Peace) made it easier for the veterans as colonists in the area to have good relations and integration with the natives. One of the three surviving copies of the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, the famous inscription recording the noble deeds of the Emperor Augustus, was found in front of the Augusteum in Antioch.
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There are three equivalent definitions of a recursively enumerable language: # A recursively enumerable language is a recursively enumerable subset in the set of all possible words over the alphabet of the language. # A recursively enumerable language is a formal language for which there exists a Turing machine (or other computable function) which will enumerate all valid strings of the language. Note that if the language is infinite, the enumerating algorithm provided can be chosen so that it avoids repetitions, since we can test whether the string produced for number n is "already" produced for a number which is less than n. If it already is produced, use the output for input n+1 instead (recursively), but again, test whether it is "new".
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In logic, syntax is anything having to do with formal languages or formal systems without regard to any interpretation or meaning given to them. Syntax is concerned with the rules used for constructing, or transforming the symbols and words of a language, as contrasted with the semantics of a language which is concerned with its meaning. The symbols, formulas, systems, theorems, proofs, and interpretations expressed in formal languages are syntactic entities whose properties may be studied without regard to any meaning they may be given, and, in fact, need not be given any. Syntax is usually associated with the rules (or grammar) governing the composition of texts in a formal language that constitute the well-formed formulas of a formal system.
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Subsequently, Bortoft worked with John G. Bennett on Bennett's Systematics (also known as Multi-Term Systems), which was Bennett's methodology for assisting the systematic and progressive understanding of systems, complexity, and wholeness, and on efforts with Bennett and with Kenneth W. Pledge to develop a formal language that was rigorously descriptive of scientific activity. Those efforts were published in Systematics: The Journal of the Institute for the Comparative Study of History, Philosophy and the Sciences, listed below. Bortoft taught physics and philosophy of science at Schumacher College in the framework of the program in Holistic Science. He held numerous lectures and seminars in Great Britain and the United States on the scientific work of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and on the development of modern science.
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In these cases, the trial judge is given great deference in most jurisdictions by appellate courts in making the decision as to whether there is a more appropriate venue. A change of venue may be reflected in the formal language used in a trial. For example, when a bailiff or marshal calls the court to order part of the cry will take the form "in and for the County of San Francisco"; when there is a change of venue the cry will be, "in the County of Alameda for the County of San Francisco." In England and Wales, the Central Criminal Court Act 1856 permitted the venue for some high- profile cases to be changed to the Old Bailey in London.
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The official formal language used by: governmental institutions, print, news, schools/universities, courts, theatres and in any kind of written form is (the Swiss variety of Standard) German, while the spoken language is Zürich German (Züritüütsch), one of the several more or less distinguishable, but mutually intelligible Swiss German dialects of Switzerland with roots in the medieval Alemannic German dialect groups. However, because of Zürich's national importance, and therefore its existing high fluctuation, one can hear all kinds of Swiss German dialects spoken by its inhabitants and commuters. As of the December 2010 census, 69.3% of the population speaks diglossic Swiss German/Swiss Standard German as their mother-tongue at home. Some 22.7% of inhabitants speak Standard German in their family environment ("at home").
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The discrete manifestations of drama are documented in different media, including text, score, video, audio, etc. The dramatic content underlying these manifestation, however, does not depend on the specific medium: take, for example, the Arden edition of the written drama of Hamlet and Laurence Olivier's movie Hamlet, two examples of the drama heritage which share the same drama content despite the differences of the media support. The annotation of the content of media that convey dramatic content requires the use of an annotation schema expressed in a formal language, which makes the annotation comparable, and, possibly, machine readable. The first attempts at attaching content metadata to media concerned text documents and were carried out by using markup languages, such as XML, which allow to embed content tags into the document text.
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In formal language theory and pattern matching (including regular expressions), the concatenation operation on strings is generalised to an operation on sets of strings as follows: For two sets of strings S1 and S2, the concatenation S1S2 consists of all strings of the form vw where v is a string from S1 and w is a string from S2, or formally . Many authors also use concatenation of a string set and a single string, and vice versa, which are defined similarly by and . In these definitions, the string vw is the ordinary concatenation of strings v and w as defined in the introductory section. For example, if , and , then FR denotes the set of all chess board coordinates in algebraic notation, while eR denotes the set of all coordinates of the kings' file.
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Since his first solo exhibition in 1991, Francisco Tropa has since been building his unique body of work grounded the fusion of naturally occurring phenomena with a decidedly human interest for the mythical and unexplained, incorporating historical and archeological elements into his oeuvre. Making use of a heterogeneous formal language, where sculpture, architecture, painting, photography, cinema and theater intersect, Tropa's work goes beyond the categorization of artistic genres. The artist relies mostly on primal materials in his installations, incorporating glass, metals, stone, wood, insects or sand, redefining their original character through transporting them in a process reminiscent of a modern alchemy. Unlike the traditional artist, Tropa “mixes art and technical ingenuity” to embrace “prototypes and machines, but also paintings, screen prints, photography and performance” in his curious yet engaging works.
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In the study of formal theories in mathematical logic, bounded quantifiers are often included in a formal language in addition to the standard quantifiers "∀" and "∃". Bounded quantifiers differ from "∀" and "∃" in that bounded quantifiers restrict the range of the quantified variable. The study of bounded quantifiers is motivated by the fact that determining whether a sentence with only bounded quantifiers is true is often not as difficult as determining whether an arbitrary sentence is true. Examples of bounded quantifiers in the context of real analysis include "∀x>0", "∃y<0", and "∀x ∊ ℝ". Informally "∀x>0" says "for all x where x is larger than 0", "∃y<0" says "there exists a y where y is less than 0" and "∀x ∊ ℝ" says "for all x where x is a real number".
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The notion of a propositional formula appearing as one of its own variables requires a formation rule that allows the assignment of the formula to a variable. In general there is no stipulation (either axiomatic or truth-table systems of objects and relations) that forbids this from happening.McCluskey comments that "it could be argued that the analysis is still incomplete because the word statement "The outputs are equal to the previous values of the inputs" has not been obtained"; he goes on to dismiss such worries because "English is not a formal language in a mathematical sense, [and] it is not really possible to have a formal procedure for obtaining word statements" (p. 185). The simplest case occurs when an OR formula becomes one its own inputs e.g.
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In computer science, a grammar is informally called a recursive grammar if it contains production rules that are recursive, meaning that expanding a non- terminal according to these rules can eventually lead to a string that includes the same non-terminal again. Otherwise it is called a non-recursive grammar.. For example, a grammar for a context-free language is left recursive if there exists a non-terminal symbol A that can be put through the production rules to produce a string with A (as the leftmost symbol). Notes on Formal Language Theory and Parsing, James Power, Department of Computer Science National University of Ireland, Maynooth Maynooth, Co. Kildare, Ireland.. All types of grammars in the Chomsky hierarchy can be recursive and it is recursion that allows the production of infinite sets of words.
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If so, F itself is the family of unions of subsets of P. In the formal language formalization of an antimatroid we may also identify a subset of words that determine the whole language, the basic words. The longest strings in L are called basic words; each basic word forms a permutation of the whole alphabet. For instance, the basic words of a poset antimatroid are the linear extensions of the given partial order. If B is the set of basic words, L can be defined from B as the set of prefixes of words in B. It is often convenient to define antimatroids from basic words in this way, but it is not straightforward to write an axiomatic definition of antimatroids in terms of their basic words.
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Stylistics, a branch of applied linguistics, is the study and interpretation of texts of all types and/or spoken language in regard to their linguistic and tonal style, where style is the particular variety of language used by different individuals and/or in different situations or settings. For example, the vernacular, or everyday language may be used among casual friends, whereas more formal language, with respect to grammar, pronunciation or accent, and lexicon or choice of words, is often used in a cover letter and résumé and while speaking during a job interview. As a discipline, stylistics links literary criticism to linguistics. It does not function as an autonomous domain on its own, and it can be applied to an understanding of literature and journalism as well as linguistics.Widdowson, H.G. 1975.
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Set inclusions described by the Chomsky hierarchy Based on this rule-based notation of grammars, Chomsky grouped natural languages into a series of four nested subsets and increasingly complex types, together known as the Chomsky hierarchy. This classification was and remains foundational to formal language theory, and relevant to theoretical computer science, especially programming language theory, compiler construction, and automata theory. Following transformational grammar's heyday through the mid-1970s, a derivative government and binding theory became a dominant research framework through the early 1990s, remaining an influential theory, when linguists turned to a "minimalist" approach to grammar. This research focused on the principles and parameters framework, which explained children's ability to learn any language by filling open parameters (a set of universal grammar principles) that adapt as the child encounters linguistic data.
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There is an implicit code of behavior between sœurs, especially in the Yamayuri Council—the student council of the school: quietness, measure and respect towards each other; values deeply attached to traditional Japanese education. French is occasionally used throughout the story; for example, the series is given the French subtitle La Vierge Marie vous regarde, which means "The Virgin Mary is watching you". In keeping with the tone of the series, formal language is used: is a strictly formal and respectful greeting in Japanese, and is used both to greet and to bid farewell. By custom, this greeting is used often in the Lillian School; this has been one of the distinguishable and popular phrases of the series, and it is used to begin or to finish each volume.
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When Gael joins them, the gang use formal language in order to continue their conversation without letting on, which makes Gael ask if they are talking about baseball. Marshall writes his letter to Lily, pouring his heart (and tears) out over many pages. Once finished, he decides to read Lily's letter to him and is angry to discover it is not as heart-felt as his (it contains information on her teacher's pension and a reminder to cancel Vogue.) At the bar, Gael is surrounded by women while Ted and Barney lament how easy it is for Gael to get girls simply by being from out of town. This gives them the idea to pose as tourists outside MacLaren's and they strike up a conversation with two passing girls.
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Thomas Kuhn's landmark book of 1962, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, was first published in a volume of the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science—a project begun by logical positivists—and somehow, at last, unified the empirical sciences by freeing them from the physics model, and calling them for assessment in history and sociology. Lacking such heavy use of mathematics and logic's formal language—an approach introduced in the 1920s by the Vienna Circle's Rudolf Carnap—Kuhn's book, powerful and persuasive, was written in natural language open to laypersons. Structure finds science to be puzzlesolving toward a vision projected by the "ruling class" of a scientific specialty's community, whose "unwritten rulebook" dictates acceptable problems and solutions, altogether normal science.Lipton, "Truth about science", Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 2005;360(1458):1259–69.
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Alfonso XIII, 1894 Title page of (Foundation and statutes of the Royal Spanish Academy) (1715) The Royal Spanish Academy was founded in 1713, modeled after the Accademia della Crusca (1582), of Italy, and the Académie Française (1635), of France, with the purpose "to fix the voices and vocabularies of the Spanish language with propriety, elegance, and purity". King Philip V approved its constitution on 3 October 1714, placing it under the Crown's protection. Its aristocratic founder, , Duke of Escalona and Marquess of Villena, described its aims as "to assure that Spanish speakers will always be able to read Cervantes" – by exercising a progressive up-to-date maintenance of the formal language. The RAE began establishing rules for the orthography of Spanish beginning in 1741 with the first edition of the (spelled from the second edition onwards).
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The use of the term Genetic epidemiology emerged in the mid 1980s as a new scientific field. In formal language, genetic epidemiology was defined by Newton Morton, one of the pioneers of the field, as "a science which deals with the etiology, distribution, and control of disease in groups of relatives and with inherited causes of disease in populations". It is closely allied to both molecular epidemiology and statistical genetics, but these overlapping fields each have distinct emphases, societies and journals. One definition of the field closely follows that of behavior genetics, defining genetic epidemiology as "the scientific discipline that deals with the analysis of the familial distribution of traits, with a view to understanding any possible genetic basis", and that "seeks to understand both the genetic and environmental factors and how they interact to produce various diseases and traits in humans".
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Michael A. Harrison (born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.) studied electrical engineering and computing for BS and MS at the Case Institute of Technology, and then received a PhD from the University of Michigan in Communication Sciences. He was assistant professor from 1963 to 1966 at the University of Michigan, and then joined the faculty of the E.E. Dept at the University of California at Berkeley, where he was an associate professor from 1966 to 1971, and a full professor from 1971 to 1994.Long Vita at Harrison's Home page In the 1960s, he worked with Sheila Greibach, Gene Rose, Ed Spanier, and Joe Ullian in a research group formed and led by Seymour Ginsburg, dedicated to formal language theory and the foundations of Computer Science. The work that came out of this group distinguished Computer Science theory from other fields.
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In formal language theory, a context-free grammar is in Greibach normal form (GNF) if the right-hand sides of all production rules start with a terminal symbol, optionally followed by some variables. A non-strict form allows one exception to this format restriction for allowing the empty word (epsilon, ε) to be a member of the described language. The normal form was established by Sheila Greibach and it bears her name. More precisely, a context-free grammar is in Greibach normal form, if all production rules are of the form: :A \to a A_1 A_2 \cdots A_n or :S \to \varepsilon where A is a nonterminal symbol, a is a terminal symbol, A_1 A_2 \ldots A_n is a (possibly empty) sequence of nonterminal symbols not including the start symbol, S is the start symbol, and ε is the empty word.
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"Logic series" is not actually an established topic in mathematical logic or mathematics. Contrary to what Seldom states in his lecture at the beginning of the film, the argument of Wittgenstein's Tractatus does not actually proceed by the use of equations (with the exception of a few simple equations in Wittgenstein's introduction of the truth tables) and it is not expressed in the formal language of mathematical logic; the argument is rather a philosophical argument expressed in normal, albeit idiosyncratic, language. Moreover, Professor Andrew Wiles, who solved Fermat's Last Theorem, is represented as "Professor Wilkin" of Cambridge University in the film, and Fermat's Last Theorem is represented as "Bormat's Last Theorem". Contrary to a statement made early in the film, electromechanical computers (namely the "Bombe") played a crucial role in the breaking of the German "Enigma" cipher by British (and earlier, Polish) cryptographers during WW2.
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In fact, great care is exercised to exclude from logical discourse terms, which have no referential content. No statement, which is known to be false, is admitted as a premise in a valid argument. Thus, the ‘method of indirect proof’ (reductio ad absurdum) is not accepted as a valid method−neither in Indian philosophy nor in Indian mathematics−for proving the existence of an entity whose existence is not demonstrable (even in principle) by other (direct) means of proof. Indian logic does not make any attempt to develop a purely symbolic and content independent or ‘formal language’ as the vehicle of logical analysis. Instead, what Indian logic, especially in its later phase of Navya-Nyāya starting with the work of Gāngeśa Upādhyāya of 14th century, has developed is a technical language, which is based on the natural language Sanskrit, yet avoids ‘inexactness’ and ‘misleading irregularities’ by various technical devices.
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In computational complexity theory, the parallel computation thesis is a hypothesis which states that the time used by a (reasonable) parallel machine is polynomially related to the space used by a sequential machine. The parallel computation thesis was set forth by Chandra and Stockmeyer in 1976. In other words, for a computational model which allows computations to branch and run in parallel without bound, a formal language which is decidable under the model using no more than t(n) steps for inputs of length n is decidable by a non-branching machine using no more than t(n)^k units of storage for some constant k. Similarly, if a machine in the unbranching model decides a language using no more than s(n) storage, a machine in the parallel model can decide the language in no more than s(n)^k steps for some constant k.
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ICAO has acknowledged that "communications, or the lack thereof, has been shown by many accident investigations to play a significant role". In 2003, the Organization "released amendments to annexes of its Chicago Convention requiring aviation professionals involved in international operations to demonstrate a defined level of English language proficiency in the context of aeronautical communications. ICAO requires that this level of proficiency is to be demonstrated by means of a formal language proficiency assessment, and that the results of this assessment are to be recorded as an endorsement on the professional licences of pilots and controllers." ICAO has defined the language skills to be assessed in its Holistic Descriptors of Operational Language Proficiency (Appendix to Annex 1 of the Convention on International Civil Aviation), and has provided the means to describe the extent of proficiency in these skills in its Language Proficiency Rating Scale (Attachment to Annex 1 of the Convention on International Civil Aviation).
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Newman, J. The Buildings of Wales: Glamorgan University of Wales Press (1995), p. 266 This was at a time when the surrounding area consisted mainly of post-industrial dereliction. Hence the construction of the new building has been described in Buildings of Wales: Glamorgan as a "remarkable gesture of faith [by] the South Glamorgan County Council".Newman, J. The Buildings of Wales: Glamorgan University of Wales Press (1995), p. 263 It is seen as representative of a new form of civic building that does not dominate its surroundings by its size, or formal language, to the extent that it could "even [be] a deliberate abregation of the arrogant assertiveness of the late C19, expressed across the water". County Hall was officially opened by the Right Honourable Lord Callaghan of Cardiff KG, in October 1988.County Hall website Weddings: A Venue For All Occasions (Retrieved 2011-09-14) The building is generally three storeys in height, but rises to four and five storeys in places.
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H.I.V (also known stylistically as H.I.V (Humanity is Vanishing)) is the debut album of the Cameroonian rapper and producer Jovi, released August 31, 2012. Entirely self-produced under his producer alias, "Le Monstre", Jovi composed, recorded, and mixed the album in Yaoundé, Cameroon. The album blends instrumentation and rhythms from traditional Cameroonian genres with Western hip hop beats and style, as well as influences from pop, rock, electronic and industrial genres, and includes samples from African musicians Tabu Ley Rochereau and Eko Roosevelt. H.I.V received critical acclaim for its use of punchlines, rhyming, and wordplay in Pidgin English (which is widely spoken in Cameroon, but not considered a formal language), mixed with English and French. Jovi’s H.I.V album was highly anticipated in Cameroon following the release of his debut video “Don 4 Kwat” on October 14, 2011, which is seen as re-energizing the hip hop scene in Cameroon, which had largely been dormant and dominated by Bikutsi and Makossa genres.
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In formal language theory, a context-free grammar, G, is said to be in Chomsky normal form (first described by Noam Chomsky) Here: Sect.6, p.152ff. if all of its production rules are of the form: : A → BC, or : A → a, or : S → ε, where A, B, and C are nonterminal symbols, the letter a is a terminal symbol (a symbol that represents a constant value), S is the start symbol, and ε denotes the empty string. Also, neither B nor C may be the start symbol, and the third production rule can only appear if ε is in L(G), the language produced by the context-free grammar G. Every grammar in Chomsky normal form is context-free, and conversely, every context-free grammar can be transformed into an equivalent onethat is, one that produces the same language which is in Chomsky normal form and has a size no larger than the square of the original grammar's size.
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In mathematics and computer science, trace theory aims to provide a concrete mathematical underpinning for the study of concurrent computation and process calculi. The underpinning is provided by an algebraic definition of the free partially commutative monoid or trace monoid, or equivalently, the history monoid, which provides a concrete algebraic foundation, analogous to the way that the free monoid provides the underpinning for formal languages. The power of trace theory stems from the fact that the algebra of dependency graphs (such as Petri nets) is isomorphic to that of trace monoids, and thus, one can apply both algebraic formal language tools, as well as tools from graph theory. While the trace monoid had been studied by Pierre Cartier and Dominique Foata for its combinatorics in the 1960s, trace theory was first formulated by Antoni Mazurkiewicz in the 1970s, in an attempt to evade some of the problems in the theory of concurrent computation, including the problems of interleaving and non-deterministic choice with regards to refinement in process calculi.
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With his landmark, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), Thomas Kuhn critically destabilized the verificationist program, which was presumed to call for foundationalism. (But already in the 1930s, Otto Neurath had argued for nonfoundationalism via coherentism by likening science to a boat (Neurath's boat) that scientists must rebuild at sea.) Although Kuhn's thesis itself was attacked even by opponents of neopositivism, in the 1970 postscript to Structure, Kuhn asserted, at least, that there was no algorithm to science—and, on that, even most of Kuhn's critics agreed. Powerful and persuasive, Kuhn's book, unlike the vocabulary and symbols of logic's formal language, was written in natural language open to the layperson. Kuhn's book was first published in a volume of International Encyclopedia of Unified Science—a project begun by logical positivists but co- edited by Neurath whose view of science was already nonfoundationalist as mentioned above—and some sense unified science, indeed, but by bringing it into the realm of historical and social assessment, rather than fitting it to the model of physics.
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In his analysis of Portal, Daniel Johnson points out that "the larger chunk of Portals narrative exists in GLaDOS' dialogue", which tells "a metaphoric tale of a power struggle of identity roles within an institution". He discusses how the "backstage" of the institution is hinted at and gradually revealed through GLaDOS's slip-ups, from the momentary glitch during her initial instructions to the player ("the first flaw in the routine") to her ultimate abandonment of the formal language of the institution as she desperately pleads with the player to return to the testing area (the "front stage", where the institution's inner workings are supposedly hidden from view). Microsoft Game Studios developer Tom Abernathy, in discussing the importance of compelling characters in video games, praises Portal for giving its audience "room to do some imagination work" by inviting them to read between the lines to understand GLaDOS's motivations. His own interpretation is that GLaDOS is conflicted between her wants and needs, a conflict which ultimately "causes her to go crazy".
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Furthermore, he defined this propositional logic from scratch, argued that neither classical propositional logic nor any of its non-classical extensions can be applied as an adequate formal language of descriptions, whereas the paradoxes of implication and equivalence are due to classical logic's restricting itself to considering only one, admittedly the most important, parameter of the content of a claim, namely its truth value. He rejected all the classical logical tautologies except the law of contradiction and added two logical axioms: (LD1): ≡ represents an equivalence relation and obeys the appropriate Extensionality property, that is equal descriptions can be substituted for each other, and (LD2): ≡ joins some of the Boolean properties of descriptions, such like associativity, commutativity, and idempotency of ∧ and ∨, distributivity of ∧ over ∨, distributivity of ∨ over ∧, involution of ¬ that additionally satisfies the De Morgan laws. His results in the concatenation theory and the propositional calculus with the descriptive equivalence connective provided an important addition to his signal achievements. By his investigations in psychologism, he converted the paradox of Eubulides into a positive theorem (formally proved): an ideal human tackling a linguistically properly stated problem is able to think on this consistently, sincerely and fully consciously.
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Key concepts of his works are word frequency lists as guidelines to vocabulary acquisition, the learning burden of a word, the need to teach learning strategies to students in order to increase their autonomy in vocabulary expansion for low-frequency items, support to extensive reading of accessible texts (≥95-98% of known words), the usefulness of L2→L1 tools (dictionaries, word cards) for their clarity. After the communicative approach of the 80's, his works have been instrumental for second language courses design and current teaching methods, relying mainly on fast vocabulary acquisition of frequent words.() Together with Batia Laufer, James Coady, Norbert Schmitt, Paul Meara, Rebecca Oxford, Michael Swan, his position is linked to Stephen Krashen's Natural approach (emphasis on frequent grammatical and lexical items first) and to the proposed Lexical approach (emphasis on vocabulary) of language teaching.() At a larger level, he is also known for his position emphasises having a balance of learning opportunities including the 'four strands' approach to language courses and classes (, ), with study time devoted to about 25% each of: # input from reading and listening, # output through writing and speaking, # formal language learning, i.e.
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The problem of gimbal lock appears when one uses Euler angles in applied mathematics; developers of 3D computer programs, such as 3D modeling, embedded navigation systems, and video games must take care to avoid it. In formal language, gimbal lock occurs because the map from Euler angles to rotations (topologically, from the 3-torus T3 to the real projective space RP3 which is the same as the space of 3d rotations SO3) is not a local homeomorphism at every point, and thus at some points the rank (degrees of freedom) must drop below 3, at which point gimbal lock occurs. Euler angles provide a means for giving a numerical description of any rotation in three- dimensional space using three numbers, but not only is this description not unique, but there are some points where not every change in the target space (rotations) can be realized by a change in the source space (Euler angles). This is a topological constraint – there is no covering map from the 3-torus to the 3-dimensional real projective space; the only (non-trivial) covering map is from the 3-sphere, as in the use of quaternions.
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Trybulec's first mathematical papers were in the various topological and metric space topics pioneered by Karol Borsuk. In parallel to his generic topological research, he also worked in computational linguistics and semantics of programming languages. Applying the framework of Tarski–Grothendieck set theory axioms, essentially the Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory supplemented by the Tarski axiom with all the objects being sets and eliminated notion of class, together with the first-order logic of the Gentzen-Jaśkowski natural deduction, in 1973 he designed the formalization system Mizar consisting of a formal language for writing mathematical definitions and proofs, a proof assistant, able to mechanically check proofs written in this language. Although the first presentation of the Mizar system on November 14, 1973 at a seminar in the Institute of Library Science and Scientific Information was an ideology understood as a visionary speculation rather than research project, his idea was later developed by himself and his collaborators to the Mizar Mathematical Library (MML), a library of formalized mathematics which can be used in the proof of new theorems and the world’s largest repository of formalized and computer-checked mathematics.
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One instance of the schema is included for each formula φ in the language of set theory with free variables among x, w1, ..., wn, A. So B does not occur free in φ. In the formal language of set theory, the axiom schema is: :\forall w_1,\ldots,w_n \, \forall A \, \exists B \, \forall x \, ( x \in B \Leftrightarrow [ x \in A \land \varphi(x, w_1, \ldots, w_n , A) ] ) or in words: : Given any set A, there is a set B (a subset of A) such that, given any set x, x is a member of B if and only if x is a member of A and φ holds for x. Note that there is one axiom for every such predicate φ; thus, this is an axiom schema. To understand this axiom schema, note that the set B must be a subset of A. Thus, what the axiom schema is really saying is that, given a set A and a predicate P, we can find a subset B of A whose members are precisely the members of A that satisfy P. By the axiom of extensionality this set is unique.
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The spontaneous crossing of the discs leads Nay around 1962/63 to the discovery of the ocular motif, which as a further development of the "disc" for two years, the image of the so-called "eye images" determines ("eyes", 1964, WV 1092 In the light of the artist's intention to "open", it is characteristic that with this motif of the "eye", for the first time in years, something reminiscent of the human being is visible again (Magda, p. 26). This primeval theme of seeing and being looked at together, promising magical powers and spellbinding defenses in archetypal symbols, but also symbolizing light and spiritual awareness, is a daunting challenge to Nay's completely non-objective image design. But he does not renounce the association of the magical aura of this figurative form, but brings the effect of the large-scale eye-forms of his images into balance with a very moving, abstract formal language, which he incorporates into a passionately unfolding chromaticism. All registers of a strongly contrasting colourfulness, as well as the emphasis on delicate-light and dark-colored contrasts, brings Nay into this dialogue and thus increases the vitality and freedom of his image design.
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In mathematical logic and set theory, an ordinal notation is a partial function from the set of all finite sequences of symbols from a finite alphabet to a countable set of ordinals, and a Gödel numbering is a function from the set of well-formed formulae (a well-formed formula is a finite sequence of symbols on which the ordinal notation function is defined) of some formal language to the natural numbers. This associates each wff with a unique natural number, called its Gödel number. If a Gödel numbering is fixed, then the subset relation on the ordinals induces an ordering on well-formed formulae which in turn induces a well-ordering on the subset of natural numbers. A recursive ordinal notation must satisfy the following two additional properties: # the subset of natural numbers is a recursive set # the induced well-ordering on the subset of natural numbers is a recursive relation There are many such schemes of ordinal notations, including schemes by Wilhelm Ackermann, Heinz Bachmann, Wilfried Buchholz, Georg Cantor, Solomon Feferman, Gerhard Jäger, Isles, Pfeiffer, Wolfram Pohlers, Kurt Schütte, Gaisi Takeuti (called ordinal diagrams), Oswald Veblen.
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