105 Sentences With "druidism" | Random Sentence Generator

I was far more interested in psychedelics then, and it was through psychedelics that I had my own kind of initiation [into druidism].

Obviously, we wanted to give him a call to gain some insider knowledge about his experience of the festival over the years, what Druidism has to do with it, and gong baths.

In 1927 T. D. Kendrick sought to dispel the pseudo-historical aura that had accrued to druids, asserting that "a prodigious amount of rubbish has been written about Druidism";Kendrick 1927:viii. Neo-druidism has nevertheless continued to shape public perceptions of the historical druids. Some strands of contemporary Neo- Druidism are a continuation of the 18th century revival and thus are built largely around writings produced in the 18th century and after by second-hand sources and theorists.

Neo-Druidism is a form of modern spirituality or religion that generally promotes harmony and worship of nature gods. Many forms of modern Druidism are Neopagan religions, whereas others are instead seen as philosophies that are not necessarily religious in nature.Harvey, Graham (2007) Listening People, Speaking Earth: Contemporary Paganism (second edition). London: Hurst & Company. . p.

The Keltrian Druid practice recognizes three levels of experience: Ring of the Birch, Ring of the Yew, and Ring of the Oak. It also promotes three areas of service: Bardic service, Seer's service, and the Druid's service. The three foundations of Keltrian Druidism: Belief is secondary in Keltrian Druidism. Actions and practice determine the path that an individual is on.

The goal of Keltrian Druidism is to develop a spiritual relationship with the Ancestors, Nature Spirits, and Gods and Goddesses in a Celtic context.

Before this, he would preach in chapels near to his home. It was around 1844–45 that Davies moved to Pontypridd, where he first took on the name 'Myfyr Morganwg'. He became very interested by the revival of interest in Druidism which had swept the local area. He read heavily on the subject and concluded that Christianity was merely Druidism in a Jewish garb.

Janet Maslin of The New York Times categorized the film as a mixture of ancient mythologies, which were reworked in what she called "visceral, monstrously immediate terms". Film critic Richard Corliss from Time pointed out that it contained multiple references to Druidism. Corliss also noted the film's mixture of druidism with several biblical stories such as the Creation (Genesis), the Nativity, and Christ's torture/death.

In 1872, American Druids undertook the task to bring Druidism to the German empire. Joseph Hafky was in charge of charter several Lodges in Berlin, Bremerhaven and Stuttgart.

Pre- Christian Ireland worshipped a variety of deities, including the sun. Druidism survived in Ireland much longer than Britain and Gaul, as Ireland was never conquered by the Romans.

Stonehenge is a site of religious significance in Neo-Druidism as Druids perform pilgrimage there. The first modern Druids to perform ceremonies at this site were the Ancient Order of Druids.

Other religions Welsh people may be affiliated with include Buddhism, Hinduism, Judaism, Islam, Sikhism and Druidism, with most non- Christian Welsh people found in the large cities of Cardiff and Swansea.

Vates or Ovates make up one of the three grades of the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids, a neo- druidism order based in England. An ovate is also the initial level one can attain in the modern Welsh Gorsedd of Bards. The Gorsedd is not a neo-druidic entity like the one mentioned above, but is more concerned with Welsh arts and culture; however, the ceremony and practices are largely based on reimaginings of druidism by Iolo Morganwg.

Among Blake's inspirations were John Milton's Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained, the visions of Emanuel Swedenborg and the near-cabalistic writings of Jakob Böhme. Blake also included his own interpretations of druidism and paganism.

The ' (anglicised Shony' or Shoney) was a water spirit in Lewis, according to Martin Martin. Dwelly defines ' (without the "i", a related form in Scottish Gaelic) as "1. augury, sorcery. 2. Druidism" and quotes Martin further.

Stonehenge, a site of pilgrimage for Druids Stonehenge is a site of religious significance in Neo-Druidism. Druids perform pilgrimage there, The first modern Druids to make ceremonies at this site is the Ancient Order of Druids.

Bonewits, Isaac (2006) Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism. New York, Kensington Publishing Group . p. 132: [Among Celtic Reconstructionists] "...An Thríbhís Mhòr (the great triple spiral) came into common use to refer to the three realms." Also p.

Among those who practice magic are Wiccans, those who identify as Neopagan Witches, and practitioners of some forms of revivalist Neo-druidism, the rituals of which are at least partially based upon those of ceremonial magic and freemasonry.

The "Druid's Prayer" () or "Gorsedd Prayer" (Gweddi'r Orsedd) is a prayer composed by Iolo Morganwg which is still a staple in the ritual of both gorseddau and Neo-Druidism. Neo-Druids sometimes substitute the words y Dduwies ("the Goddess") for the original Duw ("God").

Donald A.Mackenzie, Buddhism in pre-Christian Britain (1928:21). Others have invoked common Indo-European parallels.Isaac Bonewits, Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism, Citadel, 2006. Caesar noted the druidic doctrine of the original ancestor of the tribe, whom he referred to as Dispater, or Father Hades.

Tristen ApBlanc, the lord of Forlorn, is part vampire and part ghost. A section on druidism reveals the spell-casting secrets of redheaded humans. Landmarks include a granite cliff that weeps blood and a half-mile fissure that spews yellow vapor to enshroud the domain.

The triple spiral is one of the main symbols of Celtic ReconstructionismBonewits, Isaac (2006) Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism. New York, Kensington Publishing Group . p.132: [Among Celtic Reconstructionists] "...An Thríbhís Mhòr (the great triple spiral) came into common use to refer to the three realms." Also p.

Neopagans are generally welcoming of LGBT people, and some strands celebrate gay relationships. Support is highest in Neo-Druidism, Wicca and Asatru.Wicca for Beginners: Fundamentals of Philosophy & Practice, Thea Sabin - 2006Women's spirituality, women's lives - Page 127, Judith Ochshorn, Ellen Cole - 1995 Some Wiccan groups perform handfastings and betrothals.

Since the 1980s, some modern druid groups have adopted similar methodologies to those of Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism in an effort to create a more historically accurate practice. However, there is still controversy over how much resemblance modern Druidism may or may not have to the Iron Age druids.

The triple spiral is one of the main symbols of Celtic ReconstructionismBonewits, Isaac (2006) Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism. New York, Kensington Publishing Group . p.132: [Among Celtic Reconstructionists] "...An Thríbhís Mhòr (the great triple spiral) came into common use to refer to the three realms." Also p.

During the Iron Age, Celtic polytheism was the predominant religion in the area now known as England. Neo- Druidism grew out of the Celtic revival in 18th century Romanticism. A 2012 Druid analysis estimates that there are roughly 11,000 Druids in Britain.UK 2011 Census publishes figures for Druids , druidry.

Handfasting is a wedding ritual in which the bride's and groom's hands are tied together. It is said to be based on an ancient Celtic tradition and to have inspired the phrase "tying the knot". "Handfasting" is favoured by practitioners of Celtic- based religions and spiritual traditions, such as Wicca and Druidism.

Celtic neopaganism and neo-Druidism is particularly popular in Austria, by virtue of Austria being the location of the Proto-Celtic Hallstatt culture. The Keltendorf in Diex, Kärnten combines archaeological reconstruction with "European geomancy". The Europäisch Keltische Gemeinschaft has been active since 1998. The Pagan Federation has chapters in Austria and Germany.

Celtic Wicca can be seen as both a form of Wicca and a branch of Celtic Neopaganism. On the Neopagan continuum from eclectic to reconstructionist, Celtic Wicca is at the eclectic end: as non-historical as most forms of Neo-druidism, and contrasting firmly with Celtic Reconstructionism, which emphasizes cultural focus and historical accuracy.

394), the Bordelaise tutor of the emperor Gratian, was at least nominally a Christian, though throughout his occasionally obscene mixed-genre poems, he retains a literary interest in the Greco-Roman gods and even druidism. The imperial panegyrist Claudian (d. 404) was a vir illustris who appears never to have converted. Prudentius (d. ca.

John Wood, the Elder, (1704 – 23 May 1754), was an English architect, working mainly in Bath. In 1740 he surveyed Stonehenge and the Stanton Drew stone circles. He later wrote extensively about Bladud and Neo-Druidism. Because of some of his designs he is also thought to have been involved in the early years of Freemasonry.

Ouroboros and ἓν τὸ πᾶν, i.e. "the All is One" (Zosimos of Panopolis). For Pierre A. Riffard, esotericism is "occult teaching, doctrine or theory, technique or process, of symbolic expression, of a metaphysical nature, of initiatory intent. Druidism, compagnonnage (the traditional French system of training craftsmen), alchemy are esotericisms."P. Riffard, Dictionnaire de l'ésotérisme, Paris: Payot, 1983, 125.

Dedication, 6 May 2011 The Falcon Circle is the newest of the Cadet Chapel's worship areas, dedicated in 2011. It was established through a request from followers of Earth-Centered Spirituality, an umbrella of traditions that includes Wicca, Paganism and Druidism. It is open to use by all religious communities to worship in a manner respectful of other faiths.

Modern Neopagan religions such as Wicca, Neo-druidism, and Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism have their origins in academic interest and romantic revivalism, which emerged in new religious movements in the twentieth century.N. J. R. Lewis, ed., The Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), , p. 515. Gerald Gardner, a retired British civil servant, founded modern Wicca.

Andrew Lang The belief in diminutive beings such as sprites, elves, fairies, etc. has been common in many parts of the world, and might to some extent still be found within neo-spiritual and religious movements such as "neo-druidism" and Ásatrú. In some elemental magics, the sprite is often believed to be the elemental of air (see also sylph).

During the Iron Age, Celtic polytheism was the predominant religion in the area now known as England. Neo-Druidism grew out of the Celtic revival in 18th-century Romanticism. The 2011 census states there are 4,189 Druids in England and Wales. A 2012 analysis by the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids estimates that there are between 6,000 and 11,000 Druids in Britain.

During the Iron Age, Celtic polytheism was the predominant religion in the area now known as England. Neo-Druidism grew out of the Celtic revival in 18th century Romanticism. Its first organised group was the Ancient Order of Druids, founded in London in 1781 along Masonic lines as a mutual benefit society and still extant today. It is not a neo-Pagan group.

He was especially hard on Druidism, because of its incompatibility with the Roman state religion and its proselytizing activities. Claudius forbade proselytizing in any religion, even in those regions where he allowed natives to worship freely. It is also reported that at one time he expelled the Jews from Rome, probably because the Jews within the city caused continuous disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus.

He met George Davison, a fellow photographer and a philanthropist who was involved in Theosophy and Freemasonry. This started him on a path of studying mysticism, metaphysical ideals and Druidism. He met Ezra Pound, who introduced him to the short-lived Vorticism movement in Britain. Its new visual aesthetics intrigued Coburn and, provoked by his growing spiritual quest, he began to re-examine his photographic style.

The literature of the major works have various distinct genres, including; the writing of epistles, drafting liturgies, collecting materials for meditative use, historiography, calendar and protocol guides, research tracts on modern and ancient Druidry, council records, oral histories, local event chronographies, teaching guides for new members, recruitment materials, terminology references, bardic material collections, and even game design. In addition to the major printed collections that have grown exponentially larger every decade, several newsletters and magazines have been published, websites and talk groups have held online since the early 1990s. In other media, members of the Reform has produced full-length movies, albums, and an animated series. Members of the Reformed Druid priesthood (such as Isaac Bonewits and more recently, John Michael Greer) have published short stories, novels, several books on religion, including modern Druidism, even though those works are not directly related to Reformed Druidism.

Practices characterized as "magic" could be a form of superstitio as an excessive and dangerous quest for personal knowledge.Beard et al, Religions of Rome: A History, pp. 217–219. By the early 2nd century AD, religions of other peoples that were perceived as resistant to religious assimilation began to be labeled by some Latin authors as superstitio, including druidism, Judaism, and Christianity.Beard et al, Religions of Rome: A History, p. 221.

In traditional astrology, the concept of triplicity embodied several factors concerning the four classical elements and were considered of particular importance. Besides the four classical elements, two other ways triplicity could be organized were by rulership type and by season. However, neither are given much attention by modern astrologers. However, astrology by season, in particular has been adopted by astrologers who practice in modern Neopaganism, Druidism and Wicca.

Journal of Western Mystery Tradition, Vol. 1 used in order to form an interpretation of Wicca that is highly individual and characterized by the subjective questioning of reality and truth. This version of Wicca may draw eclectically from, adapt, challenge and adopt a wider range of religious beliefs and perspectives, such as Buddhism, Shintoism, Druidism and Hinduism and Wicca and Goddess movements such as Dianic Wicca, Celtic Wicca and Semitic Neopaganism.Raphael, Melissa (April 1998).

Myers' works have been quoted in the published works of numerous neopagan writers, including Emma Restall-Orr (in "Living with Honour"), Philip Carr-Gomm (in "What do Druids Believe?"), Graeme Talboys (in "The Way of the Druid"), Janet Farrar and Gavin Bone (in "Progressive Witchcraft"), and Isaac Bonewits (in "Bonewits Essential Guide to Druidism"). His work also appears on pages 185 to 191 of "Out of the Broom Closet" edited by Arin Murphy-Hiscock.

One of the major villains in the program was Longinus, played by Sebastian Roché, an immortal cursed by God for interfering with his plans. By Christian tradition, Longinus was the centurion who stabbed Jesus Christ with his spear during the Crucifixion. This spear, the Spear of Destiny, was supposedly the only weapon that could release Longinus from his curse. The show freely mixed Christian mythology, Celtic mythology, Druidism, and smatterings of history.

Map of Dál Riata at its height, c. 580–600. Pictish regions are marked in yellow During the 2nd century AD Irish influence was at work in the region and by the 6th century the kingdom of Dál Riata was established. Unlike the P-Celtic speaking Brythons, these Gaels spoke a form of Gaelic that still survives in the Hebrides. Through the efforts of Saint Ninian and others Christianity slowly supplanted Druidism.

Druidry is also known as Druidism and Neodruidism. The Ancient Order of Druids in America was founded in 1912 as the American branch of the Ancient and Archaeological Order of Druids.Ancient Order of Druids in America Coming from the Druid cultural revivals in the UK in the 18th and 19th centuries, Neodruidry in the U.S. has a long history. Celtic Reconstructionism, while not associated with Druidry directly, is also part of the cultural diaspora of Celtic Paganism.

In 1897, he published a magazine La Trêve de Dieu (The Truce of God), but it folded after a year. He continued to work as an engineer, especially in construction of settlements in 1898 in Paris. In the following year was one of twenty-two Bretons who went to Cardiff to establish links with Welsh neo-Druidism, being received at the Gorsedd. He also joined the Union Régionaliste Bretonne, helping to create the Breton nationalist movement.

As Taliesin grows up he learns the precepts of Druidism and becomes a bard. Gwythno dies, and Elphin inherits the throne of the reduced and impoverished kingdom of Caredigion, but is soon abducted by Maelgon, king of Gwyneth. Maelgon's son, Rhun, visits Elphin's home and seduces a woman whom he believes to be Angharad, but who is actually her servant. Taliesin sets out to free Elphin at the prompting of his foster- sister, Melanghel, with whom he is in love.

It appears that he did not share his father's interest in druidism and freemasonry, but his designs show certain inspirations and themes which reflect 18th century fashions and philosophies. During the 1770s a new more severe neo-classical style was becoming fashionable. Wood pioneered this new style in buildings such as the Hot Bath (built using the Doric order), the Royal Crescent and the Bath Assembly Rooms. These buildings contrasted with the more decorated and embellished style preferred by his father.

The Glain Neidr or Maen Magi of Welsh folklore is also closely connected to Druidism. The Glain Neidr of Wales are believed to be created by a congress of snakes, normally occurring in spring, but most auspicious on May Eve. Although not named as Glain Neidr, magic stones with the properties of adder stones appear frequently in Welsh mythology and folklore. The Mabinogion, translated into English in the mid-nineteenth century by Lady Charlotte Guest, mentions such stones on two occasions.

The Order operates independently of the Celtic Church, but according to its founder monks, the apostolic lineage has nonetheless been granted, as a charismatic individual, by Celtic Bishop Michel Raoult Iltud. The Order has therefore a dual affiliation: Orthodox Christian and neo- druidism. The group says it is neither religious nor ecclesiastical and aims primarily at young people. Its statutes state that the order is "monastical in the etymological meaning of the word which means that everyone must take care of himself".

The influence of Celtic mythology did not disappear after the Roman invasion, with the rituals and practices of Druidism still exerting influence over the mythology of the Gauls. Druids in Roman-Gaul were the philosophers and religious figures of the Gallic tribes. Druids were the educated classes among Celtic and Gallo-Roman culture, having knowledge about nature, astronomy, literature, and the law. Druids were unable to record any of their knowledge in written form, but records from Julius Caesar survive, giving details of Druidic rituals.

While CRs strive to revive the religious practices of historical Celtic peoples as accurately as possible, they acknowledge that some aspects of their religious practice are reconstructions. Celtic Reconstructionists state that their practices are based on cultural survivals, augmented with the study of early Celtic beliefs found in texts and the work of scholars and archaeologists. Feedback from scholars and experienced practitioners is sought before a new practice is accepted as a valid part of a reconstructed tradition.Bonewits, Isaac (2006) Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism.

Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves. While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. Boudica was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus.

Deanna "D. J." Conway (May 3, 1939 – February 1, 2019) was a non-fiction author of books in the field of magic, Wicca, Druidism, shamanism, metaphysics and the occult, and the author of three fantasy novels. Born in Hood River, Oregon to a family of Irish, North Germanic, and Native North American descent, she studied the occult and Pagan religion for over thirty years.Fantastic Fiction Website In 1998 she was voted Best Wiccan and New Age author by Silver Chalice, a Neo-Pagan magazine.

In Druidism, the naming ceremony may sometimes be called, "The First Oath" and is used similarly in Wiccan. The name is usually referred to as a 'Holy Name' or 'Druid Name'. The First Oath may be used in private, if one may choose to be solitary, but it sometimes customary to have a witness or members of the hearth or grove with which they are involved, participate in the oath. This First Oath may be something said within a Naming Ritual or Ceremony or simply used the right itself.

Soldiers, mostly drawn from polytheistic societies, enjoyed wide freedom of worship in the polytheistic Roman system. They revered their own native deities, Roman deities and the local deities of the provinces in which they served. Only a few religions were banned by the Roman authorities, as being incompatible with the official Roman religion and/or politically subversive, notably Druidism and Christianity. The later Principate saw the rise in popularity among the military of Eastern mystery cults, generally centred on one deity, and involving secret rituals divulged only to initiates.

Bonewits still felt that many in the RDNA were hostile towards him, believing that he had infiltrated their group, and so in 1985 he founded a new, explicitly Neopagan Druidic group, Ár nDraíocht Féin (Our Own Druidism; a.k.a. ADF) and began publishing a journal, The Druid's Progress. Arguing that it should draw from pan-European sources, rather than just those that were considered "Celtic", he placed an emphasis on academic and scholarly accuracy, taking a stand against what he perceived as the prevalent pseudo-historical ideas of many Neopagans and Druids.Adler 2006. p. 341.

The inmates—most of them former Nazi-collaborators—could even organize free-fights, running competitions or put on a play. While serving his sentence, Pierre Sidos spent most of his time reading and running. He met Marcel Bibé, a former Bezen Perrot militant who initiated him in Celtic esoterism. Sidos then began to write about druidism and the Celtic Cross, which he described in his prison notes as the allegory of the "walking sun and universal life", a symbol he would later use in all the organizations he created: Jeune Nation, Occident and L'Œuvre Française.

While generally well-researched and crafted, Reformed Druidic materials are not intended as serious academic works, and are intended for its own audience. Except of a few pamphlets, these materials have not been used for proselytizing. Despite the Reformed Druids' lack of missionary impulse, many of the literary traits from Reformed Druidism were transferred to later groups that trace their origins to the RDNA. This is due in large part to the influence of Isaac Bonewits' fervent missionary and publishing efforts in newsletters, member guides, seminary materials and popular books from 1971 to 2010.

ADF promotes a neo-druidism in which worshipers perform rituals honoring three kinds of entities: gods and goddesses, ancestors (honored dead), and nature spirits. Examples of gods and goddesses worshipped include Lugh, Cernunnos, the Morrigan, Thor, Freya, Apollo, Athena, Vesta, Ceres, and many other ancient, pre-Christian, Indo-European deities. Although various pantheons or "hearth cultures" are allowed, "mixing and matching" unrelated deities within a single rite is discouraged. Ancestors usually refers to the direct blood ancestors of the worshiper, but can include other honored dead (friends, mythological heroes, etc.), too.

The Brigantes, who occupied the territory before the Roman invasion, used a gritstone outcrop that overlooks Bingley as an altar in what is believed to be a form of Druidism. Cup and ringlet marks have been found carved in Altar Rock (also popularly known as Druid's Altar). There is a Roman Road which crosses Harden Moor on a south west/north east axis. This road originated in Manchester (Mancunium) and continued north to Ilkley going through Riddlesden, Morton Banks and Rombalds Moor to what was the Roman encampment known as Olicana.

Yet still it attracts its fair share of Neo-Druidism and other pagan interest with rituals and festival held there commonly.A Neo-Druid group, the Anderida Gorsedd, have been holding rituals at the Long Man regularly since 2000. During the Second World War much of the south coast of England was fortified with pillboxes, tank obstacles and machine gun posts in anticipation of a Nazi invasion, the plan for which was known to the Nazis as Operation Sealion. These objects can be seen closer to the sea and require a diversion.

As forms of Neopaganism can be quite different and have very different origins, these representations can vary considerably, despite the shared name. Some celebrate in a manner as close as possible to how they believe ancient pagans observed the summer solstice, while others observe the holiday with rituals culled from numerous other unrelated sources, the Germanic culture being just one of the sources used. In Neo-druidism, the term Alban Hefin is used for the summer solstice. The name was invented by the late 18th century Welsh Romantic author and prolific literary forger Iolo Morganwg.

134: [On CRs] "Using Celtic symbols such as triskeles and spirals" Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism (also Celtic Reconstructionism or CR) is a polytheistic reconstructionist approach to Celtic neopaganism, emphasising historical accuracy over eclecticism such as is found in many forms of Neo-druidism. It is an effort to reconstruct and revive, in a modern Celtic cultural context, pre-Christian Celtic religions. Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism originated in discussions among amateur scholars and Neopagans in the mid-1980s, and evolved into an independent tradition by the early 1990s. Currently, "Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism" (CR) is an umbrella term, with a number of recognized sub-traditions or denominations.

In 1986, several members of Ár nDraíocht Féin openly criticized Bonewits for his pan-European approach, wishing modern Druidism to be inspired purely by Celtic sources, and so they splintered off to form a group called the Henge of Keltria.Clifton 2006. pp. 156–157. The Ancient Order of Druids in America (AODA), currently headed by Pagan author and druid John Michael Greer, was founded as the Ancient Order of Masonic Druids in America in 1912 in Boston, Mass. The founder, James Manchester had obtained a charter from the Ancient Order of Masonic Druids of England (AOMD).

At the time, scholars understood little of prehistoric Britain, with the megalithic circles typically being ascribed either to the druids of the Iron Age or to the Danish settlers of Early Medieval times. In the 20th century, with the development of archaeology, archaeologists could investigate the circles in more detail. They dated them to the Late Neolithic and Bronze Ages. Since the late 20th century, many of these monuments were adopted as "sacred sites" by adherents of contemporary pagan religions such as Neo-Druidism, Wicca and the Goddess movement, and they had used the sites as places to conduct their magico- religious rites.

Hinduism and Buddhism each have about 10,000 adherents in Wales, with the rural county of Ceredigion being the centre of Welsh Buddhism. Govinda's temple & restaurant, run by the Hare Krishnas in Swansea, is a focal point for many Welsh Hindus. There are about 3,000 Sikhs in Wales, with the first purpose-built gurdwara opened in the Riverside area of Cardiff in 1989. In 2011 some 13,000 people classified themselves as following Other religion including a reconstructed form of Druidism, which was the pre-Abrahamic religion of Wales (not to be confused with the Druids of the Gorsedd at the National Eisteddfod of Wales).

For example, the Romans proscribed cults that practised human sacrifice, which was partly the reason why Druidism was banned under the emperor Tiberius (political considerations were also involved, namely that Druids were suspected of orchestrating native resistance to Roman rule in Gaul).Pliny the Elder XXX.4 Also banned was Christianity, de facto initially, as membership of the Christian church was not prohibited formally until the rule of Septimius Severus (197-211).Catholic Encyclopedia Martyr A monotheistic religion, its followers refused to participate in the imperial cult, the worship of the imagines (cult portraits or statues) of ruling and past emperors.

The second division is a religious order consisting of an Elected Archdruid and elected Elders who comprise the Council of Elders which provides the theological direction for the church and maintains religious standards throughout the Order. The Henge registered with the state of Minnesota as a non-profit corporation in 1995 and received its 501(c)(3) determination letter from the IRS in 2005. By 1989, it began publication of a quarterly newsletter, "Henge Happenings," for its membership. Also in 1989, the HoK began publishing Keltria: Journal of Druidism and Celtic Magick as a publicly available journal.

According to the American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS), there are approximately 30,000 druids in the United States.Trinity ARIS 2008; Trinity ARIS 2001 Modern Druidism arrived in North America first in the form of fraternal Druidic organizations in the nineteenth century, and orders such as the Ancient Order of Druids in America were founded as distinct American groups as early as 1912. In 1963, the Reformed Druids of North America (RDNA) was founded by students at Carleton College, Northfield, Minnesota. They adopted elements of Neopaganism into their practices, for instance celebrating the festivals of the Wheel of the Year.

He also noticed that the pigs which did this did not suffer from skin diseases as others did, and on trying the mud bath himself found that he was cured of his leprosy. He was then restored to his position as heir-apparent to his father, and founded Bath so that others might also benefit as he had done. Wood also writes about Neo-Druidism which had been popularised in the 17th and 18th centuries by writers such as John Aubrey, John Toland and William Stukeley in conjunction with exploration of the stone circles at Stonehenge and Stanton Drew.

Mystery religions, which offered initiates salvation in the afterlife, were a matter of personal choice for an individual, practiced in addition to carrying on one's family rites and participating in public religion. The mysteries, however, involved exclusive oaths and secrecy, conditions that conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of "magic", conspiracy (coniuratio), and subversive activity. Sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists who seemed to threaten traditional morality and unity. In Gaul, the power of the druids was checked, first by forbidding Roman citizens to belong to the order, and then by banning druidism altogether.

Retrieved 11 June 2009 (only USA, see: WayBackMachine). He had been seen as a leading collector of Medieval Welsh literature and expert on it, but it emerged after his death that he had forged several manuscripts, notably parts of the Third Series of Welsh Triads.Mary Jones (2003), "Y Myvyrian Archaiology". From Jones' Celtic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 11 June 2009 (only USA, see: WayBackMachine). Even so, he had a lasting impact on Welsh culture, notably in founding the Gorsedd. The philosophy he spread in his forgeries had a big impact on early neo-druidism. His bardic name is Welsh for "Iolo of Glamorgan".

The religious practices of druids were syncretic and borrowed from earlier pagan traditions, with probably indo-European roots. Julius Caesar mentions in his Gallic Wars that those Celts who wanted to make a close study of druidism went to Britain to do so. In a little over a century later, Gnaeus Julius Agricola mentions Roman armies attacking a large druid sanctuary in Anglesey in Wales. There is no certainty concerning the origin of the druids, but it is clear that they vehemently guarded the secrets of their order and held sway over the people of Gaul.

The twenty-one Jewish local communities are affiliated with the Union of Italian Jewish Communities, which counts 25,000 members. According to CESNUR, in 2017 in Italy there were about 3,200 adherents to pre-Christian, neo-pagan or neo-shamanic indigenous religions. Modern forms of native polytheism is represented by Roman Polytheistic Reconstructionism, which includes organizations such as Nova Roma, the Associazione Tradizionale Pietas, Communitas Populi Romani, the Movimento Tradizionale Romano, and the Societas Hesperiana pro Culto Deorum. There are also pagans belonging to other European religions, such as Heathenism, to which the Comunità Odinista and the Tempio del Lupo belong; Druidism, Hellenism and Wicca.

A group of Druids at Stonehenge in Wiltshire, England The Grand Druid of Brittany Gwenc'hlan Le Scouëzec stands at the centre surrounded by the Archdruid of Wales and the Great Bardess of Cornwall, at the celebration of the hundredth anniversary of the Gorseth of Brittany in Hanvec, year 1999. Druidry, sometimes termed Druidism, is a modern spiritual or religious movement that generally promotes harmony, connection, and reverence for the natural world. This commonly is extended to include respect for all beings, including the environment itself. Many forms of modern Druidry are modern Pagan religions, although most of the earliest modern Druids identified as Christians.

In addition to constructing forts and fortified defences such as Hadrian's Wall, they built roads, bridges, ports, public buildings and entire new cities (colonia), and cleared forests and drained marshes to expand a province's available arable land. Soldiers, mostly drawn from polytheistic societies, enjoyed wide freedom of worship in the polytheistic Roman system. Only a few cults were banned by the Roman authorities, as being incompatible with the official Roman religion or being politically subversive, notably Druidism and Christianity. The later Principate saw the rise in popularity among the military of Eastern mystery cults, generally centred on one deity, and involving secret rituals divulged only to initiates.

In about 750 CE the word druid appears in a poem by Blathmac, who wrote about Jesus, saying that he was "better than a prophet, more knowledgeable than every druid, a king who was a bishop and a complete sage." The druids appear in some of the medieval tales from Christianized Ireland like the "Táin Bó Cúailnge", where they are largely portrayed as sorcerers who opposed the coming of Christianity.Hutton (2009) pp. 32–37. In the wake of the Celtic revival during the 18th and 19th centuries, fraternal and neopagan groups were founded based on ideas about the ancient druids, a movement known as Neo-Druidism.

Following the death of Taliesin Williams in 1847, Davies proclaimed himself archdruid, and from about 1853 he began to hold religious and druidical services near the Rocking Stone at Pontypridd. For about 25 years the practice of holding meetings at the hour of equinoxes and solstices became a Glamorgan tradition, and Davies published a number of books on druidism. Much of his Neo druidic writings were nothing more than a continuation of the 18th-century revival and thus are built largely around writings produced in the 18th century and after by second-hand sources and theorists. Nevertheless, Davies was considered by some of his contemporaries as an expert in the field.

Banerjee, Neela, "Religion and Its Role Are in Dispute at the Service Academies", New York Times, 25 June 2008 In 2010 the academy set up an outdoor worship area for cadets following Wicca, Neo-Druidism, or other earth- based religions to practice their faiths.Associated Press, "Colorado: Academy Accommodates Wiccans", New York Times, 2 February 2010.Correll, DeeDee, "Cross Found At Air Force Pagan Center", Los Angeles Times, 3 February 2010, p. 8. A survey conducted that same year found that 41 percent of academy cadets who identified themselves as non-Christian reported they were subjected to unwanted religious proselytizing at least once or twice last year at the school.

Modern Neo-Druidism may also make use of altars, often erected in groves. Though little is known of the specific religious beliefs and practices presided over by the ancient Druids, modern people who identify themselves as Druids are free to incorporate their imagination in developing ceremonies and the use of ritual objects in keeping with their belief system. The "Order of Common Worship" of the Liturgy of the DruidsLiturgy of the Druids (New Reformed Druids of North America) calls for a fire to be started "in or near the altar" and makes use of various objects such as a chalice, staves, and a plant offering. If no altar is used, the objects may be placed on the ground.

The current of neo- Druidism, deriving from the writings of the likes of William Stukeley and Iolo Morganwag, had its origins more in the milieu of freemasonry than any lineal connection to the ancient Celtic Druids and their culture, which survived latest in the Gaelic world with the filí and seanchaí (existing alongside Christianity). Thus neo-paganism had a very limited appeal to most people in Celtic nations, instead being largely English and Welsh based. English-based quasi-masonic groups such as the Ancient Order of Druids provided the inspiration for Iolo's Gorsedd. Later masonic groups and writers such as Godfrey Higgins and then Robert Wentworth Little's Ancient and Archaeological Order of Druids, were English founded or based.

Druidcraft is a spiritual practice embracing elements of both Druidry and Wicca, developed by Philip Carr-Gomm, and is also the title of a book he wrote about the same topic. That book deals with the combination of druidry and wicca in a new, combined practice. Within this book, Carr-Gomm claims that the differences between Wicca and Druidry do not stem from hundreds or thousands of years worth of tradition as these two distinct paths evolved separately. He claims that in fact the differences between modern Wicca and Druidism are due to the differences between two friends, Gerald Gardner and Ross Nichols who were deeply involved with these paths less than 75 years ago.

Other influences upon early Wicca included various Western esoteric traditions and practices, among them ceremonial magic, Aleister Crowley and his religion of Thelema, Freemasonry, Spiritualism, and Theosophy. To a lesser extent, Wicca also drew upon folk magic and the practices of cunning folk. It was further influenced both by scholarly works on folkloristics, particularly James Frazer's The Golden Bough, as well as romanticist writings like Robert Graves' The White Goddess, and pre-existing modern Pagan groups such as the Order of Woodcraft Chivalry and Druidism. It was during the 1930s that the first evidence appears for the practice of a pagan Witchcraft religion (what would be recognisable now as Wicca) in England.

The group used the Celtic Cross as their symbol, which may come from an initiation to Celtic esotericism Pierre Sidos received in prison (1946–48) from Marcel Bibé, a former Bezen Perrot member. During his internment, Sidos began to write about druidism and the Celtic Cross, which he described as the allegory of the "walking sun and universal life" in his prison notes. Sidos has stated that he was looking for a simple emblem to reproduce, unlike the eagle or the wild boar used by fascist groups at that time. Since its 1949 revival by Jeune Nation, the symbol has become popular among far-right movements in France and beyond in Europe.

He became Deputy Grand Druid within the"Poellgor" (executive committee of the Gorsedd) on 1 April 1979, then he became the Grand Druid of Brittany, succeeding Per Loisel, on 1 November 1980. The association Goursez Vreizh (Gorsedd of Brittany), also known as "Breudeuriezh Drouized, Barzhed hag Ovizion Breizh" in Breton or "Fraternité des druides, bardes et ovates de Bretagne" in French (Fraternity of the Druids, Bards and Ovates of Brittany), represents neo-druidism most regularly. Gwenc’hlan is the fifth Grand Druid of our time, according to the Gorsedd de Bretagne. In November 1993 he united a group of Freemasons, forming "loge maçonnique de la pierre pour ensuite y instaurer le rite maçonnique forestier" (a freemason lodge of the stone, to preserve the masonic forest rites).

Dumfries was once within the borders of the Kingdom of Northumbria. The district around Dumfries was for several centuries ruled over and deemed of much importance by the invading Romans. Many traces of Roman presence in Dumfriesshire are still to be found; coins, weapons, sepulchral remains, military earthworks, and roads being among the relics left by their lengthened sojourn in this part of Scotland. The Caledonian tribes in the south of Scotland were invested with the same rights by an edict of Antoninus Pius The Romanized natives received freedom (the burrows, cairns, and remains of stone temples still to be seen in the district tell of a time when Druidism was the prevailing religion) as well as civilisation from their conquerors.

The islands were historically part of the domain of the MacLeods of Harris, whose steward was responsible for the collection of rents in kind and other duties. The first detailed report of a visit to the islands dates from 1549, when Donald Munro suggested that: "The inhabitants thereof ar simple poor people, scarce learnit in aney religion, but M’Cloyd of Herray, his stewart, or he quhom he deputs in sic office, sailes anes in the zear ther at midsummer, with some chaplaine to baptize bairnes ther." Despite the chaplain's best efforts, the islanders' isolation and dependence on the bounty of the natural world meant their philosophy bore as much relationship to Druidism as it did to Christianity. This changed upon the arrival of Rev.

Awen of Iolo Morganwg. In some forms of Neo-Druidism the term is symbolized by an emblem showing three straight lines that spread apart as they move downward, drawn within a circle or a series of circles of varying thickness, often with a dot, or point, atop each line. The British Druid Order attributes the symbol to Iolo Morganwg; it has been adopted by some Neo-Druids. The Neo-Druid symbol of awen The Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids (OBOD) describe the three lines as rays emanating from three points of light, with those points representing the triple aspect of deity and, also, the points at which the sun rises on the equinoxes and solstices – known as the Triad of the Sunrises.

In June 2003, Nature Religions, including Druidism, Paganism, Pantheism and Wicca, were described by Phillip Hughes and Sharon Bond as “the fastest growing group of religions in Australia” between 1991 and 2001.Phillip Hughes and Sharon Bond, "Nature Religions" Pointers, 13.2 (June 2003): 1 In 2018, Paganism and Wicca were also described as among the "least urbanised religions in Australia". In the 1991 census by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, 4,353 Australians identified their religion as a Pagan religion including, 1,367 Australians identified their religion as Wicca or Witchcraft.Phillip Hughes and Sharon Bond, "Nature Religions" Pointers, 13.2 (June 2003): 5 In the 1996 census, 10,052 Australians identified their religion as a Pagan religion including 1,849 people who identified their religion as Wicca or Witchcraft.

Research into the Gaelic and Brittonic cultures and histories of Britain and Ireland gathered pace from the late 17th century, by antiquaries and historians like Owen Jones in Wales and Charles O'Conor in Ireland. The key surviving manuscript sources were gradually located, edited and translated, monuments identified and published, and other essential groundwork in recording stories, music and language done. The Welsh antiquarian and author Iolo Morganwg fed the growing fascination in all things Brittonic by founding the Gorsedd, which would in turn spark the Neo-druidism movement. Interest in Scottish Gaelic culture greatly increased during the onset of the Romantic period in the late 18th century, with James Macpherson's Ossian achieving international fame, along with the novels of Sir Walter Scott and the poetry and lyrics of Thomas Moore.

Stephens incorporated and embodied Calverley's discoveries and descriptions into one of the chapters of his book Old Northern Runic MonumentsTransactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society 1883 The communications with Stephens encouraged Calverley to delve deeper into the subject and in 1883 he announced to the Archaeological Institute at Carlisle, his reading of Edda myths on the Christian cross at Gosforth, West Cumberland."The Sculptured Cross at Gosforth", by the Rev. W. S. Calverley, printed in the Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society 1993 The news created a sensation; prior to these discovery authorities held that Christian monuments contained nothing but Christian subjects. Although others had tried to make a connection with Buddhism, Druidism, and Astronomy, Calverley identified the 'Pagan overlap' in English relics.

A group of eight boys set out to go trick-or-treating on Halloween, only to discover that a ninth friend, Pipkin, has been whisked away on a journey that could determine whether he lives or dies. Through the help of a mysterious character named Carapace Clavicle Moundshroud, they pursue their friend across time and space through Ancient Egyptian, Ancient Greek, and Ancient Roman cultures, Celtic Druidism, the Notre Dame Cathedral in Medieval Paris, and The Day of the Dead in Mexico. Along the way, they learn the origins of the holiday that they celebrate, and the role that the fear of death, ghosts, and the haunts has played in shaping civilization. The Halloween Tree itself, with its many branches laden with jack-o'-lanterns, serves as a metaphor for the historical confluence of these traditions.

The second phase of the European Iron Age was defined particularly by the Celtic La Tène culture, which started aroumd 400 BC, followed by a large expansion of the them into the Balkans, the British Isles, where they assimilated druidism, and other regions of France and Italy. The decline of Celtic power under the expansive pressure of Germanic tribes (originally from Scandinavia and Lower Germany) and the forming of the Roman Empire during the 1st century BC was also that of the end of prehistory, properly speaking; though many regions of Europe remained illiterate and therefore outside written history for many centuries, the boundary must be placed somewhere, and that date, near the start of the calendar, seems to be quite convenient. The remaining is regional prehistory, or, in most cases, protohistory, but no longer European prehistory, as a whole.

While the book was originally intended as little more than an inventory of art objects that had escaped vandalism, it became much more than that; French historian Alain Corbin qualified Cambry's prose as an "emotional mapping of the sea-shore" and refers to Cambry's jubilant evocations of moments of sublimity as "in the manner of Ossian's disciples." His Monumens celtiques, ou recherches sur le culte des pierres (1805) is especially notable as an important work on Celtic monuments and megaliths in France and on druidism in general; Cambry dedicated the book to Napoleon, and "promoted a nationalist view of Breton megalithic monuments." Cambry also wrote on art, and published an essay on the painter Nicolas Poussin. As the former administrator of the Seine, he submitted a proposal to turn the quarries of Montmartre into a cemetery, a plan which was never executed.

Brimham Rocks, once known as Brimham Crags, is a 183.9-hectare (454-acre) biological Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and Geological Conservation Review (GCR) site, 8 miles (13 km) north west of Harrogate, North Yorkshire, England, on Brimham Moor in the Nidderdale Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The site, notified as SSSI in 1958, is an outcrop of Millstone Grit, with small areas of birch woodland and a large area of wet and dry heath. The site is known for its water- and weather-eroded rocks, which were formed over 325 million years ago and have assumed fantastic shapes. In the 18th and 19th centuries, antiquarians such as Hayman Rooke wondered whether they could have been at least partly carved by druids, an idea that ran concurrently with the popularity of James Macpherson's Fragments of Ancient Poetry of 1760, and a developing interest in New-Druidism.

Cantabrian stele, carved in sandstone (1.70 m in diameter and 0.32 m thick) Literary and epigraphic evidence confirms that, like their Gallaeci and Astures neighbors, the Cantabri were polytheistic, worshipping a vast and complex pantheon of male and female Indo-European deities in sacred oak or pine woods, mountains, water-courses and small rural sanctuaries. Druidism does not appear to have been practiced by the Cantabri, though there is enough evidence for the existence of an organized priestly class who performed elaborated rites, which included ritual steam baths, festive dances, oracles, divination, human and animal sacrifices. In this respect, StraboStrabo, Geographikon, III, 3, 7. mentions that the peoples of the north-west sacrificed horses to an unnamed God of War, and both HoraceHorace, Odes, III, 4, 35 and Silius ItalicusSilius Italicus, Hispania, III, 3, 161. added that the Concani had the custom of drinking the horse’s blood at the ceremony.

It was organized into covens, through which members were initiated through three ascending degrees of competence and authority and which were governed by a high priestess, supported by a high priest. More historical context to the pagan practice of Wicca can be found in the book Wicca: History, Belief, and Community in Modern Pagan Witchcraft That book discusses Wiccan life, covering how and why people convert to Wicca; its denominations; its sociological demographics; its political beliefs, particularly in terms of environmentalist issues; the impact of anti-Wiccan persecution; the transmission of Wiccan and Pagan culture; and the history of academic analysis of Wicca. The Meaning of Witchcraft is a sequel to Gardner's previous book on the subject, Witchcraft Today, which was published in 1954. Chapters include: Witch's Memories and Beliefs, The Stone Age Origins of Witchcraft, Druidism and the Aryan Celts, Magic Thinking, Curious Beliefs about Witches, Signs and Symbols, The Black Mass, Some Allegations Examined.

The Palladium world is a magical world, with several different kinds of magic practiced, as well as psychic powers. In the past, many more types of magic were practiced, but immediately after the Elf-Dwarf War, a Millennium of Purification saw the end of many types of "questionable" magic. The major remaining forms of magic are Wizardry (spell-casting), Diabolism (magical writing, used for wards and empowerment), Summoning (using magic circles to protect, to bind demons and other creatures, or activate various powers), Alchemy (creating magic items), Elementalism (in which a person, known as a Warlock, uses a special bond with one or two classical elements to cast spells and summon elementals), Witchcraft (in which a person signs a pact with a demon, trading souls, servitude, or other favors in exchange for power), Priestly Magic, and Druidism (nature magic). Psychic powers are also common, though several races lack any psionic potential at all.

In Celtic mythology there is a legend of a cave called "Cruachan", also known as "Ireland's gate to Hell", a mythical and ancient cave from which according to legend strange creatures would emerge and be seen on the surface of the Earth.John A MacCulloch, Celtic Mythology, Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc, 1932, pp. 125–26 There are also stories of medieval knights and saints who went on pilgrimages to a cave located in Station Island, County Donegal in Ireland, where they made journeys inside the Earth into a place of purgatory.T. Write, Saint Patrick's Purgatory : A medieval Pilgrimage in Ireland, 1918, p. 107 In County Down, Northern Ireland there is a myth which says tunnels lead to the land of the subterranean Tuatha Dé Danann, a group of people who are believed to have introduced Druidism to Ireland, and then went back underground.Harold Bayley, Archaic England: An Essay in Deciphering Prehistory from Megalithic Monuments, 1919 Online Edition: Link In Hindu mythology, the underworld is referred to as Patala.

Tradition names as first apostles of the future Diocese of Rennes, but of an uncertain date: Saint Maximinus, who was reported to have been a disciple and friend of Saint Paul (died AD 65),Gallia christiana XIV, p. 739. Saint Clarus, and Saint Justus.This tradition is rejected, inter alios by Besse, pp. 202–203. On the other hand, when in the fifth and sixth centuries bands of Christian Britons emigrated from Great Britain to Armorica and formed on its northern coast the small Kingdom of Domnonée, the Gospel was preached for the first time in the future Diocese of Dol and Diocese of Aleth. Among these missionaries were St. Armel, who, according to the legend, founded in the sixth century the town of Ploermel in the Diocese of Vannes and then retired into the forests of Chateaugiron and Janzé and attacked Druidism on the very site of the Dolmen of the Fairy Rocks (La Roche aux Fées); St. Méen (Mevennus) who retired to the solitudes around Pontrecoët and founded the monastery of Gael (550), known afterwards as St. Méen's; and St. Samson and St. Malo.

Ethnic religions are distinctive in their relationship with a particular ethnic group and often in the shaping of one's solidarity with an ethnic identity. Some ethnic religions include Judaism of the Jews, Druidism of the Welsh, Hellenism of the Greeks, Druze religion of the Druze, Alawism of Alawites, Alevism of the Alevites, Mandaeism of the Mandaeans, Yazidism of the Yazidis, Zoroastrianism of the Iranians, Chinese folk religion of the Han Chinese, Kejawèn of the Javanese people, Sikhism of the Punjabis, Shinto of the Japanese, Sunda Wiwitan of the Sundanese people and A ƭat Roog of the Serer of Senegal, The Gambia, and Mauritania.Westermann, Diedrich; Smith, Edwin William; Forde, Cyril Daryll; International African Institute; International Institute of African Languages and Cultures; Project Muse; JSTOR (Organization), Africa: journal of the International African Institute, Volume 63, pp 86-96, 270-1, Edinburgh University Press for the International African Institute (1993) Diasporic groups often maintain ethnic religions as a means of maintaining a distinct ethnic identity such as the role of African traditional religion and Afro-American religions among the African diaspora in the Americas. Some ancient ethnic religions, such as those historically found in pre-modern Europe, have found new vitality in neopaganism.

In the 2001 census, 24,156 people described themselves as Pagan, including 8,755 people who identified their religion as Wicca or Witchcraft. The PAGANdash campaign was started to help government and community get a correct representation of the number of Pagans currently in Australia. Originating from the Pagan Community Projects in Queensland in 2005, the Pagan Awareness Network (PAN) also ran a comprehensive PAGANdash program prior to the 2011 census in Australia. All Pagans were asked to fill in their religion as Pagan-(religion), for example a Wiccan would write Pagan-Wiccan as their religion. In the 2006 census, 29,391 Australians identified their religion as a Pagan religion including 8,207 people who identified their religion as Wicca or Witchcraft. In the 2011 census, 32,083 Australians identified their religion as a Pagan religion including 8,413 people who identified their religion as Wicca or Witchcraft. In the 2016 census, 27,194 Australians identified their religion as a Pagan religion including 6,616 people who identified their religion as Wicca or Witchcraft. The largest affiliation of nature religions were 'Pagan' (15,219; 66% female). 'Wiccan' (6,616; 79% female) and 'Nature Religions not elsewhere classified' (3,075; 65% male); the largest affiliation by age, were 'Nature Religions not elsewhere classified' (25–29 years), 'Nature Religions, not further defined' (40–44 years), 'Pagan' (40–44 years), 'Wiccan' (45–49 years), 'Animism' (50–54 years) and 'Druidism' (50–59 years).