166 Sentences With "digestive tracts" | Random Sentence Generator

Sea spider digestive tracts weren't exactly normal to begin with.

It's commonly found in soil and reproduces in cats' digestive tracts.

Cows belch and fart methane, thanks to their peculiar digestive tracts.

Those who swallowed these solutions burned their throats and digestive tracts.

The researchers cut out the parasites' digestive tracts and filtered them to extract DNA.

Browse through these 10 Pinterest faves and make everyone's mouths (and digestive tracts) happy.

Escherichia coli are bacteria that are commonly found in the digestive tracts of humans and animals.

Pigs and humans have similar digestive tracts, making pigs an excellent model for human GI disease.

It's also great for our digestive tracts, with nearly five grams of fiber in just one cup.

Methanogens thrive in places lacking oxygen, such as rocks deep underground and the digestive tracts of animals.

Turns out, the gut microbiome is that complex community of microorganisms that live inside of our digestive tracts.

We eventually learned by x-rays that the two-headed rattlesnake had two digestive tracts inside the single body.

The scientists deposited gut bacteria from these fecal samples into the digestive tracts of specially bred germ-free mice.

Plastic debris can entangle birds or block their digestive tracts, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

Other evidence showed that artificial sweeteners desensitized rodents' digestive tracts, making them feel less full and more prone to overeating.

Wildflower seeds are carried on the wind, on the coats of wild animals and in the digestive tracts of birds.

Bacteria that starts in your mouth can work its way down to your respiratory and digestive tracts and cause diseases.

The plastic polluting our oceans gets everywhere—including in the digestive tracts of every single sea turtle in a recent study.

More than 32,000 of them have developed diseases of the respiratory or digestive tracts, and 705 have died of those diseases.

Did you consult experts or is it more of a rough idea of how to use our digestive tracts to make rings?

This year's Earth Day campaign is focused on ending plastic pollution, which clogs landfills, streets and the digestive tracts of ocean wildlife.

In others, a variety of plastic material was found inside their digestive tracts — as many as 329 pieces in one sea turtle.

In June, the World Health Organization issued a warning, saying it can cause defects in the heart, digestive tracts, and genitals of babies.

Identical twins joined at the belly, each had two arms and two legs, individual hearts and digestive tracts, but they shared a liver.

"Our digestive tracts would not have to undergo any types of adaptation or evolution to be able to cope with eating humans," Schutt says.

Scientists have found nurdles in the digestive tracts of birds and fish, though they're still working to determine the health risks for these species.

The group's website, Hunt for Truth Association, claimed that lead used in bullets is not sufficiently soluble to dissolve in most animals' digestive tracts.

But since sloths have relatively tiny digestive tracts, they've developed a unique set of adaptations that allow them to survive on such meager provisions.

The rest is landfilled, incinerated, or buffeted into the environment, where it clogs up the seas, the beaches, and the digestive tracts of sea life.

From there, the fibers can make their way into other water systems, or into the digestive tracts of animals that graze on the fertilized plants.

But the antibiotic-resistant bacteria in coastal waters most likely find their way to the shore first by hitching a ride through digestive tracts in feces.

These so-called methanogens inhabit soils, preferably moist ones, as well as the digestive tracts of ruminants (and, to a lesser extent, other animals, humans included).

To probe the intricacies of wombat poop, Yang and her colleagues examined the digestive tracts of two wombats that were euthanized after road collisions in Australia.

Our ancient ancestors likely had digestive tracts similar to our closest genetic relatives, chimps, which are heavy on the back end to help digest all that food.

According to the CDC's World Trade Center Health Program, more than 22017,21.9 of those who worked on the site developed diseases of the respiratory or digestive tracts.

There's lots of work still needed before we understand microplastics' potential harm to animals, how long those plastic bits stay in digestive tracts, and how they accumulate.

As Catherine Kim explained for Vox: More than 32,210.2 [first responders] have developed diseases of the respiratory or digestive tracts, and 210 have died of those diseases.

Scientists have also wondered whether these sweeteners affect our gut flora — the bacteria in our digestive tracts that help with metabolism (and many other critical bodily functions).

Some scientists have wondered whether these sweeteners affect our gut flora — the bacteria in our digestive tracts that help with metabolism (and many other critical bodily functions).

Between 5 and 10 percent of the eggs passed through the birds' digestive tracts without any physical damage in one experiment, and 20 percent remained intact in another.

For their part, the riders' daily reports about the states of their digestive tracts and moods likewise showed little variation whether a rider was eating gluten or not.

Andy Levin, a Democrat of Michigan, is a two-time cancer survivor with two kids who have Crohn's disease, a chronic inflammatory condition that affects their digestive tracts.

E. coli is naturally present in the digestive tracts of animals like cattle and poultry, and some strains are relatively harmless, while others like O157:H7 are much more dangerous.

Elephants, hippos, koalas, pandas, and others are born with sterile digestive tracts, and the young eat their mother's feces in order to inoculate their own intestines with the right microbes.

On Earth, microbes known as methanogens thrive in places lacking oxygen, such as rocks deep underground and the digestive tracts of animals, and they release methane as a waste product.

With their main customers—politicians and legislators—more eager to probe their digestive tracts rather than scour policy pamphlets for ideas, one might wonder whether think-tanks have had their day.

Ruminants, animals that ferment food in one stomach before digesting it in another (called chewing their cud), never lazed on their sides, since they need to position their digestive tracts properly.

Grebes and some other fish eaters have been known to chow down on their own feathers, which then line their digestive tracts and protect their stomachs from being punctured by fish bones.

Countless women clogged the corridors, leaning against the walls and holding colostomy bags, lying listlessly in beds, sitting on the floor in pools of urine, their reproductive and digestive tracts ripped apart.

Two new studies published in the journal Science suggest the communities of bacteria living in our digestive tracts can determine how much weight can be gained, even on a diet of insufficient nutrients.

Probiotics, the beneficial bacteria that live in our digestive tracts, are widely used to treat gastroenteritis or "stomach flu," an inflammation of the stomach and intestines usually caused by a virus or bacterium.

And because the rearranged digestive tracts can dump sugar into the bloodstream too quickly, they would have to be careful about sugar intake or risk "dumping syndrome," which can cause vomiting, sweating and shakiness.

In the alley beneath Holst's office, Bertelsen led the dissection, assisted by Cathrine Sauer Jørgensen, a Ph.D. student in animal nutrition, who was able to add to her collection of digestive tracts from three dozen giraffes.

Our mental well-being shapes and is shaped by our neural pathways, our digestive tracts, our muscular tensions, our hormones — especially cortisol, the stress hormone, which is associated with poor health outcomes at consistently high levels.

It feels as if every day brings a "recent study" that reveals some theretofore undiscovered truth about what we stick down our gullets, or, better yet, confirms suspicions that hadn't yet been tested about our our digestive tracts.

Out of the 70,000 people who have been enrolled in health care programs for 9/0003 first responders, more than 32,000 of them have developed diseases of the respiratory or digestive tracts, and 705 have died of those diseases.

A study published in Scientific Reports this week described a fluid-filled, 3-D latticework of collagen and elastin connective tissue that can be found all over the body, in or near our lungs, skin, digestive tracts and arteries.

While we know that larger pieces of plastic can cause a blockage in the digestive tracts of marine animals, the researchers noted the plastic they found is small enough that it should pass through the sea turtle's system without issue.

According to an analysis of satellite data from the country's space program, all those digestive tracts send 13 million tons of methane into the atmosphere every year — and pound for pound, methane traps 25 times as much heat as carbon dioxide does.

First of all, it's actually quite dangerous for cats to play with string or yarn as they get it all wound around their digestive tracts, but second of all, and less heavy-handed, was your eye drawn to the arrangement of CAT TOYS, UNTANGLE and STRINGS?

Beyond the threat of drug-resistant illness, there is evidence of another risk from antibiotic overuse in pigs, poultry and cattle: the possibility that people who consume antibiotic-laced meat will get some of the drugs, as well as resistant bacteria, into their own digestive tracts — with potentially harmful results.

They have a caustic effect on the linings of the digestive tracts and can cause kidney damage.

Glucanases can be produced by Neocallimastigomycota, a phylum of anaerobic fungi found in the digestive tracts of herbivores.

Certain other catfish, such as the Loricariidae, are able to respire through air held in their digestive tracts.

The seeds germinate after being scarified in the digestive tracts of animals that eat them. The plant also grows in a clockwise spiral.

Microplastics can become embedded in animals' tissue through ingestion or respiration. Various annelid species, such as deposit-feeding lugworms (Arenicola marina), have been shown to have microplastics embedded in their gastrointestinal tracts. Many crustaceans, like the shore crab Carcinus maenas, have been seen to integrate microplastics into both their respiratory and digestive tracts. Plastic particles are often mistaken by fish for food which can block their digestive tracts sending incorrect feeding signals to the brains of the animals.

Monocercomonoides species are obligate animal symbionts that live in the digestive tracts of insects, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals.Lauter, F. H. 1959. Haemoflagellates and intestinal flagellates from anura of Louisiana. Louisiana State University.

Strains of Wolinella have been isolated from feline and canine oral cavities. Only one strain is currently published with Candidatus status: Candidatus Wolinella africanus. This strain was isolated from the upper digestive tracts of a Venezuelan volunteer.

Sexual reproduction has never been observed. It suffers grazing pressure from gastropods and amphipods, but amazingly fragments of the algae are able to pass through the grazers' digestive tracts alive - grazing may actually form a mode of dispersal for the organism.

During this time, workers cease foraging and migrating to focus on caring for the nest. Workers help larvae get rid of their digestive tracts, a process necessary for pupation, and occasionally eat their feces. They also help them shed their larval skin.

The outer layers are non-cellular and are secreted by the epidermis. The cuticle layer protects the nematodes so they can invade the digestive tracts of animals. Nematodes have longitudinal muscles along the body wall. The muscles are obliquely arranged in bands.

Most animals are bilaterians, excluding sponges, ctenophores, placozoans and cnidarians. For the most part, bilateral embryos are triploblastic, having three germ layers: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm. Except for a few phyla (i.e. flatworms and gnathostomulids), bilaterians have complete digestive tracts with a separate mouth and anus.

Additional methane is produced by the anaerobic decay of organic material and is produced in organisms' digestive tracts, soil, etc. Natural methane production accounts 10-30% of global methane sources. Anthropogenic methane is produced in various ways, e.g. by raising cattle or through the decay of trash in landfills.

Euplotes is a genus of ciliates in the subclass Euplotia. Species are widely distributed in marine and freshwater environments, as well as soil and moss. Most members of the genus are free-living, but two species have been recorded as commensal organisms in the digestive tracts of sea urchins.

The contribution of dietary factors to dental caries and disparities in caries. Academic Pediatrics, 9(6), 410-414. Because the mouth is a gateway to the respiratory and digestive tracts, oral health has a significant impact on other health outcomes. Gum disease has been linked to diseases such as cardiovascular disease.

As well as muscle fibres of pterosaurs and dinosaurs, fish preserving gills, digestive tracts, and hearts have been found there. The formation's tropical climate largely corresponded to today's Brazilian climate. Most of its flora were xerophytic (adapted to dry environments). The most widespread plants were Cycadales and the conifer Brachyphyllum.

Various types of branchiopods can produce diapause cysts. This is an adaptation to living in ephemeral pools in fresh or saltwater habitats. It also aids in dispersal via the wind or in the digestive tracts of birds. Cysts from Daphnia have even been revived after having been buried for 600 years.

Falcaustra tannaensis is the 87th discovered species of the nematode genus Falcaustra. It has been identified in geckos from Tanna Island, Vanuatu. Species of Falcaustra have been known parasites that occur in the digestive tracts of fish, amphibians, and mammals. Until 2010, none had ever been identified in the South Pacific Islands.

They are at first covered with down but become fully fledged in seven to ten days. Ptarmigan chicks begin their lives eating insects. Once the chicks' digestive tracts and ceca are more fully developed, their diets shift to one of flowers and leaves. Hens choose foraging patches where plant species containing proteins are abundant.

This scarification typically takes place in the digestive tracts of animals, which eat the seeds and then disperse them widely, as the seed takes days to pass through the animal.Fisher, C. E.; Meadors, C. H.; Behrens, R.; [and others]. 1959. Control of mesquite on grazing lands. Bull. 935. College Station, TX: Texas Agricultural Experiment Station.

The fish rotates its lower and upper jaws to scrape the substrate. Of the two, the lower jaws are more mobile. Loricariid catfishes have evolved several modifications of their digestive tracts that function as accessory respiratory organs or hydrostatic organs. These complex structures would have been independently evolved a number of times within the family.

Acanthocephalans do not have digestive tracts and absorb nutrients through the tegument, the external layer. The scolex of this worm has a cylindrical proboscis and a multitude of curved hooks. The main parts of the worm body are the proboscis, neck, and trunk. Because of horizontal markings on the worm, there is the appearance of segmentation.

Brachylaimidae is a family of parasitic flukes in the sub-class Digenea. Adults are usually found within the digestive tracts and other organs of mammals or birds and have a complex three-stage life cycle.Olson, P. D.; Cribb, T. H.; Tkach, V. V.; Bray, R. A.; Littlewood, D. T. J. (2003). "Phylogeny and classification of the Digenea (Platyhelminthes: Trematoda)".

B12 is produced in the digestive tracts of all animals, including humans. Thus, animal-origin food is the only natural food source of vitamin B12 However, synthesis of B12 occurs in the large intestine, which is past the point of absorption that occurs within the small intestine. As such, vitamin B12 must be obtained through diet.

Many, but not all, H. mycetophaga feed on fungi. Woody tissue and other woody material has been found in the digestive tracts of these flies, particularly from fungal mycelia. Larvae have been reared in a medium of bran-agar infected with molds, and these larvae fed well in this experiment. Most of the fungal material consumed by these flies develops on wood.

Escherichia coli, one of the many species of bacteria present in the human gut Gut flora or gut microbiota are the microorganisms including bacteria, archaea and fungi that live in the digestive tracts of humans and other animals including insects. The gastrointestinal metagenome is the aggregate of all the genomes of gut microbiota. The gut is the main location of human microbiota.

See also the National Center for Home Food Preservation. Salmonella species can be found in the digestive tracts of humans and animals, especially reptiles. Salmonella on the skin of reptiles or amphibians can be passed to people who handle the animals. Food and water can also be contaminated with the bacteria if they come in contact with the feces of infected people or animals.

One well-understood example of mutualism is the interaction between protozoa and methanogenic archaea in the digestive tracts of animals that digest cellulose, such as ruminants and termites. In these anaerobic environments, protozoa break down plant cellulose to obtain energy. This process releases hydrogen as a waste product, but high levels of hydrogen reduce energy production. When methanogens convert hydrogen to methane, protozoa benefit from more energy.

Crithidia is a genus of trypanosomatid Euglenozoa. They are parasites that exclusively parasitise arthropods, mainly insects. They pass from host to host as cysts in infective faeces and typically, the parasites develop in the digestive tracts of insects and interact with the intestinal epithelium using their flagellum. They display very low host-specificity and a single parasite can infect a large range of invertebrate hosts.

Methanosarcina is a genus of euryarchaeote archaea that produce methane. These single-celled organisms are known as anaerobic methanogens that produce methane using all three metabolic pathways for methanogenesis. They live in diverse environments where they can remain safe from the effects of oxygen, whether on the earth's surface, in groundwater, in deep sea vents, and in animal digestive tracts. Methanosarcina grow in colonies.

Breonadia salicina is used in traditional African medicine. Mainly people use the bark to fight diarrhea and other stomach/digestive tract problems but also use other parts of the plant for different uses. The bark of B. salicina has been found to be rich in tannins. Tannins are polyphenols that have been found to help with reducing growth of E. coli in digestive tracts.

The Gasterophilinae are a subfamily of Oestridae which includes large, parasitic flies; this group has historically been treated as a family, but all recent classifications place them firmly within the Oestridae. Many members of this subfamily spend part of their larval stages in the digestive tracts of herbivores. The best known genus is Gasterophilus, which attacks horses, deer, and similar animals. The genus Cobboldia breeds in elephants.

Adelea together with the genera Adelina and Ithania form the subfamily Ithaniinae. This subfamily was created in 1947 by Ludwig to accommodate these genera of eimeria that share certain morphological features and infect the digestive tracts of insects.Ludwig FW (1947) Studies on the protozoan fauna of the larvae of the crane-fly, Tipula abdominali; the life history of Ithania wenrichi n. gen., n. sp.

When insects ingest toxin crystals, their alkaline digestive tracts denature the insoluble crystals, making them soluble and thus amenable to being cut with proteases found in the insect gut, which liberate the toxin from the crystal. The Cry toxin is then inserted into the insect gut cell membrane, paralyzing the digestive tract and forming a pore.W.S. Cranshaw, Colorado State University Extension Office. Last updated March 26, 2013.

Free- living armophoreans live in anoxic or microaerobic habitats, in the sediment or water column where there is reduced or absent oxygen. Thus their distribution is quite limited, although they are found globally in both marine and freshwater habitats, as well as in terrestrial sediment. Clevelandellids live as commensal symbionts inside of the digestive tracts of terrestrial and aquatic animals. Armophoreans can survive by encystment when in unfavorable environmental conditions.

During periods when they have lost their digestive tracts, sea cucumbers live off stored nutrients and absorb dissolved organic matter directly from the water. The regeneration of lost parts involves both epimorphosis and morphallaxis. In epimorphosis stem cells—either from a reserve pool or those produced by dedifferentiation—form a blastema and generate new tissues. Morphallactic regeneration involves the movement and remodelling of existing tissues to replace lost parts.

Most ecological emissions of methane relate directly to methanogens generating methane in warm, moist soils as well as in the digestive tracts of certain animals. Methanogens are methane producing microorganisms. In order to produce energy, they use an anaerobic process called methanogenesis. This process is used in lieu of aerobic, or with oxygen, processes because methanogens are unable to metabolise in the presence of even small concentrations of oxygen.

Soft-shell clams are edible and can be used in a variety of dishes. Before cooking, it is generally recommended that clams be stored in saltwater for a few hours to facilitate the expulsion of sand from their digestive tracts. Some recommend that cornmeal be added to the water to give the clams something to filter from it. Soft-shell clams can be eaten steamed, fried, or in clam chowder.

Many kinds of dispersal dormant stages are able to withstand not only desiccation and low and high temperature, but also action of digestive enzymes during their transfer through digestive tracts of birds and other animals, high concentration of salts and many kinds of toxicants. Such dormant-resistant stages made possible the long-distance dispersal from one water body to another and broad distribution ranges of many freshwater animals.

Several species of sea turtles commonly ingest plastic marine debris, and even small quantities of debris can kill sea turtles by obstructing their digestive tracts. Nutrient dilution, which occurs when plastics displace food in the gut, affects the nutrient gain and consequently the growth of sea turtles. Ingestion of marine debris and slowed nutrient gain leads to increased time for sexual maturation that may affect future reproductive behaviors.Bjorndal, K.A. et al.

The skin of anguillid eels may absorb oxygen directly. The buccal cavity of the electric eel may breathe air. Catfish of the families Loricariidae, Callichthyidae, and Scoloplacidae absorb air through their digestive tracts. Lungfish, with the exception of the Australian lungfish, and bichirs have paired lungs similar to those of tetrapods and must surface to gulp fresh air through the mouth and pass spent air out through the gills.

It may occur along with a following inflammation of the brain (encephalitis), causing the animal to display rabies-like symptoms. In Germany, the first eight cases of distemper were reported in 2007. Some of the most important bacterial diseases which affect raccoons are leptospirosis, listeriosis, tetanus, and tularemia. Although internal parasites weaken their immune systems, well-fed individuals can carry a great many roundworms in their digestive tracts without showing symptoms.

Furthermore, their digestive tracts are no different from those of related catfish and they do not hold wood particles in the gut longer than other catfish, suggesting Panaque are not physically adapted to eating wood, and are in fact detritivores much like other Loricariidae. In September 2010 scientists from the US National Science Foundation claimed to have discovered a new species of wood-eating catfish in the Alto Purús National Park, Peru.

It is well known for preserving fossils three-dimensionally in limestone concretions, including many pterosaur fossils. In addition to muscle fibres of pterosaurs and dinosaurs, fish preserving gills, digestive tracts, and hearts have been found there. The formation is interpreted as a coastal lagoon with irregular freshwater influence that contended with cycles of transgressing and regressing sea levels. The climate of the formation was tropical and largely corresponded to today's Brazilian climate.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press For this reason, folivorous animals tend to have long digestive tracts and slow metabolisms. Many enlist the help of symbiotic bacteria to release the nutrients in their diet. Additionally, as has been observed in folivorous primates, they exhibit a strong preference for immature leaves, which tend to be easier to masticate, tend to be higher in energy and protein, and lower in fibre and poisons than more mature fibrous leaves.

These excretions are crucial in the maintenance of Antarctic ecosystems. Penguin rookeries can be home to thousands of penguins, all of which are concentrating waste products in their digestive tracts and nasal glands. These excretions inevitably drop to the ground. The concentration of salts and nitrogenous wastes helps to facilitate the flow of material from the sea to the land, serving to make it habitable for bacteria which live in the soils.

Bifidobacterium adolescentis Gram Lactobacillus sp 01 The gut flora is the complex community of microorganisms that live in the digestive tracts of humans and other animals. The gut metagenome is the aggregate of all the genomes of gut microbiota. The gut is one niche that human microbiota inhabit. In humans, the gut microbiota has the largest quantity of bacteria and the greatest number of species, compared to other areas of the body.

Solutions of ammonia (5–10% by weight) are used as household cleaners, particularly for glass. These solutions are irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes (respiratory and digestive tracts), and to a lesser extent the skin. Caution should be used that the chemical is never mixed into any liquid containing bleach, as a toxic gas may result. Mixing with chlorine-containing products or strong oxidants, such as household bleach, can generate chloramines.

The buccal cavity of the electric eel may breathe air. Catfish of the families Loricariidae, Callichthyidae, and Scoloplacidae absorb air through their digestive tracts. Lungfish, with the exception of the Australian lungfish, and bichirs have paired lungs similar to those of tetrapods and must surface to gulp fresh air through the mouth and pass spent air out through the gills. Gar and bowfin have a vascularized swim bladder that functions in the same way.

Like other nematodes, M. ozzardi is a cylindrical and bilaterally symmetrical worm, with a pseudocoel, or a false body cavity. The exterior of the parasite, the cuticle, is a protective layer that can withstand the harsh environment in the digestive tracts of the human hosts. M. ozzardi and other nematodes have longitudinal muscles that run along the body wall. They also have dorsal, ventral, and longitudinal nerve cords connected to these longitudinal muscles.

Erwinia tracheiphila is spread between plants by two species of insect vectors, striped cucumber beetles (Acalymma Vittatum) and spotted cucumber beetles (Diabrotica undecimpunctata). The beetles acquire E. tracheiphila by feeding on infected plants, then carry the bacteria in their digestive tracts. The disease may be spread to susceptible plants through feeding wounds, by way of infected mouthparts or frass. The bacteria is capable of overwintering in the gut of its insect vectors.

They have incomplete digestive tracts where the food enters, is digested, and expelled through the same opening. During the polyp stage, the mouth is situated at the top of the body, surrounded by tentacles, whereas during the medusa stage, the mouth is situated at the distal end of the main body structure. Four gonads lie in this main body structure, or manubrium. When food is taken in through the mouth, it enters the manubrium.

A colubrid snake, Dolichophis jugularis, eating a legless lizard, Pseudopus apodus. Most reptiles are carnivorous, and many primarily eat other reptiles and small mammals. Gastroliths from a plesiosaur Most reptiles are insectivorous or carnivorous and have simple and comparatively short digestive tracts due to meat being fairly simple to break down and digest. Digestion is slower than in mammals, reflecting their lower resting metabolism and their inability to divide and masticate their food.

Every study done on the food habits of the North American river otter has identified varying fish species as being the primary component of its diet. For instance, an Alberta, Canada study involved the collection and analysis of 1,191 samples of North American river otter scats collected during each season. Fish remnants were found present in 91.9% of the scat samples. Moreover, a western Oregon study revealed fish remains were present in 80% of the 103 digestive tracts examined.

From 1925 to 1928 Kirby was an instructor in biology at Yale University. At U. C. Berkeley's zoology department, he was from 1928 to 1931 an assistant professor, from 1931 to 1940 an associated professor, and from 1940 until this death a full professor. Kirby devoted most of his career to the study of protists, specifically those flagellates that live in termite digestive tracts. He worked out a well-documented explanation of the evolutionary history of such flagellates.

All species feed almost entirely on leaves. To enable them to digest this tough and fibrous food, they have an enlarged cecum containing fermenting bacteria, and, like rabbits, they are coprophagous, passing food through their digestive tracts twice. Their teeth include a battery of grinding molars, and they lack lower canines. Their dental formula is: Most are solitary animals, although a few live in small family groups, and they are generally shy and secretive, making them difficult to study.

Comparing the digestive tracts of individuals with varying body sizes, a study found that the diet of the species was widely diverse in relation to size. Specimens smaller than 22 cm mainly fed on amphipods, while those with lengths between 22 and 46 cm fed on both amphipods and decapods. Larger individuals (>46 cm) had a narrow diet spectrum, consuming mainly decapods. Conditioned by predator size group, significant differences in diet were observed between geographical areas and depths.

It also contains vitamins and minerals like iron, along with essential fatty acids. Cerelac products also contain probiotics that are found in the digestive tracts of breastfed babies. The brand was first registered in 1949 and it is currently sold in Kenya, Tanzania, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Spain, Portugal, South America, Central America, North America, India, the Middle East, Nigeria, Congo, North Africa, Malawi,Nepal,Pakistan, Philippines, Ghana, Ivory Coast, South Africa, South East Asia, United Kingdom, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

They have found that the enzymes inherent in the bacteria and protozoa that inhabit the digestive tracts of the household termite efficiently convert 95% of cellulose into fermentable sugars. Using proprietary DNA extraction and cloning technologies, they were able to isolate the cellulose-degrading enzymes. By reenacting this natural process, the company created a cocktail of high-performance enzymes for industrial ethanol production enablers. Although still in the early stages of this work, the initial results are promising.

Catfish of the families Loricariidae, Callichthyidae, and Scoloplacidae absorb air through their digestive tracts. Lungfish, with the exception of the Australian lungfish, and bichirs have paired lungs similar to those of tetrapods and must surface to gulp fresh air through the mouth and pass spent air out through the gills. Gar and bowfin have a vascularized swim bladder that functions in the same way. Loaches, trahiras, and many catfish breathe by passing air through the gut.

The transgene was detected in three volunteers from a group of seven who had previously had their large intestines removed for medical reasons. As this gene transfer did not increase after the consumption of the modified soy, the researchers concluded that gene transfer did not occur. In volunteers with intact digestive tracts, the transgene did not survive. The antibiotic resistance genes used in genetic engineering are naturally found in many pathogens and antibiotics these genes confer resistance to are not widely prescribed.

Database of extant Ascidiacea. Version of 2 November 2007 They superficially resemble sea squirts but prey on invertebrates such as crustaceans. They also have some unique physical features that distinguish them from the ascidiaceans, including a severely reduced pharynx, the retention of the dorsal nerve cord as adults, the superficial position of their ganglion and the unique histology of the cells of their digestive tracts. The branchial syphon is large and surrounded by six large lobes; the cloacal syphon is small.

Specialist mistletoe eaters have adaptations that expedite the process; some pass the seeds through their unusually shaped digestive tracts so fast that a pause for defecation of the seeds is part of the feeding routine. Others have adapted patterns of feeding behavior; the bird grips the fruit in its bill and squeezes the sticky-coated seed out to the side. The seed sticks to the beak and the bird wipes it off onto the branch. Biochemically, viscin is a complex adhesive mix containing cellulosic strands and mucopolysaccharides.

Universal Laboratories Building is a building in Dassel, Minnesota, United States, listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It was listed on the National Register for its role in the production of ergot from the mid-1930s through the late 1960s. The business was established in 1935 as Rice Laboratories, as a manufacturer of yeast for livestock feed. Yeast was used as a feed supplement because the enzymes fermenting in the digestive tracts of hogs and poultry would break down food and help in nutrient absorption.

These external symptoms usually begin on the head and neck, but eventually spread throughout the body, being especially concentrated on the limbs and genitalia. Without treatment, the animal will generally recover from the infection in 4 to 6 weeks. Acute infections are usually found in camels under the age of three, and result in mild to severe systemic infections. In addition to the symptoms that accompany a generalized infection, these animals experience internal lesions along the lining of the mouth, and respiratory and digestive tracts.

Methanogens are microorganisms that produce methane as a metabolic byproduct in hypoxic conditions. They are prokaryotic and belong to the domain of archaea. They are common in wetlands, where they are responsible for marsh gas, and in the digestive tracts of animals such as ruminants and many humans, where they are responsible for the methane content of belching in ruminants and flatulence in humans. In marine sediments, the biological production of methane, also termed methanogenesis, is generally confined to where sulfates are depleted, below the top layers.

The neck is the part of the body on many vertebrates that connects the head with the torso and provides the mobility and movements of the head. The structures of the human neck are anatomically grouped into four compartments; vertebral, visceral and two vascular compartments. Within these compartments, the neck houses the cervical vertebrae and cervical part of the spinal cord, upper parts of the respiratory and digestive tracts, endocrine glands, nerves, arteries and veins. Muscles of the neck are described separately from the compartments.

Numerous instances of functional equivalence may exist within microbial symbionts and their associated host. Some examples of these include the large diversity of microbes within termite digestive tracts and the human gut microbiome. In these environments, a vast array of taxonomically diverse organisms provide the function of food digestion and cellulose breakdown. These microbial organisms most likely evolved under similar conditions but at different points in time, and they have now been discovered interacting with one another and providing the same function to their host organism.

Experts speculate it becoming extinct in the very near future, due to multiple factors such as deforestation and overhunting for its bezoar stones and as a food source. The bezoar stones, which are smooth, hard mineral deposits found in the digestive tracts of some animals are used as good luck charms and also for its ability to neutralize some poisons, but only occur in a minority of the monkeys. Although Miller's langur is protected under Indonesian law, the legal protections may be ineffective because it is listed under a defunct scientific name, P. aygula.

Aquatic invertebrates have been recognized as an integral part of the North American river otter's diet. Otters consume more aquatic insects in the summer as the populations increase and specific life stages heighten their susceptibility. Most aquatic invertebrates preyed upon by the otters are from the families Odonata (dragonfly nymphs), Plecoptera (stonefly nymphs), and Coleoptera (adult beetles). Invertebrates discovered within scats or digestive tracts could most likely be a secondary food item, first being consumed by the fish that are subsequently preyed upon by the North American river otters.

The members of this family are the part of the normal flora of human and animal digestive tracts. C. koseri may act as an opportunistic pathogen in a variety of human infections. Brain abscesses have a high rate of mortality and complications, therefore, neonates usually left with severe residual permanent damage. The transmission of C. koseri could be vertical from mother to fetus (local vaginal infection, rupture of the membranes, chorioamniotis may occur between the seventh and 11th day prior to delivery) and other sources can be horizontal nosocomial transmission by asymptomatic nursery staff.

Levinseniella deblocki is a parasitic fluke that occurs in salt marshes along the eastern coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Its life cycle includes a metacercarial stage in the gonads of fiddler crabs (Uca) and one intermediate host is a gastropod from the genus Heleobops (family Hydrobiidae). Adults are found in the digestive tracts of marsh rice rats (Oryzomys palustris), raccoons (Procyon lotor), and clapper rails (Rallus crepitans). Within the subgenus Austromicrophallus, L. deblocki is most similar to the European L. polydactyla and the Californian L. ophidea, but differs in size, ecology, and morphology.

Reproduction of pondweeds occurs both vegetatively and by seed, though studies suggest that in some species or situations reproduction by seed is rare. The fruits may be produced in large quantities from midsumer onwards, and are ingested by waterfowl. Germination experiments have shown that the seeds are viable after passing through the digestive tracts of birds and this mechanism is probably the only natural mechanism for long-distance dispersal between isolated water bodies. Vegetative propagation occurs by a variety of mechanisms including turions, and via growth and fragmentation of rhizomes and shoots.

Plants flower from this period typically until May when water stress inhibits the grass. Populations grow during periods of heavy rainfall and populations can be wiped out during extended periods of drought. The grass alters soil conditions and the competition brought about by the grass both negatively affect native plant populations, and the highly flammable nature of the grass produces wildfires in North American communities where fire was previously rare. Dry florets of the weed entangle themselves in animal hair and can tear at the digestive tracts of foraging livestock.

The Saginae, commonly known as the predatory katydids or predatory bush- crickets, is a subfamily of the family Tettigoniidae (the bush-crickets or katydids). They are mostly found in Europe, west and central Asia and southern Africa.Orthoptera species file (retrieved 3 January 2018) The Saginae are specialist carnivores, which is unusual among the Orthoptera. Their specialist carnivory and appropriately adapted digestive tracts even were regarded as unique in the order Orthoptera, but at least some members of two other subfamilies, the Austrosaginae and Listroscelidinae are partly or completely predatory as well, and until recently those subfamilies were included in the Saginae.

Dwarf little fruit bats are exclusively herbivorous, eating a wide range of fruits, including Philodendron, matico, arum, and figs. They help to disperse the seeds of some these fruits, which pass unharmed through their digestive tracts, and have also been observed to eat pollen from some plants. They are nocturnal, spending the day in tent-like roosts constructed from the leaves of Philodendron and similar plants, typically above the ground. The roosts are temporary, with the bats moving every few days, and are found in small groups, occupied by a single male and up to three females.

Adult females emerge with a complete set of mature ova and "call" males by emitting pheromones (specific "calling" times vary by species). Males can detect these chemical signals up to a mile away with help from sensitive receptors located on the tips of their feather-like antennae. The males fly several miles in one night to locate a female and mate with her; females generally will not fly until after they have mated. Since the mouthparts of adult saturniids are vestigial and digestive tracts are absent, adults subsist on stored lipids acquired during the larval stage.

Soft-coated Wheaten Terriers are generally a long-lived breed. They are susceptible to various heritable diseases, although are most known for two protein wasting conditions: protein-losing nephropathy (PLN), where the dogs lose protein via the kidneys; and protein- losing enteropathy (PLE), where the dogs fail to fully absorb protein in their digestive tracts, causing it to pass in their stool. Both PLN and PLE are potentially fatal, but if caught early enough, can sometimes be managed with strict dietary changes and pharmaceuticals. Laboratory tests can aid in diagnosing PLN and PLE; Wheaten owners should check their country's advised testing protocols.

Macro-organisms such as mites and maggots can consume organic material and break it down via their digestive tracts, aiding in the mixing and formation of soil. Micro-organisms such as bacteria or fungi essentially serve the same purpose, but utilize different degradation pathways. The presence of these organisms is critical in maintaining the nutrient cycles within the soil, and make available the necessary nutrients for the growth of epiphytes and micro-ecosystem. The microorganism community found in canopy soils has been found to be distinct, but similar to the communities found in the soil of the forest floor.

As against this, Philip Lieberman points out that only humans have evolved permanent and substantial laryngeal descent in association with hyoidal descent, resulting in a curved tongue and two-tube vocal tract with 1:1 proportions. Uniquely in the human case, simple contact between the epiglottis and velum is no longer possible, disrupting the normal mammalian separation of the respiratory and digestive tracts during swallowing. Since this entails substantial costs — increasing the risk of choking while swallowing food — we are forced to ask what benefits might have outweighed those costs. The obvious benefit — so it is claimed — must have been speech.

Some species of fish that feed on algae attached to coral outcrops and rocks can create substantial quantities of sand particles over their lifetime as they nibble during feeding, digesting the organic matter, and discarding the rock and coral particles which pass through their digestive tracts. The composition of the beach depends upon the nature and quantity of sediments upstream of the beach, and the speed of flow and turbidity of water and wind. Sediments are moved by moving water and wind according to their particle size and state of compaction. Particles tend to settle and compact in still water.

All cestodes are parasitic; many have complex life histories, including a stage in a definitive (main) host in which the adults grow and reproduce, often for years, and one or two intermediate stages in which the larvae develop in other hosts. Typically the adults live in the digestive tracts of vertebrates, while the larvae often live in the bodies of other animals, either vertebrates or invertebrates. For example, Diphyllobothrium has at least two intermediate hosts, a crustacean and then one or more freshwater fish; its definitive host is a mammal. Some cestodes are host- specific, while others are parasites of a wide variety of hosts.

Salt ponds, San Francisco Bay Fish farm owners search for a cost-effective, easy to use, and available food that is preferred by the fish. From cysts, brine shrimp nauplii can readily be used to feed fish and crustacean larvae just after one-day incubation. Instar I (the nauplii that just hatched and with large yolk reserves in their body) and instar II nauplii (the nauplii after first moult and with functional digestive tracts) are more widely used in aquaculture, because they are easy for operation, rich in nutrients, and small, which makes them suitable for feeding fish and crustacean larvae live or after drying.

It has been shown that the larynx does descend to some extent during development in chimpanzees, followed by hyoidal descent. As against this, Philip Lieberman points out that only humans have evolved permanent and substantial laryngeal descent in association with hyoidal descent, resulting in a curved tongue and two-tube vocal tract with 1:1 proportions. Uniquely in the human case, simple contact between the epiglottis and velum is no longer possible, disrupting the normal mammalian separation of the respiratory and digestive tracts during swallowing. Since this entails substantial costs—increasing the risk of choking while swallowing food—we are forced to ask what benefits might have outweighed those costs.

They strongly resemble fish eggs, only instead of finding a nutritious meal, any marine wildlife that ingests them will likely starve, be poisoned and die. Many animals that live on or in the sea consume flotsam by mistake, as it often looks similar to their natural prey. Plastic debris, when bulky or tangled, is difficult to pass, and may become permanently lodged in the digestive tracts of these animals, blocking the passage of food and causing death through starvation or infection. Tiny floating particles also resemble zooplankton, which can lead filter feeders to consume them and cause them to enter the ocean food chain.

Many primates have anatomical specializations that enable them to exploit particular foods, such as fruit, leaves, gum or insects. For example, leaf eaters such as howler monkeys, black-and-white colobuses and sportive lemurs have extended digestive tracts which enable them to absorb nutrients from leaves that can be difficult to digest. Marmosets, which are gum eaters, have strong incisor teeth, enabling them to open tree bark to get to the gum, and claws rather than nails, enabling them to cling to trees while feeding. The aye-aye combines rodent-like teeth with a long, thin middle finger to fill the same ecological niche as a woodpecker.

Contamination of their diet can lead to disruption of digestion as well as physical injury of the sea turtles' digestive tracts. The nesting of female sea turtles is often deterred due to the potential of oily effluence. If the female does lay eggs, the development of the eggs is still at risk due to either oil in the sand or contamination from the mother turtle that was oiled while nesting. If the eggs in the nest have contact with oil while in the last half of their incubation phase, the rate of hatchling survival sharply decreases and those that do survive have a greater chance of physical deformities.

A one-year-old Chestnut (Agouti in UK) Netherland Dwarf The gene (symbol Dw) responsible for the common appearance of the dwarf was discovered in the United States during the beginning of the 20th century. When two "true dwarfs" (both buck and doe) are bred, the genetic pattern which makes them "true dwarfs" (Dwdw) ensures that 25 percentage of their offspring will inherit the lethal genetic combination dwdw. These offspring, often called "peanuts" by rabbit breeders, are destined to struggle with life for up to three weeks and then to die. Reasons behind the death are unknown, but it is believed that peanuts have underdeveloped digestive tracts.

Bothrops asper is a diet generalist and is known to prey on a remarkably wide range of animals. A generalized ontogenetic diet shift occurs, with a higher percentage of ectothermic prey in juveniles, changing to a greater percentage of endothermic prey in adults, particularly small mammals. However both juveniles and adults, regardless of size or age, are known to opportunistically prey on ectothermic and endothermic species. Reports of invertebrate and insect remains in the digestive tracts along with frog and lizard remains are believed to represent secondary ingestion, however the dissection of several specimens containing only insect remains such as beetles (Coleoptera), and bugs (Hemiptera) are believed to reflect insects as primary prey too.

2007, chapter 9, Nurdles have frequently been found in the digestive tracts of various marine creatures, causing physiological damage by leaching plasticizers such as phthalates. Nurdles can carry two types of micropollutants in the marine environment: native plastic additives and hydrophobic pollutants absorbed from seawater. For example, concentrations of PCBs and DDE on nurdles collected from Japanese coastal waters were found to be up to 1 million times higher than the levels detected in surrounding seawater.Mato Y: "Plastic resin pellets as a transport medium for toxic chemicals in the marine environment", "Environmental Science & Technology" 35(2), pages 318–324, 2001 Plastic microbeads used in cosmetic exfoliating products are also found in water.

Larger plastics (called "macroplastics") such as plastic shopping bags can clog the digestive tracts of larger animals when consumed by them and can cause starvation through restricting the movement of food, or by filling the stomach and tricking the animal into thinking it is full. Microplastics on the other hand harm smaller marine life. For example, pelagic plastic pieces in the center of our ocean’s gyres outnumber live marine plankton, and are passed up the food chain to reach all marine life. A 1994 study of the seabed using trawl nets in the North-Western Mediterranean around the coasts of Spain, France, and Italy reported mean concentrations of debris of 1,935 items per square kilometre.

Land plants disperse by several different means. Many plants, mostly ferns and mosses but also some flowering plants, disperse on the wind, relying on tiny spores or feathery seeds that can remain airborne over long distances notably Metrosideros trees from New Zealand spread on the wind across Oceania. Other plants, notably coconut palms and mangroves, produce seeds that can float in salt water over long distances, eventually washing up on distant beaches, and thus Cocos trees are ubiquitous across Oceania. Birds are also an important means of dispersal; some plants produce sticky seeds that are carried on the feet or feathers of birds, and many plants produce fruits with seeds that can pass through the digestive tracts of birds.

The wide-ranged biological purposes of bio- luminescence include but are not limited to attraction of mates, defense against predators, and warning signals. In the case of bioluminescent bacteria, bio-luminescence mainly serves as a form of dispersal. It has been hypothesized that enteric bacteria (bacteria that survive in the guts of other organisms) - especially those prevalent in the depths of the ocean - employ bio-luminescence as an effective form of distribution. After making their way into the digestive tracts of fish and other marine organisms and being excreted in fecal pellets, bioluminescent bacteria are able to utilize their bio-luminescent capabilities to lure in other organisms and prompt ingestion of these bacterial-containing fecal pellets.

Bacteria used for biological control infect insects via their digestive tracts, so they offer only limited options for controlling insects with sucking mouth parts such as aphids and scale insects. Bacillus thuringiensis, a soil-dwelling bacterium, is the most widely applied species of bacteria used for biological control, with at least four sub-species used against Lepidopteran (moth, butterfly), Coleopteran (beetle) and Dipteran (true fly) insect pests. The bacterium is available to organic farmers in sachets of dried spores which are mixed with water and sprayed onto vulnerable plants such as brassicas and fruit trees. Genes from B. thuringiensis have also been incorporated into transgenic crops, making the plants express some of the bacterium's toxins, which are proteins.

Some comparative studies of human and higher primate digestive tracts do suggest that humans have evolved to obtain greater amounts of calories from sources such as animal foods, allowing them to shrink the size of the gastrointestinal tract relative to body mass and to increase the brain mass instead. Anthropologists have diverse opinions about the proportions of plant and animal foods consumed. Just as with still existing hunters and gatherers, there were many varied "diets" in different groups, and also varying through this vast amount of time. Some paleolithic hunter-gatherers consumed a significant amount of meat and possibly obtained most of their food from hunting,Cordain L. Implications of Plio-Pleistocene Hominin Diets for Modern Humans.

Claw of rhinoceros iguana at Bristol Zoo The rhinoceros iguana, like most Cyclura species is primarily herbivorous, consuming leaves, flowers, berries, and fruits from different plant species. A study in 2000 by Dr Allison Alberts of the San Diego Zoo revealed that seeds passing through the digestive tracts of Cycluras germinate more rapidly than those that do not. These seeds in the fruits consumed by cycluras have an adaptive advantage by sprouting before the end of very short rainy seasons. The rhinoceros iguana is also an important means of distributing these seeds to new areas (particularly when females migrate to nesting sites) and, as the largest native herbivores of their island's ecosystem, they are essential for maintaining the balance between climate and vegetation.

Riding on a giant host is advantageous for dispersal, no need to search for hosts to feed, and protection from predators. It is unlikely that Paracanthopoma takes blood from the tiny holes it drills in the skin; the areas these fish attach to have no large blood vessels to supply them with blood, and fish that have been riding are found only with trace amounts of blood in their digestive tracts. Also, most vandelliine candirus take blood from the gill region of their hosts. An undescribed species of Paracanthopoma has been found to ride Zungaro zungaro catfish; their snouts were buried up to the eyes in the tough skin on the host's caudal and pectoral fins, as well as the base of the dorsal fin.

The cuttlebone of a cuttlefish The common cuttlefish is one of the largest species of cuttlefish with their mantles (does not include their head and arms) reaching upwards of 45 cm. The mantle houses the reproductive and digestive tracts of the cuttlefish and is also home to an internal shell called the cuttlebone. The common cuttlefish has two highly developed eyes, eight arms which are located around the mouth and are used to hold and move prey, two tentacles which are used to quickly capture prey, and a radula which is used to tear and rip apart any prey they have captured. Cuttlefish are well known for their unmatched camouflaging abilities which are possible due to light scattering leucophores, pigmented chromatophore organs, and structurally reflecting iridophores all located in their skin.

For example, all houses are underground, so as not to be demolished by the periodic 2D rivers; nails are useless for attaching two objects, so tape and glue are used instead; most Ardean creatures cannot have deuterostomic digestive tracts since they would split into two; even games such as Go have one-dimensional Alak analogues. An appendix explains various other aspects of two-dimensional science and technology which could not fit into the main story. The underlying allegory culminates in Yendred's arrival at the watershed of the continent and the planet's only building above ground, where he at last finds Drabk, an Ardean who professes 'knowledge of the Beyond,' and teaches Yendred to fly. Yendred finds that to keep contact with Earth is no longer of benefit, and contact with Arde is lost.

Other eurypterids, lacking these specialized appendages, likely fed in a manner similar to modern horseshoe crabs, by grabbing and shredding food with their appendages before pushing it into their mouth using their chelicerae. Fossils preserving digestive tracts have been reported from fossils of various eurypterids, among them Carcinosoma, Acutiramus and Eurypterus. Though a potential anal opening has been reported from the telson of a specimen of Buffalopterus, it is more likely that the anus was opened through the thin cuticle between the last segment before the telson and the telson itself, as in modern horseshoe crabs. Eurypterid coprolites discovered in deposits of Ordovician age in Ohio containing fragments of a trilobite and eurypterid Megalograptus ohioensis in association with full specimens of the same eurypterid species have been suggested to represent evidence of cannibalism.

By examining coprolites, paleontologists are able to find information about the diet of the animal (if bones or other food remains are present), such as whether it was a herbivorous or carnivorous, and the taphonomy of the coprolites, although the producer is rarely identified unambiguously, especially with more ancient examples. In some instances, knowledge about the anatomy of animal digestive tracts can be helpful in assigning a coprolite to the animal that produced it, one example being the finding that the Triassic dinosauriform Silesaurus may have been an insectivore, a suggestion which was based on the beak-like jaws of the animal and the high density of beetle remains found in associated coprolites. Further, coprolites can be analyzed for certain minerals that are known to exist in trace amounts in certain species of plant that can still be detected millions of years later.

In the yeast cell wall, mannan oligosaccharides are present in complex molecules that are linked to the protein moiety. There are two main locations of mannan oligosaccharides in the surface area of Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell wall. They can be attached to the cell wall proteins as part of –O and –N glycosyl groups and also constitute elements of large α-D- mannanose polysaccharides (α-D-Mannans), which are built of α-(1,2)- and α-(1,3)- D-mannose branches (from 1 to 5 rings long), which are attached to long α-(1,6)-D-mannose chains. This specific combination of various functionalities involves mannan oligosaccharides-protein conjugates and highly hydrophilic and structurally variable 'brush-like' mannan oligosaccharides structures that can fit to various receptors of animal digestive tracts, and to the receptors on the surface of bacterial membranes, impacts these molecules bioactivity.

Adult L. sericata feeding on nectar The larvae of L. sericata feed exclusively on dead organic tissue; as the eggs are laid directly into carrion, they are able to feed on the corpse they hatch into until they are ready to pupate. The adults are more varied in their diets, eating carrion and feces as well as pollen and nectar, meaning that they are important pollinators in their native range as well as important agents of decomposition. The pollen (which the flies are capable of digesting, perhaps with the assistance of bacteria in their digestive tracts) may be used as an alternative protein source, especially for gravid females who need large amounts of protein and cannot reliably find carrion. Notably, gravid flies are particularly attracted to sapromyophilous flowers that exude a carrion-like odor, such as the dead horse arum lily.

Based on sequencing of 16S rRNA, O. valericigenes is a member of the clostridial cluster IV, a subgroup of clostridial bacteria typically found in the alimentary canals of animals, including humans. Its closest cultured relatives at the time of its original description in 2007 were Clostridium orbiscindens (found in human feces) and Clostridium viride. It also exhibits a close relationship to Oscillospira guillermondii, a large bacterial species found in the guts of ruminant animals, which has yet to be grown in culture despite having been first observed in 1913. O. valericigenes is unusual in that its 16S rRNA more closely resembles that of uncultured bacteria in animal digestive tracts than the other cultured members of clostridial cluster IV. Its genome was sequenced in 2012 and found to contain some genes identifiably homologous to those known to be involved in sporulation; however, it is missing many genes involved in the later stages of sporulation that are widely distributed among clostridial bacteria.

Plastics are made from petroleum and resist biodegredation, they absorb persistent organic pollutants, leach chemicals that are toxic to humans and other organisms, degrade ocean and terrestrial ecosystems, and may impact migratory patterns, trophic structures (food chains), and habitats around the world. Plastics are a direct threat to the well-being of marine life as they can lead to entanglement causing animals to drown, it can impair their ability to catch food, and ingested plastics can block digestive tracts and cause starvation and even death. The detrimental impacts that plastics have on individual animals affects not only their livelihood, but may also affect the balance of ocean ecosystem and the ecological services they provide for human benefit. With the numerous health and environmental concerns that plastics pose, bans against many single use plastic products have become more and more prevalent throughout local and state governments in the United States and even in other countries across the globe.

4-hydroxyphenylacetate 3-monooxygenase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction :4-hydroxyphenylacetate + FADH2 \+ O2 \rightleftharpoons 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetate + FAD + H2O This reaction is the first step in a pathway found in enteric bacteria such as Escherichia coli and soil bacteria such as Pseudomonas putida which degrades 4-hydroxyphenylacetate (4-HPA), allowing these bacteria to use 4-HPA and other aromatic compounds found in mammalian digestive tracts or in soil as a carbon source. While most known flavin monooxygenases use NADH or NADPH as substrates (and use the flavins FAD or FMN as prosthetic groups ), this enzyme is part of a two-component system, in which a flavin oxidoreductase partner () regenerates FADH2 by oxidizing NADH to NAD+. hpaB and hpaC, the 4-HPA oxygenase and reductase partner proteins (respectively) of E. coli strain W, were the first two-component flavin monoxygenase system identified. While known examples of this enzyme share a common catalytic mechanism and likely evolutionary origin, they differ with respect to regulation and ability to substitute FMNH2 for FADH2 as a substrate.