I'm not an absolute fool about technology: a determinist or militant naif.
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Kurlansky loves explaining technologies, but he is no '90s-style techno-determinist.
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He exposes determinist ideas as false: Behavioral tendencies are strongly shaped by experience.
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It's Judgment Day in the determinist world of "Caroline's Kitchen," which means your last chances for happiness have all been used up.
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For them Marxism was not an interpretation of society but an objective science, fixed in its laws and determinist in its theory of historical change.
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The juxtaposition of his long-standing hustle and determinist arc aches; there is his 2012 single "Amen," and there is the bad faith in dumb shit.
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He was also an early specimen of that recurring paradox (which is not really a paradox): the philosophical determinist who is also a passionate champion of freedom.
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As this discussion suggests, religious-determinist theories are easy to propose and also relatively easy to undercut, because they can be challenged by a few robust counter-examples.
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In books like The Gutenberg Galaxy, McLuhan recast the conventional history of Western Civilization with a technological-determinist bent, tracing the movement from orality to literacy to post-literacy.
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Unlike a typical "determinist" forecast, which takes current conditions and simulates a single scenario forward, an ensemble model varies initial conditions slightly and then simulates, propagating uncertainty through the forecast.
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If the films could be said to have a flaw, it is that Ader is required to activate the falls himself — a fact that threatens to undermine the work's determinist themes.
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What's more, Sanders is an economic determinist — the sort of progressive who sees all injustice through the lens of economic inequality and believes if you fix that, you fix everything else.
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I don't agree with him because he's a biological determinist, but I think what he's doing is a genuine response to the feelings that most liberals are absolutely terrified of talking about.
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In this way, the film envisions a clear determinist timeline of human evolution that absolves our species of any credit or blame for our past technological progress or our ultimate future destiny.
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Automation may follow certain economic logic, but only a total technological determinist would say that it is like a rising tide that cannot be dealt with aside from throwing up a few sandbags.
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But when the couple's tenderness culminates in a threesome with Helmut, desire trumps biologically determinist reasoning and the fear of the other (while, as we can guess, giving Calixto a chance to become pregnant).
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Rosemarie Trockel is quietly determinist in her work that almost crosses over into architecture, and Lawler is the most visually alluring with paintings that reference but also transform the work of other well-known artists, such as her recontextualization of Jeff Koons's iconic silver bunny against a field of cleanly modernist geometric planes of color in "(Bunny) Sculpture and Painting (adjusted to fit)" (1999/2016).
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"Prosocial benefits of feeling free: disbelief in will increases aggression and reduces helpfulness." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 35(2):260–68. William James was an American pragmatist philosopher who coined the terms "soft determinist" and "hard determinist" in an influential essay titled "The Dilemma of Determinism".James, William.
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American geostrategist Thomas P. M. Barnett describes himself as an economic determinist in his book The Pentagon's New Map.
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Through these studies and analytical work, the following four gender development theories of biological determinist, psychoanalytic, social learning, and cognitive development have been devised.
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Tucker was not a historical determinist, but he observed that centuries-old statism was alive and well in Russia after the breakup of the Soviet Union.
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Despite opinions ranging from determinist to postmodernist, however, biologists, feminists, and feminist biologists of varying labels alike have made claims to the utility of applying feminist ideology to biological practice and procedure.
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Leibniz made efforts to return to forms. Substantial forms, in the strictest sense for Leibniz, are primitive active forces and are required for his metaphysics.Adams, Robert Merrihew. Leibniz: Determinist, Theist, Idealist, February 1999, pp.
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He proposed that determinism is logically inconsistent: the determinist claims that because A caused B, and B caused C, that A is the true cause of C. Applied to a case of the human will, a determinist would argue that the will does not have causal power and that something outside the will causes the will to act as it does. But this argument merely assumes what it sets out to prove: viz. that the human will is part of the causal chain. Secondly, Kant remarks that free will is inherently unknowable.
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Therefore, in the Freewill controversy Hartley took his place as a determinist. It was only with reluctance, and when his speculations were nearly complete, that he came to a conclusion on this subject in accordance with his theory.
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Trigger 2007. p. 469. In this manner they share similarities with Marxist archaeologists. A minority of post-processualists, such as Julian Thomas have however argued that human agency is not a useful aspect for looking at past societies, thereby accepting a culturally determinist position.Thomas 2000. pp. 149–150.
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Thomas L. Friedman, American journalist, columnist and author, admits to being a technological determinist in his book The World is Flat. Futurist Raymond Kurzweil's theories about a technological singularity follow a technologically deterministic view of history. Some interpret Karl Marx as advocating technological determinism, with such statements as "The Handmill gives you society with the feudal lord: the steam-mill, society with the industrial capitalist" (The Poverty of Philosophy, 1847), but others argue that Marx was not a determinist.Technological or Media Determinism, Daniel Chandler Technological determinist Walter J. Ong reviews the societal transition from an oral culture to a written culture in his work Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word (1982).
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High-order logic is an extension of first-order and second-order with high order quantifiers. In descriptive complexity we can see that it is equal to the ELEMENTARY functions. There is a relation between the ith order and non determinist algorithm the time of which is with i-1 level of exponentials.
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The first major elaboration of a technological determinist view of socioeconomic development came from the German philosopher and economist Karl Marx, who argued that changes in technology, and specifically productive technology, are the primary influence on human social relations and organizational structure, and that social relations and cultural practices ultimately revolve around the technological and economic base of a given society. Marx's position has become embedded in contemporary society, where the idea that fast-changing technologies alter human lives is pervasive. Although many authors attribute a technologically determined view of human history to Marx's insights, not all Marxists are technological determinists, and some authors question the extent to which Marx himself was a determinist. Furthermore, there are multiple forms of technological determinism.
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Huges-Warrington, p. 27. One of his first and most influential critics was the British philosopher, Michael Oakeshott, 'What is History?' (1961), in idem, What is History and Other Essays (Exeter, 2004), 325. Others have modified or rejected this use of the label "determinist".See M. Hewitson, History and Causality (Basingstoke, 2014), pp. 86–93.
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Like Spinoza, Einstein was a strict determinist who believed that human behavior was completely determined by causal laws. For that reason, he refused the chance aspect of quantum theory, famously telling Niels Bohr: "God does not play dice with the universe."Gardner, Martin (1996). The Night Is Large: Collected Essays, 1938-1995. p. 430.
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Otto Hans Adolf Gross (17 March 1877 – 13 February 1920) was an Austrian psychoanalyst. A maverick early disciple of Sigmund Freud, he later became an anarchist and joined the utopian Ascona community. His father Hans Gross was a judge turned pioneering criminologist. Otto initially collaborated with him, and then turned against his determinist ideas on character.
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52 Some scholars have viewed the electracy paradigm, along with other "apparatus theories" such as Ong's, with skepticism, arguing that they are "essentialist" or "determinist".See, for example, Inman's cautionary statement on page 161 of Computers and Writing: The Cyborg Era and a response essay by Stephen Tchudi in Electronic Collaboration in the Humanities, pp. 79–88.
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The first major elaboration of a technological determinist view of socioeconomic development came from the German philosopher and economist Karl Marx, whose theoretical framework was grounded in the perspective that changes in technology, and specifically productive technology, are the primary influence on human social relations and organizational structure, and that social relations and cultural practices ultimately revolve around the technological and economic base of a given society. Marx's position has become embedded in contemporary society, where the idea that fast-changing technologies alter human lives is all-pervasive. Although many authors attribute a technologically determined view of human history to Marx's insights, not all Marxists are technological determinists, and some authors question the extent to which Marx himself was a determinist. Furthermore, there are multiple forms of technological determinism.
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For example, a hard determinist might see humans as a sort of thinking machines, but believe it is inaccurate to say they "came to a decision" or "chose". Generalization of event causation should circumvent overstatement of external impulses. Autotelic personalities show a high rate of activities all by themselves. The capacity to resist psychological assault is impressive evidence of autarkic resources.
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McLuhan was not necessarily a hard determinist. As a more moderate version of media determinism, he proposed that our use of particular media may have subtle influences on us, but more importantly, it is the social context of use that is crucial. See also Media ecology. Media determinism is a form of the popular dominant theory of the relationship between technology and society.
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De Saussure was unwilling to answer this question, Hodge and Kress claim. This leaves the socially determinist implication that meanings and interpretations are dictated from above, by "the whims of an inscrutably powerful collective being, Society." For Hodge and Kress, social semiotics must respond to the question and explain how the social shaping of meanings works in practice (1988:22).
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Belsham wrote history as a radical Whig. He belonged to the anti-war group of historians, with Charles James Fox and Anthony Robinson. He began his career as an author by publishing Essays, Philosophical, Historical, and Literary, two vols. 1789–91. He used the term "libertarian" in a discussion of free will and in opposition to "necessitarian" (or determinist) views.
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As understood by Skinner, ascribing dignity to individuals involves giving them credit for their actions. To say "Skinner is brilliant" means that Skinner is an originating force. If Skinner's determinist theory is right, he is merely the focus of his environment. He is not an originating force and he had no choice in saying the things he said or doing the things he did.
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It means, rather, that class struggle is most fundamental to human history".Why Marx is Right? page 34 Academic Peter Stillman believes Marx's status as a determinist is a "myth".Marx:Myths and Legends Friedrich Engels himself warned about conceiving of Marx's ideas as deterministic, saying: "According to the materialist conception of history, the ultimately determining element in history is the production and reproduction of real life.
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Marxism, however, may be incorrect in its overall view, but it has a working model for societal structure, the mechanics of the history of society, and the roles of individuals. One of Mills's problems with the Marxist model is that it uses units that are small and autonomous, which he finds too simple to explain capitalism. Mills then provides discussion on Marx as a determinist.
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The first recorded use of the term libertarianism was in 1789 by William Belsham in a discussion of free will and in opposition to necessitarian or determinist views.William Belsham, "Essays", printed for C. Dilly, 1789; original from the University of Michigan, digitized May 21, 2007, p. 11.Oxford English Dictionary definition of libertarianism. Metaphysical libertarianism is one philosophical view point under that of incompatibilism.
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19, available here but lack of transcendent component and rationalizing logic prevented major understanding.Action Francaise was positvist, paganist, determinist and nationalistic, while Accion Española was iusnaturalist, Catholic, providentialist and Hispanic – opinion of Gonzalez Fernandez de la Mora, referred after Bartyzel 2016, p. 149 Traditionalists from the Accion Española school, who neared nacionalcatolicismo of the early 1940s, were not immune to temptations of Nationalism also in its non- Integralist, ethnicity-based branch.
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Secondly, Plekhanov outlined a history of materialism and its struggle against bourgeois ideologists.B. A. Chagin, "Introduction" contained in Georgi Plekhanov's Selected Philosophical Works: Volume II, p. 11. Bourgeois philosophers of the "great man theory of history" came under attack from Plekhanov from the economic determinist point of view in his 1898 book entitled "On the Individual's Role in History."Georgi Plekhanov, Selected Philosophical Works: Volume II, pp. 283-315.
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Spirit = revealed Totality of Being = ((subjective) Revelation + (objective) Being) = (Knowledge + Real) = (Subject + Object)Spirit, or Geist, is always an endpoint, or a 'becoming'. Although determinist, for Hegel, the becoming of Spirit can only be traced a posteriori and not predicted. System = Subject<->Object [Subject reveals Object, Subject is revealed in Object] Self = Time'Time' and 'Space' are absolutely key concepts here. Though Hegel uses them in slightly unfamiliar ways.
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Environmental determinism is the theory that a people's physical, mental and moral habits are directly due to the influence of their natural environment. Prominent environmental determinists included Carl Ritter, Ellen Churchill Semple, and Ellsworth Huntington. Popular hypotheses included "heat makes inhabitants of the tropics lazy" and "frequent changes in barometric pressure make inhabitants of temperate latitudes more intellectually agile." Environmental determinist geographers attempted to make the study of such influences scientific.
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Vernadsky was a geographical determinist like his Yale colleague Ellsworth Huntington. They assumed that the characteristics of a land defined the character of the people and indeed of their government as well. For that reason Vernadsky was able to identify the roots of Russian culture in an ancient period long before the Slavic groups arrived. He thereby undercut the standard claim that modern Russia emerged from Kievan Rus.
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Beaglehole encouraged Freeman's interest in Mead's groundbreaking 1928 work, and this sparked his interest in visiting Samoa.Freeman 1983, Preface, page xiii. During his undergraduate studies in psychology he studied the socialization of children aged 6 to 9 in Wellington. This research led him to take a strong cultural determinist stance, even publishing an article in the student publication "Salient" stating that "the aims and desire which determine behavior are all constituted by the social environment".
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Technological determinism presumes that a society's technology drives the development of its social structure and cultural values. The term is believed to have been coined by Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929), an American sociologist and economist. The most radical technological determinist in the United States in the 20th century was most likely Clarence Ayres who was a follower of Thorstein Veblen and John Dewey. William Ogburn was also known for his radical technological determinism.
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He graduated with a Candidate's degree in sociology at the University of Oslo in 1992, with the thesis Lidende ledere og kompetente kalkulatører. Næringslivsfolks symbolske kamper, which in English translates as Suffering leaders and competent calculators. The symbolic struggles of business people. In 2010, he introduced a television show called Hjernevask ("Brainwash") which contrasted cultural determinist models of human behavior (also referred to as the Standard social science model) with nature- nurture interactionist perspectives.
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Many forms of ethically realistic and consequentialist approaches to justice, which are aimed at promoting future welfare rather than retribution, can survive even a hard determinist interpretation of free will. Accordingly, the legal system and notions of justice can thus be maintained even in the face of emerging neuroscientific evidence undermining libertarian intuitions of free will. Neuroscientist David Eagleman maintains similar ideas. Eagleman says that the legal justice system ought to become more forward looking.
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Under the influence of determinist beliefs, the American craniologist Samuel George Morton (1799–1851), and later the French anthropologist Paul Broca (1824–1880), attempted to measure the cranial capacities (internal skull volumes) of people of different skin colours, intending to show that whites were superior to the rest, with larger brains. All the supposed proofs from such studies were invalidated by methodological flaws. The results were used to justify slavery, and to oppose women's suffrage.
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He is the author of the text Speciation and the bestselling non-fiction book Why Evolution Is True. Coyne maintains a website and writes for his blog, also called Why Evolution Is True. He is a hard determinist."You don't have free will", Vancouver, June 2015 Coyne gained attention outside of the scientific community when he publicly criticized religion and is often cited with atheists such as Richard Dawkins and Sam Harris.
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Technological determinism is a reductionist theory that assumes that a society's technology determines the development of its social structure and cultural values. The term is believed to have originated from Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929), an American sociologist and economist. The most radical technological determinist in the United States in the 20th century was most likely Clarence Ayres who was a follower of Thorstein Veblen and John Dewey. William Ogburn was also known for his radical technological determinism.
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He further expressed his radical beliefs by asserting himself as a determinist, dismissing the use of judges. He disagreed with Christian beliefs and emphasized the importance of going after sensual pleasure, a hedonistic approach to human behavior. He further looked at human behavior by questioning the belief that humans have a higher sense of morality than animals. He noted that animals rarely tortured each other and argued that some animals were capable of some level of morality.
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Only knowledge of God provides the best response to the world around them. Not only is it impossible for two infinite Substances to exist (two infinities being absurd),Ethics, Part I, Proposition 6. God as the ultimate Substance cannot be affected by anything else, or else it would be affected by something else, and not be the fundamental, all-pervasive Substance. Spinoza was a thoroughgoing determinist who held that absolutely everything that happens occurs through the operation of necessity.
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Hjernevask ("Brainwash") is a Norwegian documentary miniseries about science that aired on NRK1 in 2010. The series, consisting of seven episodes, was created and presented by the comedian and sociologist Harald Eia. The series contrasted cultural determinist models of human behavior (also referred to as the Standard social science model) with nature-nurture interactionist perspectives. Experts interviewed for the series included Simon Baron-Cohen, Steven Pinker, Simon LeVay, David Buss, Glenn Wilson, Robert Plomin and Anne Campbell.
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Social determinism is the theory that social interactions and constructs alone determine individual behavior (as opposed to biological or objective factors). Consider certain human behaviors, such as committing murder, or writing poetry. A social determinist would look only at social phenomena, such as customs and expectations, education, and interpersonal interactions, to decide whether or not a given person would exhibit any of these behaviors. They would discount biological and other non-social factors, such as genetic makeup, the physical environment, etc.
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According to Green (2001), technology is always developed with a particular purpose or objective in mind. As the development of technology is necessarily facilitated by financial funding, a social determinist perspective recognizes that technology is always developed to benefit those who are capable of funding its development. Thus social determinists perceive that technological development is not only determined by the society in which it occurs, but that it is inevitably shaped by the power structures that exist in that society.
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New York: International Publishers. Retrieved 11 July 2020 – via Marxists Internet Archive. In an effort to reassert this approach to an understanding of the forces of history, Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar criticised what he considers narrow conceptual basis of Marx's ideas on historical evolution. In the 1978 book The Downfall of Capitalism and Communism, Ravi Batra pointed out crucial differences in the historical determinist approaches of Sarkar and Marx: > Sarkar's main concern with the human element is what imparts universality to > his thesis.
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Pope John Paul II admitted that the work of Immanuel Kant was the “starting ground” of many of his reflections. Kant, like Bacon and Descartes, believed that natural science can only progress through the mathematical-materialist determinist study of nature. However, Kant saw danger in those laws of nature if God is excluded because morality and religion are called into question. Kant's solution to that danger was to insist that theoretical reason is limited in regards to morality and religion.
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He proposed the way to escape the dilemma is to allow a role for chance. James was careful to explain that he would rather "debate about objects than words", which indicates he did not insist on saying that replacing determinism with a model including chance had to mean we had "free will." The determinist would counter-argue that there is still reason for hope. Whether or not the universe is determined does not change the fact that the future is unknown, and might very well always be.
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In a determinist view, technology takes on an active life of its own and is seen be as a driver of social phenomena. Innis believed that the social, cultural, political, and economic developments of each historical period can be related directly to the technology of the means of mass communication of that period. In this sense, like Dr. Frankenstein's monster, technology itself appears to be alive, or at least capable of shaping human behavior. However, it has been increasingly subject to critical review by scholars.
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Wacław Berent published a biography of Staszic, but it is now lost. In 1926, on the 100th anniversary of his death, he was celebrated in the Second Polish Republic with several studies, articles and publications. In April 1951, he was honoured on a postage stamp of the People's Republic of Poland as part of the set issued for the First Congress of Polish Science. His figure was popular among the Marxist scholars of the People's Republic, who stressed his materialist, determinist and anti-clerical views.
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The League for Small and Subject Nationalities was a self-determinist organisation formed during World War I in New York City, with the following aims: The League's President was Frederic C. Howe, who was also United States Commissioner of Immigration. At a controversial meeting held in October 1917, the League was accused of pro-German bias when the issue of Alsace-Lorraine was due to be discussed. The Irish delegation was represented by Hanna Sheehy- Skeffington of Sinn Féin, who was also accused of sympathies for Germany.
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Among other things, he argues that the Everett Interpretation of quantum mechanics, allows for a completely determinist outlook, and it undermines the views of those (like Roger Penrose) who hold that quantum mechanics can give us some special insights into the nature of consciousness. In this book, Drescher also provides treatments of the Prisoner's Dilemma and Newcomb's Problem in order to build a defense of the golden rule and Kant's categorical imperative which does not require that we posit anything beyond the physical world as understood by the natural sciences.
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In Part 3, Hume begins examining the motives that bring us to action. After a glancing mention of the direct passions and a perfunctory definition of the will as a mere impression we feel, he confronts the hoary philosophical problem of free will and determinism, dedicating two sections to a defense of soft determinist compatibilism. In the first section, he makes a case for "the doctrine of necessity". The issue, as Hume sees it, is whether human action is determined by a necessity comparable to "physical necessity"—the necessity that governs physical objects.
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Alexander believed that Aristotle was not a strict determinist like the Stoics, and Alexander argued that some events do not have pre-determined causes. In particular, man is responsible for self-caused decisions, and can choose to do or not to do something, as Chrysippus argued. However, Alexander denied the foreknowledge of events that was part of the Stoic identification of God and Nature. R. W. Sharples described Alexander's De Fato as perhaps the most comprehensive treatment surviving from classical antiquity of the problem of responsibility (τὸ ἐφ’ ἡμίν) and determinism.
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Individuals are not actors who make their own history, but are instead the "supports" of these practices.Althusser, L. and Balibar, E. (1970), Reading Capital, 180. Althusser uses this analysis to defend Marx's historical materialism against the charge that it crudely posits a base (economic level) and superstructure (culture/politics) "rising upon it" and then attempts to explain all aspects of the superstructure by appealing to features of the (economic) base (the well known architectural metaphor). For Althusser, it is a mistake to attribute this economic determinist view to Marx.
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In his essay Of Clouds and Clocks, included in his book Objective Knowledge, Popper contrasted "clouds", his metaphor for indeterministic systems, with "clocks", meaning deterministic ones. He sided with indeterminism, writing > I believe Peirce was right in holding that all clocks are clouds to some > considerable degree — even the most precise of clocks. This, I think, is the > most important inversion of the mistaken determinist view that all clouds > are clocksPopper, K: Of Clouds and Cuckoos, included in Objective Knowledge, > revised, 1978, p215. Popper was also a promoter of propensity probability.
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Jack Chen applies the concept to the writings of Emperor Taizong in a book titled the Poetics of Sovereignty: on Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty, (Boston, Mass: Harvard University Asia Center, 2011). In a chapter of the 2018 textbook International Perspectives on Theorizing Aspirations: Applying Bourdieu’s Tools, edited by Garth Stahl et al. (London, UK: Bloomsbury, 2018, pp. 44) in Steven Threadgold's chapter Bourdieu Is Not A Determinist, Guy Mankowski applies the theory with reference to punk music, where self-fashioning is re-appropriated as 'self-design'.
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Another interesting thing to note was that, of U.S. military deployments around the world since 1990, virtually all have taken place in countries that do not meet that level of income. This leads him to unabashedly proclaim himself an economic determinist. Examining the regions more thoroughly, it was also noted that the countries have very little flow of people, information, or investment money across their borders. This all leads to the idea of these countries being "disconnected" from the outside world, running on rule sets that are different from that of globalized societies.
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Starting from a detailed account of the senses, Hartley tried to show how, by the above laws, all the emotions may be explained. He argues that pure, disinterested sentiment exists, while at the same time declaring it to have grown out of self-regarding feelings. Voluntary action is explained as the result of a firm connection between a motion and a sensation or "idea," and, on the physical side, between an "ideal" and a motory vibration. Therefore in the free will controversy Hartley took his place as a determinist.
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Some philosophers' views are difficult to categorize as either compatibilist or incompatibilist, hard determinist or libertarian. For example, Ted Honderich holds the view that "determinism is true, compatibilism and incompatibilism are both false" and the real problem lies elsewhere. Honderich maintains that determinism is true because quantum phenomena are not events or things that can be located in space and time, but are abstract entities. Further, even if they were micro- level events, they do not seem to have any relevance to how the world is at the macroscopic level.
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Event causation is the only kind of causation accepted by Bradley, and refers to any situation where one's actions are defined by a pre- determined causal chain. If one person stumbles into another, for example, and that person pushes a third in an attempt to recover, that second person cannot reasonably be said to have chosen to push the third person. Bradley's philosophy is determinist because it suggests that everything we do occurs this way; that the course of all action is already determined according to the will of an absolute being.
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In a pre-prison article entitled "The Revolution against ", Gramsci wrote that the October Revolution in Russia had invalidated the idea that socialist revolution had to await the full development of capitalist forces of production. This reflected his view that Marxism was not a determinist philosophy. The principle of the causal primacy of the forces of production was a misconception of Marxism. Both economic changes and cultural changes are expressions of a basic historical process, and it is difficult to say which sphere has primacy over the other.
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Named for the drug in Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, the album demonstrates the band's art punk roots, with lyrics examining social issues from Brown's distant Marxist perspective, critiquing capitalism without embracing determinist revolutionary dogma. The band's members were themselves members of the working class, most of whom dropped out of college to drive trucks and labor elsewhere. In the 1983 Boston Rock magazine's year-end poll, the Proletariat placed first as best local band, second for best record, and fourth as best national band.Boston Rock (December 1983).
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Evolutionary psychology has been entangled in the larger philosophical and social science controversies related to the debate on nature versus nurture. Evolutionary psychologists typically contrast evolutionary psychology with what they call the standard social science model (SSSM). They characterize the SSSM as the "blank slate", "relativist", "social constructionist", and "cultural determinist" perspective that they say dominated the social sciences throughout the 20th century and assumed that the mind was shaped almost entirely by culture. Critics have argued that evolutionary psychologists created a false dichotomy between their own view and the caricature of the SSSM.
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However, in complete opposition to Ratzel's vision, Reclus considers geography not to be unchanging; it is supposed to evolve commensurately to the development of human society. His marginal political views resulted in his rejection by academia. French geographer and geopolitician Jacques Ancel is considered to be the first theoretician of geopolitics in France, and gave a notable series of lectures at the European Center of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in Paris and published Géopolitique in 1936. Like Reclus, Ancel rejects German determinist views on geopolitics (including Haushofer's doctrines).
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He published an incomplete edition of Diderot's works in 1798 after writing Mémoires historiques et philosophiques sur la vie et les ouvrages de Diderot, an unfinished commentary on his life and works. Naigeon's only original stand- alone work was Le militaire philosophe, ou Difficultés sur la religion, proposées au Pére Malebranche (London and Amsterdam, 1768) which was based on an earlier anonymous manuscript, and whose final chapter was written by d'Holbach. This work mostly repeated the atheist, anti-Christian, determinist materialist arguments found in the radical literature of the second half of the 18th century.
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Gygax, who believed D&D; would always only appeal to a male demographic,Gygax: As I have often said, I am a biological determinist, and there is no question that male and female brains are different. It is apparent to me that by and large females do not derive the same inner satisfaction from playing games as a hobby that males do. It isn't that females can't play games well, it is just that it isn't a compelling activity to them as is the case for males. wrote the novels for that readership.
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Bergman's early poetry is typically decadent and disillusioned, being informed by a determinist view of a changing world in which all value systems and all scientific and metaphysical processes of understanding the universe are meaningless. Marionetterna, which translates as The Marionettes, supposes that the destinies of men are in the hands of a bearded old man in control of their every move. Like Söderberg, Bergman's worldview gave way to a militant brand of humanism in his later works, a reaction against the growing threat of Nazism. Bergman is buried at the Norra begravningsplatsen.
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This weaker, positivist view was articulated by Adolf Behne when he asserted "you can kill a man with a building just as easily as with an axe."quoted in Sources of architectural form, Mark Gelernter, p251. The determinist belief was a contributory factor in the numerous slum clearances of the post War industrialised world (see Herbert J. Gans). Despite being a widely held, if not always articulated, theory the premise was not sustained by social research, for example the "Hawthorne experiments" by Mayo at Harvard found no direct correlation between work environment and output.
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It has been argued, particularly by Christian apologists, that to call determinism a rational statement is doubly self-defeating. #To count as rational, a belief must be freely chosen, which according to the determinist is impossible #Any kind of debate seems to be posited on the idea that the parties involved are trying to change each other's minds. The argument does not succeed against the compatibilistic view, since in the latter there is no conflict between determinism and free will. Moreover, the argument fails if one denies either of the above or its implicit implications.
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Those hard determinists who defend ethical realism would object to the premise that contra-causal free will is necessary for ethics. Those who are also ethically naturalistic may also point out that there are good reasons to punish criminals: it is a chance to modify their behaviour, or their punishment can act as a deterrent for others who would otherwise act in the same manner. The hard determinist could even argue that this understanding of the true and various causes of a psychopath's behaviour, for instance, allow them to respond even more reasonably or compassionately.Harris, Sam.
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I could have willed whichever > way I pleased. I had the power to will otherwise, there was nothing to > prevent my doing so, and I should have done so if I had wanted.Mind, p.9 Hobart finds fault with the indeterminist's position, but he gives the typical overstatement by a determinist critic, that any chance will be the direct cause of our actions, which of course would clearly be a loss of freedom and responsibility > Indeterminism maintains that we need not be impelled to action by our > wishes, that our active will need not be determined by them.
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Roger Ebert stated, "This is one of the smartest and most provocative of science fiction films, a thriller with ideas." James Berardinelli praised it for "energy and tautness" and its "thought-provoking script and thematic richness." Although critically acclaimed, Gattaca was not a box office success, but it is said to have crystallized the debate over the controversial topic of human genetic engineering. The film's dystopian depiction of "genoism" has been cited by many bioethicists and laypeople in support of their hesitancy about, or opposition to, eugenics and the societal acceptance of the genetic-determinist ideology that may frame it.
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The interactive acculturation model (IAM) seeks to integrate within a common theoretical framework the following components of immigrants and host community relations in multicultural settings: # acculturation orientations adopted by immigrant groups in the host community; # acculturation orientations adopted by the host community towards special groups of immigrants; # interpersonal and intergroup relational outcomes that are the product of combinations of immigrant and host community acculturation orientations. The framework of these established among a structural political/governmental environment. Ultimately, the goal of the model is to present a non-determinist, more dynamic account of immigrant and host community acculturation in multicultural settings.Bourhuis et al.
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She also emphasized the impact of public and social discourse about what counts as "good" filmmaking according to film workers and reviewers of films. One important feature of her research is the extensive quotation of period conversation from reviewers and from industry professionals about the film practices. She has considered several of the major institutions in Hollywood: the screenwriting profession, the cinematographer associations, the unions, and the Society for Motion Picture and Television Engineers. Over the several decades since this landmark work, Staiger also attempted to counter determinist historical thinking that places too much emphasis on over-powering systemic conditions.
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A world map illustrating cultural areas. Cultural geography is a subfield within human geography. Though the first traces of the study of different nations and cultures on Earth can be dated back to ancient geographers such as Ptolemy or Strabo, cultural geography as academic study firstly emerged as an alternative to the environmental determinist theories of the early 20th century, which had believed that people and societies are controlled by the environment in which they develop.Peet, Richard; 1990; Modern Geographical Thought; Blackwell Rather than studying pre-determined regions based upon environmental classifications, cultural geography became interested in cultural landscapes.
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The concept of environmental determinism served as a moral justification for the domination of certain territories and peoples. The environmental determinist school of thought held that the environment in which certain people lived determined those persons' behaviours; and thus validated their domination. For example, the Western world saw people living in tropical environments as "less civilized", therefore justifying colonial control as a civilizing mission. Across the three major waves of European colonialism (the first in the Americas, the second in Asia and the last in Africa), environmental determinism served to place categorically indigenous people in a racial hierarchy.
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In 2002, the ICS played a tremendous role in campaigns over the Gujarat communal massacres. But this in turn intensified conflicts, with one wing arguing that communalism was reducible to an economic determinist analysis, and also arguing that the other side, in campaigning for secularism, had been projecting individuals rather than the party. Thus, in 2002, the ICS brought out the first major book documenting the Gujarat violence anywhere in India (The Genocidal Pogrom in Gujarat: Anatomy of Indian Fascism), and Prajapati and Trupti Shah in Vadodara played key roles in PUCL's documentation of the violence in Gujarat. Yet by the end of 2002 Prajapati had resigned from the ICS.
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The concept of technological determinism is dependent upon the premise that social changes come about as a result of the new capabilities that new technologies enable. The notion of social determinism opposes this perspective. Social determinism perceives technology as a result of the society in which it is developed. A number of contemporary media theorists have provided persuasive accounts of social determinism, including Leila Green (2001). In her book Technoculture, Green examines in detail the workings of a social determinist perspective, and argues “social processes determine technology for social purposes,” She claims that every technological development throughout history was born of a social need, be this need economical, political or military.
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Cohen's defence of a technological determinist interpretation of historical materialism was, in turn, quite widely criticized, even by analytical Marxists. Together with Andrew Levine, Wright argued that in attributing primacy to the productive forces (the development thesis), Cohen overlooked the role played by class actors in the transition between modes of production. For the authors, it was forms of class relations (the relations of production) that had primacy in terms of how the productive forces were employed and the extent to which they developed. It was not evident, they claimed, that the relations of production become "fetters" once the productive forces are capable of sustaining a different set of production relations.
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Briefly, this is the idea that economic factors – the way people produce the necessities of life – conditions the kind of politics and ideology a society can have: Marcello Musto emphasizes this point: "Even the well-known thesis in the 'Preface' to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy...should not be interpreted in a determinist sense; it should be clearly distinguished from the narrow and predictable reading of 'Marxism–Leninism', in which the superstructural phenomena of society are merely a reflection of the material existence of human beings."Marcello Musto, Another Marx: Early Manuscripts, trans. Patrick Camiller (London: Bloomsbury, 2018), pp. 105–06.
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During the 19th century, the drier Priestley-Belsham type of Unitarianism, bound up with a determinist philosophy, was gradually modified by the influence of Channing (see below), whose works were reprinted in numerous editions and owed a wide circulation to the efforts of Robert Spears (1825–1899). Another American influence, potent in reducing the rigid though limited supernaturalism of Belsham and his successors, was that of Theodore Parker (1810–1860). At home the teaching of James Martineau (1805–1900), resisted at first, was at length powerfully felt, seconded as it was by the influence of John James Tayler (1797–1869) and of John Hamilton Thom (1808–1894).
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The three incompatibilist positions, on the other hand, deny this possibility. The hard incompatibilists hold that free will is incompatible with both determinism and indeterminism, the libertarianists that determinism does not hold, and free will might exist, and the hard determinists that determinism does hold and free will does not exist. The Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza was a determinist thinker, and argued that human freedom can be achieved through knowledge of the causes that determine our desire and affections. He defined human servitude as the state of bondage of the man who is aware of his own desires, but ignorant of the causes that determined him.
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Following Thomas Malthus' population principles, Spencer concluded that society is constantly facing selection pressures (internal and external) that force it to adapt its internal structure through differentiation. Every solution, however, causes a new set of selection pressures that threaten society's viability. Spencer was not a determinist in the sense that he never said that # Selection pressures will be felt in time to change them; # They will be felt and reacted to; or # The solutions will always work. In fact, he was in many ways a political sociologist, and recognized that the degree of centralized and consolidated authority in a given polity could make or break its ability to adapt.
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Adrian Jicu argues that the main influences on the Romanian author were Georg Brandes, Karl Kautsky, Gustave Lanson and Émile Hennequin, in addition to Dobrogeanu-Gherea and Taine. Another author, Leonida Maniu, argues that, early on, Sanielevici was a social determinist wholly under Gherea's spell, including when it came to the "rigor and elementariness" of his deductions. Similarly, critic Doris Mironescu sees Sanielevici's theories as having "deep roots in Gherea's socialism" and a foreign model in Taine's historicism, with only vague personal additions. According to Sanielevici's own account, what had been "idolatrous love" turned into "hatred and contempt" toward Gherea, and then toward historical materialism.
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A farm universe, with a communist like culture and fear based leadership. They were among the first levels to discover the nature of the universe and attempt to reverse engineer the universal source code, which was compiled in their holy text, the Great Farmer's Almanac. The Topekans are a determinist society who live according to the Almanac's prediction. They have taken it upon themselves to find the Programmer, who is described in the Almanac as the one who can pierce the skin between worlds, in order to reach the Infinite Monkey Dimension, repair the multiverse's calendar function, and ensure their place in the Reboot.
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Yet Hegel makes clear that the spirit is a mere abstraction, and only comes into existence "through the activity of finite agents." Thus, Hegel's determining forces of history may not have a metaphysical nature, despite the fact that many of Hegel's opponents and interpreters have understood Hegel's philosophy of history as a metaphysical and determinist view of history. For example, Karl Popper in his book The Poverty of Historicism interpreted Hegel's philosophy of history as metaphysical and deterministic, referring to it as Historicism. Hegel's historicism also suggests that any human society and all human activities such as science, art, or philosophy, are defined by their history.
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South Asia too is another region in which armed irredentist movements have been active for almost a century. Most prominent amongst them are the Naga fight for Greater Nagaland, the Chin struggle for a unified Chinland, the Sri Lankan Tamil struggle for a return of their state under Tamil Eelam and other self- determinist movements by the ethnic indigenous peoples of the erstwhile Assam both under the British and post-British Assam under India.Other such movements include Beḻagāva border dispute on Maharashtra and Karnataka border with intentions to unite all Marathi speaking people under one state since the formation of the Karnataka state and dissolution of the bilingual Bombay state.
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The American eugenics movement was rooted in the biological determinist ideas of Sir Francis Galton, which originated in the 1880s. In 1883, Sir Francis Galton first used the word eugenics to describe scientifically, the biological improvement of genes in human races and the concept of being "well-born". He believed that differences in a person's ability were acquired primarily through genetics and that eugenics could be implemented through selective breeding in order for the human race to improve in its overall quality, therefore allowing for humans to direct their own evolution. In the US, eugenics was largely supported after the discovery of Mendel's law lead to a widespread interest in the idea of breeding for specific traits.
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Portrait of Émile Zola (1868), by Édouard Manet This literary movement began in France and its initiator was Émile Zola (1840–1902). This style descends from the positivist philosophy of Auguste Comte (1798–1857), the methods of the physiologist Claude Bernard (1813–1878), and many distinctive achievements of the modern spirit: democracy, experimental methods (Claude Bernard), and theories of heredity (Charles Darwin). Zola, a socialist, looks for the cause of social problems in society, and of the individual's problems in biological heredity. Thus, Naturalism adopts a materialist and determinist concept of people as not morally responsible for their actions and the situations in which they are found, because these are determined by the environment and heredity.
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Watt, Montgomery (1948) Free-Will and Predestination in Early Islam. London: Luzac & Co. The problem of free will, in this context, is the problem of how our actions can be free if there is a being who has determined them for us in advance, or if they are already set in time. Other forms of determinism are more relevant to compatibilism, such as biological determinism, the idea that all behaviors, beliefs, and desires are fixed by our genetic endowment and our biochemical makeup, the latter of which is affected by both genes and environment, cultural determinism and psychological determinism. Combinations and syntheses of determinist theses, such as bio-environmental determinism, are even more common.
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In Jenkins' 2014 response to the 2011 special issue, he countered arguments such as Turner's above by stating that while we may not yet know the full extent of the impact of convergence, we are "better off remaining open to new possibilities and emerging models". However Jenkins agreed too that his original conception of participatory culture could be overly optimistic about the possibilities of convergence. He also suggested that the revised phrasing of 'more participatory culture,' which acknowledges the radical potential of convergence without pessimistically characterising it as a tool of "consumer capitalism [that] will always fully contain all forms of grassroots resistance". Such pessimism, in this view, would repeat the determinist error of the overly optimistic account.
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He described their claim that sociobiologists believe in genetic determinism as a "simple lie", and wrote that they employed the term "biological determinism" without having a clear idea of what they meant by it, and used the words "determinist" and "reductionist" simply as terms of abuse. He argued that biologists practice an appropriate form of "reductionism" that involves explaining complex wholes in terms of their parts, and never practice the form of "reductionism" criticized by Lewontin et al., which involves the idea that "the properties of a complex whole are simply the sum of those same properties in the parts". He maintained that the anthropologists Marshall Sahlins and Sherwood Washburn, praised by Lewontin et al.
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Dialectical materialism was initially expounded by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels; one of the early works on the subject is Engel's 1878 polemic Anti- Dühring. It was elaborated by Vladimir Lenin in Materialism and Empiriocriticism (1908) around three axes: the "materialist inversion" of Hegelian dialectics; the historicity of ethical principles ordered to class struggle; and the convergence of "laws of evolution" in physics (Helmholtz), biology (Darwin) and political economy (Marx). Lenin hence took position between a historicist Marxism (Labriola) and a determinist Marxism, close to what was later called "social Darwinism" (Kautsky). Lenin's most important philosophical rival was Alexander Bogdanov (1873–1928), who tried to synthesize Marxism with the philosophies of Ernst Mach, Wilhelm Ostwald, and Richard Avenarius (which were harshly criticized in Lenin's Materialism and Empiriocriticism).
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They would say that technology creates a set of powerful forces acting to regulate our social activity and its meaning. According to this view of determinism we organize ourselves to meet the needs of technology and the outcome of this organization is beyond our control or we do not have the freedom to make a choice regarding the outcome (autonomous technology). The 20th century French philosopher and social theorist Jacques Ellul could be said to be a hard determinist and proponent of autonomous technique (technology). In his 1954 work The Technological Society, Ellul essentially posits that technology, by virtue of its power through efficiency, determines which social aspects are best suited for its own development through a process of natural selection.
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This could be applied to free markets, the development of nation states and technological progress. In his article "Subversive Rationalization: Technology, Power and Democracy with Technology," Andrew Feenberg argues that technological determinism is not a very well founded concept by illustrating that two of the founding theses of determinism are easily questionable and in doing so calls for what he calls democratic rationalization (Feenberg 210–212). Prominent opposition to technologically determinist thinking has emerged within work on the social construction of technology (SCOT). SCOT research, such as that of Mackenzie and Wajcman (1997) argues that the path of innovation and its social consequences are strongly, if not entirely shaped by society itself through the influence of culture, politics, economic arrangements, regulatory mechanisms and the like.
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Film critic Fernando F. Croce wrote about the screenplay and direction, > The title's abyss, pitilessly moral, sprawls horizontally rather than > vertically, a lateral track following disheveled Dick Powell bottoming out, > wandering the streets after confessing murder and adultery to wife Jane > Wyatt. Fate may be at play, yet André de Toth's grip is less determinist > than humanist, airtight but wounded, each pawn in the grid allowed trenchant > space to deepen the fallout of their own actions.Croce, Fernando F. > 'Cinepassion film review (2008); accessed February 24, 2008. Film critic Dennis Schwartz wrote of the film, > Powell is the archetypal average American man living out the American Dream > in the suburbs, where his type is viewed as the backbone of the country.
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These quasi autonomous creatures exist in an absolutely synthetic sphere of lifeless matter. However, within the precise, determinist systems creative categories suddenly reappear, such as deviation, refusal and transcience out of which complex patterns of behavior evolve." Or, as bitforms gallery explains, "Zimoun builds architecturally-minded platforms of sound to explore mechanical rhythm and flow in prepared systems. In an obsessive display of simple and functional materials, these works articulate a tension between the orderly patterns of Modernism and the chaotic forces of life". According to creative director of Holo magazine Alexander Scholz, "Visually, the Swiss artist Zimoun’s kinetic sculptures are architectural manifestations of the machine age: hundreds of simple, meticulously assembled, and methodically distributed contraptions whir away in concert.
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Ellen Willis, the Redstockings co-founder, would later write that insofar as the Redstockings considered abandoning heterosexual activity, they saw it as a "bitter price" they "might have to pay for [their] militance", whereas The Feminists embraced separatist feminism as a strategy. The New York Radical Feminists (NYRF) took a more psychologistic (and even biologically determinist) line. They argued that men dominated women not so much for material benefits as for the ego satisfaction intrinsic in domination. Similarly, they rejected the Redstockings view that women submitted only out of necessity or The Feminists' implicit view that they submitted out of cowardice, but instead argued that social conditioning simply led most women to accept a submissive role as "right and natural".
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Not in Our Genes received positive reviews from the biologist Peter Medawar in Nature, the geneticist Alan Emery in Trends in Neurosciences, and T. Benton in The Sociological Review, the biologist Franz M. Wuketits in the Journal of Social and Biological Structures, and a mixed review from the anthropologist Vernon Reynolds in Ethnic and Racial Studies. The book was also reviewed by Howard L. Kaye in Society. Medawar described the book as a well-written and "in the main convincing rebuttal of a variety of determinist ideologies that have come to acquire the status of a public nuisance in biology and sociology." He endorsed its authors' criticism of IQ testing and their argument that determinism is an expression of conservative ideology.
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Many noted that the large scope of the work makes some oversimplification inevitable while still praising the book as a very erudite and generally effective synthesis of multiple different subjects. Paul R. Ehrlich and E. O. Wilson both praised the book. Northwestern University economic historian Joel Mokyr interpreted Diamond as a geographical determinist but added that the thinker could never be described as "crude" like many determinists. For Mokyr, Diamond's view that Eurasia succeeded largely because of a uniquely large stock of domesticable plants is flawed because of the possibility of crop manipulation and selection in the plants of other regions: the drawbacks of an indigenous plant such as sumpweed could have been bred out, Mokyr wrote, since "all domesticated plants had originally undesirable characteristics" eliminated via "deliberate and lucky selection mechanisms".
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Deterministic theories can be divided into two subgroups: if the initial chiral influence took place in a specific space or time location (averaging zero over large enough areas of observation or periods of time), the theory is classified as local deterministic; if the chiral influence is permanent at the time the chiral selection occurred, then it is classified as universal deterministic. The classification groups for local determinist theories and theories based on chance mechanisms can overlap. Even if an external chiral influence produced the initial chiral imbalance in a deterministic way, the outcome sign could be random since the external chiral influence has its enantiomeric counterpart elsewhere. In deterministic theories, the enantiomeric imbalance is created due to an external chiral field or influence, and the ultimate sign imprinted in biomolecules will be due to it.
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Participatory culture follows from the replacement of the supposedly passive media consumer with a new active media user in an online sphere, no longer governed by the unidirectional dynamic of traditional mass media but by the two-way dynamic of interactivity. These critics interpreted Jenkins' account as a techno-optimist conception of the agency of these users and therefore saw it as highly contentious. Jenkins' account of the dynamic of traditional mass media, and subsequent passivity of the audience is criticised as simplistic because he overemphasises the virtues of interactivity, without considering the real-life power structures in which users exist. In his 2014 response, Jenkins rejected these critics' characterization of his work as techno-optimistic or techno-determinist, stressing that the outcomes of current social and technological change are still to be determined.
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None of the 200 communes of the department is entirely free of seismic risk; the canton of Barcelonnette is placed in zone 1b (low risk) by the determinist classification of 1991 based on seismic history,Prefecture of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, Dossier départemental sur les risques majeurs dans les Alpes-de-Haute-Provence (DDRM), 2008, p. 39 and zone 4 (average risk) according to the probabilistic EC8 classification of 2011.Minister of Ecology, Sustainable development, transport and housing, Notice communale on the Gaspar database, uploaded 8 July 2011, accessed 30 June 2012 The commune is also vulnerable to avalanches, forest fires, floods, and landslides. Barcelonnette is also exposed to the possibility of a technological hazard in that road transport of dangerous materials is allowed to pass through on the RD900.
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The SDT view is that social constructions employing ideology and social narratives may be used as effective justifications regardless whether they are epistemologically true or false, or whether they legitimize inequality or equality. From the Marxian economic determinist perspective, race, ethnic and gender conflict are sociological epiphenomena derivable from the primary economic class conflict. Unlike Marxian sociologists, SDT along with Mosca, Michels, and Pareto together reject reduction solely to economic causes, and are skeptical of the hoped for class revolution. Pareto’s analysis was that “victory” in the class struggle will merely usher in a new set of socially dominant elites. Departing from elite theory’s near exclusive focus on social structures manipulated by rational actors, SDT follows Pareto’s new direction towards examining collective psychological forces, asserting that human behavior is not primarily driven by either reason or logic.
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Free will in antiquity is a philosophical and theological concept. Free will in antiquity was not discussed in the same terms as used in the modern free will debates, but historians of the problem have speculated who exactly was first to take positions as determinist, libertarian, and compatibilist in antiquity.Susanne Bobzien, Determinism and Freedom in Stoic Philosophy; Timothy O'Keefe, Epicurus on Freedom, R. W. Sharples, Alexander of Aphrodisias On Fate , David Furley, Two Studies in the Greek Atomists, Richard Sorabji, "Necessity, Cause, and Blame " There is wide agreement that these views were essentially fully formed over 2000 years ago. Candidates for the first thinkers to form these views, as well as the idea of a non-physical "agent- causal" libertarianism, include Democritus (460–370), Aristotle (384–322), Epicurus (341–270), Chrysippus (280–207), and Carneades (214–129).
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Thus in epistemology C.A. is the logical conclusion of a strictly determinist explanation of human conduct and denies that our decision making is free in any sense from causal determinants. Conscious automatism, in refusing the compromise long in vogue among philosophers between freedom and determinism, has as its most disturbing corollary the abandonment of ethicists’ traditional reliance upon the notion of moral responsibility as the foundation of most moral systems and criminal justice institutions. It is, therefore, one of the most iconoclastic principles adduced in the history of moral philosophy as well, having profound practical societal consequences if widely accepted. The term was recently given significant new substance in the book Grandest Illusion: The Seductive Myth of Free Will,Echo Park Press, 2006 by Norman Haughness, which states forcefully the case for acknowledging the power of exceptionless determinism in human behavior.
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The film Gattaca (1997) provides a fictional example of a dystopian society that uses eugenics to decide what people are capable of and their place in the world. Although critically acclaimed, Gattaca was not a box office success, but it is said to have crystallized the debate over the controversial topic of human genetic engineering. The film's dystopian depiction of "genoism" has been cited by many bioethicists and laypeople in support of their hesitancy about, or opposition to, eugenics and the societal acceptance of the genetic- determinist ideology that may frame it. In a 1997 review of the film for the journal Nature Genetics, molecular biologist Lee M. Silver stated that "Gattaca is a film that all geneticists should see if for no other reason than to understand the perception of our trade held by so many of the public-at- large".
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They argue this can be explained by saying that Dickens was a nativist and "cultural chauvinist" in the sense of being highly ethnocentric and ready to justify British imperialism, but not a racist in the sense of being a "biological determinist" as was the anthropologist Robert Knox. That is, Dickens did not regard the behaviour of races to be "fixed"; rather his appeal to "civilization" suggests not biological fixity but the possibility of alteration. However, "Dickens's views of racial others, most fully developed in his short fiction, indicate that for him 'savages' functioned as a handy foil against which British national identity could emerge." The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature similarly notes that while Dickens praised middle-class values, William Oddie argues that Dickens's racism "grew progressively more illiberal over the course of his career," particularly after the Indian rebellion.
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Charles Booth in the 19th century produced a series of books, Life and Labour of the People in London, with various maps highlighting poverty in the city Though the first traces of the study of different nations and cultures on Earth can be dated back to ancient geographers such as Ptolemy or Strabo, cultural geography as academic study firstly emerged as an alternative to the environmental determinist theories of the early Twentieth century, which had believed that people and societies are controlled by the environment in which they develop. Rather than studying pre-determined regions based upon environmental classifications, cultural geography became interested in cultural landscapes. This was led by Carl O. Sauer (called the father of cultural geography), at the University of California, Berkeley. As a result, cultural geography was long dominated by American writers.
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In a famous pre-prison article entitled "The Revolution against Das Kapital", Gramsci claimed that the October Revolution in Russia had invalidated the idea that socialist revolution had to await the full development of capitalist forces of production. This reflected his view that Marxism was not a determinist philosophy. The principle of the causal "primacy" of the forces of production, he held, was a misconception of Marxism. Both economic changes and cultural changes are expressions of a "basic historical process", and it is difficult to say which sphere has primacy over the other. The fatalistic belief, widespread within the workers’ movement in its earliest years, that it would inevitably triumph due to "historical laws", was, in Gramsci's view, a product of the historical circumstances of an oppressed class restricted mainly to defensive action, and was to be abandoned as a hindrance once the working- class became able to take the initiative.
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Sociologist Claude Fischer (1992) characterized the most prominent forms of technological determinism as "billiard ball" approaches, in which technology is seen as an external force introduced into a social situation, producing a series of ricochet effects.Croteau and Hoynes, 2003 Rather than acknowledging that a society or culture interacts with and even shapes the technologies that are used, a technological determinist view holds that "the uses made of technology are largely determined by the structure of the technology itself, that is, that its functions follow from its form" (Neil Postman). However, this is not to be confused with Daniel Chandler's "inevitability thesis", which states that once a technology is introduced into a culture that what follows is the inevitable development of that technology. For example, we could examine why Romance Novels have become so dominant in our society compared to other forms of novels like the Detective or Western novel.
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Skepticism about technological determinism emerged alongside increased pessimism about techno-science in the mid-20th century, in particular around the use of nuclear energy in the production of nuclear weapons, Nazi human experimentation during World War II, and the problems of economic development in the Third World. As a direct consequence, desire for greater control of the course of development of technology gave rise to disenchantment with the model of technological determinism in academia. Modern theorists of technology and society no longer consider technological determinism to be a very accurate view of the way in which we interact with technology, even though determinist assumptions and language fairly saturate the writings of many boosters of technology, the business pages of many popular magazines, and much reporting on technology . Instead, research in science and technology studies, social construction of technology and related fields have emphasised more nuanced views that resist easy causal formulations.
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Waller is a determinist who believes that everything that happens, had to happen, and could not have happened otherwise, and that all events are necessitated to happen by the process of cause and effect, that is, that past, present, and future consist of an essentially unbreakable chain of circumstances of which no single link in such a chain could possibly be avoided or altered. Since he believes that determinism and moral responsibility are mutually incompatible, he has sometimes been identified as an incompatibilist. In Against Moral Responsibility (2011), he noticed, despite growing scientific evidence for determinism, that people cling steadfastly to the free-will based idea of moral responsibility. Moral responsibility assumes that humans are active causal agents who can choose to do one of two different alternatives, and therefore are morally deserving of praise or blame or reward or punishment for their choices.
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By the 1950s, Beard's economic interpretation of history had fallen out of favor; only a few prominent historians held to his view of class conflict as a primary driver in American history, such as Howard K. Beale and C. Vann Woodward. Still, as a leader of the "progressive historians," or "progressive historiography," Beard introduced themes of economic self-interest and economic conflict regarding the adoption of the Constitution and the transformations caused by the Civil War. Thus, he emphasized the long-term conflict among industrialists in the Northeast, farmers in the Midwest, and planters in the South, whom he saw as the cause of the Civil War. His study of the financial interests of the drafters of the United States Constitution (An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution) seemed radical in 1913 since he proposed that the it was a product of economically-determinist landholding Founding Fathers.
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He also makes a case against the alternative naturalist method, saying that this too results in an epistemological and moral scepticism. Schiller looks to show this method's inadequacy at moving from the cold, lifeless lower world of atoms to the higher world of ethics, meanings, and minds. As with abstract metaphysics, Schiller attacks naturalism on many fronts: (1) the naturalist method is unable to reduce universals to particulars, (2) the naturalist method is unable to reduce freewill to determinist movements, (3) the naturalist method is unable to reduce emergent properties like consciousness to brain activity, (4) the naturalist method is unable to reduce God into a pantheism, and so on. Just as the abstract method cannot find a place for the lower elements of our world inside the higher, the naturalist method cannot find a place for the higher elements of our world inside the lower.
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The amalgamation of Mao's two separate theories of revolution signified his theoretical departure from the general doctrine of Marxism-Leninism in Soviet Union and in Europe, which strictly held the economic-determinist ideal that base determines superstructure. Mao's theories not only addressed the primacy of nationalism in revolutionary mobilization, but also cast doubts on the classical Marxist notion of historical inevitability because Mao argued that a nationwide class consciousness could not be awaken in China unless cultivated by party leadership. Moreover, by conflating the notions of "ethnicity" and "nationality," Mao justified the CCP's geopolitical claim over the former territories and ethnic minority subjects of the multi-ethnic Qing Empire. Since Mao came to power in the communist establishment during the Yan'an period, Mao's theory of "national struggle" became the guiding principle of ethnic and national liberation strategy of the Chinese Communist Party until his death in 1976.
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Eugenics, a set of beliefs and practices aimed at improving the genetic quality of the human population by excluding people and groups judged to be inferior and promoting those judged to be superior, played a significant role in the history and culture of the United States during the Progressive Era, from the late 19th century until US involvement in World War II. The American eugenics movement was rooted in the biological determinist ideas of the British Scientist Sir Francis Galton. In 1883, Galton first used the word eugenics to describe the biological improvement of human genes and the concept of being "well-born". He believed that differences in a person's ability were acquired primarily through genetics and that eugenics could be implemented through selective breeding in order for the human race to improve in its overall quality, therefore allowing for humans to direct their own evolution. Goddard was a eugenicist.
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I am radical social democrat who favours the creation of a peer- > to-peer sector (co-ops, open source etc) alongside the market and the state, > as part of a long transition to a post-capitalist economy. There's a > comprehensive critique of Bolshevism in my latest book, Postcapitalism: A > Guide to Our Future. However, Mason subsequently wrote positively about Marxism: in a piece for New Statesman published in May 2018 for the bicentenary of Marx's birth, he praised Marxist humanism inspired by Marx's Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 in general, and the thought of Raya Dunayevskaya in particular, for its emphasis on overcoming alienation from labour in order to achieve individual freedom, whilst criticising the authoritarianism of Stalinism and the structural Marxism of the likes of Louis Althusser. In another New Statesman article published the following year he described himself as an "actual Marxist", whilst critiquing determinist interpretations of Marx which posit Marxism as a "theory of everything".
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James described chance as neither hard nor soft determinism, but "indeterminism": > The stronghold of the determinist argument is the antipathy to the idea of > chance...This notion of alternative possibility, this admission that any one > of several things may come to pass is, after all, only a roundabout name for > chance. James asked the students to consider his choice for walking home from Lowell Lecture Hall after his talk: > What is meant by saying that my choice of which way to walk home after the > lecture is ambiguous and matter of chance?...It means that both Divinity > Avenue and Oxford Street are called but only one, and that one either one, > shall be chosen. With this simple example, James laid out a two-stage decision process with chance in a present time of random alternatives, leading to a choice of one possibility that transforms an ambiguous future into a simple unalterable past.
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Frow’s research is situated at the boundary between the humanities and the social sciences, and ranges from quite technical work in literary theory and discourse analysis through to empirical and statistically-based sociology. His doctoral work and his first book, "Marxism and Literary History" (1986), sought to rework Marxist theory for a non-determinist account of literary systems. Drawing on Althusser and Foucault, as well as on Russian Formalist theory, German reception aesthetics, a critical engagement with post-structuralist theory, and on a broad range of literary texts, it theorized the relation between discourse and power, the relational structure of literary texts and systems, and the dynamics of literary change.Jane A. Nicholson, Review of "Marxism and Literary History", "SubStance" 18: 1, Issue 58 (1989), 94-6. All of Frow’s later work draws on the framework elaborated in this book, although he has subsequently moved away from a commitment to Marxism towards a more Foucauldian understanding of social and discursive power.
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Kellner, Douglas, "New Technologies, TechnoCities, and the Prospects for Democratization" Some scholars even view this democratization as an indication of the creation of a "radical, socio- technical paradigm to challenge the dominant, neoliberal and technologically determinist model of information and communication technologies."Preston, Paschal "Reshaping Communications: Technology, Information and Social Change," London:Sage, 2001 A less radical view along these same lines is that people are taking advantage of the Internet to produce a grassroots globalization, one that is anti-neoliberal and centered on people rather than the flow of capital.Kellner, Douglas, "Globalization and Technopolitics" Chanelle Adams, a feminist blogger for the Bi-Weekly webpaper The Media says that in her "commitment to anti-oppressive feminist work, it seems obligatory for her to stay in the know just to remain relevant to the struggle." In order for Adams and other feminists who work towards spreading their messages to the public, new media becomes crucial towards completing this task, allowing people to access a movement's information instantaneously.
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As those on lower incomes cannot hire others to maintain public space such as security guards or grounds keepers, and because no individual feels personally responsible, there was a general deterioration of public space leading to a sense of alienation and social disorder. Jane Jacobs is another notable environmental determinist and is associated with the "eyes on the street" concept. By improving ‘natural surveillance’ of shared land and facilities of nearby residents by literally increasing the number of people who can see it, and increasing the familiarity of residents, as a collective, residents can more easily detect undesirable or criminal behaviour, as, she argued, used to be the case in small traditional communities. Jacobs went further, though, in emphasising the details in how to achieve this 'natural surveillance', in stressing the necessity of multiple uses on city streets, so that different people co-mingle with different stores and parks in a condensed part of city space.
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In The Great Transformation (1944), Polanyi asserts that both the formal and substantive definitions of economics hold true under capitalism, but that the formal definition falls short when analyzing the economic behavior of pre-industrial societies, whose behavior was more often governed by redistribution and reciprocity. While Polanyi was influenced by Marx, he rejected the primacy of economic determinism in shaping the course of history, arguing that rather than being a realm unto itself, an economy is embedded within its contemporary social institutions, such as the state in the case of the market economy. Perhaps the most notable recent exploration of historical materialism is G. A. Cohen's Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence, which inaugurated the school of Analytical Marxism. Cohen advances a sophisticated technological-determinist interpretation of Marx "in which history is, fundamentally, the growth of human productive power, and forms of society rise and fall according as they enable or impede that growth."G. A. Cohen, Karl Marx’s Theory of History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), p. x.
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Academic Alice Echols, in her 1989 book Daring To Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967–1975, argued that the radical feminist Valerie Solanas, best known for her attempted murder of Andy Warhol in 1968, displayed an extreme level of misandry compared to other radical feminists of the time in her tract the SCUM Manifesto. Echols stated: Andrea Dworkin criticized the biological determinist strand in radical feminism that, in 1977, she found "with increasing frequency in feminist circles" which echoed the views of Valerie Solanas that males are biologically inferior to women and violent by nature, requiring a gendercide to allow for the emergence of a "new Übermensch Womon". The author bell hooks has discussed the issue of "man hating" during the early period of women's liberation as a reaction to patriarchal oppression and women who have had bad experiences with men in non-feminist social movements. She has also criticized separatist strands of feminism as "reactionary" for promoting the notion that men are inherently immoral, inferior, and unable to help end sexist oppression or benefit from feminism.
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A 2017 survey by Vandenburg and Braun (taking as its title one observer's characterization"Basically, it's sorcery for your vagina") analyzed "90 online items related to vaginal steaming", including from newspapers and magazines, blogs, and providers of the practice. They identified a general theme, that of the "self-improving woman", which they argue fits in perfectly with modern constructions of what scholarship has called the "neoliberal" woman, a woman who, free of outside influences, seeks to optimize herself and her health (see Healthism). Within that theme, they found four attitudes that promote healthist practices such as vaginal steaming: # The female body is inherently defective and dirty, and deteriorates with age: "the female body [is] situated within this biologically-determinist narrative of inevitable decline" which can be resisted. # Western medicine and bodily care (including tampon use, for instance) make the female genitalia unnaturally full of toxins, a process that can be reversed by the natural practice of vaginal steaming (the authors note that such accounts are themselves littered with language derived from Western medicine—"symptoms", "decline", "ailments").
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The older doctrine, here called universal mechanism, is the ancient philosophies closely linked with materialism and reductionism, especially that of the atomists and to a large extent, stoic physics. They held that the universe is reducible to completely mechanical principles—that is, the motion and collision of matter. Later mechanists believed the achievements of the scientific revolution had shown that all phenomena could eventually be explained in terms of 'mechanical' laws, natural laws governing the motion and collision of matter that implied a thorough going determinism: if all phenomena could be explained entirely through the motion of matter under the laws of classical physics, then even more surely than the gears of a clock determine that it must strike 2:00 an hour after striking 1:00, all phenomena must be completely determined: whether past, present or future. (One of the philosophical implications of modern quantum mechanics is that this view of determinism is not defensible.) The French mechanist and determinist Pierre Simon de Laplace formulated the sweeping implications of this thesis by saying: One of the first and most famous expositions of universal mechanism is found in the opening passages of Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes (1651).
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Supporters of Third Way ideals argue that they merely represent a necessary or pragmatic adaptation of social democracy to the realities of the modern world, noting that post-war social democracy thrived during the prevailing international climate of the Bretton Woods consensus which collapsed in the 1970s. Tony Blair, prime minister of the United Kingdom (1997–2007) When he was a British Labour Party MP, Third Way supporter and former British prime minister Tony Blair wrote in a Fabian pamphlet in 1994 about the existence of two prominent variants of socialism, with one based on a Marxist–Leninist economic determinist and collectivist tradition that he rejected and the other being an ethical socialism that he supported which was based on values of "social justice, the equal worth of each citizen, equality of opportunity, community". New Labour under Blair sought to distance Labour from the conventional definition of socialism and create a new one representing a modern form of liberal-democratic socialism. However, New Labour sought to avoid regular public use of the word socialism even in this new definition, out of concerns that it would remind the British electorate of the strongly left-wing political strategy of the Labour Party in the early 1980s.
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Of all the ideological and > political ingredients that went into the making of Hitler's outlook, > antisemitism, in its broadest sense, appears to be not only the one > consistent and immutable element, it also bridges such seemingly > contradictory leanings as anti-Marxism and anti-capitalism, the struggle > against democracy and modernism, and a basic anti-Christian disposition. > [...] Yet Hitler consistently portrays this ideological war in the > international arena as an extension of the struggle that the National > Socialist movement had waged, from its inception, against its ideological > and political enemies within Germany itself: Jewish Marxism, Jewish > parliamentary democracy, Jewish capitalism, and even the "Political > Churches" and the Jewish foundations of Christianity. In the movement's > racial-determinist conception, the Jews stand in an obviously dominant > relationship to all these forces and factors as the biological source of > doctrines and ideologies whose most radical expression is Bolshevism but > whose origin was Judaism's introduction of Christianity into the Western > world. National Socialist antisemitism traced the sense of crisis that > dogged the modern world to its domination by 'Jewish-Christian-Bolshevik' > principles that were based on a universalist 'destructive' belief in the > unity of the world and the equality of men in all spheres of life.
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