When Spyros reveals what he's done, Axe, Wags and the lawyer Orrin Bach, shoot Spyros looks that are withering enough to defoliate every plant in the office.
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Seeking to defoliate entire forests to expose enemy forces to spotter planes, the Americans dropped 18 million gallons of chemical herbicide over South Vietnam from 203 to 1972.
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Goldwater talked loosely about nuclear weapons, saying things like "let's lob one into the men's room at the Kremlin," and suggesting that nuclear weapons could be used to defoliate jungles in Vietnam.
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Fifty years ago, in 2350, the United States sprayed 5.1 million gallons of herbicides with the toxic chemical dioxin across Vietnam, a single-year record for the decade-long campaign to defoliate the countryside.
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Enlist E3 soybeans are bred to resist glyphosate, glufosinate and 2,4-D, a chemical with roots stretching to the Vietnam War as an ingredient in Agent Orange, used by the U.S. military to defoliate jungle.
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Among the most serious polluters, officials said, was the old Diamond Alkali Company's Newark plant, which produced the herbicide Agent Orange that was used to defoliate forests during the Vietnam War and produced particularly toxic sludge that drained into the river.
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My "reel to reel" tape would have included seeing young women lined up at the entrances to our bases on paydays to "service" the soldiers; seeing Vietnamese men hunched over and virtually comatose as they moved dirt from side to side as their primary source of paid labor; and seeing small planes circling overhead and spraying a mist only to learn years later that they were spraying Agent Orange to defoliate the countryside.
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Their tasks included obtaining 15 drums of Agent Orange to defoliate the base perimeter, firing mortars at an area just outside the base for an evening chemical drop, working at the bomb yard to prepare 24 drums of CS tear gas, making 48 white phosphorus fuses to detonate the drums, loading the drums onto a CH-47 cargo helicopter, and finally, that afternoon, dropping 24 drums of the gas from the helicopter's rear hatch onto a target site.
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Oriental Butterflies & Moths. Retrieved March 24, 2020. The larvae defoliate fruit trees.
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Sometimes plants are able to refoliate and defoliate again during the growing season.
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The leaf will become brittle and the plant will defoliate. Chlorothalonil and tebuconazole are effective treatments for reducing web blotch incidence.
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Japanese Moths. Retrieved February 5, 2019. There are five overlapping generations per year in Nanning, China. The larvae defoliate Illicium verum.
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Sawflies are serious pests in horticulture. Different species prefer different host plants, often being specific to a family or genus of hosts. For example, Iris sawfly larvae, emerging in summer, can quickly defoliate species of Iris including the yellow flag and other freshwater species. Similarly the rose sawflies, Arge pagana and A. ochropus, defoliate rose bushes.
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The larvae feed on apple species. It can defoliate apple trees and negatively impact fruit production for several years following an outbreak.
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The larvae and adults of the Viburnum leaf beetle feed on the leaves and may completely defoliate the plant, and repeated damage can kill it.
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Amsacta albistriga, the red hairy caterpillar, is a moth of the family Erebidae. It is found in southern India. The wingspan is . The larvae defoliate various agricultural crops.
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The adults fly reluctantly and may sham death if touched. The larvae are serious garden pests and can completely defoliate irises, especially the yellow iris, when these are growing by water. Irises on dry ground are however not attacked.
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The beetle can be found throughout North America in meadows and roadsides. It can also be found in the Caribbean. It feeds on the foliage of plants, including milkweed, raspberry, maize, and sweet potato. It can defoliate entire plants.
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With those innovations, the harvester could make just one pass through the field. Also, herbicides were developed to defoliate the plants, and drop their leaves before the picker came through, producing a cleaner harvest.Wessels Living History Farm. Cotton Harvesting.
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Rhizoctonia aerial blight attacks the soybean crop by infecting the plant during the flowering phase. It infects the tissue and produces lesions that eventually defoliate and rot the plant. Foliar fungicides have been shown to be effective at combating the disease.
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Although northern catalpa can have several diseases and pests, most are usually minor and pose no serious threat. The exception is the caterpillar of Ceratomia catalpae, which can on occasion defoliate the tree, although without causing the tree much harm.
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The pine processionary caterpillar is responsible for most of the defoliation of southern Europe. Although pines are most susceptible to the caterpillar, other conifer trees such as larches are also vulnerable. The caterpillars can completely defoliate trees if large quantities are present.
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These pests can defoliate a tree completely if present in large enough numbers. Additionally, the damage caused by the silk of bagworms can last years.Day, Eric. Insect Pests of Christmas Trees slides , Insect Identification Laboratory, Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, January 2002. Retrieved September 3, 2007.
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Sea otters and kelp forests in Alaska: Generality and variation in a community ecological paradigm. Ecological Monographs 65, 75-100. habitats. Foundation plant species can be replaced with other species or substratum completely lacking vegetation and insects can defoliate whole mangroves (Feller 2002).Feller, I. C. 2002.
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Scorched earth tactics or destroying livestock and farmland were carried out in the Vietnam war (cf. Agent Orange) and Eelam War in Sri Lanka. Biological warfare can also specifically target plants to destroy crops or defoliate vegetation. The United States and Britain discovered plant growth regulators (i.e.
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Although this borer is widely distributed, damaging populations are rather local. Leaf-eating insects, especially the forest tent caterpillar, Malacosoma disstria, occasionally defoliate trees. Diseases are ordinarily unimportant to water hickory. Butt and stem rots entering through wounds from fire or logging can be a major source of cull.
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They are leaf-rollers and are often so numerous as to defoliate the trees. They are known to attack the fruit of some plants or web together leaves as well. The larvae are yellowish green and may have dark lateral lines. Pupation takes place within the folded leaf.
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Outbreaks of sawfly larvae can defoliate trees and may cause dieback, stunting or death. Sawflies can be controlled through the use of insecticides, natural predators and parasites, or mechanical methods. Sawflies first appeared 250 million years ago in the Triassic. The oldest superfamily, the Xyeloidea, has existed into the present.
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On occasions, the gregarious mourning cloak larvae will completely defoliate ornamental trees, in nurseries, plantations, and parks. Some areas that this damage has been documented has been Oregon and Canada. The young willows and poplars could be completely defoliated due to the caterpillars, though mature trees tend not to be affected.
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He makes it to the Moon, but is unable to get the authorities to take him seriously. Thus, humanity is totally unprepared when the First Formic War starts. The invader sends three enormous landing craft to southeast China. The Formics emerge and use gas to defoliate the area and kill everyone.
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They get their name from their habit of "cutting" off a seedling at ground level by chewing through the stem. Some species are subterranean and eat roots. One of the most common garden pests is the variegated cutworm (Peridroma saucia), which can defoliate entire gardens and fields in a matter of days.
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After extensive research, Aphalara itadori has been shown to defoliate knotweed species substantially. The psyllid individuals feed on the knotweed's meristem. As a result of this feeding the leaves are left twisted and bound together. The deformity caused by Aphalara itadori feeding reduces the photosynthetic rate, competitive ability, growth, and total leaf area.
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The larvae of A. celtis feed upon the leaves and leaf buds of hackberry trees. They must first climb back up their host tree to eat after they are done hibernating over winter. The caterpillars have been known to eat so much at a time that they can completely defoliate a tree.
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Planes are susceptible to plane anthracnose (Apiognomonia veneta), a fungal disease that can defoliate the trees in some years. The most severe infections are associated with cold, wet spring weather. P. occidentalis and the other American species are the most susceptible, with P. orientalis the most resistant. The hybrid London plane is intermediate in resistance.
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Some of the hardiest bamboo species can be grown in USDA plant hardiness zone 5, although they typically defoliate and may even lose all above-ground growth, yet the rhizomes survive and send up shoots again the next spring. In milder climates, such as USDA zone 7 and above, most bamboo remain fully leafed out and green year-round.
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Actinote thalia is a butterfly of the family Nymphalidae. It was described by Carl Linnaeus in the 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae. It is found in most of South America. An attempt was made by the South African programme to defoliate the Chromolaena odorata, a shrub of Neotropical origin, by this species, but was disqualified due to an unacceptably wide host range.
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His research focused on finding a chemical means to make soybeans flower and fruit earlier, so that they could mature before the end of the growing season. He discovered both that 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid (TIBA) would speed up the flowering of soybeans. He also noted that in higher concentrations it would defoliate the soybeans by causing them to release ethylene.
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As they grow older, the larvae begin to eat the entire leaf, starting at the leaf margin. Sometimes the larvae defoliate individual trees. The full-grown larvae attach their rear ends to a leaf or branch with a small patch of silk and hang with their heads down. After about a day or so, they shed their skin to reveal a pupa.
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Walker S, Mandegaran, Roberts AM (1996) Screening roses for resistance to Diplocarpon rosae. Acta Hortic 209–213. The water-borne dispersal methods allow it to infect a plethora of plants every growing season and increase the overall incidence of disease. Although Diplocarpon rosae does not kill the rose itself, it is known to completely defoliate the leaves of the rose plant.
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Peltoschema is a genus of beetles in the family Chrysomelidae, insects also called leaf beetles. This genus contains about 94 species that are relatively small and feed on various Acacias. Some mimic ladybird beetles and others are pests and can cause serious defoliation of their host plants. Peltoschema orphana is called the fireblight beetle can defoliate and kill populations of silver wattle.
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Microdulia is a genus of moths in the family Saturniidae first described by Karl Jordan in 1924. It contains only one species, Microdulia mirabilis, described by Rothschild in 1895, which is found between 35° and 47°S in Chile and Neuquén in Argentina. The wingspan is 18–19 mm for males and 20–23 mm for females. The larvae defoliate Nothofagus obliqua.
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The species has been known to damage and defoliate Plumeria. Each caterpillar can consume three large leaves per day, and it will continue eating into the branches if it finishes the available foliage. Even in the case of defoliation, the species does not generally kill plants. The caterpillars are large and conspicuous and can be controlled by plucking them from the tree.
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In outbreak years, the cicadas do significant damage to the trees on which they lay eggs, especially saplings. The female cuts a slit in a twig in which to insert her eggs and this often causes the shoot to droop and defoliate. In larger twigs it may allow entry of disease organisms. The burden of feeding of the nymphs is also considerable.
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Butterflies and Plants: A Phylogenetic Study. Evolution, 52(2): 486-502. Malvales, family Malvaceae, tribes: Bombacoideae (Ochroma), Malvoideae (Hampea and also Hibiscus, Byttnerioideae (Byttneria aculeata, Theobroma) and Grewioideae (Luehea). The "green lizard caterpillar" Macrosoma tipulataImage of Macrosoma tipulata attacks an economically important local fruit tree "Cupuaçu" (Theobroma grandiflorum) in Brazil and can defoliate saplings; the biology of this species has been studied and illustrated in some detail.
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Early instar larva of Troides minos The caterpillars are voracious eaters but move very little; a small group will defoliate an entire vine. If starved due to overcrowding, the caterpillars may resort to cannibalism. Fleshy spine-like tubercles line the caterpillars' backs, and their bodies are dark red to brown and velvety black. Some species have tubercles of contrasting colours, often red, or pale "saddle" markings.
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The autumnal moth (Epirrita autumnata) is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described by Moritz Balthasar Borkhausen in 1794. It is found throughout the Palearctic region and the Near East and has a much wider distribution than its two close relatives (see below). In Sápmi (Lapland), in some years the numerous autumnal moth larvae defoliate square miles of birch forests on mountains.
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These caterpillars have a longstanding ecological relationship with the tree, and may defoliate a tree three or more times in a summer without killing it. Fishing enthusiasts prize the caterpillars as bait, particularly for catfish, and may freeze them for months after collecting them in the spring. It is one of two parents of the interspecific hybrid tree × Chitalpa tashkentensis. The other parent is Chilopsis linearis.
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This is not a severe agricultural pest in terms of economic losses, but it can sometimes cause significant damage to many kinds of crops. It is perhaps best known in Florida, where it can be a pest of citrus. When conditions are right, "population explosions" occur and masses of grasshoppers descend on crop plants. It can defoliate trees and eat smaller plants to the ground.
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Heteronygmia dissimilis is a species of moth in the subfamily Lymantriinae first described by Per Olof Christopher Aurivillius in 1910. It is native to Africa. The adult moth is on wing from February to November, but is most common between June and September. The larvae feed on the foliage of the East African mahogany and when they are plentiful, they can defoliate the tree.
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Peanut rust is unique because it is not a native disease to the U.S. and has not been able to survive beyond a single season when introduced. Airborne spores are annually introduced from other peanut-producing nations. Rust causes reduced peanut pod fill and can potentially defoliate the entire crop if the conditions are right. Originally copper and sulfur were used to control rust, but they were only partially effective.
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Referred to as “orange dogs” by farmers, the larva targets sweet orange (Citrus × sinensis), causing damage to this valuable produce-bearing plant. The larvae are most detrimental to younger trees, which they can more thoroughly defoliate. Outside of farms, the species is valued for its aesthetic appeal in gardens, and larger trees will not be damaged by larva presence. They can also be raised to butterflies successfully at home.
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The high velocity winds of the storm can defoliate forest and wetlands. This affects the amount of light reaching the lower levels of the forest, the forest temperature, and localized humidity. This in turn affects the food available to primary species in the ecosystem. The lack of upper level foliage can also result in the destruction of breeding grounds for certain bird species and a lack of nesting area for migratory bird species.
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Summers tend to be long and very hot, starting from mid-April and peaking in May and early June with high temperatures often exceeding . They also tend to be extremely dry, complete with dust storms, traits usually associated with arid or semi-arid climates. During this period many native trees defoliate to save water. This is followed by the cooler monsoons, where the region experiences heavy rains on almost a daily basis.
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The forest tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria), walnut caterpillar (Datana integerrima), and walkingstick (Diapheromera femorata) may defoliate individual trees or limbs. Sucking insects, including aphids (Monellia spp.), feed on the underside of leaves, causing them to curl and drop prematurely. The twig girdler (Oncideres cingulata) may seriously prune seedlings and even large trees by girdling the terminal and branches. The hickory bark beetle (Scolytus quadrispinosus) can be troublesome during dry years and periods of stress.
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The female kermes scale causes galls to grow on kermes oak. Oaks are used as food plants by the larvae of Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species such as the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, which can defoliate oak and other broadleaved tree species in North America. A considerable number of galls are found on oak leaves, buds, flowers, roots, etc. Examples are oak artichoke gall, oak marble gall, oak apple gall, knopper gall, and spangle gall.
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Chrysiridia larvae defoliate the whole plant, and even eat the flowers and fruit, and thus have a considerable negative impact on the reproduction and survival of seedlings. The plants probably react by changing their nutrient and secondary compound levels, becoming toxic to the larvae and causing high mortality. Omphalea populations that are not damaged by moths for long periods of time have lower toxicity. These factors cause mass increases in local population, followed by sudden crashes.
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One colony's consumption of plant material is comparable to that of a large mammalian herbivore, such as a cow. A. sexdens and the related species, A. cephalotes are the principal insect pests where they are found, destroying billions of dollars worth of crops with their ability to quickly defoliate and strip crops of anything useful to the ants. In fact, Atta ants are considered the primary herbivorous pest in many areas where they are found.Wilson, E., B. Holldobler. 1994.
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Around 1840, L. decemlineata adopted the cultivated potato into its host range and it rapidly became a most destructive pest of potato crops. It is today considered to be the most important insect defoliator of potatoes. It may also cause considerable damage to tomato and eggplant crops with both adults and larvae feeding on the plant's foliage. Larvae may defoliate potato plants resulting in yield losses up to 100% if the damage occurs prior to tuber formation.
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Mangroves in the Delta region required only one spraying and did not survive once defoliated, whereas dense forests in the uplands required two or more spray runs. Within two to three weeks of spraying, the leaves would drop from the trees, which would remain bare until the next rainy season. In order to defoliate the lower stories of forest cover, one or more follow-up spray runs were needed. About 10 percent of the trees sprayed died from a single spray run.
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Both chlorophyll and singlet oxygen then remove hydrogen ions from the unsaturated lipids present in de cells and the organelle membranes, forming lipid radicals. These radicals will oxidize other lipids and proteins, eventually resulting in loss of the membrane integrity of the cells and organelles. This will result in a loss of chlorophyll, leakage of cellular contents, cell death, and eventually death of the plant. Woody plants first show yellowing of the leaves before they start to defoliate, eventually they will die.
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Atta texana is a fungus-farming ant species of the genus Atta, found in Texas, Louisiana, and northeastern states of Mexico. Common names include town ant, parasol ant, fungus ant, Texas leafcutter ant, cut ant, and night ant. It harvests leaves from over 200 plant species, and is considered a major pest of agricultural and ornamental plants, as it can defoliate a citrus tree in less than 24 hours. Every colony has several queens and up to 2 million workers.
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Because many species are endemic to a single island, they are vulnerable to random events such as typhoons. A 1979 typhoon halved the remaining population of the Rodrigues flying fox (Pteropus rodricensis). Typhoons result in indirect mortality as well: because typhoons defoliate the trees, they make megabats more visible and thus more easily hunted by humans. Food resources for the bats become scarce after major storms, and megabats resort to riskier foraging strategies such as consuming fallen fruit off the ground.
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Each female lays up to 1000 eggs on the undersides of leaves in several batches. When these hatch, the larvae at first scrape the under surface of the leaf, but as they grow they feed on the edges of the leaves, giving these a net-like appearance. When sufficiently numerous, they may defoliate the plant. There are a number of natural enemies of these caterpillars, and in the jute crop in India, the braconid wasp Protapanteles obliquae is one of these.
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U.S. helicopter spraying chemical defoliants in the Mekong Delta, South Vietnam, 1969 One of the most controversial aspects of the U.S. military effort in Southeast Asia was the widespread use of chemical defoliants between 1961 and 1971. They were used to defoliate large parts of the countryside to prevent the Viet Cong from being able to hide their weapons and encampments under the foliage. These chemicals continue to change the landscape, cause diseases and birth defects, and poison the food chain.; .
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As the common name of the species implies, the preferred host trees are maple tree. Adult females lay their yellow ovular eggs in groups of 10 to 40 on the underside of maple leaves. The emerging caterpillars, also known as the greenstriped mapleworm, mainly feed on the leaves of their host maple trees, particularly red maple, silver maple, and sugar maple. Since the caterpillars eat the entire leaf blade, in dense populations, caterpillars have been known to defoliate trees, resulting in aesthetic rather than permanent damage.
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In this case chaste tree can be used as a biological control agent by planting it around vineyards to trap the Hyalesthus obsoletus. V. agnus-castus was found not only to be an appropriate food source for the adult vectors, but also a reservoir of Candidatus Phytoplasma solani (bacterial Phytoplasma species), the causal agent of the Black wood disease in grapevines. The pathogen-caused leaf spot disease can almost defoliate V. agnus castus. Furthermore, root rot can occur when soils are kept too moist.
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Cyclones can defoliate an area, knock down canopy trees, and create landslides and flooding. This can leave lemur populations without fruit or leaves until the following spring, requiring them to subsist on crisis foods, such as epiphytes. Lemurs are hunted for food by the local Malagasy, either for local subsistence or to supply a luxury meat market in the larger cities. Most rural Malagasy do not understand what "endangered" means, nor do they know that hunting lemurs is illegal or that lemurs are found only in Madagascar.
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The caterpillars of this species defoliate the trees, and are hazardous to human health; their bodies are covered with poisonous hairs which can cause rashes and respiratory problems. In California, oaks are affected by the fungal disease foamy bark canker. The eastern grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) is an invasive species across North America and Europe where they are known to strip bark off of a variety of large trees, including oaks. Bark stripping can result in the death of the leading shoot and decreased crown size.
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The fall webworm’s interaction with humans is important because of how adaptable this species is, which is one of the main reasons that it spread so widely across the world. Fall webworms are able to forage on large amounts of leaves inside their web, they are able to create webs on many different types of host plants, they are able to create webs at many different elevations and of many different shapes, and they spread very quickly. In addition, the fall webworm tends to create many webs or defoliate plants in places that humans spend time, such as recreational areas and parks; fall webworms tend to create their webs on branches and therefore defoliate parts of the tree that are very visible and draw attention. There have been methods with trying to control this organism, such as physical removal or chemical methods; however, there are some issues with these options because physical removal can be challenging with certain types of trees (based on factors like how tall the tree is, what its function is, where it is located), and the side effects of chemicals (such as important pollinators dying and therefore not being able to perform their functions).
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In the 1960s, white and chestnut oak trees had high mortality from pit scale insects and associated fungi. Larvae of oak leaf roller moths, which defoliate oaks, first appeared on of Quehanna Wild Area in the late 1960s; at their peak in the late 1960s and early 1970s they had defoliated of Moshannon State Forest and in Elk State Forest, with moderate to heavy tree mortality. A similar pest, oak leaf tier, stripped of oaks in Elk State Forest by 1970. The gypsy moth defoliated over of deciduous trees in the 1970s and 1980s.
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Some pergids can be economically important because of their defoliation. Species of Tequus feed on potatoes in Peru and Bolivia, Cerospastus volupis defoliates Nothofagus in Chile and Argentina, a large number of species defoliate (Perginae) or mine in the leaves (Phylacteophaginae) of various species of Eucalyptus in Australia. In particular, the leafminers of the genus Phylacteophaga have been of concern in New Zealand and New Caledonia since being introduced into those countries. Other species of Haplostegus, Enjijus, and Sutwanus feed on the foliage or are shoot borers of guava, Psidium spp.
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This grove replaces the original grove which contained orange and kumquat trees which were then replaced with lime trees in the 1995 grove refurbishment. This latest replacement was due primarily to a need to remove current trees for structural repairs and waterproofing of central plant ceilings. The trees were mulched and used for ground cover in compliance with project commitments to sustainability. The decision not to replant additional lime trees stems from dissatisfaction with the manner in which the current trees defoliate and turn yellow in the shade.
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The beetles are most destructive in March and April while the plants are small. They feed on the leaves, buds and flowers and can defoliate the plants; the grubs bore into the roots and damage the stems and fruits that lie on the soil. R. foveicollis favours pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima) over other curcurbit crops, but will also feed on squash (Cucurbita pepo), muskmelon (Cucumis melo), cucumber (Cucurbita sativus), watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) and the sponge gourd (Luffa aegyptiaca). There are extrafloral nectaries on the sponge gourd which attract ants.
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On dry, low elevation rangelands of the U.S. Intermountain West, army cutworms consume exotic cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) and mustards to produce cheatgrass "die-offs." Within these bare areas, the larvae also defoliate native shrubs including four-wing saltbush (Atriplex canescens) and sagebrush (Artemisia spp.). The miller moth is a seasonal nuisance in the spring in states including Colorado, Wyoming, New Mexico and Kansas, as they hatch in the low-lying farmlands, then migrate to higher elevations for the summer. They return as the weather cools but in smaller numbers.
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After having been searched, tunnel complexes were destroyed using a combination of acetylene gas and conventional demolition charges. A significant part of Operation Cedar Falls was also characterized by large-scale combat engineering and chemical operations. Tankdozers, bulldozers, and Rome plows were used in so-called jungle-clearing operations in which enemy held terrain was cleared of its vegetation in order to conduct search-and-destroy operations and to destroy enemy installments. Chemicals were used to defoliate parts of the area and to contaminate enemy rice supplies which American forces were unable to remove.
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310–11, 326–27 For unarmored targets and shore bombardment, the Mk. 13 HC (High-Capacity – referring to the large bursting charge) shell was available. The Mk. 13 shell could create a crater wide and deep upon impact and detonation, and could defoliate trees from the point of impact. The final type of ammunition developed for the 16-inch guns, well after the Montanas had been cancelled, were W23 "Katie" shells. These were born from the nuclear deterrence that had begun to shape the US armed forces at the start of the Cold War.
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President Kennedy approved a "selective and carefully controlled joint program of defoliant operations" in Vietnam. The initial use of herbicides was to be for clearance of key land routes, but might proceed to the use of herbicides to kill food crops. This was the beginning of Operation Ranch Hand which would defoliate much of South Vietnam during the next decade. Operation Able Marble crews in front of an RF-101C Four RF-101C reconnaissance aircraft of the 45th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron stationed at Misawa AB, Japan, and their photo lab arrived at Don Muang Royal Thai Air Force Base under Operation Able Marble.
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Cucurbita species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the cabbage moth (Mamestra brassicae), Hypercompe indecisa, and the turnip moth (Agrotis segetum). Cucurbita can be susceptible to the pest Bemisia argentifolii (silverleaf whitefly) as well as aphids (Aphididae), cucumber beetles (Acalymma vittatum and Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi), squash bug (Anasa tristis), the squash vine borer (Melittia cucurbitae), and the two-spotted spidermite (Tetranychus urticae). The squash bug causes major damage to plants because of its very toxic saliva. The red pumpkin beetle (Raphidopalpa foveicollis) is a serious pest of cucurbits, especially the pumpkin, which it can defoliate.
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Extensive literature on the biology and host range of the northern tamarisk beetle in Kazakhstan, China, and Mongolia is found under the names D. elongata and D. e. deserticola. The northern tamarisk beetle is a well-known pest of tamarisk in western China, where in certain years large outbreaks of the beetle can defoliate thousands of acres of tamarisk trees. The species is controlled in western China to protect plantings of tamarisk for windbreaks and soil stabilization. In nature, the northern tamarisk beetle feeds on at least 14 species of tamarisk and the closely related genus Myricaria.
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In Los Angeles he self-published several monographs and booklets using the publishing company he created, Handicap Publications. The PeaceNut cartoons were published by Handicap, showing a business location of 5420 Carlton Way, Hollywood, CA. Handicap Pictures was established for producing short films in "true bloody color", as he said. Titles included, President Johnson the Defoliate President, and Damn the constitution-undeclared wars-full speed ahead with the theme song "your lyin’ cheat in’ heart" and he mentions his saying "give war no quarter because it ain’t worth a dime" in one. He published his book, kiss don't kill in 1967 (Handicap Publications).
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The anterior of a larva has two large eyespots and resembles the head of a snake. Since one or more broods (generations) of spicebush swallowtails typically occur each year, spicebush is a useful plant for the butterfly garden, since the egg-laying females are strongly attracted to it. Promethea moth cocoons, if present, are obvious during the cold season after leaf drop, and resemble dead leaves still hanging from twigs. Neither of these insects is ever present in sufficient quantities to defoliate a medium through large spicebush, although very small specimens may suffer even from a single caterpillar.
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Purple-bordered leaf spot is primarily cosmetic, especially on mature or vigorous trees. However, the disease can defoliate trees early in the growing season. Although they often are able to grow new leaves within a few weeks, this strains the tree, so it is important to water and (if desired) fertilize, so the tree has the nutrients it needs to overcome this stress. If the purple-bordered leaf spot is persistent for several years or adversely affecting a young tree, a fungicide containing copper, neem oil, sulfur, chlorothalonil or thiophanate- methyl can help manage the fungus.
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These larger home-ranges reflect the larger body sizes and the lower diversity and abundance of prey. Martens will also adjust their behavior and home-ranges to suit the habitat needs since the average home- range of the marten is typically larger than the average defoliate parch size and therefore will need to adjust for defoliation disturbance. Newfoundland martens are also intrasexually territorial and show home-range fidelity. Home- range size have variation between years for both sexes based on the changes in the food abundance as well as the individual's ability to obtain their prey.
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Field collections in Eurasia reveal that the larger tamarisk beetle feeds on at least nine species of tamarisks, including Tamarix ramosissima which is widely invasive in western North America. The larger tamarisk beetle will severely defoliate tamarisk in Turkmenistan and Tajikistan. Extensive laboratory host range studies verified that larger tamarisk beetle is a specialist feeder on tamarisks, feeding only on plants of the tamarisk family, Tamaricaceae. In laboratory and field cage studies, the larger tamarisk beetle will also feed and complete development on Frankenia shrubs, distant relatives of tamarisks in the same plant order Caryophyllales, but larger tamarisk beetle greatly prefer to lay eggs upon tamarisk.
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Koalas feed on the foliage, though it is not one of their preferred forage species. Yellow-tailed black-cockatoos nest in the hollows of old trees, in contrast to the Tasmanian wedge-tailed eagle (Aquila audax fleayi) that builds its nest of large sticks at the top of the trees. In a small area of rainforest in Yarra Ranges National Park in Victoria, nine epiphyte species were observed growing on Eucalyptus regnans, the most prevalent of these being the liverwort Bazzania adnexa. The spur-legged phasmid (Didymuria violescens) is a leaf-eating insect that can defoliate trees during major infestations such as one experienced at Powelltown in the early 1960s.
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Caterpillars devouring lemon leaves The lime butterfly is an economic pest on many cultivated citrus species in India, Pakistan, Iraq, and the Middle East. Due to its history of successful dispersal and range extension, the lime butterfly is likely to spread from its original point of introduction in Hispaniola in the Caribbean to neighbouring Florida, Central America, and South America. Due to its capability for rapid population growth under favourable circumstances and its having been recorded to have five generations in a year in temperate regions of China, it is considered a serious potential threat. The caterpillars can completely defoliate young citrus trees (below 2 feet) and devastate citrus nurseries.
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Field collections in Eurasia reveal that the MTB feeds on at least four species of tamarisks, including Tamarix parviflora, invasive in California, and T. smyrnensis, a close relative of T. ramosissima which is widely invasive in western North America. The MTB will defoliate entire tamarisk trees in southern Bulgaria (Tracy and Robbins 2009). Extensive laboratory host range studies verified that MTB is a specialist feeder on tamarisks, feeding only on plants of the tamarisk family, Tamaricaceae. In laboratory and field cage studies, the MTB will also feed and complete development on Frankenia shrubs, distant relatives of tamarisks in the same plant order Caryophyllales, but the MTB greatly prefer to lay eggs upon tamarisk (Milbrath and DeLoach 2006).
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In April 1970, Gardner worked as a stage manager for Free The Army (FTA) tour with actors Jane Fonda and Donald Sutherland. This traveling road show for soldiers was meant to counter USO shows put on by Bob Hope. As a journalist in the 1970s, Gardner helped break the story that the US government was funding the spraying of paraquat by helicopter to defoliate Mexican marijuana fields. Farmers had been harvesting plants before the poison could work, selling it, and US consumers were inhaling paraquat-laced pot. Gardner also helped expose the hidden ownership of Erhard Seminars Training, and Eli Lilly’s strategy of marketing Prozac by publicizing the prevalence of clinical depression.
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The first instar larvae are gregarious and consume the surface layer of the needles but later instars spread out through the foliage and consume the whole needle. They feed on both old and young pine needles; heavy infestations can seriously defoliate the tree and isolated clumps of white pine can be killed. When the larvae are fully developed, they descend to the ground where they make cocoons among the leaf litter; in these they overwinter as non-feeding prepupae, pupating in the spring and emerging as adults a few weeks later. Several parasitic wasps attack the larvae of this sawfly, and the egg parasitoid Closterocerus cinctipennis was found to be 90% effective in controlling an outbreak of the pest in Crawford County, Wisconsin.
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2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (also known as 2,4,5-T), a synthetic auxin, is a chlorophenoxy acetic acid herbicide used to defoliate broad-leafed plants. It was developed in the late 1940s and was widely used in the agricultural industry until being phased out, starting in the late 1970s due to toxicity concerns. Agent Orange, a defoliant used by the British in the Malayan Emergency and the U.S. in the Vietnam War, was equal parts 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid). 2,4,5-T itself is toxic with a NOAEL of 3 mg/kg/day and a LOAEL of 10 mg/kg/day. Additionally, the manufacturing process for 2,4,5-T contaminates this chemical with trace amounts of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD).
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They also defoliate amenity trees in parks and gardens, dig for edible roots and corms on sports grounds and race tracks, as well as chew wiring and household fittings. In South Australia, where flocks can number several thousand birds and the species is listed as unprotected, they are accused of defoliating red gums and other native or ornamental trees used for roosting, damaging tarpaulins on grain bunkers, wiring and flashing on buildings, taking grain from newly seeded paddocks and creating a noise nuisance. Several rare species and subspecies, too, have been recorded as causing problems. The Carnaby's black cockatoo, a threatened Western Australian endemic, has been considered a pest in pine plantations where the birds chew off the leading shoots of growing pine trees, resulting in bent trunks and reduced timber value.
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A published study in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry reported that through successive surface runoff events in defoliated cotton fields, defoliant concentrations decreased exponentially within the test area and could negatively affect marine life in the runoff zones. Agent Orange, a defoliant used by the United Kingdom during the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s and the United States during the Vietnam War to defoliate regions of Vietnam from 1961 to 1971, has been linked to several long-term health issues. Agent Orange contains a mixture of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T as well as dioxin contaminants. Members of the Air Force Ranch Hand and the Army Chemical Corps who served in the Vietnam War were occupationally exposed to Agent Orange have a higher incidence of diabetes, heart disease, hypertension, and chronic respiratory diseases.
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Several herbicides were developed as part of efforts by the United States and Great Britain to create herbicidal weapons for use during World War II. These included 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, MCPA (2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid, 1414B and 1414A, recoded LN-8 and LN-32), and isopropyl phenylcarbamate (1313, recoded LN-33). In 1943, the United States Department of the Army contracted botanist and bioethicist Arthur Galston, who discovered the defoliants later used in Agent Orange, and his employer University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign to study the effects of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T on cereal grains (including rice) and broadleaf crops. While a graduate and post-graduate student at the University of Illinois, Galston's research and dissertation focused on finding a chemical means to make soybeans flower and fruit earlier. He discovered both that 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid (TIBA) would speed up the flowering of soybeans and that in higher concentrations it would defoliate the soybeans.
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Herbs, slightly woody to woody at base, few- to many-branched, 20–40 cm tall. Stems moderately to densely pubescent with multicelled unbranched erect glandular hairs ca. 0.3–0.5 mm long, these mixed with less frequent slightly longer 1–3-celled unbranched eglandular hairs. Sympodial units defoliate, solitary or more commonly geminate, the smaller leaves up to half the size of the larger ones. Leaves simple, the blades 1–4 × 1–3 cm, ovate-elliptic to cordiform, chartaceous to membranaceous, sparsely to moderately pubescent on both sides with 1–2-celled unbranched erect eglandular hairs, these denser on the primary and secondary veins; venation camptodromous, with the primary and one pair of secondary veins emerging from the leaf base (sometimes just one, in the case of an asymmetric base), the primary and secondary veins barely visible to the naked eye, slightly prominent abaxially and less visible adaxially; base attenuate to cordate, slightly decurrent into petiole; margins entire, ciliate with hairs like those of the blade; apex acute to attenuate; petioles 0.5–2.2 cm long, with pubescence similar to that of the stems but with fewer eglandular hairs.
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