The refinery can run a variety of cheaper high-sulfur crude oils.
|
|
Last year's report assumed OPEC's basket of crude oils would reach $22040 in 2108.60.
|
|
Last year's report assumed OPEC's basket of crude oils would reach $65 in 2021.
|
|
ESPO is one of the most actively traded crude oils in Asia, and is popular among Chinese refiners.
|
|
It can also be used to dilute heavier crude oils before they are used as a feedstock in oil refineries.
|
|
Reuters reported Friday that U.S. sanctions on oil from the two countries has led to a global shortage of sour crude oils.
|
|
The two main existing benchmarks, Brent and U.S. light sweet crude, also known as WTI, are based on light low-sulphur crude oils.
|
|
Heavy and sour crudes are usually harder to convert to motor fuels and are sold at a discount to light and sweet crude oils.
|
|
Indeed, when the first commercial vegan cheeses were introduced in the 90s, they were a mess—the union of crude oils and thickening agents.
|
|
Crude backwardation, in which the futures contract trades below the crude oils expected spot price at the contracts maturity, is an indicator of a tight market.
|
|
The Houston unit is a significant Gulf Coast refinery that can run a wide variety of crude oils, from light Bakken to heavier grades out of Canada.
|
|
BP said in the filing that Monroe Energy, a subsidiary of Delta Air Lines Inc , terminated the contract after misinterpreting a provision regarding the blending of crude oils.
|
|
But Saudi Arabia does not want to cut its own supply if the shortfall will simply be made up by increases from other exporters producing similar crude oils.
|
|
The switch to other crude oils comes as South Korea and other Iranian oil buyers stopped buying oil from Iran after the U.S. government announced to end sanctions waivers from early May.
|
|
These refiners typically take a wide range of crude oil qualities in order to optimize their refinery's capabilities, often taking advantage of cheaper international crude oils that are high in density and sulfur content.
|
|
Motiva's refineries have been optimized to run on the medium-density crude oils Saudi Arabia exports, and the joint venture remains one of the largest importers of Saudi oil, according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration.
|
|
What they're saying: "Market uncertainty during November appears to have contributed to levels of price volatility for Brent and West Texas Intermediate crude oils not seen in several years," EIA administrator Linda Capuano said in a statement.
|
|
"Our refineries are well-situated to take advantage of discounted heavy sour and domestic sweet crude oils versus Brent and to meet the growing demand for refined products in Latin America," Chief Executive Joe Gorder said in a statement.
|
|
An example of the efficiencies yielded by these trade flows is the U.S. importation of (cheaper) heavy crude oils (not produced in large amounts domestically) from Mexico and Canada, which then are refined in Gulf Coast refineries into gasoline and other products.
|
|
An example of the efficiencies yielded by these trade flows is the U.S. importation of (cheaper) heavy crude oils (not produced in large amounts domestically) from Mexico and Canada, which then are refined in Gulf coast refineries into gasoline and other products.
|
|
NEW DELHI/MUMBAI (Reuters) - Essar Oil UK expects a $250-milion upgrade of its Stanlow refinery in northwest England to improve its basic profit margin by $1 a barrel as it will be able to process a greater variety of cheaper crude oils and raise output, its chief executive said on Wednesday.
|
|
But experts say the US still won't be fully energy independent in 2020, as its refineries rely on the medium and heavy crude oils found overseas and not just the lighter crude oil extracted in the US.Recent US government figures, dated to 2018, said the US imported about 900,000 barrels of Saudi oil a day, 9% of its total imports.
|
|
Asphaltenes impart high viscosity to crude oils, negatively impacting production, also the variable asphaltene concentration in crude oils within individual reservoirs creates a myriad of production problems.
|
|
2,2-Dimethylpentane exists in some crude oils at low levels of about 0.01%.
|
|
The nature, occurrence, recovery and commercial uses of naphthenic acid have been reviewed. Crude oils from fields in Romania, Russia, Venezuela, the North Sea, China, and West Africa are known to be high in acidic compounds as compared to most American crude oils. The carboxylic acid content of certain California crude oils is particularly high (up to 4%) Conrad Environmental Aquatics Technical Advisory Group (CEATAG ) (1998). Naphthenic Acids Background Information Discussion Report, 65 pp.
|
|
Crude oils are compounds that mainly consist of many different hydrocarbon compounds that vary in appearance and composition. Average crude oil composition is 84% carbon, 14% hydrogen, 1%-3% sulphur, and less than 1% each of nitrogen, oxygen, metals and salts. Crude oils are distinguished as sweet or sour, depending upon the sulphur content present. Crude oils with a high sulfur content, which may be in the form hydrogen sulphides, are called sour, and those with less sulphur are called sweet.
|
|
Using this method, recovery could be as high as 87%, which is a vast improvement over other methods in use for extraction of extra heavy crude oils.
|
|
Such heavy crude oils often contain high concentrations of sulfur and heavy metals, particularly nickel and vanadium, which interfere with refining processes, although lighter crude oils can also suffer from sulfur and heavy metal contamination. These properties present significant environmental challenges to the growth of heavy oil production and use. Canada's Athabasca oil sands and Venezuela's Orinoco heavy oil belt are the best known example of this kind of unconventional reserve. In 2003 the estimated reserves were .
|
|
WCS, a bitumen-derived crude, is a heavy crude that is similar to Californian heavy crudes, Mexico's Maya crude or Venezuelan heavy crude oils. On March 15, 2015, the differential between WTI and WCS was US$13.8. Western Canadian Select was among the cheapest crude oils in the world with a price of US$29.54/bbl on March 15, 2015, its lowest price since April 2009. By mid-April 2015 WCS had risen almost fifty percent to trade at $US44.94.
|
|
Examples of non-biodegraded crude oil (top) and a heavily biodegraded one (bottom) with the UCM area indicated. Both chromatograms have been normalized so that their integrals are equal to unity. Unresolved complex mixture (UCM), or hump, is a feature frequently observed in gas chromatographic (GC) data of crude oils and extracts from organisms exposed to oil. The reason for the UCM hump appearance is that GC cannot resolve and identify a significant part of the hydrocarbons in crude oils.
|
|
Gasoline production would not surpass kerosene production until 1916. The earliest straight-run gasolines were the result of distilling eastern crude oils and there was no mixing of distillates from different crudes. The composition of these early fuels was unknown and the quality varied greatly as crude oils from different oil fields emerged in different mixtures of hydrocarbons in different ratios. The engine effects produced by abnormal combustion (engine knocking and pre-ignition) due to inferior fuels had not yet been identified, and as a result there was no rating of gasoline in terms of its resistance to abnormal combustion.
|
|
North Sea Brent Crude Oil is the leading benchmark for Atlantic basin crude oils, and is used to price approximately two-thirds of the world's traded crude oil. Other well-known benchmarks are West Texas Intermediate (WTI), Dubai Crude, Oman Crude, and Urals oil.
|
|
Petroleum crude oils contain hundreds of different hydrocarbon compounds: paraffins, naphthenes and aromatics as well as organic sulfur compounds, organic nitrogen compounds and some oxygen-containing hydrocarbons such as phenols. Although crude oils generally do not contain olefins, they are formed in many of the processes used in a petroleum refinery. The crude oil fractionator does not produce products having a single boiling point; rather, it produces fractions having boiling ranges. For example, the crude oil fractionator produces an overhead fraction called "naphtha" which becomes a gasoline component after it is further processed through a catalytic hydrodesulfurizer to remove sulfur and a catalytic reformer to reform its hydrocarbon molecules into more complex molecules with a higher octane rating value.
|
|
Moradi B., Kharrat R.: Pressure-volume-temperature Correlations for Iranian Crude Oils, presented at the EGEA 1st International petroleum conference, Shiraz Iran, 2009. 142\. Fatemi S. M., Kharrat R., Ghotbi C.: Simulation Study of Conventional Fire Flooding (CFF) in Fractured Combustion Cells: A Promising Tool along Experiment, presented at the EGEA 1st International petroleum conference, Shiraz Iran, 2009. 143\. Moradi B., Kharrat R.: Oil Formation Volume Factor Correlation for Middle East Crude Oils, presented at the EGEA 1st International petroleum conference, Shiraz Iran, 2009. 144\. Shahvar, M.B., Kharrat, R., Mahdavi, R.: Incorporating Fuzzy logic artificial neural networks for building a hydraulic unit-based model for permeability prediction of a heterogeneous carbonate reservoir, IPTC 13732, 2009. 145\.
|
|
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology 4th ed. 16: 1017-1029. Crude oils with total acid number (TAN) as little as 0.5 mg KOH/g acid or petroleum fractions greater than about 1.0 mg KOH/g oil usually qualify as a high acid crude or oil. At the 1.0 mg/g TAN level, acidic crude oils begin to be heavily discounted in value and so are referred to as opportunity crudes. Commercial grades of naphthenic acid are most often recovered from kerosene/jet fuel and diesel fractions, where their corrosivityAngelo Nora, Alfred Szczepanek, Gunther Koenen, "Metallic Soaps" in Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2005, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a16_361 and negative impact on burning qualities require their removal.
|
|
Hemmati M. N., Kharrat R., Evaluation of Empirically Derived PVT Properties for Middle East Crude Oils, J. Scientica Iranica, International Journal of Science and Technology, August 2007. 13\. Azin R., Kharrat R., Vossoughi S., S. Ghotbi, Rostami B., Investigation of the VAPEX Performance in High Pressure Oil Reservoirs, NSMSI, Vol. 26, No. 3, 2007. 14\.
|
|
This, along with subsequent debottlenecking, increased capacity by . Garyville Refinery operations consist of crude distillation, hydrocracking, catalytic cracking, hydrotreating, catalytic reforming, alkylation, sulfur recovery, and coking. The facility primarily processes heavy sour crude oils to produce gasoline, diesel, asphalt, propylene, isobutane, propane, fuel-grade coke, and sulfur. Feedstocks are supplied via pipeline, truck, barge, rail, and ocean tanker.
|
|
The Indigenous peoples in Venezuela, like many ancient societies already utilized crude oils and asphalts from petroleum seeps, which ooze through the ground to the surface, in the years before the Spanish conquistadors. The thick black liquid, known to the locals as mene, was primarily used for medical purposes, as an illumination source, and for the caulking of canoes.
|
|
Natural gas products were 4.8 times more likely to have a rail occurrence when compared to similar commodities transported by pipelines. Critics question if pipelines carrying diluted bitumen from Alberta's oil sands are more likely to corrode and cause incidents, but evidence shows the risk of corrosion being no different than that of other crude oils.
|
|
Its extremely low sulfur content means it requires less refinery processing than sourer crude oils. The Tapis field, located off the coast of Terengganu in the South China Sea was discovered in 1969 with production starting in 1978. ExxonMobil holds a 30% stake, the rest being held by state-owned Petronas. , production is approximately 300,000 barrels per day.
|
|
Guoying Sheng, Jiamo Fu, S. C. Brassell, A. P. Gowar, G. Eglinton, Jaap S. Sinninghe Damste, Jan W. de Leeuw and P. A. Schenck, Sulphur-containing compounds in sulphur-rich crude oils from hypersaline lake sediments and their geochemical implications, in Chinese Journal of Geochemistry. Published by Science Press, co-published with Springer-Verlag GmbH, 1987-04-01.
|
|
Natural gas products were 4.8 times more likely to have a rail occurrence when compared to similar commodities transported by pipelines. Critics question if pipelines carrying diluted bitumen from Alberta's oil sands are more likely to corrode and cause incidents, but evidence shows the risk of corrosion being no different than that of other crude oils.
|
|
Cedar oil is often used for its aromatic properties, especially in aromatherapy. It has a characteristic woody odor which may change somewhat in the course of drying out. The crude oils are often yellowish or darker in color. Its applications cover soap perfumes, household sprays, floor polishes and insecticides and is also used in microscope work as a clearing oil.
|
|
Years later several groups made similar observations in either modern or ancient sediments near methane seeps. Crocetane was found in environments with anaerobic methane oxidizing consortium, composed of methanotrophic archea and sulfate-reducing bacteria. These work makes crocetane the first biomarker of anaerobic methanotrophy. In 2009, Ercin Maslen and her colleagues detected crocetane in highly-mature Devonian sediments and crude oils of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin.
|
|
Crude prices are typically quoted at a particular location. Unless stated otherwise, the price of WCS is quoted at Hardisty and the price of West Texas Intermediate (WTI) is quoted at Cushing, Oklahoma. By March 18, 2015 the price of benchmark crude oils, WTI had dropped to $US 43.34/barrel (bbl). from a high in June 2014 with WTI priced above US$107/bbl and Brent above US$115/bbl.
|
|
Productive Optimization of Oil production through Water flooding, Elham Yesari, 2013 10\. Asphaltene Instability Trends to Predict Asphaltene Precipitation Onset Pressure; Constrained for Light and Heavy Crude Oils, Advisor, Samira Dolati 2014. 11\. Experimental modeling and modeling of Asphaltene Deposition in porous media due to gas injection, Afsaneh Raz, 2014. 12\. The application of stable nano micro emulsion fluids in the Enhanced Oil Recovery, Barati N, expected graduation, 2017. 13\.
|
|
The refinery has an advanced design, so that it can process a wide range of crude oils, including heavy high-sulfur sour crude, which many refineries cannot handle. Reliance Industries has said that the refinery's output is for export only and will not be sold domestically within India. Reliance is targeting the US market for gasoline and the European market for diesel. The refinery is owned by Reliance's Reliance Petroleum Ltd.
|
|
The hydrogen is also necessary in order to hydrogenolyze any polymers that form on the catalyst. In practice, the higher the content of naphtenes in the naphtha feedstock, the better will be the quality of the reformate and the higher the production of hydrogen. Crude oils containing the best naphtha for reforming are typically from Western Africa or the North Sea, such as Bonny light oil or Norwegian Troll.
|
|
The price of Tapis in Singapore is often considerably higher than the price of benchmark crude oils such as Brent or West Texas Intermediate (WTI), the more commonly referenced in market commentaries. This is because its lightness (i.e. higher ° API) allows for greater production of higher- value products, such as petrol, than from Brent or WTI. Its high price is also due to the purity of the blend.
|
|
ASTM D97, Standard Test Method for Pour Point of Crude Oils. The specimen is cooled inside a cooling bath to allow the formation of paraffin wax crystals. At about 9 °C above the expected pour point, and for every subsequent 3 °C, the test jar is removed and tilted to check for surface movement. When the specimen does not flow when tilted, the jar is held horizontally for 5 sec.
|
|
24-n-Propylcholestane is a sterane, which are derived from sterols after being buried in the sediment. Sterols turn into steranes by saturating the sterol's double bond and removing the alcohol group. Steranes are fairly stable, and are often found in source rocks and crude oils. 24-n-Propylcholesterol 24-n-Propylcholestane is derived from 24-n-propylcholesterol, which is made in the modern ocean by Chrysophyte algae.
|
|
Methods such as immiscible gas injection, polymer flooding, and in situ combustion, better known as fireflooding, have all seen limited success in the Carabobo field. However, steam injection and microbial enhanced oil recovery (MEOR) have seen the most success. Microbial enhanced oil recovery, specifically, has received special attention. In 1999, Bognolo reported that biosurfactants not only reduced the viscosity of the Venezuelan heavy crude oils, but also increased their mobility in transport lines.
|
|
The first petroleum analysis with electrospray ionization was demonstrated in 2000 by Zhan and Fenn, who studied the polar species in petroleum distillates with low-resolution MS. Electrospray ionization was coupled with high-resolution FT-ICR by Marshall and coworkers. To date, many studies on petroleomic analysis of crude oils have been published. Most work has been done by the group of Marshall at the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory (NHMFL) and Florida State University.
|
|
Since C26 steranes are generally present in an order of magnitude lower than the more common steranes (i.e. C27, C28, and C29), GC/MS/MS is used to obtain better analysis of the C26 steranes. (a) shows the summation of GC/MS/MS transitions of all steranes, whereas (b) shows the transitions for C26 steranes only and where the peaks map to in the summation. Samples are collected from rocks or crude oils.
|
|
Pycnoporus sanguineus is used for both industrial and medicinal purposes throughout the world. A pigment extracted from the caps called cinnabarin is used in textile industries for the partial and complete de-colorization of certain dyes. Other industrial uses of this species include testing methods for wood treatment products and enzymes used in bio-remediation for the breakdown of crude oils. Traditional medicinal uses were first utilized by natives in surrounding areas of this species.
|
|
Rice hulls are also used as a pressing aid in fruit juices extraction and as bedding in poultry houses. Soybean Meal A major Mid-South USA soybean processor, Riceland produces soybean meal in Stuttgart, Arkansas. Most of the soybean meal is consumed by the region's poultry and aquaculture (fish farm) industries. Edible Oils An edible oil refinery at Stuttgart refines crude oils extracted from soybeans and rice bran into oil and shortening products.
|
|
Especially when dealing with kerosene, the Merox process is usually more economical than using a catalytic hydrodesulfurization process for much the same purpose. Indeed, it is rarely (if ever) required to reduce the sulphur content of a straight-run kerosene to respect the sulphur specification of jet fuel as the specification is 3000 ppm and very few crude oils have a kerosene cut with a higher content of sulphur than this limit.
|
|
The Automated Data Inquiry for Oil Spills (ADIOS2) software is an oil weathering model provided by NOAA that incorporates a database containing more than a thousand crude oils and refined products, and provides quick estimates of the expected characteristics and behavior of oil spilled into the marine environment. The predictions it makes, presented as both graphics and text, are designed to help answer questions that typically arise during spill response and cleanup.
|
|
Bahrami M., Kharrat R., Mahdavi S., Firoozinia H.: Prediction of the Gas Injection Effect on the Asphaltene Phase Envelope, Oil and Gas Science and Technology – Rev. IFP Energies nouvelles, Vol. 70(2015), No. 6, pp. 1075–1086. 156\. Dolatia S., Zareia H., Kharrat R., Asphaltene Instability Trends to Predict Asphaltene Precipitation Onset Pressure: Constrained for Light and Heavy Crude Oils, Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, Volume 36 Issue 1, January 2015, pages 103-110. 157\.
|
|
Within a region, there can also be seasonal differences in demand for heating fuel versus transportation fuel. The mix of refined products is also affected by the particular blend of crude oil feedstock processed by a refinery, and by the capabilities of the refinery. Heavier crude oils contain a higher proportion of heavy hydrocarbons composed of longer carbon chains. As a result, heavy crude oil is more difficult to refine into lighter products such as gasoline.
|
|
Crude oils are composed of an array of chemical compounds, minor constituents, and trace metals. Making up 50-98% of these petroleum products are hydrocarbons with saturated, unsaturated, or aromatic structures which influence their biodegradability by hydronocarbonclasts. The rate of uptake and biodegradation by these hydrocarbon-oxidizing microbes not only depend on the chemical structure of the substrates, but is limited by biotic and abiotic factors such as temperature, salinity, and nutrient availability in the environment.
|
|
Smith, E., Wraige, E., Donkin, P. & Rowland, S. Hydrocarbon humps in the marine environment: Synthesis, toxicity, and aqueous solubility of monoaromatic compounds. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 20, 2428-2432 (2001). but only a small range of known petrogenic toxicants, such as the USEPA list of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), tend to be routinely monitored in the environment. Analysis of the hydrocarbon fraction of crude oils by GC reveals a complex mixture containing many thousands of individual components.
|
|
The indigenous peoples of Venezuela had already encountered crude oils and asphalts that seeped up through the ground to the surface. Known to the locals as mene, the thick, black liquid was primarily used for medicinal purposes, as an illumination source, and for the caulking of canoes. In the 16th century when Spanish colonization began in Venezuelan territory, the population of several indigenous peoples such as the Mariches (descendants of the Caribes) declined. Native caciques (leaders) such as Guaicaipuro (c.
|
|
The Shell Scotford Upgrader is an oilsand upgrader, a facility which processes crude bitumen (extra-heavy crude oil) from oil sands into a wide range of synthetic crude oils. The upgrader is owned by Athabasca Oil Sands Project (AOSP), a joint venture of Shell Canada Energy (60%), Marathon Oil Sands L.P. (20%) and Chevron Canada Limited (20%). The facility is located in the industrial development of Scotford, just to the northeast of Fort Saskatchewan, Alberta in the Edmonton Capital Region.
|
|
Wunder, Sven (2003), Oil wealth and the fate of the forest: a comparative study of eight tropical countries, Routledge. p130. There were two main north-south axes of pre-Columbian population, producing maize in the west and manioc in the east. Large parts of the Llanos plains were cultivated through a combination of slash and burn and permanent settled agriculture. The indigenous peoples of Venezuela had already encountered crude oils and asphalts that seeped up through the ground to the surface.
|
|
These tests showed that in certain aircraft, motor vehicle gasolines performed as well as "High-Test" but in other types resulted in hot-running engines. It was also found that gasolines from aromatic and naphthenic base crude oils from California, South Texas and Venezuela resulted in smooth-running engines. These tests resulted in the first government specifications for motor gasolines (aviation gasolines used the same specifications as motor gasolines) in late 1917.Matthew Van Winkle, Aviation Gasoline Manufacture, McGraw-Hill, 1944, p. 3.
|
|
The flowing movement of flammable liquids like gasoline inside a pipe can build up static electricity. Non-polar liquids such as gasoline, toluene, xylene, diesel, kerosene and light crude oils exhibit significant ability for charge accumulation and charge retention during high velocity flow. Electrostatic discharges can ignite the fuel vapor.Hearn, Graham Static electricity – guidance for Plant Engineers – Wolfson Electrostatics University of Southampton 2002; accessed Dec 2008 When the electrostatic discharge energy is high enough, it can ignite a fuel vapor and air mixture.
|
|
Given this limitation, asphaltenes are composed mainly of polyaromatic carbon ring units with oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur heteroatoms, combined with trace amounts of heavy metals, particularly chelated vanadium and nickel, and aliphatic side chains of various lengths.Asomaning, S. (1997). Heat exchanger fouling by petroleum asphaltenes. Ph.D. Thesis, University of British Columbia Many asphaltenes from crude oils around the world contain similar ring units, as well as polar and non-polar groups, which are linked together to make highly diverse large molecules.
|
|
A typical fluid catalytic cracking unit in a petroleum refinery. Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) is one of the most important conversion processes used in petroleum refineries. It is widely used to convert the high-boiling, high-molecular weight hydrocarbon fractions of petroleum crude oils into more valuable gasoline, olefinic gases, and other products. Cracking of petroleum hydrocarbons was originally done by thermal cracking, which has been almost completely replaced by catalytic cracking because it produces more gasoline with a higher octane rating.
|
|
Assay data help refineries determine if a crude oil feedstock is compatible for a particular petroleum refinery or if the crude oil could cause yield, quality, production, environmental and other problems. The assay can be an inspection assay or comprehensive assay. Testing can include crude oil characterization of whole crude oils and the various boiling range fractions produced from physical or simulated distillation by various procedures. Information obtained from the petroleum assay is used for detailed refinery engineering and client marketing purposes.
|
|
A contract is a written agreement between buyers and sellers that defines the measurement requirements. These are large-volume sales between operating companies where refined products and crude oils are transported by marine, pipeline or rail. Custody transfer measurement must be at the highest level of accuracy possible because a small error in measurement can amount to a large financial difference. Due to these critical natures of measurements, petroleum companies around the world have developed and adopted standards to meet the industry's needs.
|
|
The tonne of oil equivalent (toe) is a unit of energy defined as the amount of energy released by burning one tonne of crude oil. It is approximately 42 gigajoules or 11.630 megawatt-hours, although as different crude oils have different calorific values, the exact value is defined by convention; several slightly different definitions exist. The toe is sometimes used for large amounts of energy. Multiples of the toe are used, in particular the megatoe (Mtoe, one million toe) and the gigatoe (Gtoe, one billion toe).
|
|
An average 3-2-1 ratio based on sweet crude is not appropriate for > all refiners, however, and the OTC market provides contracts that better > reflect the situation of individual refineries. Some refineries specialize > in heavy crude oils, while others specialize in gasoline. One thing OTC > traders can attempt is to aggregate individual refineries so that the > trader’s portfolio is close to the exchange ratios. Traders can also devise > swaps that are based on the differences between their clients’ situations > and the exchange standards.
|
|
Syntrophic microbial food webs can play an integral role in the breakdown of organic pollutants such as oils, aromatic compounds, and amino acids. Environmental contamination with oil is of high ecological importance, but can be mediated through syntrophic degradation. Alkanes are hydrocarbon chains that are the major chemical component of crude oils, and have been experimentally verified to be broken down by syntrophic microbial food webs. The hydrocarbons of the oil are broken down after activation by fumarate, a chemical compound that is regenerated by other microorganisms.
|
|
Geologists and geochemists use biomarker traces found in crude oils and their related source rock to unravel the stratigraphic origin and migration patterns of presently existing petroleum deposits. The dispersion of biomarker molecules is also quite distinctive for each type of oil and its source, hence, they display unique fingerprints. Another factor that makes petroleum biomarkers more preferable than their counterparts is because they have a high tolerance to environmental weathering and corrosion. Such biomarkers are very advantageous and often used in the detection of oil spillage in the major waterways.
|
|
A high resolution FTICR mass spectrometer is often used for petroleomics. Ionization of nonpolar petroleum components can be achieved by field desorption ionization and atmospheric pressure photoionization (APPI). field desorption FT-ICR MS has enabled the identification of a large number of nonpolar components in crude oils that are not accessible by electrospray, such as benzo- and dibenzothiophenes, furans, cycloalkanes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). A drawback of field desorption is that it is slow, mainly due to the need of ramping the current to the emitter in order to volatilize and ionize molecules.
|
|
The Paulsboro Refinery is a facility abutting Paulsboro in adjacent Gibbstown (Greenwich Township) and processes medium-to-heavy sour crude oils to produce unbranded gasoline, heating oil, and jet fuel. It is one of only two facilities on the East Coast able to process petroleum coke. It became a Special Purpose Subzone 142A of Foreign Trade Zone (FTZ) No. 142 in 1995. In 1998, Valero Energy Corporation purchased the facility from Mobil and in 2010 sold it to PBF with backing from Blackstone Group and First Reserve Corporation.
|
|
There are several different forms of the technology, with the two main ones being Cyclic Steam Stimulation and Steam Flooding. Both are most commonly applied to oil reservoirs, which are relatively shallow and which contain crude oils which are very viscous at the temperature of the native underground formation. Steam injection is widely used in the San Joaquin Valley of California (US), the Lake Maracaibo area of Venezuela, and the oil sands of northern Alberta (Canada). Another contributing factor that enhances oil production during steam injection is related to near-wellbore cleanup.
|
|
Dr Mukherjee was able to foresee how basic soil colloid studies could be of help in understanding many of the soil properties and problems. He brought to use in the study of the soil all the tools and techniques he had been developing and improving through years of patient research. In 1942, with N.C. Sen Gupta, he developed a simple rotary viscometer for the study of anomalous viscous properties. In 1944, he developed the method of differentiation of crude oils based on chromatography capillary analysis and fluorescence in UV light.
|
|
Methanethiol is released from decaying organic matter in marshes and is present in the natural gas of certain regions, in coal tar, and in some crude oils. It occurs in various plants and vegetables, such as radishes. In surface seawater, methanethiol is the primary breakdown product of the algal metabolite dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP). Marine bacteria appear to obtain most of the sulfur in their proteins by the breakdown of DMSP and incorporation of methanethiol, despite the fact that methanethiol is present in seawater at much lower concentrations than sulfate (~0.3 nM vs.
|
|
Western Canadian Select (WCS) is a heavy sour blend of crude oil that is one of North America's largest heavy crude oil streams. It was established in December 2004 as a new heavy oil stream by EnCana (now Cenovus), Canadian Natural Resources Limited, Petro-Canada (now Suncor) and Talisman Energy Inc. (now Repsol Oil & Gas Canada Inc.). It is a heavy blended crude oil, composed mostly of bitumen blended with sweet synthetic and condensate diluents and 21 existing streams of both conventional and unconventional Alberta heavy crude oils at the large Husky Midstream General Partnership terminal in Hardisty, Alberta.
|
|
"The extremely viscous oil contained in oil sands deposits is commonly referred to as bitumen." (CAS 8052-42-4) At the Husky Hardisty terminal, Western Canadian Select is blended from sweet synthetic and condensate diluents from 25 existing Canadian heavy conventional and unconventional bitumen crude oils. Western Canadian Select is a heavy crude oil with an API gravity level of between 19 and 22 (API), 20.5° (Natural Gas and Petroleum Products 2009). Western Canadian Select's characteristics are described as follows: gravity, density (kg/m3) 930.1, MCR (Wt%) 9.6, sulphur (Wt%) 2.8-3.5%, TAN (Total Acid number) of (Mg KOH/g) 0.93.
|
|
Pak, T., Kharrat, R., Bagheri, M., Khalilia, M., Hematfar., V.: Experimental study of Asphaltene deposition during different production mechanisms, Journal of petroleum science and technology (JPST), Vol. 29, Issue 17, 2011, pp. 1853–1863. 64\. Naseryan Moghadam, J., Salahshoor, K., Kharrat, R. Introducing a New Method for Predicting PVT Properties of Iranian Crude Oils Applying Artificial Neural Networks, published in J. Petroleum Science & Technology, 29: 10, 1066 - 1079, March 2011. 65\. Fatemi S.M, Kharrat R.: Assessment of Vapor Extraction (VAPEX) process performance in naturally fractured reservoirs, Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, Volume 75, Issues 3-4, January 2011, Pages 260-273. 66\.
|
|
Also, the growing electrification of lighting produced a drop in kerosene demand, creating a supply problem. It appeared that the burgeoning oil industry would be trapped into over-producing kerosene and under-producing gasoline since simple distillation could not alter the ratio of the two products from any given crude. The solution appeared in 1911, when the development of the Burton process allowed thermal cracking of crude oils, which increased the percent yield of gasoline from the heavier hydrocarbons. This was combined with expansion of foreign markets for the export of surplus kerosene which domestic markets no longer needed.
|
|
The Gulfaks crude Braer was carrying was not a typical North Sea oil. Gulfaks crude is lighter, more easily dispersible and more biodegradable than other North Sea crude oils, and this, in combination with some of the worst storms seen in Shetland (naturally dispersing the oil by wave action and evaporation), prevented the event from having greater impacts on the shore. However, the higher percentage of volatile compounds may relate to the high rate of respiratory distress noted in seals in the area. The following is a brief account of the spread and eventual dispersion of the oil.
|
|
Crude oil map Main features of some qualities of crude oil Density and sulfur content of crude oils In the international petroleum industry, crude oil products are traded on various oil bourses based on established chemical profiles, delivery locations, and financial terms. The chemical profiles, or crude oil assays, specify important properties such as the oil's API gravity. The delivery locations are usually sea ports close to the oil fields from which the crude was obtained (and new fields are constantly being explored), and the pricing is usually quoted based on FOB (free on board, without consideration of final delivery costs).
|
|
Petroleum naphtha is an intermediate hydrocarbon liquid stream derived from the refining of crude oil with CAS-no 64742-48-9. It is most usually desulfurized and then catalytically reformed, which rearranges or restructures the hydrocarbon molecules in the naphtha as well as breaking some of the molecules into smaller molecules to produce a high-octane component of gasoline (or petrol). There are hundreds of different petroleum crude oil sources worldwide and each crude oil has its own unique composition or assay. There are also hundreds of petroleum refineries worldwide and each of them is designed to process either a specific crude oil or specific types of crude oils.
|
|
In their 2013 webpage jointly published with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the IEA observed that as technologies and economies change, definitions for unconventional and conventional oils also change. According to the US Department of Energy (DOE), "unconventional oils have yet to be strictly defined." In a communication to the UK entitled Oil Sands Crude in the series The Global Range of Crude Oils, it was argued that commonly used definitions of unconventional oil based on production techniques are imprecise and time-dependent. They noted that the International Energy Agency does not recognize any universally accepted definition for "conventional" or "unconventional" oil.
|
|
Oil sands generally consist of extra heavy crude oil or crude bitumen trapped in unconsolidated sandstone. These hydrocarbons are forms of crude oil that are extremely dense and viscous, with a consistency ranging from that of molasses for some extra- heavy oil to as solid as peanut butter for some bitumen at room temperature, making extraction difficult. These heavy crude oils have a density (specific gravity) approaching or even exceeding that of water. As a result of their high viscosity, they cannot be produced by conventional methods, transported without heating or dilution with lighter hydrocarbons, or refined by older oil refineries without major modifications.
|
|
The Japan Customs-cleared Crude (JCC) is the average price of customs-cleared crude oil imports into Japan (formerly the average of the top twenty crude oils by volume) as reported in customs statistics; nicknamed the "Japanese Crude Cocktail". It is a commonly used index in long term LNG contracts in Japan, Korea and Taiwan, and replaced the Government Selling Price of crude oil as the standard index. The data to calculate JCC is published by the Japanese government every month. This is the raw and crude oil import prices in yen per kilolitre, the dollar yen exchange rate and the total Japanese imports of all commodities for the month.
|
|
In turn, this allows maximum accuracy when converting between standard barrel and standard cubic metre. The logic above also implies the same level of accuracy in measurements for barrels if there is a error in measuring the temperature at time of measuring the volume. For ease of trading, communication and financial accounting, international commodity exchanges often set a conversion factor for benchmark crude oils. For instance the conversion factor set by the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) for Western Canadian Select (WCS) crude oil traded at Hardisty, Alberta, Canada is 6.29287 U.S. barrels per cubic metre, despite the uncertainty in converting the volume for crude oil.
|
|
Nickel (Ni), vanadium (V), lead (Pb), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg) and others metals frequently occur in oils. Some heavy crude oils, such as Venezuelan heavy crude have up to 45% vanadium pentoxide content in their ash, high enough that it is a commercial source for vanadium. Abiotic supporters argue that these metals are common in Earth's mantle, but relatively high contents of nickel, vanadium, lead and arsenic can be usually found in almost all marine sediments. Analysis of 22 trace elements in oils correlate significantly better with chondrite, serpentinized fertile mantle peridotite, and the primitive mantle than with oceanic or continental crust, and shows no correlation with seawater.
|
|
Structures of prime examples of biomarkers (petroleum), from top to bottom: Pristane, Triterpane, Sterane, Phytane and Porphyrin In chemistry and geology, biomarkers are any suite of complex organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and other elements or heteroatoms such as oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur, which are found in crude oils, bitumen, petroleum source rock and eventually show simplification in molecular structure from the parent organic molecules found in all living organisms. Essentially, they are complex carbon- based molecules derived from formerly living organisms.Wang, Z.; Stout, S.; Fingas, M. Environmental Forensics, 2006 7, 105-146. Each biomarker is quite distinctive when compared to its counterparts, as the time required for organic matter to convert to crude oil is discreet.
|
|
Prior to the American entry into World War I, the European Allies used fuels derived from crude oils from Borneo, Java and Sumatra, which gave satisfactory performance in their military aircraft. When the United States entered the war in April 1917, the U.S. became the principal supplier of aviation gasoline to the Allies and a decrease in engine performance was noted. Soon it was realized that motor vehicle fuels were unsatisfactory for aviation, and after the loss of a number of combat aircraft, attention turned to the quality of the gasolines being used. Later flight tests conducted in 1937, showed that an octane reduction of 13 points (from 100 down to 87 octane) decreased engine performance by 20 percent and increased take-off distance by 45 percent.
|
|
Evershed attended St Ivo School, St Ives in the late 1960s and graduated in 1978 from Nottingham Trent University (Trent Polytechnic, Nottingham) with a BSc in Applied Chemistry. He undertook his PhD in the Department of Chemistry at the University of Keele, investigating pheromones in social insects. Following his PhD he worked as a postdoctoral researcher in the Organic Geochemistry Unit in the School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, where he worked with Professor Geoffrey Eglinton and Professor James Maxwell to develop GC/MS and HPLC methodologies to investigate porphyrins in crude oils and source rocks. He moved to the Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool in 1984 to manage a biochemical mass spectrometry unit, before taking up a position as Lecturer in the School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, in 1993.
|
|
Some time during the 1960s or 1970s Golden Fleece gained a major contract by the, then small, major trucking company Linfox, that is still held by Caltex Australia today, due to a friendship between Regional Manager for Victoria Max Collins and Lindsay Fox. The company never had its own oil refinery and depended on Caltex to facilitate the importation and refining of crude oils at Kurnell Refinery in Sydney on its behalf. In the late 1970s the industry started to mature and rationalise due to soaring crude oil prices, and Federal Government oversight of petrol and diesel prices which was a subtle form of price control. Inevitably Golden Fleece was itself acquired by Caltex in 1981 and no longer trades under that name, though its unique livery can still be seen on some older roadhouses in rural Australia.
|
|
Grangemouth Refinery commenced operation in 1924 as Scottish Oils. Its location at Grangemouth was selected due to the adjacent Grangemouth Docks which supported the import by ship of Middle East crude oils for feedstock, plus the cheap availability of large areas of reclaimed flat land. Another important factor was the abundant availability of skilled labour in shale oil refining: the first oil works in the world, 'Young's Paraffin Light and Mineral Oil Company Limited', had opened in 1851 at Boghead near Bathgate, to produce oil from shale or coal using the process patented in 1850 by Glasgow scientist Dr James Young (known as "Paraffin" Young), for "treating bituminous coals to obtain paraffine therefrom". With the world's first oil wells coming on-line in 1854 in Poland, the global price of oil dropped and many Scottish shale oil works became un-economical and had to either close or concentrate production on other materials.
|
|
Nominal price of oil from 1861 to 2020 from Our World in Data The price of oil, or the oil price, generally refers to the spot price of a barrel of benchmark crude oil—a reference price for buyers and sellers of crude oil such as West Texas Intermediate (WTI), Brent Crude, Dubai Crude, OPEC Reference Basket, Tapis crude, Bonny Light, Urals oil, Isthmus and Western Canadian Select (WCS). There is a differential in the price of a barrel of oil based on its grade—determined by factors such as its specific gravity or API gravity and its sulfur content—and its location—for example, its proximity to tidewater and refineries. Heavier, sour crude oils lacking in tidewater access—such as Western Canadian Select—are less expensive than lighter, sweeter oil—such as WTI. According to a January 2020 EIA report, the average price of Brent crude oil in 2019 was $64 per barrel compared to $71 per barrel in 2018.
|
|
Premiums/discounts between WTI and Brent crude also reflects declining crude oil production priced under Brent crude prices. As crude production declines from depletion in Brent crude associated North Sea oilfields (Brent, Forties, Oseberg, Ekofisk, and Troll; also referred to as BFOET), a higher proportion of that oil production is consumed by local European refiners, and both a lesser proportion and a lesser absolute amount of that oil production can be exported to the US. During periods when WTI trades at a premium to Brent crude, declining Brent crude production pushes up that premium as traders cannot source supplies to sell into the US for a profit. As well, participants in the Brent crude market compensates for declining North Sea production by associating additional oilfields and different quality crude production into the definition of Brent crude, which affects the quality differential between Brent and WTI crude oils. Forties and Oseberg crude oil was added in 2002, Ekofisk crude oil was added in 2007, and Troll crude oil was added in 2018 to Brent crude oil pricing basket.
|
|