In "The Functioning of the Hidden Curriculum", E. Margolis and M. Romero note that cooling out may also be applied to students whose educational goals are unrealistic due to factors other than academic ability, such as lack of financial resources. They argue that "cooling out" has been used against students of color and women, concluding that "the less capital a student brings to the graduate setting, the more impact the process [of cooling out] has on that student's educational experience."Marolis and Romero (2000), p. 1280.
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A contrasting process – called "warming up" – may also occur (p.41). Warming up is defined as "the raising of students initial aspirations after they enroll in a college" (p.41). Both cooling out and warming up may occur in the same schools and at equal rates. National survey data suggest that warming up may occur more than cooling out in today's community colleges (p. 64).
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Cooling out is an informal set of practices used by colleges, especially two- year, junior, and community colleges, to handle students whose lack of academic ability or other resources prevent them from achieving the educational goals they have developed for themselves such as attaining a bachelor's degree. The purpose of cooling out is to encourage the students to adjust their expectations or redefine failure. The practices contrast with "warming up", in which students who aspire to easier educational goals are encouraged to reach for more ambitious degrees.
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In 2002, theorists Regina Deil- Amen and James E. Rosenbaum noted that students in many schools are encouraged to accept an ideal that college is accessible to all and defined "Cooling Out" as "the process by which community colleges urge students to recognize their academic deficiencies and lower their aspirations", noting that "cooling out may also be used to describe the ways in which community colleges get students to lower their unrealistically high expectations for obtaining bachelor's degrees and to aim for one- or two-year degrees in vocational or applied programs." They argue that cooling out should be initiated in the later years of high school by educators and administrators familiar with a student's potential. In junior and community colleges, students are dissuaded from maintaining unrealistically high expectations of transferring and earning a bachelor's degree. Researchers say that "community colleges passively discourage student success by setting institutional roadblocks in the way of those with bachelor's degree aspirations" (p.42).
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According to Burton R. Clark's 1960 article "The Cooling-Out Function in Higher Education", the term was first used by Erving Goffman in the 1952 article "Cooling the Mark Out: Some Aspects of Adaptation to Failure". Goffman used the term to describe a practice of confidence artists, but Clark proposed that it was a legitimate function of higher education to gradually refocus students from unattainable goals to achievements that were within their reach or to soften the blow of failure for what they cannot attain. Among the techniques of cooling out, students who do not achieve well on pre-entrance testing or who do not perform well in class may be refocused to remedial coursework and offered counseling and vocational planning. Academic probation may be used to encourage students to accept academic refocus.
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The gallery has three floors of display spaces and the temporary exhibitions programme focuses on thematic shows which have included Through the Looking Glass: Childhood in Contemporary Photography, Cooling Out: on the paradox of feminism and Overtake: the reinterpretation of modern art. The gallery is named for its benefactor, Wall St. financier and chairman of Lehman Brothers, Kuhn, Loeb Inc., Lewis Glucksman. The inaugural director, Fiona Kearney, is a fellow of the Clore Leadership Programme and an alumnus of the Salzburg Global Seminar.
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The engine was mounted with its cylinders exposed for cooling out of a conical metal cowling but behind it the fuselage was a flat-sided steel tube structure. The open cockpit version (K-2-S) had side-by-side seating over mid- wing and the two seat cabin equipped K-2-C had a revised upper fuselage including a long, angular enclosure with forward glazing. The pilot's downward view was severely limited by the wing, so transparent panels in the lower fuselage sides were installed to help him. No images of the three seat cabin K-3-C are known.
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In physics, a black body is a perfect absorber of light, but, by a thermodynamic rule, it is also the best emitter. Thus, the best radiative cooling, out of sunlight, is by using black paint, though it is important that it be black (a nearly perfect absorber) in the infrared as well. In elementary science, far ultraviolet light is called "black light" because, while itself unseen, it causes many minerals and other substances to fluoresce. Absorption of light is contrasted by transmission, reflection and diffusion, where the light is only redirected, causing objects to appear transparent, reflective or white respectively.
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In recent history, a debate between the advocates and critics of community colleges gained strength. Advocates argued that community colleges served the needs of society by providing college opportunity to students who otherwise cannot go to college, training and retraining mid-level skilled workers, and preserving the academic excellence of four-year universities. Critics argued that community colleges continued a culture of privilege through training business workers at public expense, not allowing the working class to advance in social class, protecting selective admissions at four-year institutions for the nation's elite, and discouraging transfer through cooling out. Although the growth of community colleges has stabilized, enrollment continued to outgrow four-year institutions.
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