154 Sentences With "conditionals" | Random Sentence Generator

The Playgrounds app teaches basic programming concepts like loops and conditionals.

Both of these questions involve counter-factual conditionals of enormous complexity.

But most other solutions use complex document customization that requires knowledge of conditionals, tags and syntax.

You'll learn about foundational concepts like variables, constants, conditionals, and arrays so you can apply them to real-world applications.

You also can generate new variations on the same playlist by using the "conditionals" tool on the left side of the menu.

You'll get to grips with key components like functions, arrays, objects, loops, and conditionals, and core functionality like math, strings, literals identifiers, and more.

Each one of these moves caused an avalanche of plan activations and terminations, carry-overs or forfeitures of accumulated talk minutes, and umpteen other causal conditionals that would affect the subscriber's bill.

The app itself offers a series of courses, beginning with "The Fundamentals," where users learn how code works, along with various terminology like functions, variables, strings, for loops, arrays, conditionals, operators, and objects.

"Right now, a lot of diversity efforts focus on women getting into the so-called pipeline, but that pipeline isn't producing more than a trickle and has a lot of conditionals built in," Gates said.

By taking control of Hiro, described as a "charismatic cube-like sidekick," you are tasked with solving various puzzles set in a bespoke 3D world that require the application of basic algorithms, pattern recognition, sequences, loops and conditionals.

"Right now, a lot of diversity efforts focus on women getting into the so-called 'pipeline' but that pipeline isn't producing more than a trickle and has a lot of conditionals built in, a lot of 'if-then' statements, " Gates said.

Because Asperger did not have a direct hand in any of the more than 700 children who were murdered in the regime's child euthanasia program, she is left relying on conditionals and suppositions: An educational society Asperger helped found "may have disseminated the child euthanasia directive behind the scenes"; surviving documents "suggest" Asperger "had a hand" in transferring dozens of children to a killing pavilion.

Deductive reasoning differs from abductive reasoning by the direction of the reasoning relative to the conditionals. Deductive reasoning goes in the same direction as that of the conditionals, whereas abductive reasoning goes in the opposite direction to that of the conditionals.

People engage in counterfactual thinking frequently. Experimental evidence indicates that people's thoughts about counterfactual conditionals differ in important ways from their thoughts about indicative conditionals.

Recently the term X-Marked has been proposed as a replacement, evoking the extra marking that these conditionals bear. Those adopting this terminology refer to indicative conditionals as O-Marked conditionals, reflecting their ordinary marking.von Fintel, Kai; Iatridou, Sabine. Prolegomena to a theory of X-marking Unpublished lecture slides.

Conditionals generally are assumed to share their structure with topics. However, in Chadic South Bauchi West languages, such as Polci, conditionals share their structure with focus, not topic. In Polci specifically, focused constituents and conditional clauses appear on the left periphery marked by the identifying copula 'it is'. ].Caron, B. 206: Condition, topic and focus in African languages: why conditionals are not topics.

In this author's opinion, restrictions prohibiting either > conditionals or semaphore arrays are artificial.

For general information on conditionals in English, see English conditional sentences (and also below).

Thus, subjunctive marking is neither necessary nor sufficient for membership in this class of conditionals. The terms counterfactual and subjunctive have sometimes been repurposed for more specific uses. For instance, the term "counterfactual" is sometimes applied to conditionals that express a contrary-to-fact meaning, regardless of their grammatical structure. Along similar lines, the term "subjunctive" is sometimes used to refer to conditionals that bear fake past or irrealis marking, regardless of the meaning they convey.

The programmer can also use elements like loops and conditionals to control the flow of the program.

The counterfactual conditional primed them to read the sentence corresponding to the presupposed facts very rapidly; no such priming effect occurred for indicative conditionals. They spent different amounts of time 'updating' a story that contains a counterfactual conditional compared to one that contains factual information and focused on different parts of counterfactual conditionals.

The factor is frequently constant in the complete conditionals used in Gibbs sampling and the optimal distributions in variational methods.

Counterfactual theories define causation in terms of a counterfactual relation. These theories can often be seeing as "floating" their account of causality on top of an account of the logic of counterfactual conditionals. This approach can be traced back to David Hume's definition of the causal relation as that "where, if the first object had not been, the second never had existed." More full-fledged analysis of causation in terms of counterfactual conditionals only came in the 20th century after development of the possible world semantics for the evaluation of counterfactual conditionals.

146.) The study of counterfactual speculation has increasingly engaged the interest of scholars in a wide range of domains such as philosophy,Goodman, N., "The Problem of Counterfactual Conditionals", The Journal of Philosophy, Vol.44, No.5, (27 February 1947), pp.113-128; Brown, R, & Watling, J., "Counterfactual Conditionals", Mind, Vol.61, No.242, (April 1952), pp.

Jackson came to realise, however, that there are assertable conditionals which one would not continue to believe if one learned the antecedent.

But subjunctive conditionals do not contrapose, and we are misled into accepting a sensitivity condition by confusing it with a safety condition.

The difference between indicative and counterfactual conditionals can be illustrated by the following minimal pair: # Indicative Conditional: If it is raining right now, then Sally is inside. # Simple Past Counterfactual: If it was raining right now, then Sally would be inside. These conditionals differ in both form and meaning. The indicative conditional uses the present tense form "is" in both the "if" clause and the "then" clause.

Davies et al. (1995) have argued that Cosmides and Tooby's argument in favor of context-sensitive, domain-specific reasoning mechanisms as opposed to general-purpose reasoning mechanisms is theoretically incoherent and inferentially unjustified. Von Sydow (2006) has argued that we have to distinguish deontic and descriptive conditionals, but that the logic of testing deontic conditionals is more systematic (cf. Beller, 2001) and depend on one's goals (cf.

Strict conditionals are the result of Clarence Irving Lewis's attempt to find a conditional for logic that can adequately express indicative conditionals in natural language.Cooper H. Langford and C. I. Lewis, Symbolic Logic (New York, 1932), p. 124.Nicholas Bunnin and Jiyuan Yu (eds), The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy, Wiley, 2004, , "strict implication," p. 660. They have also been used in studying Molinist theology.

Every semantics for belief revision can be used for evaluating conditional statements. Conversely, every method for evaluating conditionals can be seen as a way for performing revision.

For Williamson, instances of intuition are instances of our cognitive faculties processing counterfactuals (or subjunctive conditionals) that are specific to the thought experiment or example in question.

For long or complex preprocessor conditionals, every `#else` and `#endif` should have a comment explaining the condition for the code below (for `#else`) or above (for `#endif`).

He has been a visiting professor at the University of Michigan and the University of Oregon. Much of Sanford's work is about conditionals. His book If P, Then Q: Conditionals and the Foundations of Reasoning was published in 1989, second edition 2003, Sanford's influence in analytic philosophy extends well beyond his published work in metaphysics. From 2006 to 2007, he was president of the Society for Philosophy and Psychology.

Canons of epistemic value used to identify degrees of explanatory coherence are themselves justified by appeal to natural teleology. (Judgement and Justification 1988.) In defense of his view, Lycan critically assesses major competitors (especially reliabilism) and other views (e.g., epistemic minimalism). Meaning in natural language (Logical Form in Natural Language 1984), including the meaning of indicative conditionals (Real Conditionals 2001), is explained by Lycan in truth- theoretic terms.

Many of his papers are available online and include topics such as linguistic classification, syntactic structures such as conditionals, and noun classes such as pronominal and number systems.

The consequent can be a declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative. Special tense morphology can be used to form a counterfactual conditional. Some linguists have argued that other superficially distinct grammatical structures such as wish reports have the same underlying structure as conditionals. Conditionals are one of the most widely studied phenomena in formal semantics, and have also been discussed widely in philosophy of language, computer science, decision theory, among other fields.

For an overview of some of the various analyses (formal and informal) of conditionals, see below. Relevance logic attempts to capture these alternate concepts of implication that material implication glosses over.

Outside of mathematics, it is a matter of some controversy as to whether the truth function for material implication provides an adequate treatment of conditional statements in a natural language such as English, i.e., indicative conditionals and counterfactual conditionals. A counterfactual conditional is a conditional with special morphological marking which conveys that the speaker regards the antecedent as impossible or unlikely.Counterfactuals are also often called subjunctives though the term is acknowledged as a misnomer when applied to English.

According to the material conditional analysis, a natural language conditional, a statement of the form ‘if P then Q’, is true whenever its antecedent, P, is false. Since counterfactual conditionals are those whose antecedents are false, this analysis would wrongly predict that all counterfactuals are vacuously true. Goodman illustrates this point using the following pair in a context where it is understood that the piece of butter under discussion had not been heated.Goodman, N., "The Problem of Counterfactual Conditionals", The Journal of Philosophy, Vol.

One of the most discussed distinctions among conditionals is that between indicative and counterfactual conditionals: ::Indicative: If it is raining in New York, then Mary is at home. ::Counterfactual: If it was raining in New York, then Mary would be at home. These examples differ in both form and meaning. The indicative example uses the present tense form "is" in both its antecedent and consequent, while the counterfactual example uses the past tense form "was" in the antecedent and the modal "would" in the consequent.

This argument concerns the differences between the applicability of counterfactual conditionals to physical objects, on the one hand, and to conscious, personal agents on the other.Madell, G. 1981. The Identity of the Self. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

54, No.17, (15 August 1957), pp.531-535; Lewis, D., Counterfactuals, Basil Blackwell, (Oxford), 1973, etc. psychology,Fillenbaum, S., "Information Amplified: Memory for Counterfactual Conditionals", Journal of Experimental Psychology, Vol.102, No.1, (January 1974), pp.

Experiments have compared the inferences people make from counterfactual conditionals and indicative conditionals. Given a counterfactual conditional, e.g., 'If there had been a circle on the blackboard then there would have been a triangle', and the subsequent information 'in fact there was no triangle', participants make the modus tollens inference 'there was no circle' more often than they do from an indicative conditional. Given the counterfactual conditional and the subsequent information 'in fact there was a circle', participants make the modus ponens inference as often as they do from an indicative conditional.

Earlier B-theorists argued that one could paraphrase tensed sentences (such as "the sun is now shining") into tenseless sentences (such as "on September 28, the sun shines") without loss of meaning. Later B-theorists argued that tenseless sentences could give the truth conditions of tensed sentences or their tokens. Quentin Smith states that "now" cannot be reduced to descriptions of dates and times, because all date and time descriptions, and therefore truth conditionals, are relative to certain events. Tensed sentences, on the other hand, do not have such truth conditionals.

Two other definitions of `PRED` are given below, one using conditionals and the other using pairs. With the predecessor function, subtraction is straightforward. Defining : `SUB := λm.λn.n PRED m`, `SUB m n` yields `m − n` when `m > n` and `0` otherwise.

According to a timid version of fictionalism about possible worlds, our possible worlds can be properly understood as involving reference to a fiction, but the aforementioned bi-conditionals should not be taken as an analysis of certain cases of modality.

Written by Richard Merrill, FOCAL removed features from JOSS as required in order to be able to run in the much more limited memory space of the PDP-8 and other 12-bit machines in the DEC lineup. To achieve this, a major change was made to reduce the amount of temporary data, or "state", needed to parse the statements. One noticeable effect of this decision was that conditionals could only be used for branches, in contrast to JOSS, where conditionals can be applied to any statement. The other noticeable change was to rearrange the keywords so each started with a unique letter.

Some linguistic environments are intermediate between plugs and holes: They block some presuppositions and allow others to project. These are called filters. An example of such an environment are indicative conditionals ("If-then" clauses). A conditional sentence contains an antecedent and a consequent.

Participles are used for forming the past tense, conditionals and the passive voice in Czech. They are related to the short forms of adjectives. Therefore unlike other verb forms, they also express gender which must correspond with the gender of the subject.

Some research evidence suggests that the brain stores knowledge as productions (situation-response conditionals) that act on declarative memory content, which is also referred to as chunks or propositions.Anderson, J. R., & Lebiere, C. (1998). The atomic components of thought. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

222-233; Parry, W.T., "Reëxamination of the Problem of Counterfactual Conditionals", The Journal of Philosophy, Vol.54, No.4, (14 February 1957), pp.85-94; Cooley, J.C., "Professor Goodman's Fact, Fiction, & Forecast", The Journal of Philosophy, Vol.54, No.10, (9 May 1957), pp.

Pseudo-pipelines are available as of SpartaDOS X version 4.42. Batch files can contain structured conditionals such as IF ... ELSE ... FI, GOTO, GOSUB, procedures, and loops. The environment variable $COMSPEC may point to an alternative command-line interpreter, to be loaded instead of COMMAND.COM.

For example, f(a, b) = a is a projection function. # Subtraction function: f(x, y) = x − y if y < x, or 0 if y ≥ x. This function is used to define conditionals and iteration. From these basic functions, we can build other elementary recursive functions.

Lewis went on to publish Counterfactuals (1973), which gives a modal analysis of the truth conditions of counterfactual conditionals in possible world semantics and the governing logic for such statements. According to Lewis, the counterfactual "If kangaroos had no tails they would topple over" is true if in all worlds most similar to the actual world where the antecedent "if kangaroos had no tails" is true, the consequent that kangaroos in fact topple over is also true. Lewis introduced the now standard "would" conditional operator □→ to capture these conditionals' logic. A sentence of the form A □→ C is true on Lewis's account for the same reasons given above.

The crucial areas of dispute between Stalnaker's account and Lewis's are whether these conditionals quantify over constant or variable domains (strict analysis vs. variable-domain analysis) and whether the Limit assumption should be included in the accompanying logic. Linguist Angelika Kratzer has developed a competing theory for counterfactual or subjunctive conditionals, "premise semantics", which aims to give a better heuristic for determining the truth of such statements in light of their often vague and context-sensitive meanings. Kratzer's premise semantics does not diverge from Lewis's for counterfactuals but aims to spread the analysis between context and similarity to give more accurate and concrete predictions for counterfactual truth conditions.

Because C++ templates are type-aware and Turing-complete, they can also be used to let the compiler resolve recursive conditionals and generate substantial programs through template metaprogramming. Contrary to some opinion, template code will not generate a bulk code after compilation with the proper compiler settings.

Johnson-Laird, P.N. and Byrne, R.M.J. (2002) Conditionals: a theory of meaning, inference, and pragmatics. Psychol. Rev. 109, 646–678 The mental model theory is the subject of the mental models website. A fourth view is that people compute probabilities.Oaksford, M. and Chater, N. (2007) Bayesian Rationality.

Hove, Sussex:Psychology Press Experiments examine how people make inferences from conditionals e.g., If A then B and how they make inferences about alternatives, e.g., A or else B.Johnson-Laird, P.N. & Byrne, R.M.J. (1991). Deduction. Hillsdale: Erlbaum They test whether people can make valid deductions about spatial and temporal relations, e.g.

Some logicians, such as Paul Grice, have used conversational implicature to argue that, despite apparent difficulties, the material conditional is just fine as a translation for the natural language 'if...then...'. Others still have turned to relevance logic to supply a connection between the antecedent and consequent of provable conditionals.

In other experiments, participants were asked to read short stories that contained counterfactual conditionals, e.g., ‘If there had been roses in the flower shop then there would have been lilies’. Later in the story, they read sentences corresponding to the presupposed facts, e.g., ‘there were no roses and there were no lilies’.

The release includes improvements and bug fixes for TeamPage / Impi! ISO 9001:2015 Quality Management and business process improvement solutions. The TeamPage Developer SDK adds support for Client forms and Conditionals. General improvements include improved sign-off tracking and work in progress tracking performance along with over 130 general bug fixes and improvements.

One of the most obvious areas in which people employ reasoning is with sentences in everyday language. Most experimentation on deduction has been carried out on hypothetical thought, in particular, examining how people reason about conditionals, e.g., If A then B.Evans, J.St.B.T., Newstead, S. and Byrne, R.M.J. (1993). Human Reasoning: The Psychology of Deduction.

In 1985, he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. The British Academy extended him the same honour in 1991. In the same year he was awarded a LittD from the University of Cambridge. Bennett has written extensively on philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, events, conditionals, and consequentialist ethics.

Miller, A. (2009, August). Not Forthcoming. Paper presented at Dickens Universe, Santa Cruz. Ruth M.J. Byrne in The Rational Imagination: How People Create Alternatives to Reality (2005) proposed that the mental representations and cognitive processes that underlie the imagination of alternatives to reality are similar to those that underlie rational thought, including reasoning from counterfactual conditionals.

This is why temporal relations like "before", "when" and "after" come above relationships that have no temporal implication of this type like conditionals. Another factor influencing use of deranking is lack of realisation of the dependent event, which often leads in purpose, desiderative and manipulative clauses to the use of moods that cannot be used in independent clauses.

English conditionals of this sort do not use subjunctive mood. See Palmer (1986), Dancygier & Sweetswer (1996), Iatridou (2000), Karawani (2014), Romero (2014), Mackay (2015), von Fintel and Iatridou (2020), among others. ::Indicative: If it is raining in New York, then Mary is at home. ::Counterfactual: If it was raining in New York, then Mary would be at home.

In older dialects and more formal registers, the form "were" is often used instead of "was". Counterfactuals of this sort are sometimes referred to as were'd up conditionals. ::Were'd up: If I were king, I could have you thrown in the dungeon. The form "were" can also be used with an infinitive to form a future less vivid conditional.

The syntax for TI-BASIC 83 is significantly different compared to most dialects of BASIC. For example, the language does not permit indentation with whitespace characters. It also depends on the TI calculator character set because it is tokenized. Aside from these differences, TI-BASIC retains most control flow statements: conditionals, various loops, GOTOs and Labels.

Although this model is very robust, no practical circuits are possible due to the lack of expressible conditionals in DI circuits. Instead the Quasi-Delay-Insensitive model is the smallest compromise model yet capable of generating useful computing circuits. For this reason circuits are often incorrectly referred to as Delay- Insensitive when they are Quasi Delay-Insensitive.

Schematic tables. An alpha build of the Subtext environment, which illustrates the unique "polymorphic conditionals" present in the IDE. Subtext is a moderately visual programming language and environment, for writing application software. It is an experimental, research attempt to develop a new programming model, called Example Centric Programming, by treating copied blocks as first class prototypes, for program structure.

Both Impute and Mach are based on different implementations of the product of the conditionals or PAC model. Beagle groups the reference panel haplotypes into clusters at each SNP to form localized haplotype-cluster model that allows it to dynamically vary the number of clusters at each SNP making it computationally faster than Mach and Impute2. For more information, see imputation (genetics).

Fact, Fiction, and Forecast is a book by Nelson Goodman in which he explores some problems regarding scientific law and counterfactual conditionals and presents his New Riddle of Induction. Hilary Putnam described the book as "one of the few books that every serious student of philosophy in our time has to have read."Goodman, Nelson. Fact, Fiction, and Forecast (Fourth Edition).

Users can develop their own algorithms by combinations of NetMiner features. A generated script file can be added to NetMiner 4 as a one of menu by a form of plug-in which can be shared with other NetMiner users. Using loops, conditionals, in-depth analysis is available. And users can create and use a batch file which is executed automatically for NetMiner.

Participants in experiments were asked to read sentences, including counterfactual conditionals, e.g., ‘If Mark had left home early, he would have caught the train’. Afterwards, they were asked to identify which sentences they had been shown. They often mistakenly believed they had been shown sentences corresponding to the presupposed facts, e.g., ‘Mark did not leave home early’ and ‘Mark did not catch the train’.

People have a rather clear idea what if-then means. In formal logic however, material implication defines if-then, which is not consistent with the common understanding of conditionals. In formal logic, the statement "If today is Saturday, then 1+1=2" is true. However, '1+1=2' is true regardless of the content of the antecedent; a causal or meaningful relation is not required.

Conditionals and loops use `End` to denote the end of their bodies. Each command can be placed on a new line, or separated by a colon for brevity. As such, the following snippets are identical in function. :disp "FOO :disp "BAR and :disp "FOO:disp "BAR In the above example the closing double quotes can be omitted because the colon causes all open markers to be closed.

A similar situation arises with 2 + 2 = 5, which is necessarily false: : If 2 + 2 = 5, then Bill Gates graduated in Medicine. Some logicians view this situation as indicating that the strict conditional is still unsatisfactory. Others have noted that the strict conditional cannot adequately express counterfactual conditionals,Jens S. Allwood, Lars-Gunnar Andersson, and Östen Dahl, Logic in Linguistics, Cambridge University Press, 1977, , p. 120.

For targeting code to the device, the Stream Processor Compiler (SPC) generates the VLIW executable and pre-processed C code that is compiled/linked via standard GCC for MIPS. SPC allocates streams in the Lane Register Files and provides dependency information for the kernel function calls. Software pipelining and loop unrolling are supported. Branch penalties are avoided by predicated selects and larger conditionals use conditional streams.

According to strong fictionalism about possible worlds (another name for strong modal fictionalism), the following bi-conditionals are necessary and specify the truth-conditions for certain cases of modal claims: # It is possible that P iff the translation of P into the language of a fiction F (containing possible worlds) holds according to F. # It is necessary that P iff the translation of P into the language of a fiction F (containing possible worlds) always holds. Recent supporters of this view added further specifications of these bi- conditionals to counter certain objections. In the case of claims of possibility, the revised bi-conditional is thus spelled out: (1.1) it is possible that P iff At this universe, presently, the translation of P into the language of a fiction F holds according to F.Seahwa Kim, 'Modal Fictionalism and Analysis', in Mark Kalderon (ed.) Fictionalism in Metaphysics (Oxford: Clarendon Press), pp. 116-33.

Although the strict conditional is much closer to being able to express natural language conditionals than the material conditional, it has its own problems with consequents that are necessarily true (such as 2 + 2 = 4) or antecedents that are necessarily false.Roy A. Sorensen, A Brief History of the Paradox: Philosophy and the labyrinths of the mind, Oxford University Press, 2003, , p. 105. The following sentence, for example, is not correctly formalized by a strict conditional: : If Bill Gates graduated in Medicine, then 2 + 2 = 4. Using strict conditionals, this sentence is expressed as: : \Box (Bill Gates graduated in Medicine → 2 + 2 = 4) In modal logic, this formula means that, in every possible world where Bill Gates graduated in medicine, it holds that 2 + 2 = 4. Since 2 + 2 is equal to 4 in all possible worlds, this formula is true, although it does not seem that the original sentence should be.

The Stoics on Cases, Predicates and the Unity of the Proposition, in Aristotle and After ed. R. Sorabji (London: Institute of Classical Studies, 1997), 91–108. DOI 10.1111/j.2041-5370.1997.tb02264.x. Fregean Sense and Russellian Propositions, Philosophical Studies 86, 1997, 131–54. DOI 10.1023/A:1017929320501 Conditionals of Freedom and Middle Knowledge Philosophical Quarterly 43, 1993, 412–30. (Winner of 1992 PQ essay competition.) DOI 10.2307/2219983.

By a formally precise explication of this knowledge type he shows that medical- practical knowledge actually consists of conditional norms, i.e., deontic conditionals, mainly conditional obligations. This is one of the reasons why Sadegh-Zadeh considers medicine a deontic discipline. Specifically, he views clinical practice as practiced morality because clinical decision-making is nothing but the application of conditional obligations of which diagnostic- therapeutic rules of action primarily consist.

Modality refers to a semantic category of meaning which has to do with necessity and probability expressed through language. In linguistics, certain expressions are said to have modal meanings. A few examples of this include conditionals, auxiliaries, adverbs, and nouns. when looking at category specific semantic deficits, there is another kind of modality that looks at word relationships which is much more relevant to these disorders and impairments.

Counterfactual conditionals (also subjunctive or X-marked) are conditional sentences which discuss what would have been true under different circumstances, e.g. "If Peter believed in ghosts, he would be afraid to be here." Counterfactuals are contrasted with indicatives, which are generally restricted to discussing open possibilities. Counterfactuals are characterized grammatically by their use of fake tense morphology, which some languages use in combination with other kinds of morphology including aspect and mood.

The term counterfactual conditional is widely used as an umbrella term for the kinds of sentences shown above. However, not all conditionals of this sort express contrary-to-fact meanings. For instance, the classic example known as the "Anderson Case" has the characteristic grammatical form of a counterfactual conditional, but does not convey that its antecedent is false or unlikely. # Anderson Case: If the patient had taken arsenic, he would have blue spots.

It is the inference that, if P implies Q and R implies S and either Q is false or S is false, then either P or R must be false. In sum, if two conditionals are true, but one of their consequents is false, then one of their antecedents has to be false. Destructive dilemma is the disjunctive version of modus tollens. The disjunctive version of modus ponens is the constructive dilemma.

However, near the end of 1952, FCC reversed its policy and gave full privileges to Generals and Conditionals, effective mid-Feb 1953. For the next 15-1/2 years, there were 6 license classes in the USA (Novice, Technician, General, Conditional, Advanced and Amateur Extra) and four of those classes had full privileges. Only Novices and Technicians did not have full privileges. Over time, the privileges of the various licenses classes changed.

Particularly in some English language teaching materials, some or all of these forms can be referred to simply as tenses (see below). Particular tense forms need not always carry their basic time-referential meaning in every case. For instance, the historical present is a use of the present tense to refer to past events. The phenomenon of fake tense is common crosslinguistically as a means of marking counterfactuality in conditionals and wishes.

JOSS' version has any number of conditionals, not just three, so it is more of a compact switch statement than a compact if-then. This example recreates the function of the function: Let s(x)=[x=0:0; x>0:1; x<0:-1]. This defines a function "s" which takes a single parameter, "x", and makes three consecutive tests against it. Whichever test succeeds first returns the corresponding value after the colon.

Like other languages, English uses past tense morphology to indicate that the speaker regards the antecedent as impossible or unlikely. This use of past tense is often referred to as fake past since it does not contribute its ordinary temporal meaning. Conditionals with fake past marking go by various names including counterfactuals, subjunctives, and X-marked conditionals.The term subjunctive conditional was borrowed from Latin grammar, but is a misnomer as applied to English.

In particular, there will be laws governing what we would customarily call the "interaction" of body and mind, so that similar movements in the body will "occasion" similar ideas in the mind. That relation has some features of the causal relation (it satisfies, for example, universal conditionals of the form "Whenever C occurs, E occurs"). But in reality both the idea in the mind and the movement in the body are caused by God.

In computing, Pic is a domain-specific programming language by Brian Kernighan for specifying diagrams in terms of objects such as boxes with arrows between them. The pic compiler translates this description into concrete drawing commands. Pic is a procedural programming language, with variable assignment, macros, conditionals, and looping. The language is an example of a little language originally intended for the comfort of non-programmers in the Unix environment (Bentley 1988).

Truth tables for if- then statements identify four unique combinations of premises and conclusions: true premises and true conclusions; false premises and true conclusions; true premises and false conclusions; false premises and false conclusions. Strict conditionals assign a positive truth-value to every case except the case of a true premise and a false conclusion. This is sometimes regarded as counterintuitive, but makes more sense when false conditions are understood as objects of the mind.

The scripting language is a dataflow language: a programming paradigm that describes a directed graph of the data flowing between operations. It lacks most procedural programming control structures, but containing many features familiar to programmers, including variables, distinct datatypes, conditionals, and complex expressions. The language works primarily with the audio/video clip as a built-in data type. The clip is a complex structure with many attributes such as width, height and duration.

The Verbot 4 version was created and released in 2004. In 2005 Version 4.1 of the Verbot Software was released with many feature enhancements and bug fixes, including built-in support for embedding C# code in outputs and conditionals. In early 2006 Conversive launched Verbots Online allowing Verbot 4 users to upload their knowledge and show off their bots to the world. In 2009 Version 5 was released, completely free and fully featured.

In the Create "Through-Course Assessment", students must develop a program, demonstrated in a video and a written reflection. The course may be taught in any programming language with procedures, mathematical expressions, variables, lists, conditionals, and loops. Coding portions of the AP exam are based in both text-based and block- based pseudocode, as defined by the provided reference sheet. The AP Computer Science Principles Exam was administered for the first time on May 5, 2017.

This is a complete example of a TREE-META program extracted (and untested) from the more complete (declarations, conditionals, and blocks) example in Appendix 6 of the ICL 1900 TREE-META manual. That document also has a definition of TREE-META in TREE-META in Appendix 3. This program is not just a recognizer, but also outputs the assembly language for the input. It demonstrates one of the key features of TREE-META, which is tree pattern matching.

Temporal representation of a counterfactual thought experiment.Taken from Yeates, 2004, p.144. Counterfactual (contrary to established fact) thought experiments — the term counterfactual was coined by Nelson Goodman in 1947,Goodman, N., "The Problem of Counterfactual Conditionals", The Journal of Philosophy, Vol.44, No.5, (27 February 1947), pp.113-128. extending Roderick Chisholm's (1946) notion of a "contrary-to-fact conditional"Chisholm, R.M., "The Contrary-to-Fact Conditional", Mind, Vol.55, No.220, (October 1946), pp.289-307.

Clicking on a keyword selects it, and its attributes can be edited. Blocks of code can be pushed and popped from a clipboard, using the stack metaphor. The editor maintains the code's s-expression structure automatically, and visually represents it in the web interface using indentation instead of Lisp's parentheses. Most of the keywords correspond to HTML elements, but there are also conditionals, recursion, and other control flow features that make it a "real" programming language.

The strict conditionals may avoid paradoxes of material implication. The following statement, for example, is not correctly formalized by material implication: : If Bill Gates had graduated in Medicine, then Elvis never died. This condition should clearly be false: the degree of Bill Gates has nothing to do with whether Elvis is still alive. However, the direct encoding of this formula in classical logic using material implication leads to: : Bill Gates graduated in Medicine → Elvis never died.

All xTalks support conditional statements of the following form: if then commands else commands end if If the line break following an statement's or token is omitted, only a single command may follow, and the statement may be omitted. This allows writing an entire if- then-else statement on a single line, and chaining conditionals as if-then- else-if-then-else chains. Also, the entire block may be omitted. The token may be wrapped onto the next line.

The simplest update systems are intersective ones, which simply lift static systems into the dynamic framework. However, Update Semantics includes systems more expressive than what can be defined in the static framework. In particular, it allows information sensitive semantic entries, in which the information contributed by updating with some formula can depend on the information already present in the context. This property of Update Semantics has led to its widespread application to presuppositions, modals, and conditionals.

In contrast, in the define-by-run or dynamic-graph approach, the connection in a network is not determined when the training is started. The network is determined during the training as the actual calculation is performed. One of the advantages of this approach is that it's intuitive and flexible. If the network has complicated control flows such as conditionals and loops, in the define-and-run approach, specially designed operations for such constructs are needed.

The statement as a whole must be true, because 1+1=2 cannot be false. (If it could, then on a given Saturday, so could the statement). Formal logic has shown itself extremely useful in formalizing argumentation, philosophical reasoning, and mathematics. The discrepancy between material implication and the general conception of conditionals however is a topic of intense investigation: whether it is an inadequacy in formal logic, an ambiguity of ordinary language, or as championed by H. P. Grice, that no discrepancy exists.

"Mixed conditional" usually refers to a mixture of the second and third conditionals (the counterfactual patterns). Here either the condition or the consequence, but not both, has a past time reference. When the condition refers to the past, but the consequence to the present, the condition clause is in the past perfect (as with the third conditional), while the main clause is in the conditional mood as in the second conditional (i.e. simple conditional or conditional progressive, but not conditional perfect).

He indicates that, however, he sees no good reason to call statements which employ them either true or false. Some have attempted to solve this problem by means of many-valued logics; van Fraassen offers in their stead the use of supervaluations. Questions of completeness change when supervaluations are admitted, since they allow for valid arguments that do not correspond to logically true conditionals. His paper "Facts and tautological entailment" (J Phil 1969) is now regarded as the beginning of truth-maker semantics.

In propositional logic, disjunctive syllogism (also known as disjunction elimination and or elimination, or abbreviated ∨E),Sanford, David Hawley. 2003. If P, Then Q: Conditionals and the Foundations of Reasoning. London, UK: Routledge: 39HurleyCopi and CohenMoore and Parker is a valid rule of inference. If we are told that at least one of two statements is true; and also told that it is not the former that is true; we can infer that it has to be the latter that is true.

The Binary Format Description (BFD) language is an extension of XSIL which has added conditionals and the ability to reference files by their stream numbers, rather than by their public URLs. A template written in the BFD language can be applied to a binary data file to produce a file with that data formatted with descriptive XML tags. Such XML-tagged data is then readable by humans and generally by a wider set of computer programs than could read the original data file.

Counterfactuals are one of the most studied phenomena in philosophical logic, formal semantics, and philosophy of language. They were first discussed as a problem for the material conditional analysis of conditionals, which treats them all as trivially true. Starting in the 1960s, philosophers and linguists developed the now-classic possible world approach, in which a counterfactual's truth hinges on its consequent holding at certain possible worlds where its antecedent holds. More recent formal analyses have treated them using tools such as causal models and dynamic semantics.

Ginsberg (1986) has proposed a semantics for conditionals which assumes that the current beliefs form a set of propositional formulae, considering the maximal sets of these formulae that are consistent with A, and adding A to each. The rationale is that each of these maximal sets represents a possible state of belief in which A is true that is as similar as possible to the original one. The conditional statement A > B therefore holds if and only if B is true in all such sets. .

Electrons are those things about which all the statements of the theory are true. However, some of those statements in a theory refer to other unobserved entities and properties such as "charge" or "spin". For instance, "Electrons attract protons" and "Electrons have negative charge" employ the terms "protons" and "negative charge" (with the latter also implicitly using the concept of "charge"). These properties are formalized, statements (such as conditionals) are formed using them, and those statements taken together are the definition of the term.

A switch command is available for more readability in complex conditionals, and various types of media can be recorded (e.g. screen grabs of a card, sound and QuickTime movies). There is also a `clone` command that is equivalent to copying and pasting but leaves the clipboard unchanged, an enumeration command that creates global variables with sequential integer values, and recently MetaCard's familiar `repeat for each item x` command for iterating through lists was added. SuperCard also offers exception handling using a `try` statement with associated `throw` command.

In this sense, this stage is like lexical analysis, although it does not form numbers from digits. In the next stage, expandable control sequences (such as conditionals or defined macros) are replaced by their replacement text. The input for the third stage is then a stream of characters (including the ones with special meaning) and unexpandable control sequences (typically assignments and visual commands). Here, the characters get assembled into a paragraph, and TeX's paragraph breaking algorithm works by optimizing breakpoints over the whole paragraph.

A branch is an instruction in a computer program that can cause a computer to begin executing a different instruction sequence and thus deviate from its default behavior of executing instructions in order. Branch (or branching, branched) may also refer to the act of switching execution to a different instruction sequence as a result of executing a branch instruction. Branch instructions are used to implement control flow in program loops and conditionals (i.e., executing a particular sequence of instructions only if certain conditions are satisfied).

In the belief revision framework, counterfactuals are treated using a formal implementation of the Ramsey test. In these systems, a counterfactual A > B holds if and only if the addition of A to the current body of knowledge has B as a consequence. This condition relates counterfactual conditionals to belief revision, as the evaluation of A > B can be done by first revising the current knowledge with A and then checking whether B is true in what results. Revising is easy when A is consistent with the current beliefs, but can be hard otherwise.

The option -ftest-coverage adds instructions for counting the number of times individual lines are executed, while -fprofile-arcs incorporates instrumentation code for each branch of the program. Branch instrumentation records how frequently different paths are taken through ‘if’ statements and other conditionals. The executable must then be run to create the coverage data. The data from the run is written to several files with the extensions ‘.bb’ ‘.bbg’ and ‘.da’ respectively in the current directory. This data can be analyzed using the gcov command and the name of a source file: gcov cov.

Today, the best-known general-purpose Lisp dialects are Racket, Common Lisp, Scheme and Clojure. Lisp was originally created as a practical mathematical notation for computer programs, influenced by (though not originally derived from ) the notation of Alonzo Church's lambda calculus. It quickly became the favored programming language for artificial intelligence (AI) research. As one of the earliest programming languages, Lisp pioneered many ideas in computer science, including tree data structures, automatic storage management, dynamic typing, conditionals, higher-order functions, recursion, the self-hosting compiler, and the read–eval–print loop.

All keywords are appropriate Arabic terms, and program text is laid out right-to-left, like all Arabic text. The language provides a minimal set of primitives for defining functions, conditionals, looping, list manipulation, and basic arithmetic expressions. It is Turing-complete, and the Fibonacci sequence and Conway's Game of Life have been implemented. Because all program text is written in Arabic, and the connecting strokes between characters in the Arabic script can be extended to any length, it is possible to align the source code in artistic patterns, in the tradition of Arabic calligraphy.

Victor Howard ("Vic") Dudman (October 10, 1935January 10, 2009) was an Australian logician based at Macquarie University. Born in Sydney, he was greatly influenced by Willard Van Orman Quine on whose work he based his undergraduate logic courses. He is particularly noted for his views on the interpretation of the material conditional. David Lewis, a frequent visitor to Australian departments of logic, once noted "If Dudman's view is correct, and I cannot at the moment see what is wrong with it, then almost everything I have written on conditionals is mistaken".

He was elected as a member of the Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts in 1972. His research includes a study of the Macedonian dialects of Suho and Visoka (published in Makedonski jazik), his habilitation on Balkan conditionals (Cracow, 1964),Zbigniew Gołąb, Conditionalis typu bałkańskiego w językach południowosłowiańskich (Cracow: Polska Akademia Nauk, 1964). a monograph on the Arumanian dialect of Krushevo (1984),Zbigniew Gołąb, The Arumanian Dialect of Kruševo, SR Macedonia (Skopje: MANU, 1984). and his last book: The Origins of the Slavs: A Linguist's View (Columbus, 1992).

Many operations are achieved using OPR, including most of the conditionals. OPR does not address a memory location; conditional execution is achieved by conditionally skipping one instruction, which is typically a JMP. The OPR instruction was said to be "microcoded." This did not mean what the word means today (that a lower-level program fetched and interpreted the OPR instruction), but meant that each bit of the instruction word specifies a certain action, and the programmer could achieve several actions in a single instruction cycle by setting multiple bits.

His initial implementation consisted of a pair of matrices: the first one generated signals in the manner of the Whirlwind control store, while the second matrix selected which row of signals (the microprogram instruction word, so to speak) to invoke on the next cycle. Conditionals were implemented by providing a way that a single line in the control store could choose from alternatives in the second matrix. This made the control signals conditional on the detected internal signal. Wilkes coined the term microprogramming to describe this feature and distinguish it from a simple control store.

English conditionals of this sort do not use subjunctive mood. See Palmer (1986), Dancygier & Sweetswer (1996), Iatridou (2000), Karawani (2014), Romero (2014), Mackay (2015), among others. An indicative conditional is a conditional sentence which doesn't bear any such special marking and thus conveys that the speaker regards its antecedent as a live possibility. That is to say, critics argue that in some non-mathematical cases, the truth value of a compound statement, "if p then q", is not adequately determined by the truth values of p and q.

Special features in the CLI may apply when it is carrying out these stored instructions. Such batch files (script files) can be used repeatedly to automate routine operations such as initializing a set of programs when a system is restarted. Batch mode use of shells usually involves structures, conditionals, variables, and other elements of programming languages; some have the bare essentials needed for such a purpose, others are very sophisticated programming languages in and of themselves. Conversely, some programming languages can be used interactively from an operating system shell or in a purpose-built program.

112–117 Philo regarded all conditionals as true except those which with a correct antecedent had an incorrect consequent, and this meant a proposition such as "if it is day, then I am talking," is true unless it is day and I fall silent.Sextus Empiricus, Pyr. Hyp., ii. 110–112 But Diodorus argued that a true conditional is one in which the antecedent clause could never lead to an untrue conclusion – thus, because the proposition "if it is day, then I am talking" can be false, it is invalid.

JSwat is a graphical Java debugger front-end, written to use the Java Platform Debugger Architecture. JSwat is licensed under the Common Development and Distribution License and is freely available in both binary and source code form. In addition to the graphical interface, there is a console based version which operates very much like jdb, the debugger included with the Java Development Kit. Features include breakpoints with conditionals and monitors; colorized source code display; graphical display panels showing threads, stack frames, visible variables, and loaded classes; command interface for more advanced features; Java-like expression evaluation, including method invocation.

A counterfactual statement is a conditional statement with a false antecedent. For example, the statement "If Joseph Swan had not invented the modern incandescent light bulb, then someone else would have invented it anyway" is a counterfactual, because in fact, Joseph Swan invented the modern incandescent light bulb. The most immediate task concerning counterfactuals is that of explaining their truth-conditions. As a start, one might assert that background information is assumed when stating and interpreting counterfactual conditionals and that this background information is just every true statement about the world as it is (pre- counterfactual).

Indicative mood, in English, refers to finite verb forms that are not marked as subjunctive and are not imperatives or conditionals. They are the verbs typically found in the main clauses of declarative sentences and questions formed from them, as well as in most dependent clauses (except for those that use the subjunctive). The information that a form is indicative is often omitted when referring to it: the simple present indicative is usually referred to as just the simple present, etc. (unless some contrast of moods, such as between indicative and subjunctive, is pertinent to the topic).

Megara in Attica, lying equidistant from Athens, Thebes, and Corinth The Megarian school of philosophy, which flourished in the 4th century BC, was founded by Euclides of Megara, one of the pupils of Socrates. Its ethical teachings were derived from Socrates, recognizing a single good, which was apparently combined with the Eleatic doctrine of Unity. Some of Euclides' successors developed logic to such an extent that they became a separate school, known as the Dialectical school. Their work on modal logic, logical conditionals, and propositional logic played an important role in the development of logic in antiquity.

His work concerns, among other things, the philosophical foundations of semantics, pragmatics, philosophical logic, decision theory, game theory, the theory of conditionals, epistemology, and the philosophy of mind. But all of these interests are in the service of addressing the problem of intentionality, "what it is to represent the world in both speech and thought". In his work, he seeks to provide a naturalistic account of intentionality, characterizing representation in terms of causal and modal notions. Along with Saul Kripke, David Lewis, and Alvin Plantinga, Stalnaker has been one of the most influential theorists exploring philosophical aspects of possible world semantics.

The objection that is made to the truth-functional definition of conditionals is that there is no requirement that the consequent actually follow from the antecedent. So long as the antecedent is false or the consequent true, the conditional is considered to be true whether there is any relation between the antecedent and the consequent or not. Hence, as the philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce once remarked, you can cut up a newspaper, sentence by sentence, put all the sentences in a hat, and draw any two at random. It is guaranteed that either the first sentence will imply the second, or vice versa.

An example of a primitive recursive programming language is one that contains basic arithmetic operators (e.g. + and −, or ADD and SUBTRACT), conditionals and comparison (IF-THEN, EQUALS, LESS-THAN), and bounded loops, such as the basic for loop, where there is a known or calculable upper bound to all loops (FOR i FROM 1 TO n, with neither i nor n modifiable by the loop body). No control structures of greater generality, such as while loops or IF-THEN plus GOTO, are admitted in a primitive recursive language. Douglas Hofstadter's BlooP in Gödel, Escher, Bach is such a language.

When expressing Easter algorithms without using tables, it has been customary to employ only the integer operations addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, modulo, and assignment (`plus, minus, times, div, mod, assign`) as it is compatible with the use of simple mechanical or electronic calculators. That restriction is undesirable for computer programming, where conditional operators and statements, as well as look-up tables, are available. One can easily see how conversion from day-of-March (22 to 56) to day-and-month (22 March to 25 April) can be done as . More importantly, using such conditionals also simplifies the core of the Gregorian calculation.

Examples are the English or French conditionals (an analytic construction in English, but inflected verb forms in French), which are morphologically futures-in-the-past, and of which each has thus been referred to as a "so-called conditional" () in modern and contemporary linguistics (e.g. French , from Late Latin , in , "if you allowed me to do so, I would sing" [so-called conditional] vs. , "I said that I would sing" [future-in-the-past]). The English would construction may also be used for past habitual action ("When I was young I would happily walk three miles to school every day").

In CL, any non- NIL value is treated as true by conditionals, such as `if`, whereas in Scheme all non-#f values are treated as true. These conventions allow some operators in both languages to serve both as predicates (answering a boolean-valued question) and as returning a useful value for further computation, but in Scheme the value '() which is equivalent to NIL in Common Lisp evaluates to true in a boolean expression. Lastly, the Scheme standards documents require tail-call optimization, which the CL standard does not. Most CL implementations do offer tail-call optimization, although often only when the programmer uses an optimization directive.

In the domain of creating computing machines, Zuse was self-taught, and developed them without knowledge about other mechanical computing machines that existed already. To describe logical circuits, Zuse invented his own diagram and notation system, which he called "combinatorics of conditionals" (). After finishing the Z1 in 1938, Zuse discovered that the calculus he had independently devised already existed and was known as propositional calculus. What Zuse had in mind, however, needed to be much more powerful (propositional calculus is not Turing-complete and is not able to describe even simple arithmetic calculations). In May 1939 he described his plans for the development of what would become Plankalkül.

Mustache is a web template system with implementations available for ActionScript, C++, Clojure, CoffeeScript, ColdFusion, Common Lisp, D, Dart, Delphi, Erlang, Fantom, Go, Haskell, Io, Java, JavaScript, Julia, Lua, .NET, Objective-C, OCaml, Perl, PHP, Pharo, Python, R, Racket, Raku, Ruby, Rust, Scala, Smalltalk, Swift, Tcl, CFEngine and XQuery. Mustache is described as a "logic-less" system because it lacks any explicit control flow statements, like if and else conditionals or for loops; however, both looping and conditional evaluation can be achieved using section tags processing lists and lambdas. It is named "Mustache" because of heavy use of braces, { }, that resemble a sideways moustache.

The HP 49/50 series of calculators support both algebraic and a stack-based programming language named RPL, a combination of Reverse Polish Notation (RPN) and Lisp. RPL adds the concepts of lists and functions to stack-based programming, allowing the programmer to pass unevaluated code as arguments to functions, or return unevaluated code from a function by leaving it on the stack. The highest level language is User RPL, consisting of sequences of built-in postfix operations, optionally including loops and conditionals. Every User RPL command checks the stack for its particular arguments and returns an error if they are incorrect or not present.

This design choice has a slight "cost" in that code `else if` branch is, effectively, adding an extra nesting level, complicating the job for some compilers (or its implementers), which has to analyse and implement arbitrarily long `else if` chains recursively. If all terms in the sequence of conditionals are testing the value of a single expression (e.g., `if x=0` ... `else if x=1` ... `else if x=2`...), then an alternative is the switch statement, also called case-statement or select- statement. Conversely, in languages that do not have a switch statement, these can be produced by a sequence of `else if` statements.

An explication in the Carnapian sense is purely stipulative, and thus a subclass of normative definitions. Hence, an explication can not be true or false, just more or less suitable for its purpose. (Cf. Rorty's argument about the purpose and value of philosophy in Rorty (2003), "A pragmatist view of contemporary analytic philosophy", in Egginton, W. and Sandbothe, M. (Eds), The Pragmatic Turn in Philosophy, SUNY Press, New York, NY.) Examples of inexact daily life concepts in need of explication are our concepts of cause and of conditionals. Our daily life concept of cause does not distinguish between necessary causes, sufficient causes, complete causes etc.

Deductive reasoning, also deductive logic, is the process of reasoning from one or more statements (premises) to reach a logical conclusion. Deductive reasoning goes in the same direction as that of the conditionals, and links premises with conclusions. If all premises are true, the terms are clear, and the rules of deductive logic are followed, then the conclusion reached is necessarily true. Deductive reasoning ("top-down logic") contrasts with inductive reasoning ("bottom-up logic") in the following way; in deductive reasoning, a conclusion is reached reductively by applying general rules which hold over the entirety of a closed domain of discourse, narrowing the range under consideration until only the conclusion(s) is left (there is no epistemic uncertainty; i.e.

In most of these fields he is considered among the most important figures of recent decades. But Lewis is most famous for his work in metaphysics, philosophy of language and semantics, in which his books On the Plurality of Worlds (1986) and Counterfactuals (1973) are considered classics. His works on the logic and semantics of counterfactual conditionals are broadly used by philosophers and linguists along with a competing account from Robert Stalnaker; together the Stalnaker-Lewis theory of counterfactuals has become perhaps the most pervasive and influential account of its type in the philosophical and linguistic literature. His metaphysics incorporated seminal contributions to quantified modal logic, the development of counterpart theory, counterfactual causation, and the position called "Humean supervenience".

In situations where a coroutine would be the natural implementation of a mechanism, but is not available, the typical response is to use a closurea subroutine with state variables (static variables, often boolean flags) to maintain an internal state between calls, and to transfer control to the correct point. Conditionals within the code result in the execution of different code paths on successive calls, based on the values of the state variables. Another typical response is to implement an explicit state machine in the form of a large and complex switch statement or via a goto statement, particularly a computed goto. Such implementations are considered difficult to understand and maintain, and a motivation for coroutine support.

Leitgeb in 2012 Hannes Leitgeb (born June 26, 1972, Salzburg) is an Austrian philosopher and mathematician. He is Professor of Philosophy at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich and has received a Humboldt Professorship in 2010. His areas of research include logic (theories of truth and modality, paradox, conditionals, nonmonotonic reasoning, dynamic doxastic logic), epistemology (belief, inference, belief revision, foundations of probability, Bayesianism), philosophy of mathematics (structuralism, informal provability, abstraction, criteria of identity), philosophy of language (indeterminacy of translation, compositionality), cognitive science (symbolic representation and neural networks, metacognition), philosophy of science (empirical content, measurement theory), and history of philosophy (logical positivism, Carnap, Quine). Leitgeb studied mathematics at the University of Salzburg and graduated with a Master's degree in 1997.

An algorave is an event where people dance to music generated from algorithms, often using live coding techniques. Algoraves can include a range of styles, including a complex form of minimal techno, and the movement has been described as a meeting point of hacker philosophy, geek culture, and clubbing. Algorave logo (a spirangle), based on a three-armed Brigid's Cross. Although live coding is commonplace, any algorithmic music is welcome which is "wholly or predominantly characterised by the emission of a succession of repetitive conditionals", which is a corruption of the definition of rave music (“wholly or predominantly characterised by the emission of a succession of repetitive beats”) in the UK's Criminal Justice Act.

Asgarov was born in 1937 in Baku, Azerbaijan. He started his career in construction in 1960 when he was employed by the Ministry of Construction. He then worked at the Industrial Construction Ministry for several years. While working as the Senior Engineer at Orgtekhstroy state company, he managed the design and construction of nine microdistricts of Baku, several microdistricts in Nakhchivan, Ganja, Sumgayit, Communal Air Conditionals Plant, Republican Palace, Gulustan Palace, Baku Deepwater Structures Plant, Kura River channels, Tree Refinery Factory in Alat, four apartment building construction companies in Baku, Nakhchivan, Ganja and Sumgayit, construction of two metal-concrete products plants in Baku, one in Sumgayit and two others in Ganja and Nakhchivan and one sand-stone refinery in Poylu, Agstafa.

Logical or Boolean expressions involving conjunctions (AND operations), disjunctions (OR operations), exclusive disjunctions, equivalences, conditionals, etc. arise in the analysis of fault trees and event trees common in risk assessments. If the probabilities of events are characterized by intervals, as suggested by Boole and Keynes among others, these binary operations are straightforward to evaluate. For example, if the probability of an event A is in the interval P(A) = a = [0.2, 0.25], and the probability of the event B is in P(B) = b = [0.1, 0.3], then the probability of the conjunction is surely in the interval : P(A & B) = a × b :::: = [0.2, 0.25] × [0.1, 0.3] :::: = [0.2 × 0.1, 0.25 × 0.3] :::: = [0.02, 0.075] so long as A and B can be assumed to be independent events.

On the following day, Morton was expelled from the university, ostensibly for excessive absences and for general inattention to his duties as a student. His expulsion prompted protests from the student body and across the state. He was readmitted after signing a very conditional document, stating that if the charges against him had been true, then his expulsion would have been justified. The readmission did not last: the university's president, Henry Philip Tappan, released a version of his statement from which the conditionals had been removed, making it a straightforward admission of fault; Morton wrote a letter to the Detroit Free Press in which he retracted his original statement, declaring that he had not "...meanly petitioned, implored and besought the Faculty for mercy, for... the Latin-scratched integument of a dead sheep".

Apart from what are called the simple present (write, writes) and simple past (wrote), there are also continuous (progressive) forms (am/is/are/was/were writing), perfect forms (have/has/had written, and the perfect continuous have/has/had been writing), future forms (will write, will be writing, will have written, will have been writing), and conditionals (also called "future in the past") with would in place of will. The auxiliaries shall and should sometimes replace will and would in the first person. For the uses of these various verb forms, see English verbs and English clause syntax. The basic form of the verb (be, write, play) is used as the infinitive, although there is also a "to-infinitive" (to be, to write, to play) used in many syntactical constructions.

Berkeley claimed that an omniscient God perceived all objects and that this was what kept them in existence, whereas Mill claimed that permanent possibilities of experience were sufficient for an object's existence. These permanent possibilities could be analysed into counterfactual conditionals, such as "if I were to have y-type sensations, then I would also have x-type sensations". As an epistemological theory about the possibility of knowledge of objects in the external world, however, it is probable that the most easily understandable formulation of phenomenalism is to be found in the transcendental aesthetics of Immanuel Kant. According to Kant, space and time, which are the a priori forms and preconditions of all sensory experience, "refer to objects only to the extent that these are considered as phenomena, but do not represent the things in themselves".

Increasing the base cases to lists of size 2 or less will eliminate most of those do-nothing calls, and more generally a base case larger than 2 is typically used to reduce the fraction of time spent in function-call overhead or stack manipulation. Alternatively, one can employ large base cases that still use a divide-and-conquer algorithm, but implement the algorithm for predetermined set of fixed sizes where the algorithm can be completely unrolled into code that has no recursion, loops, or conditionals (related to the technique of partial evaluation). For example, this approach is used in some efficient FFT implementations, where the base cases are unrolled implementations of divide-and-conquer FFT algorithms for a set of fixed sizes. Source-code generation methods may be used to produce the large number of separate base cases desirable to implement this strategy efficiently.

Such mechanisms and principles were based on the older but more advanced ALGOL family of languages, and ALGOL-like languages such as Pascal and Modula-2 influenced modern BASIC variants for many years. While it is possible while using only `GOTO` statements in `if–then` statements to write programs that are not spaghetti code and are just as well structured and readable as programs written in a structured programming language, structured programming makes this easier and enforces it. Structured `if–then–else` statements like the example above are one of the key elements of structured programming, and they are present in most popular high-level programming languages such as C, Java, JavaScript and Visual Basic . A subtlety is that the optional else clause found in many languages means that the context-free grammar is ambiguous, since nested conditionals can be parsed in multiple ways.

The problem of epiphenomena is often a counterexample to theories of causation and is identified with situations in which an event E is caused by (or, is said to be caused by) an event C, which also causes (or, is said to cause) an event F. For example, take a simplified Lewisian counterfactual analysis of causation that the meaning of propositions about causal relationships between two events A and B can be explained in terms of counterfactual conditionals of the form “if A had not occurred then B would not have occurred”. Suppose that C causes E and that C has an epiphenomenon F. We then have that if E had not occurred, then F would not have occurred, either. But then according to the counterfactual analysis of causation, the proposition that there is a causal dependence of F on E is true; that is, on this view, E caused F. Since this is not in line with how we ordinarily speak about causation (we would not say that E caused F), a counterfactual analysis seems to be insufficient.

Inductive programming incorporates all approaches which are concerned with learning programs or algorithms from incomplete (formal) specifications. Possible inputs in an IP system are a set of training inputs and corresponding outputs or an output evaluation function, describing the desired behavior of the intended program, traces or action sequences which describe the process of calculating specific outputs, constraints for the program to be induced concerning its time efficiency or its complexity, various kinds of background knowledge such as standard data types, predefined functions to be used, program schemes or templates describing the data flow of the intended program, heuristics for guiding the search for a solution or other biases. Output of an IP system is a program in some arbitrary programming language containing conditionals and loop or recursive control structures, or any other kind of Turing-complete representation language. In many applications the output program must be correct with respect to the examples and partial specification, and this leads to the consideration of inductive programming as a special area inside automatic programming or program synthesis, usually opposed to 'deductive' program synthesis, where the specification is usually complete.