437 Sentences With "chemical energy" | Random Sentence Generator

In basic terms, a fuel cell converts chemical energy into electricity.

It uses saltwater and oxygen to convert chemical energy into electricity.

But traditional batteries have a limited number of units of convertible chemical energy.

They then use photosynthesis to create the chemical energy they need to live.

The algae, known as zooxanthellae, are photosynthetic and provide the coral with chemical energy.

But instead of using chemical energy like ESS, it stores power using compressed air.

It engaged in photosynthesis, transforming energy from sunlight into chemical energy and producing oxygen.

Free radical formation is crucial to the process of oxidizing nutrients from our food into chemical energy.

Previous research shows this ocean contains simple organic molecules, minerals, and molecular hydrogen—an important source of chemical energy.

In most cases, that "something" will be the large pool of chemical energy—aka, fat—stored in your body.

Unlike the chemical energy stored in lithium-ion modules, which leaks over time, natural gas can be stored indefinitely.

Fuel cell technology converts the chemical energy in hydrogen or natural gas into electricity through a chemical reaction with oxygen.

Cassini showed that this ocean contains hydrothermal sites which could provide chemical energy, and that there are organic molecules in it.

"In our synthetic vascular system, the fluid stores chemical energy which we can use to power the fish robot," he said.

An onboard fuel cell will convert the chemical energy from hydrogen gas and oxygen into electrical energy and power the motor.

Getting dishes clean in a dishwasher requires three components: a mechanical scrubbing action, thermal energy (hot water), and chemical energy (detergent).

"Everything that lives on these volcanic hot springs is there because of the chemical energy coming out of the seafloor," said Butterfield.

This interaction is what enables photosynthesis, as photons from the Sun convey energy to chloroplasts, which convert light energy into chemical energy.

If they are right, their findings could rewrite the evolutionary history of the process that life uses to convert sunlight into chemical energy.

In its current form, the machinery that converts light energy to chemical energy in photosynthesis—a protein complex called a reaction center—is incredibly sophisticated.

Among other things, the element is a key constituent of DNA and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule that stores the chemical energy used by cells.

"About half of the chemical energy is converted to electrical energy, and using the heat generated during power generation, hot water is produced simultaneously," Yakabe added.

"It can convert (the) chemical energy of natural gas directly to electrical power," Hisataka Yakabe, general manager of R&D at Tokyo Gas, told CNBC's Sustainable Energy.

Figuring that he should be able to reverse the process, he founded Bloom and worked on converting chemical energy to electricity using readily available fuels and conductors.

In an extraordinary new finding, scientists have confirmed the existence of a chemical energy source within this moon's water that's capable of sustaining living organisms here on Earth.

The ocean interior of Saturn's moon Enceladus may have the "temperatures and chemical energy sources necessary for habitable conditions," according to new research published in Science on Thursday.

It has targeted aerospace and defense, chemical, energy, financial, healthcare, industrial and transportation firms in Britain, France, Hong Kong, the United States and other western nations, he said.

Chemical energy turns to electrical energy in a battery; kinetic energy turns to thermal energy via friction; potential energy turns to kinetic energy as the skydiver leaves the plane.

And those burn rates must be controlled precisely; if you convert your rocket fuel's chemical energy into kinetic energy too quickly, you exceed the material limits of the engines.

Measurements of methane, molecular hydrogen and carbon dioxide in the global ocean show that the ocean has the chemical energy necessary for microbes to produce methane -- if there are microbes.

This configuration allows the plant's chloroplasts to do more than just convert light into chemical energy—they also control the spread of light and enhance their ability to capture light.

The medical equipment and technology company also saw revenue come in above estimates, and also raised its full-year guidance as its chemical, energy, and pharmaceutical businesses saw strong growth.

The Cassini scientists said Saturn's moon Enceladus appears to play host to both liquid water and chemical energy that's required for life to exist, such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen.

Like the geothermal vents deep within Earth's oceans, these could be home to microbes that use the chemical energy of hydrogen and carbon dioxide to produce methane and energy for life.

In all bioluminescent organisms, a small molecule called luciferin interacts with oxygen and a bigger protein called luciferase, creating chemical energy that is eventually released in the form of cold light.

Measurements of methane, molecular hydrogen and carbon dioxide in the global ocean show that the ocean has the chemical energy necessary for microbes to produce methane -- if there are microbes, Waite said.

"A portable generator is an engine-driven machine that converts chemical energy from the fuel powering the engine into rotational energy, which, in turn, is converted to electrical power," the agency explained.

Members affiliated to the Chemical, Energy, Paper, Printing, Wood and Allied Workers union (CEPPWAWU) are striking for higher wages, joining their colleagues in the petrochemical sector who started a similar strike on Thursday.

Two species of microorganism, the researchers suspect, are cycling two forms of arsenic in what is now a newly detected respiratory cycle, where respiration is essentially the transformation of chemical energy into biological energy.

"Following the failure of wage negotiations last Friday, workers are continuing with the strike," said Clement Chitja, head of collective bargaining at the Chemical, Energy, Paper, Printing, Wood and Allied Workers union (CEPPWAWU) union.

"Confirmation that the chemical energy for life exists within the ocean of a small moon of Saturn is an important milestone in our search for habitable worlds beyond Earth," Spilker said in a statement.

Around 1103,000 members affiliated to Chemical, Energy, Paper, Printing, Wood and Allied Workers union (CEPPWAWU) began the strike on Thursday, demanding a nine percent wage hike and one-year deal, while employers were offering less.

"This process was very enigmatic and exciting, how the chemical energy of a stone fragment can be transformed into the biochemical energy of a living entity," said Tetyana Milojevic, the first author of the study.

Pharmaceutical workers want a 9 percent pay raise but employers are offering 7.5 percent this year and 7 percent next, said Clement Chitja, of the Chemical, Energy, Paper, Printing, Wood and Allied Workers union (CEPPWAWU).

"Instead of releasing carbon as CO2 that's been in the earth for billions of years, this is from a plant," said Andrew Sutton, who works on the Chemical Energy Storage Team at Los Alamos National Laboratory.

Awesome.Pumping 20,25 Volts Into a Watermelon Ends as Spectacularly as You&aposd HopeUnlike a battery, which stores power as chemical energy that's slowly and steadily discharged to…Read more ReadYour browser does not support HTML215 video tag.

Around 13,000 workers in the petrochemical and pharmaceutical sectors are expected to take part in the strike, Clement Chitja, head of collective bargaining, the Chemical, Energy, Paper, Printing, Wood and Allied Workers Union (CEPPWAWU), said on Wednesday.

The DOE says that a fuel cell — which turns the chemical energy in hydrogen into electricity — combined with an electric motor is "two to three times more efficient" than an internal combustion engine which runs on gasoline.

Batteries are containers that can convert chemical energy to electrical energy through the transfer of electrons from the negative plate -- or anode -- at one end of the battery to the cathode -- or positive plate at the other end.

Click here to view original GIFUnlike a battery, which stores power as chemical energy that's slowly and steadily discharged to keep your gadgets running, a capacitor can unload all of its juice in the blink of an eye.

The paper related Saturn's moon, published in the journal Science, shows that hydrogen gas — which could potentially provide a chemical energy source for life — is pouring into a subsurface, liquid ocean of Enceladus from hydrothermal activity on the seafloor.

"PT Freeport Indonesia and representatives of the PT Freeport Indonesia Chemical, Energy and Mining Workers Union have reached an agreement to end the work stoppage at the Grasberg open pit mine," Freeport Indonesia spokesman Riza Pratama told Reuters via text message.

"There's a lot of chemical energy stored in raw biomass, but it's unrefined, so you can't expect it to work in complicated machinery, such as a car engine," David Wakerley, from the University of Cambridge's Department of Chemistry, said in a statement.

In something closer to plain English, the cold slows the conversion of the battery's stored chemical energy into electrical energy—a battery operating at 0 degrees Fahrenheit delivers only 50 percent capacity of what it would deliver when operating at 80 degrees Fahrenheit.

"Hydrogen provides a source of chemical energy supporting microbes that live in the Earth's oceans near hydrothermal vents," study coauthor Hunter Waite, program director at the Southwest Research Institute and the Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer principal investigator, said in a statement.

Dillard, who had been troubling herself and finding things out since childhood, knew the answer to this entomological mystery: Fireflies possess a pair of substances with excellent names, luciferin and luciferase, that are crucial to their conversion of chemical energy to light.

NASA held a press conference on Thursday to reveal some exciting new discoveries about ocean worlds within our solar system: It has found evidence that suggest a type of chemical energy that can support life exists on Enceladus, one of Saturn's 62 confirmed moons.

"This process is already happening in photosynthesis – in the natural photosynthesis process – where water and CO2 is combined with the energy of sunlight to make chemical energy," Andreas Sizmann, head of future technologies and ecology of aviation at Bauhaus Luftfahrt, told CNBC's Sustainable Energy.

These igniters are much different in scale and design from the mechanisms that spark massive rockets like the Falcon Heavy into gear, but the basic concept of turning a buttload of chemical energy into a kinetic megaboost is the same—and just as jaw-dropping.

I have built my ship of death and when a wind kicks up I'll cut it loose to do its thing across an unnamed lake of you, a firefly sent pulsing through the non-stop estivation of the verses of our South, who in its larval phase would feast on bitter worms and snails, who emerges from its mud chamber our planet's most efficient luminescence, who turns chemical energy into radiant energy shedding very little heat, so will I sail the compass of you pleased with my cold light.

He also proposed that plants convert light into chemical energy.

In similar manner, chemical energy in cells can be used to create electrochemical gradients.

Noncyclic photophosphorylation through light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis at the thylakoid membranePhotosynthesis is the process in which light energy is absorbed and converted to chemical energy. This chemical energy is eventually used in the conversion of carbon dioxide to sugar in plants.

NUM is affiliated internationally with the International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and General Workers' Unions.

In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use chemical energy to create forces and ultimately motion.

The International Federation of Chemical, Energy and General Workers' Unions (ICEF) was a global union federation of trade unions.

Devices that convert a fuel's chemical energy directly into electrical work, such as fuel cells, can exceed the Carnot efficiency.

Other examples of quantum phenomena in biological systems include the conversion of chemical energy into motion and brownian motors in many cellular processes.

Since shaped charge weapons rely on chemical energy to penetrate enemy armor the low velocity of the grenade did not adversely affect penetration.

These organisms utilize this symbiotic relationship in order to utilize and obtain the chemical energy that is released at these hydrothermal vent areas.

Green plants transform solar energy to chemical energy through the process known as photosynthesis, and electrical energy can be converted to chemical energy through electrochemical reactions. The similar term chemical potential is used to indicate the potential of a substance to undergo a change of configuration, be it in the form of a chemical reaction, spatial transport, particle exchange with a reservoir, etc.

Membership accordingly rose from four million to 6.3 million by 1992.James C. Docherty and Sjaak van der Velden, Historical Dictionary of Organized Labor, pp.140-141Union of International Associations, "International Federation of Chemical, Energy and General Workers' Unions (ICEF)" In 1995, the ICEF merged with the Miners' International Federation to form the International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and General Workers' Unions.

In February 2006, the union merged with the National Federation of Energy Workers, to form the Italian Federation of Chemical, Energy and Manufacturing Workers.

In February 2006, it merged with the Italian Federation of Chemical and Allied Workers, to form the Italian Federation of Chemical, Energy and Manufacturing Workers.

The Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion (MPI CEC) is a research institute of the Max Planck Society. It is located in the German town of Mülheim.

Neese was born in 1967 in Wiesbaden. He is married to Serena DeBeer, a spectroscopist who is a director of the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion.

Some bacterial species use the vents to create and use chemical energy to produce food. For example, many of these organisms convert hydrogen sulfide to sulfate to produce chemical energy. They use that energy to synthesize the carbon-based compounds they use as food. These organisms are then preyed upon by other organisms, meaning that the bacteria can also take the place of plants as part of the bedrock for this ecosystem.

This method has the advantage of using plant matter to cheaply capture carbon dioxide. The plants also add some chemical energy to the fuel from biological molecules. This may be a more efficient use of biomass than conventional biofuel because it uses most of the carbon and chemical energy from the biomass instead of releasing as much energy and carbon. Its main disadvantage is, as with conventional ethanol production, it competes with food production.

Chemical potential energy is a form of potential energy related to the structural arrangement of atoms or molecules. This arrangement may be the result of chemical bonds within a molecule or otherwise. Chemical energy of a chemical substance can be transformed to other forms of energy by a chemical reaction. As an example, when a fuel is burned the chemical energy is converted to heat, same is the case with digestion of food metabolized in a biological organism.

In photoelectrocatalysis, a differential potential is applied to diminish the number of recombinations between the electrons and the holes. This allows an increase in the yield of light's conversion into chemical energy.

Emission spectrum of iron The term chemical energy is often used to indicate the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction or to transform other chemical substances.

Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms' activities. This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water – hence the name photosynthesis, from the Greek phōs (), "light", and sunthesis (), "putting together". In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product. Most plants, most algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis; such organisms are called photoautotrophs.

EMPA researchers are experimenting with concentrated sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as the thermal storage or seasonal reservoir medium for domestic space-heating. If water is added to solid or concentrated sodium hydroxide (NaOH), heat is released. The dilution is exothermic – chemical energy is released in the form of heat. Conversely, by applying heat energy into a dilute sodium hydroxide solution the water will evaporate so that the solution becomes more concentrated and thus stores the supplied heat as latent chemical energy.

Nature, 13, 251–262. Accessed 9 April 2017. Utilization of chemical energy from such molecular bond rearrangement powers biological processes in every biological organism. Living organisms obtain energy from organic and inorganic materials; i.e.

Since shaped charge weapons rely on chemical energy to penetrate enemy armor the low velocity of the grenade did not adversely affect penetration. A downside of the Große Gewehr-Panzergranate was its short range of .

Heterotrophs may be subdivided according to their energy source. If the heterotroph uses chemical energy, it is a chemoheterotroph (e.g., humans and mushrooms). If it uses light for energy, then it is a photoheterotroph (e.g.

The reciprocating chemical muscle (RCM) is a mechanism that takes advantage of the superior energy density of chemical reactions. It is a regenerative device that converts chemical energy into motion through a direct noncombustive chemical reaction.

Extract of page 12.30 Kinetic energy may be best understood by examples that demonstrate how it is transformed to and from other forms of energy. For example, a cyclist uses chemical energy provided by food to accelerate a bicycle to a chosen speed. On a level surface, this speed can be maintained without further work, except to overcome air resistance and friction. The chemical energy has been converted into kinetic energy, the energy of motion, but the process is not completely efficient and produces heat within the cyclist.

He is currently a Distinguished Professor of Chemistry and Materials Science and Engineering at Binghamton University. Whittingham was named Chief Scientific Officer of NAATBatt International in 2017. Whittingham co-chaired the DOE study of Chemical Energy Storage in 2007, and is now Director of the Northeastern Center for Chemical Energy Storage (NECCES), a U.S. Department of Energy's Energy Frontier Research Center (EFRC) at Binghamton. In 2014, NECCES was awarded $12.8 million, from the U.S. Department of Energy to help accelerate scientific breakthroughs needed to build a new 21st-century economy.

Chemiosmotic coupling between the energy of sunlight, bacteriorhodopsin and phosphorylation (chemical energy) during photosynthesis in halophilic bacteria Halobacterium salinarum (syn. H. halobium). The bacterial cell wall is omitted. Bacteria and archaea also can use chemiosmosis to generate ATP.

L. Blaney. EPSC Abstracts. Vol. 10, EPSC2015-319, European Planetary Science Congress 2015. Distribution maps of astrobiologically relevant compounds and evaluating geological processes can be used to determine if Europa's ocean possesses the chemical energy necessary to support life.

Clare Philomena Grey is Geoffrey Moorhouse Gibson Professor in the Department of Chemistry at the University of Cambridge, a Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge and the Associate Director of the Northeastern Chemical Energy Storage Center at Stony Brook University.

A thermoelectric battery stores energy when charged by converting heat into chemical energy and produces electricity when discharged. Such systems potentially offer an alternative means of disposing of waste heat from plants that burn fossil fuels and/or nuclear energy.

Examples of these biosynthetic pathways include the production of lipid membrane components and nucleotides. Biosynthesis is usually synonymous with anabolism. The prerequisite elements for biosynthesis include: precursor compounds, chemical energy (e.g. ATP), and catalytic enzymes which may require coenzymes (e.g.

Since shaped charge weapons rely on chemical energy to penetrate enemy armor the low velocity of the grenade did not adversely affect penetration. The Grosse Panzergranate 46 could penetrate while the Grosse Panzergranate 61 could penetrate of rolled homogeneous armor.

In 1970, he was additionally elected as president of the International Federation of Chemical, Energy and General Workers' Unions. From 1979 to 1980, Hauenschild served as a member of the European Parliament. He retired from his union positions in 1982.

Director: Robert Schlögl The department Heterogeneous Reactions is researching, among other things, on a better understanding of the processes of electrocatalytic water splitting. The aim is to generate generic insight and solutions for synthesis and analysis of chemical energy conversion systems.

The International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and General Workers' Unions (ICEM) was a global union federation of trade unions. As of November 2007, ICEM represented 467 industrial trade unions in 132 countries, claiming a membership of over 20 million workers.

The monosaccharide glucose plays a pivotal role in metabolism, where the chemical energy is extracted through glycolysis and the citric acid cycle to provide energy to living organisms. Some other monosaccharides can be converted in the living organism to glucose.

Sarıçiftçi specializes in the field of organic semiconductors and their applications. In particular, he has worked in the field of organic solar cells. Chemical energy storage of solar energy by means of CO2 recycling recycling is in its research increasingly important.

Cryptococcus neoformans stained with light India ink Radiotrophic fungi are fungi which appear to perform radiosynthesis, that is, to use the pigment melanin to convert gamma radiation into chemical energy for growth. This proposed mechanism may be similar to anabolic pathways for the synthesis of reduced organic carbon (e.g., carbohydrates) in phototrophic organisms, which convert photons from visible light with pigments such as chlorophyll whose energy is then used in photolysis of water to generate usable chemical energy (as ATP) in photophosphorylation or photosynthesis. However, whether melanin- containing fungi employ a similar multi-step pathway as photosynthesis, or some chemosynthesis pathways, is unknown.

Citric acid cycle Overall diagram of the chemical reactions of metabolism, in which the citric acid cycle can be recognized as the circle just below the middle of the figure Albert Lehninger has stated around 1970 that fermentation, including glycolysis, is a suitable primitive energy source for the origin of life. > Since living organisms probably first arose in an atmosphere lacking oxygen, > anaerobic fermentation is the simplest and most primitive type of biological > mechanism for obtaining energy from nutrient molecules. Fermentation involves glycolysis, which, rather inefficiently, transduces the chemical energy of sugar into the chemical energy of ATP.

This process uses energy from sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells. Marine primary producers are important because they underpin almost all marine animal life by generating most of the oxygen and food that provide other organisms with the chemical energy they need to exist. The principal marine primary producers are cyanobacteria, algae and marine plants. The oxygen released as a by-product of photosynthesis is needed by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration.

Scheme of a proton- conducting fuel cell A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through an electrochemical reaction of hydrogen fuel with oxygen or another oxidizing agent. Fuel cells are different from batteries in requiring a continuous source of fuel and oxygen (usually from air) to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the chemical energy comes from chemicals already present in the battery. Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied. The first fuel cells were invented in 1838.

The light energy that comes from the rays bouncing off of an object is converted into chemical energy by the cells in the retina of the eye. This chemical energy is then converted into action potentials that are transferred through the optic nerve and across the optic chiasm, where it is first processed by the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus. From there the information is sent to the primary visual cortex, region V1. It then travels from the visual areas in the occipital lobe to the parietal and temporal lobes via two distinct anatomical streams.

It has been suggested that in the process of photosynthesis, entanglement is involved in the transfer of energy between light-harvesting complexes and photosynthetic reaction centers where light (energy) is harvested in the form of chemical energy. Without such a process, the efficient conversion of light into chemical energy cannot be explained. Using femtosecond spectroscopy, the coherence of entanglement in the Fenna-Matthews-Olson complex was measured over hundreds of femtoseconds (a relatively long time in this regard) providing support to this theory.Berkeley Lab Press Release: Untangling the Quantum Entanglement Behind Photosynthesis: Berkeley scientists shine new light on green plant secrets.

Some autotrophs, such as green plants and algae, are phototrophs, meaning that they convert electromagnetic energy from sunlight into chemical energy in the form of glucose. Others, including methanogens, are chemotrophs, which use organic or inorganic chemical compounds as a source of energy. Most chemoautotrophs are lithotrophs, using inorganic electron donors such as hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen gas, elemental sulfur, ammonium and ferrous oxide as reducing agents and hydrogen sources for biosynthesis and chemical energy release. Autotrophs use a portion of the ATP produced during photosynthesis or the oxidation of chemical compounds to reduce NADP+ to NADPH to form organic compounds.

Chemiosmotic coupling between the sun energy, bacteriorhodopsin and phosphorylation by ATP synthase (chemical energy) during photosynthesis in Halobacterium salinarum (syn. H. halobium). The archaeal cell wall is omitted. H. salinarum can grow to such densities in salt ponds that oxygen is quickly depleted.

Robert Schlögl (born February 23, 1954 in Munich) is a German chemist and director and Scientific Member of the Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society in Berlin and the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion in Mülheim an der Ruhr.

The energy required for the proton pumping reaction may come from light (light energy; bacteriorhodopsins), electron transfer (electrical energy; electron transport complexes I, III and IV) or energy-rich metabolites (chemical energy) such as pyrophosphate (PPi; proton-pumping pyrophosphatase) or adenosine triphosphate (ATP; proton ATPases).

Furthermore, in the absence of light (and thus photosynthesis), chlororespiration plays an integral role in enabling metabolic pathways to compensate for chemical energy synthesis. This is achieved through the oxidation of stromal compounds, which increases the PQ pool and allows for the chlororespiratory ETC to take place.

The following decades saw a continuing decline in employment in the industries, and by 1998, the union had 138,289 members. In 2009, the union merged with the Italian Federation of Chemical, Energy and Manufacturing Workers, to form the Italian Federation of Chemical, Textile, Energy and Manufacturing Workers.

Photosynthesis is also a process that Chlororespiration interacts with. If photosynthesis is inhibited by environmental stressors like water deficit, increased heat, and/or increased/decreased light exposure, or even chilling stress then chlororespiration is one of the crucial ways that plants use to compensate for chemical energy synthesis.

Beyond the base product, Dassault has added analytical and data processing collections for report generation, data visualization and a number of scientific and engineering sectors. Currently, the product is used for ETL, analytics and machine learning in the chemical, energy, consumer packaged goods, aerospace, automotive and electronics manufacturing industries.

Theodor Wilhelm Engelmann (14 November 1843 – 20 May 1909) was a German botanist, physiologist, microbiologist, university professor, and musician whose 1882 experiment measured the effects of different colors of light on photosynthetic activity and showed that the conversion of light energy to chemical energy took place in the chloroplast.

Kinesin walking on a microtubule using protein dynamics on nanoscales Motor proteins are a class of molecular motors that can move along the cytoplasm of animal cells. They convert chemical energy into mechanical work by the hydrolysis of ATP. Flagellar rotation, however, is powered by a proton pump.

Large dams such as Hoover Dam can provide large amounts of hydroelectric power; it has 2.07 GW capability. Electrochemistry is the direct transformation of chemical energy into electricity, as in a battery. Electrochemical electricity generation is important in portable and mobile applications. Currently, most electrochemical power comes from batteries.

Cyanobacteria turn energy from the sun into chemical energy through oxygenic photosynthesis. Their light-harvesting complex that captures the photons usually includes the pigments chlorophyll a and phycocyanin. A cyanobacterium's typical blue-green color is a result of the combination of these two pigments. Three Cyanothece strains, sp.

The software is used by plant developers (e.g. EPC) to plan process plants (chemical, energy, water / waste water, pharmaceuticals, oil, natural gas, food, etc.). It is also used by plant owner/operators in the mentioned industries, since COMOS not only supports engineering but also operational processes. There are regular user conferences.

Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This occurs in the chloroplasts of plants cells. Light photons interact with various intermebrane proteins of the cholorplast to accomplish this. However, these proteins can become saturated with photons, making them unable to function until the saturation is alleviated.

In human gait, to travel a particular distance, chemical energy must be expended by the body. This relationship can be expressed by the dimensionless term, cost of transport (COT).,Ralston, H. J. (1958). Energy-speed relation and optimal speed during level walking. Internationale Zeitschrift für Angewandte Physiologie Einschliesslich Arbeitsphysiologie, 17(4), 277-283.

He then transferred in 2006 to the University of Bonn as chair of the theoretical chemistry. In 2011 he returned to Mulheim as a director of the renamed Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion. In 2018 he moved to the Mulheim's other Max Planck Institute, Max Planck Institute for Coal Research.

The Calvin cycle of photosynthesis Primary production is the production of chemical energy in organic compounds by living organisms. The main source of this energy is sunlight but a minute fraction of primary production is driven by lithotrophic organisms using the chemical energy of inorganic molecules. Regardless of its source, this energy is used to synthesize complex organic molecules from simpler inorganic compounds such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). The following two equations are simplified representations of photosynthesis (top) and (one form of) chemosynthesis (bottom): ::: CO2 \+ H2O + light -> CH2O + O2 ::: CO2 \+ O2 \+ 4 H2S -> CH2O + 4 S + 3 H2O In both cases, the end point is a polymer of reduced carbohydrate, (CH2O)n, typically molecules such as glucose or other sugars.

In physics and chemistry, the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant; it is said to be conserved over time. This law, first proposed and tested by Émilie du Châtelet, means that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it can only be transformed or transferred from one form to another. For instance, chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy when a stick of dynamite explodes. If one adds up all forms of energy that were released in the explosion, such as the kinetic energy and potential energy of the pieces, as well as heat and sound, one will get the exact decrease of chemical energy in the combustion of the dynamite.

Puyang is a petrol-chemical city. The major mineral resources include petroleum, natural gas, coal, etc. especially rich reserve of high-quality petroleum and natural gas. As an important national petrol-chemical energy base, large-sized enterprises such as Zhongyuan Oilfield, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation, Zhongyuan Dahua Group and so on have been established there.

Paredes and Quiles concluded that chloroplasts under stress from water deficit rely on processes like the opening of stomata to disperse excess heat accumulated via metabolic processes within plant cells. These metabolic processes are responsible for chemical energy synthesis that can be achieved via chlororespiratory ETCs when a reduction in photosynthesis activity is evident.

The cytoplasmic sleeve is a fluid-filled space enclosed by the plasmalemma and is a continuous extension of the cytosol. Trafficking of molecules and ions through plasmodesmata occurs through this space. Smaller molecules (e.g. sugars and amino acids) and ions can easily pass through plasmodesmata by diffusion without the need for additional chemical energy.

Monooxygenase uses oxygen to provide the chemical energy for many oxidation reactions in the body. Carbon dioxide, a waste product, is released from the cells and into the blood, where it is converted to bicarbonate or binds to hemoglobin for transport to the lungs. Blood circulates back to the lungs and the process repeats.

Fermentation normally occurs in an anaerobic environment. In the presence of O2, NADH, and pyruvate are used to generate ATP in respiration. This is called oxidative phosphorylation, and it generates much more ATP than glycolysis alone since it releases the chemical energy of O2. For that reason, fermentation is rarely utilized when oxygen is available.

The word mitochondrion comes from the Greek , , "thread", and , , "granule" or "grain- like". Mitochondria generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy. A mitochondrion is thus termed the powerhouse of the cell. Mitochondria are commonly between 0.75 and 3 μm² in area but vary considerably in size and structure.

Hypogean or "true" cave environments. These can be in regular contact with the surface via wind and underground rivers, or the migration of animals, or can be almost entirely isolated. Deep hypogean environments can host autonomous ecologies whose primary source of energy is not sunlight, but chemical energy liberated from limestone and other minerals by chemoautotrophic bacteria.

Gross primary production (GPP) is the amount of chemical energy, typically expressed as carbon biomass, that primary producers create in a given length of time. Some fraction of this fixed energy is used by primary producers for cellular respiration and maintenance of existing tissues (i.e., "growth respiration" and "maintenance respiration").Amthor, J.S. and Baldocchi, D.D. (2001).

Terrestrial Higher Plant Respiration and Net Primary Production. In Terrestrial Global Productivity, Academic Press, 33-59 The remaining fixed energy (i.e., mass of photosynthate) is referred to as net primary production (NPP). ::: NPP = GPP - respiration [by plants] Net primary production is the rate at which all the autotrophs in an ecosystem produce net useful chemical energy.

A Euplokamis comb jelly is bioluminescent. Bioluminescence is the production of light, such as by the photophores of marine animals, and the tails of glow-worms and fireflies. Bioluminescence, like other forms of metabolism, releases energy derived from the chemical energy of food. A pigment, luciferin is catalysed by the enzyme luciferase to react with oxygen, releasing light.

Energy occurs in many forms, including chemical energy, thermal energy, electromagnetic radiation, gravitational energy, electric energy, elastic energy, nuclear energy, and rest energy. These can be categorized in two main classes: potential energy and kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is the movement energy of an object. Kinetic energy can be transferred between objects and transformed into other kinds of energy.

The Power Systems business segment is based on PEM fuel cell technology, which transforms chemical energy resulting from the electrochemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen into electrical energy. (Edgar) Its HyPM products can handle electrical power outputs ranging from 1 kilowatt to 1 megawatt. The company also develops and delivers hydrogen generation products based on PEM water electrolysis.

This is usually to accumulate high concentrations of molecules that a cell needs, such as glucose or amino acids. If the process uses chemical energy, such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), it is called primary active transport. Secondary active transport involves the use of an electrochemical gradient, and does not use energy produced in the cell.Ashley, Ruth.

The current set of technomimetic moleculesRapenne, G. Synthesis of technomimetic molecules: Towards rotation control in single molecular machines and motors. Org. Biomol. Chem. 2005, 3, 1165-1169. includes motors,Fletcher, S. P.; Dumur, F.; Pollard, M. M.; Feringa, B. L. A Reversible, Unidirectional Molecular Rotary Motor Driven by Chemical Energy. Science, 2005, 310(5745), 80-82.

They can also be suggested by sampling in extensive molecular dynamics trajectories and principal component analysis, or they can be directly observed using spectra measured by neutron spin echo spectroscopy. Current findings indicate that the mechanotransduction channel in hair cells is a complex biological machine. Mechanotransduction also includes the use of chemical energy to do mechanical work.

There are several forms of laser propulsion in which the laser is used as an energy source to provide momentum to propellant that is carried on board the rocket. The use of a laser as the energy source means that the energy provided to the propellant is not limited by the chemical energy of the propellant.

Bacteriorhodopsin is a protein used by Archaea, most notably by haloarchaea, a class of the Euryarchaeota.See the NCBI webpage on Halobacteria It acts as a proton pump; that is, it captures light energy and uses it to move protons across the membrane out of the cell. The resulting proton gradient is subsequently converted into chemical energy.

Alt text Chemiosmotic coupling between the sun energy, bacteriorhodopsin and phosphorylation by ATP synthase (chemical energy) during photosynthesis in halophilic archaea Halobacterium salinarum (syn. H. halobium). The archaeal cell wall is omitted. The bacteriorhodopsin molecule is purple and is most efficient at absorbing green light (wavelength 500-650 nm, with the absorption maximum at 568 nm).

Metabolic rate is the rate of transformation of chemical energy into heat and mechanical work by metabolic activities of an individual, per unit of skin surface area (expressed in units of met) equal to 58.2 W/m² (18.4 Btu/h·ft²), which is the energy produced per unit skin surface area of an average person seated at rest.

This nucleotide is used to transfer chemical energy between different chemical reactions. There is only a small amount of ATP in cells, but as it is continuously regenerated, the human body can use about its own weight in ATP per day. ATP acts as a bridge between catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism breaks down molecules, and anabolism puts them together.

To charge the cell the external circuit has to provide electric energy. This energy is then stored as chemical energy in the cell (with some loss, e. g. due to coulombic efficiency lower than 1). Both electrodes allow lithium ions to move in and out of their structures with a process called insertion (intercalation) or extraction (deintercalation), respectively.

Walter Leitner, born 1 February 1963 in Pfarrkirchen, Germany, is a German chemist, the director of the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion (MPI CEC) and scientific director of the department "Molecular Catalysis" as well as a university lecturer at the RWTH Aachen University, where he holds the position of chair for technical chemistry and petrochemistry.

Catabolism, therefore, provides the chemical energy necessary for the maintenance and growth of cells. Examples of catabolic processes include glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, the breakdown of muscle protein in order to use amino acids as substrates for gluconeogenesis, the breakdown of fat in adipose tissue to fatty acids, and oxidative deamination of neurotransmitters by monoamine oxidase.

Once growth and development are completed, vitamins remain essential nutrients for the healthy maintenance of the cells, tissues, and organs that make up a multicellular organism; they also enable a multicellular life form to efficiently use chemical energy provided by food it eats, and to help process the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats required for cellular respiration.

When adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is added, the actin filaments or microtubules are propelled through the channels, thus exploring the network. The energy conversion from chemical energy (ATP) to mechanical energy (motility) is highly efficient when compared with e.g. electronic computing, so the computer, in addition to being massively parallel, also uses orders of magnitude less energy per computational step.

The Swedish Paper Workers' Union (Pappers) is a trade union in Sweden. It has a membership of 25,000 and represents workers in the pulp and paper industry with 70 local affiliates, one at each mill. Pappers is affiliated with the Swedish Trade Union Confederation, and the International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and General Workers' Unions (ICEM).

"Turnători şi 'patrioţi'" ("Collaborators and 'Patriots'"), Ziua, 23 August 2006; accessed August 20, 2010 In 1982, she married Gavril Muscă, head of the Bucharest Chemical Energy Institute and a friend of the Ceauşescu family that then led Romania. Carmen Vintilă, "PNL - Mona, învinsă" ("PNL - Mona, Defeated", Jurnalul Naţional, 14 August 2006; accessed August 20, 2010 She has one daughter.

Steve Tarallo (2014). UTILITIES OF THE FUTURE ENERGY FINDINGS, WERF. The thermal energy can be recovered as heat while the chemical energy is recovered as biogas. Renewable energy generation on site, in addition to increased energy efficiency, has already allowed at least twelve plants worldwide not only to achieve energy neutrality but also to produce more energy than they need.

One method to raise temperature is through shivering. It produces heat because the conversion of the chemical energy of ATP into kinetic energy causes almost all of the energy to show up as heat. Shivering is the process by which the body temperature of hibernating mammals (such as some bats and ground squirrels) is raised as these animals emerge from hibernation.

Photosynthesis is the process whereby plants convert light energy into chemical energy of sugars and other organic compounds. The chemical reactions utilise carbon and water with the by-product of oxygen, released into the atmosphere. MELiSSA is partly based on these photosynthetic reactions: recycling carbon dioxide into oxygen. Higher plants (wheat, rice, salad) would be utilised to produce food for the crew members.

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) oxidizes chemical energy to produce heat. This heat energy can act as a defense against hypothermia and obesity. PRDM16 is highly enriched in brown adipose cells as compared to white adipose cells, and plays a role in these thermogenic processes in brown adipose tissue. PRDM16 activates brown fat cell identity and can control the determination of brown adipose fate.

Broda had his Ph.D. in Chemistry approved in 1934 at the University of Vienna. From 1940 he worked at the Medical Research Council at the University College London, researching the transformation of light into chemical energy. From 1941 he worked at the Cavendish Laboratory, on radioactivity and nuclear fission. At this time he made intensive studies of the work of Ludwig Boltzmann.

The antenna complex with energy transfer within the thylakoid membrane of a chloroplast. Chlorophyll a in the reaction center is the only pigment to pass boosted electrons to an acceptor (modified from 2). Absorption of light by photosynthetic pigments converts photons into chemical energy. Light energy radiating onto the chloroplast strikes the pigments in the thylakoid membrane and excites their electrons.

The free-piston linear generator (FPLG) uses chemical energy from fuel to drive magnets through a stator and converts this linear motion into electric energy. Because of its versatility, low weight and high efficiency, it can be used in a wide range of applications, although it is of special interest to the mobility industry as range extenders for electric vehicles.

They are active transporters, meaning that they require a source of chemical energy to perform their function. Some are primary active transporters utilizing adenosine triphosphate hydrolysis as a source of energy, whereas others are secondary active transporters (uniporters, symporters, or antiporters) in which transport is coupled to an electrochemical potential difference created by pumping hydrogen or sodium ions into the cell.

Adcock, 1992. p. 18 Initially it had been proposed that a similar system be installed on the more capable C-130, but the experience during the operational trials brought the whole program to a halt. More unorthodox methods were also explored. Astrosystems International developed a so-called "Quartz Chamber" which burned pure oxygen and aircraft fuel, converting the chemical energy into light.

The temperature-change method is similar in principle to the ΔV method. Because the charging voltage is nearly constant, constant-current charging delivers energy at a near-constant rate. When the cell is not fully charged, most of this energy is converted to chemical energy. However, when the cell reaches full charge, most of the charging energy is converted to heat.

Other ecosystems have multiple interdependent species. They can be divided into autotrophs, which derive energy from non-living sources, and heterotrophs, which feed on autotrophs or their remains. Some organisms engage in syntrophy, where one organism lives off the byproducts of another's metabolic activity. At the surface, most autotrophs use photosynthesis, but where there is no light, chemoautotrophs make use of chemical energy.

O2 or the solid oxidizing agent provides most of the chemical energy powering the cell. Connecting the two electrodes is a wire (or other electrically conductive path). Completing the circuit and connecting the two chambers is a salt bridge or ion-exchange membrane. This last feature allows the protons produced, as described in , to pass from the anode chamber to the cathode chamber.

Ronald Payne and Gary Busch, "Scargill goes international", The Spectator, 30 November 1985 The MIF began recruiting unions in other parts of the world, and by 1994 consisted of 58 unions with 4.2 million members. In 1995, it merged with the International Federation of Chemical and General Workers' Unions to form the International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and General Workers' Unions.

Botany involves the recording and description of plants, such as this herbarium specimen of the lady fern Athyrium filix-femina. The study of plants is vital because they underpin almost all animal life on Earth by generating a large proportion of the oxygen and food that provide humans and other organisms with aerobic respiration with the chemical energy they need to exist. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria are the major groups of organisms that carry out photosynthesis, a process that uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells. As a by-product of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere, a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration.

However the total energy of an isolated system, i.e. one in which energy can neither enter nor leave, does not change over time in the reference frame in which it is measured. Thus, the chemical energy converted to kinetic energy by a rocket engine is divided differently between the rocket ship and its exhaust stream depending upon the chosen reference frame. This is called the Oberth effect.

There are many cell-specific isoforms of myosin heavy chains, coded for by a multi-gene family. Myosin interacts with actin to convert chemical energy, in the form of ATP, to mechanical energy. The 3-D structure of the head portion of myosin has been determined and a model for actin-myosin complex has been constructed. The globular head is well conserved, and is key to contraction.

Like the codfish, human-caused pollution can come in different forms. Radiotrophic fungi is a perfect example of natural selection taking place after a chemical accident. Radiotrophic fungi appears to use the pigment melanin to convert gamma radiation into chemical energy for growthScience News, Dark Power: Pigment seems to put radiation to good use, Week of 26 May 2007; Vol. 171, No. 21, p.

In the same year, he became honorary professor of the Heinrich-Heine-University of Düsseldorf. From 2004 to 2012, he was managing director of the Max Planck Institute and is currently a director emeritus of the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion. Since 2004, he has been a member of the council for the Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings, and has been its vice-president since 2015.

Serena DeBeer (born 1973) is an American chemist. She is currently a W3-Professor and the director at the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion in Muelheim an der Ruhr, Germany, where she heads the Department of Inorganic Spectroscopy. Her expertise lies in the application and development of X-ray based spectroscopic methods as probes of electronic structure in biological and chemical catalysis.

Palisade cells contain the largest number of chloroplasts per cell, which makes them the primary site of photosynthesis in the leaves of those plants that contain them, converting the energy in light to the chemical energy of carbohydrates. Beneath the palisade mesophyll are the spongy mesophyll cells, which also perform photosynthesis. They are irregularly shaped cells that have many intercellular spaces that allow the passage of gases.

The term "redox" stands for reduction-oxidation. It refers to electrochemical processes involving electron transfer to or from a molecule or ion changing its oxidation state. This reaction can occur through the application of an external voltage or through the release of chemical energy. Oxidation and reduction describe the change of oxidation state that takes place in the atoms, ions or molecules involved in an electrochemical reaction.

Mechanical vibrations caused by charged cell membranes and walls is a leading hypothesis for acoustic emission generation. Myosins and other mechanochemical enzymes which use chemical energy in the form of ATP to produce mechanical vibrations in cells may also contribute to sound wave generation in plant cells. These mechanisms may lead to overall nanomechanical oscillations of cytoskeletal components, which can generate both low and high frequency vibrations.

Topoisomerases are required for many processes involving DNA, such as DNA replication and transcription. Helicases are proteins that are a type of molecular motor. They use the chemical energy in nucleoside triphosphates, predominantly adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to break hydrogen bonds between bases and unwind the DNA double helix into single strands. These enzymes are essential for most processes where enzymes need to access the DNA bases.

At or slightly before 2 (TDC) fuel is injected and burns in the compressed hot air. Chemical energy is released and this constitutes an injection of thermal energy (heat) into the compressed gas. Combustion and heating occur between 2 and 3. In this interval the pressure remains constant since the piston descends, and the volume increases; the temperature rises as a consequence of the energy of combustion.

Wolfbeis studied chemistry at the University of Graz (Austria) and in 1972 received a PhD in organic chemistry. He then was a post-doctoral fellow at the Max-Planck-Institute for Radiation Chemistry (now Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion) in the group of Prof. Koerner von Gustorf. In 1974 he became an Assistant Professor at the Institute of Organic Chemistry at the University of Graz.

In 2011 he was also founding director at the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion. Schlögl is a catalyst researcher who has made crucial contributions to the elucidation of the structural dynamics and functionality of heterogeneous catalysts based on inorganic solids. The focus of his work is on the investigation of polycrystalline copper, molybdenum and vanadium oxides for selective oxidation. Schlögl received numerous awards and distinctions.

Batteries also facilitate the use of electric motors, which have their own advantages. On the other hand, batteries have low energy densities, short service life, poor performance at extreme temperatures, long charging times, and difficulties with disposal (although they can usually be recycled). Like fuel, batteries store chemical energy and can cause burns and poisoning in event of an accident. Batteries also lose effectiveness with time.

In chemiosmotic theory transmembrane ATP synthases are very important. They convert energy of spontaneous flow of protons through them into chemical energy of ATP bonds. Hence researchers created the term proton-motive force (PMF), derived from the electrochemical gradient mentioned earlier. It can be described as the measure of the potential energy stored as a combination of proton and voltage (electrical potential) gradients across a membrane.

There are generally two types of functional groups that range between flora and specific animal populations. Groups that relate to vegetation science, or flora, are known as plant functional types. Also referred to as PFT for short, those of such often share identical photosynthetic processes and require comparable nutrients. As an example, plants that undergo photosynthesis share an identical purpose in producing chemical energy for others.

Liquid hydrocarbons (fuels such as gasoline, diesel and kerosene) are today the most dense way known to economically store and transport chemical energy at a very large scale (1 kg of diesel fuel burns with the oxygen contained in ~15 kg of air). Electrochemical reactions are used by most mobile devices such as laptop computers and mobile phones to release the energy from batteries.

Thermodynamics is an applied science used in several branches of engineering, including mechanical and chemical engineering. At its simplest, thermodynamics is the study of energy, its use and transformation through a system. Typically, engineering thermodynamics is concerned with changing energy from one form to another. As an example, automotive engines convert chemical energy (enthalpy) from the fuel into heat, and then into mechanical work that eventually turns the wheels.

The proton gradient which is formed can then be used to generate chemical energy by ATP synthase. To obtain more oxygen H. salinarum produce gas vesicles, which allow them to float to the surface where oxygen levels are higher and more light is available.Oren, A., Ecology of extremely halophilic microorganisms, Vreeland, R.H., Hochstein, L.I., editors, The Biology of Halophilic Bacteria, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida, 1993, p. 25-54.

The photoacoustic immunoassay labels and detects target proteins using nanoparticles that can generate strong acoustic signals. The photoacoustics-based protein analysis has also been applied for point-of-care testings. Another application of the photoacoustic effect is its ability to estimate the chemical energies stored in various steps of a photochemical reaction. Following light absorption photophysical and photochemical conversions occur, which store part of the light energy as chemical energy.

The advantage of MFCs over conventional electricity generation is the direct conversion of chemical energy into electricity, improving energy conversion efficiency. A unique feature of using R. ferrireducens over other bacteria is that many other bacteria require the addition of a mediator to shuttle the electrons from the bacterial cells to the anode. For R. ferrireducens, through an unknown membrane protein, electrons are directly shuttled from the membrane to the anode.

A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy from a fuel into electric energy. The credit is equal to 30% of expenditures, with no maximum credit. However, the credit for fuel cells is capped at $1,500 per 0.5 kilowatt (kW) of capacity. Eligible property includes fuel cells with a minimum capacity of 0.5 kW that have an electricity-only generation efficiency of 30% or higher.

SITRANDE was one of the unions that broke away from Central Unitaria de Trabajadores (CUT) in 1998, and formed the new trade union centre CUT-A.Coronel Prosman, p. 243 SITRANDE is a member of the International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and General Workers' Unions.ICEM. ICEM affiliates SITRANDE is also affiliated to FETRASEP, the national Federation of Energy Sector Workers (Federación de Trabajadores del Sector Energía del Paraguay, founded in 2005).

Cable bacteria have been found associated with benthic microbial fuel cells, devices that convert chemical energy on the ocean floor to electrical energy. In the future, cable bacteria may play a role in increasing the efficiency of microbial fuel cells. Cable bacteria have also been found associated with a bioelectrochemical system for degrading contaminating hydrocarbons in marine sediment and thus may play a role in future oil spill cleanup technologies.

Taylor has made important contributions to a deeper understanding of the way muscles contract and other related cytoskeletal research. His research described the first kinetic model of how molecular motors are able to change chemical energy to mechanical force. He uncovered several molecular cell motors, including some that help certain white blood cells to move. He also elucidated how actin and myosin create movement in non-muscle cells.

This amino acid domain is subdivided into the two nucleotide binding folds 1 and 2 (NBF1 and NBF2) where ATP is bound and hydrolyzed. The chemical energy from the phosphodiester bonds results in a conformational change which is transferred to other domains (especially the HWD and the PPXD domains) which consequently mechanically move the preprotein across the membrane. However, these conformational changes are partly regulated by other protomer domains described below.

Chlorophyll a is essential for most photosynthetic organisms to release chemical energy but is not the only pigment that can be used for photosynthesis. All oxygenic photosynthetic organisms use chlorophyll a, but differ in accessory pigments like chlorophyll b. Chlorophyll a can also be found in very small quantities in the green sulfur bacteria, an anaerobic photoautotroph. These organisms use bacteriochlorophyll and some chlorophyll a but do not produce oxygen.

In addition to chlorophyll a, P. antarctica has other biliprotein pigments, namely R-phycoerythrin, phycocyanin and allophycocyanin. These pigments give the seaweed a greater ability to utilise blue light in the dim sub-ice environment. The phycoerythrin absorbs the blue light energy and then transfers it to the other biliproteins from where it is passed on to the photosynthetic reaction centre, where it is turned into chemical energy.

Another form of bioenergy can be attained from microbial fuel cells, in which chemical energy stored in wastewater or soil is converted directly into electrical energy via the metabolic processes of electrogenic micro-organisms. The power generation capability of this technology has not been found to be economically viable till date, however, this technology has been found to be more useful for chemical treatment processes and student education.

The lead–acid battery was the first practical secondary (rechargeable) battery that could have its capacity replenished from an external source. The electrochemical reaction that produced current was (to a useful degree) reversible, allowing electrical energy and chemical energy to be interchanged as needed. Common lead acid batteries contain a mixture of sulfuric acid and water, as well as lead plates. The most common mixture used today is 30% acid.

Myosin-11 is a smooth muscle myosin belonging to the myosin heavy chain family. Myosin-11 is a subunit of a hexameric protein that consists of two heavy chain subunits and two pairs of non-identical light chain subunits. It is a major contractile protein, converting chemical energy into mechanical energy through the hydrolysis of ATP. Alternative splicing generates isoforms that are differentially expressed, with ratios changing during muscle cell maturation.

In 2013 he discovered that microbes survive deep in the oceanic crust by living off of chemical energy released by water-rock reactions . In addition, his research group is investigating the impact of macrofaunal bioturbation on microbial community structure and microbial carbon cycling , the ecological and physiological strategies of microbial life inhabiting long-term energy-limited environments , and the potential for sediments to serve as genetic archives of past environmental change .

Modeling the processes involved in converting sunlight into chemical energy meant representing 100 million atoms, 16,000 lipids, and 101 proteins, the contents of a tiny sphere-shaped organelle occupying just one percent of the cell's total volume. The team used the Titan supercomputer at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee. At his death Schulten was already planning simulations for the exa-scale Summit computer, expected to be built by 2018.

The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in plants. In 1779, Jan Ingenhousz discovered the essential role of light in the process of photosynthesis, by which green plants in sunlight absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Photosynthesis is a fundamental biochemical process in which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert sunlight to chemical energy. The process was discovered by Jan Ingenhousz in 1779.Ord, M.G.; Stocken, L.A. (1997).

Orbital ATK Awarded $16 Million to Develop Next Generation 120mm Tank Ammo – Businesswire.com, 8 October 2015 In addition to these, the XM1111 (Mid-Range-Munition Chemical Energy) was also in development. The XM1111 was a guided munition using a dual-mode seeker that combined imaging-infrared and semi-active laser guidance. The MRM-CE was selected over the competing MRM-KE, which used a rocket-assisted kinetic energy penetrator.

Another advantage of renewable energy production, in specific of biogas from sewage sludge, is the contribution to waste management. In fact the recovery of the chemical energy involves the reduction of the sewage sludge volume. A smaller volume of sewage sludge is cheaper to transport and dispose of, decreasing operational costs. Moreover, a diversify portfolio of energy source can contribute to a more resilient response in case of energy shortage and grid problems.

Oil Bodies are the organelle that has evolved to hold triglycerides in plant cells. They are therefore the principal store of chemical energy in oleaginous seeds. The structure and composition of plant seed oil bodies has been the subject of research from at least as far back as the 1980s, with several papers published in the 80s and 90s. Recent work, using updated techniques, has given a detailed molecular profile of oil bodies.

Metallic lithium and its complex hydrides, such as Li[AlH4], are used as high-energy additives to rocket propellants. Lithium aluminum hydride can also be used by itself as a solid fuel. The Mark 50 torpedo stored chemical energy propulsion system (SCEPS) uses a small tank of sulfur hexafluoride gas, which is sprayed over a block of solid lithium. The reaction generates heat, creating steam to propel the torpedo in a closed Rankine cycle.

Like any physical quantity that is a function of velocity, the kinetic energy of an object depends on the relationship between the object and the observer's frame of reference. Thus, the kinetic energy of an object is not invariant. Spacecraft use chemical energy to launch and gain considerable kinetic energy to reach orbital velocity. In an entirely circular orbit, this kinetic energy remains constant because there is almost no friction in near-earth space.

But the total energy of the system, including kinetic energy, fuel chemical energy, heat, etc., is conserved over time, regardless of the choice of reference frame. Different observers moving with different reference frames would however disagree on the value of this conserved energy. The kinetic energy of such systems depends on the choice of reference frame: the reference frame that gives the minimum value of that energy is the center of momentum frame, i.e.

This antenna varies between organisms. Bacteria can use ring-like structures as antennas, whereas plants and other organisms use chlorophyll pigments to absorb photons. This electron excitation creates a separation of charge in a reaction site that is later converted into chemical energy for the cell to use. However, this electron excitation must be transferred in an efficient and timely manner, before that energy is lost in fluorescence or in thermal vibrational motion.

It can also be formed by the deamination of adenosine monophosphate by AMP deaminase. It can be hydrolysed to inosine. The enzyme deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate pyrophosphohydrolase, encoded by YJR069C in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and containing (d)ITPase and (d)XTPase activities, hydrolyzes inosine triphosphate (ITP) releasing pyrophosphate and IMP. Important derivatives of inosinic acid include the purine nucleotides found in nucleic acids and adenosine triphosphate, which is used to store chemical energy in muscle and other tissues.

Myosin is a major contractile protein that converts chemical energy into mechanical energy through the hydrolysis of ATP. Class II Myosins are hexameric proteins composed of a pair of myosin heavy chains (MYH) and two pairs of nonidentical light chains. Myosin heavy chains are encoded by a multigene family. In mammals, at least ten different myosin heavy chain (MYH) isoforms have been described from striated, smooth, but rarely in non-muscle cells.

The Chemical, Energy, Paper, Printing, Wood and Allied Workers' Union (CEPPWAWU) is a trade union in South Africa. It was formed through the merger of the Chemical Workers' Industrial Union (CWIU) and the Paper, Printing, Wood and Allied Workers' Union (PPWAWU) in 1999. At the time of the merger, the union had 93,000 members which had fallen to 64,100 members by 2011. CEPPWAWU is an affiliate of the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU).

Wolfgang Lubitz (born in 1949) is a German chemist and biophysicist. He is currently a director emeritus at the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion. He is well known for his work on bacterial photosynthetic reaction centres, hydrogenase enzymes, and the oxygen-evolving complex using a variety of biophysical techniques. He has been recognized by a Festschrift for his contributions to electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and its applications to chemical and biological systems.

Cardiac myocytes contract through a cross-bridge cycle between the myofilaments, actin and myosin. Chemical energy in the form of ATP is converted into mechanical energy which allows myosin to strongly bind to actin and produce a power stroke resulting in sarcomere shortening/contraction. Omecamtiv mecarbil specifically targets and activates myocardial ATPase and improves energy utilization. This enhances effective myosin cross-bridge formation and duration, while the velocity of contraction remains the same.

Electricity is mostly generated at a power station by electromechanical generators, driven by heat engines heated by combustion, geothermal power or nuclear fission. Other generators are driven by the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. There are many other technologies that are used to generate electricity such as photovoltaic solar panels. A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy.

Carbon fixation is an endothermic redox reaction. In general outline, photosynthesis is the opposite of cellular respiration: while photosynthesis is a process of reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate, cellular respiration is the oxidation of carbohydrate or other nutrients to carbon dioxide. Nutrients used in cellular respiration include carbohydrates, amino acids and fatty acids. These nutrients are oxidized to produce carbon dioxide and water, and to release chemical energy to drive the organism's metabolism.

Metabolic rate is the rate of transformation of chemical energy into heat and mechanical work by metabolic activities of an individual. It is defined as per unit of skin surface area which equals to 58.2 W/m² (18.4 Btu/h·ft²). This is the energy produced from a unit skin surface area of an average person seated at rest. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55 provides a table of metabolic rate of different continuous activities.

Phacolysis is evident, more commonly, within elderly people as a result of cataracts that have developed over time. There are other factors which contribute to the development of phacolysis in seniors. This is clearly indicated through the increase of intraocular pressure, which usually occurs when anterior flow faces obstruction of the anterior flow to the aqueous humor. Essentially, the eye requires a photosynthetic pigment which allows for light to become chemical energy.

In volatilization methods, removal of the analyte involves separation by heating or chemically decomposing a volatile sample at a suitable temperature. In other words, thermal or chemical energy is used to precipitate a volatile species. For example, the water content of a compound can be determined by vaporizing the water using thermal energy (heat). Heat can also be used, if oxygen is present, for combustion to isolate the suspect species and obtain the desired results.

A sugar battery is a newly invented type of biobattery that is fueled by maltodextrin and facilitated by the enzymatic catalysts. The sugar battery generates electric current by the oxidation of the glucose unit of maltodextrin. The oxidation of the organic compound produces carbon dioxide and electrical current. 13 types of enzymes are planted in the battery so that the reaction goes to completion and converts most chemical energy into electrical energy.

The interior of the alt=The inside of a small spaceship, charred and apparently destroyed. Highly concentrated sources of oxygen promote rapid combustion. Fire and explosion hazards exist when concentrated oxidants and fuels are brought into close proximity; an ignition event, such as heat or a spark, is needed to trigger combustion. Oxygen is the oxidant, not the fuel, but nevertheless the source of most of the chemical energy released in combustion.

Despite their inhospitable nature, deep sea brine pools often coincide with cold seep activity allowing for chemosynthetic life to thrive. Methane and hydrogen sulfide released by the seep is processed by bacteria, which have a symbiotic relationship with seep mussels living at the edge of the pool. This ecosystem is dependent on chemical energy, and relative to almost all other life on Earth, has no dependence on energy from the Sun.World Wildlife Fund.

Algae can make their own nutrients through photosynthesis. Photosynthesis converts light energy to chemical energy that can be stored as nutrients. For algae to grow, they must be exposed to light because photosynthesis requires light, so algae are typically distributed evenly wherever sunlight and moderate moisture is available. Algae do not have to be directly exposed to the Sun, but can live below the soil surface given uniform temperature and moisture conditions.

Halobacteria can be found in highly saline lakes such as the Great Salt Lake, the Dead Sea, and Lake Magadi. Halobacterium can be identified in bodies of water by the light-detecting pigment bacteriorhodopsin, which not only provides the archaeon with chemical energy, but adds to its reddish hue as well. An optimal temperature for growth has been observed at 37 °C. Halobacterium may be a candidate for a life form present on Mars.

A microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a device that converts chemical energy to electrical energy by the action of microorganisms. These electrochemical cells are constructed using either a bioanode and/or a biocathode. Most MFCs contain a membrane to separate the compartments of the anode (where oxidation takes place) and the cathode (where reduction takes place). The electrons produced during oxidation are transferred directly to an electrode or to a redox mediator species.

419Hill, Jane F. (2013). Chemical Research on Plant Growth: A translation of Théodore de Saussure's Recherches chimiques sur la Végétation The chemical energy is used to drive reactions such as the formation of sugars or the fixation of nitrogen into amino acids, the building blocks for protein synthesis. Ultimately, nearly all living things depend on energy produced from photosynthesis. It is also responsible for producing the oxygen that makes animal life possible.

In living cells, DNP acts as a proton ionophore, an agent that can shuttle protons (hydrogen cations) across biological membranes. It dissipates the proton gradient across mitochondria membranes, collapsing the proton motive force that the cell uses to produce most of its ATP chemical energy. Instead of producing ATP, the energy of the proton gradient is lost as heat. DNP is often used in biochemistry research to help explore the bioenergetics of chemiosmotic and other membrane transport processes.

In 2014 researchers demonstrated a prototype system that uses copper electrodes and ammonia as the electrolyte. The device converted some 29 percent of the battery's chemical energy into electricity. The ammonia electrolyte is only used as an anolyte (electrolyte surrounding an anode) that reacts with the copper electrode as waste heat warms the ammonia, generating electricity. When the reaction uses up the ammonia or depletes the copper ions in the electrolyte near the cathode the reaction stops.

Most hydrogen fuel cells today are of the proton exchange membrane (PEM) type. A PEM converts the chemical energy released during the electrochemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen into electrical energy. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 was the first national legislation that called for large-scale hydrogen research. A five-year program was conducted that investigated the production of hydrogen from renewable energy sources and the feasibility of existing natural gas pipelines to carry hydrogen.

When calcium dissociates from the binding site, calcium levels fall rapidly. Due to the differences in calcium concentration at the cytostolic binding site when calcium is bound to the MET channel versus when calcium dissociates, a calcium gradient is created, generating chemical energy. The oscillation of calcium concentration and force generation contributes to amplification. The timecourse of this mechanism is on the order of hundreds of microseconds, which reflects the speed that is necessary for amplification of high frequencies.

There are two forms of active transport, primary active transport and secondary active transport. In primary active transport, the proteins involved are pumps that normally use chemical energy in the form of ATP. Secondary active transport, however, makes use of potential energy, which is usually derived through exploitation of an electrochemical gradient. The energy created from one ion moving down its electrochemical gradient is used to power the transport of another ion moving against its electrochemical gradient.

Flames do not need to be driven only by chemical energy release. In stars, subsonic burning fronts driven by burning light nuclei (like carbon or helium) to heavy nuclei (up to iron group) propagate as flames. This is important in some models of Type Ia supernovae. In thermonuclear flames, thermal conduction dominates over species diffusion, so the flame speed and thickness is determined by the thermonuclear energy release and thermal conductivity (often in the form of degenerate electrons).

Kinesin walking on a microtubule is a molecular biological machine using protein domain dynamics on nanoscales Motor proteins are a class of molecular motors that can move along the cytoplasm of animal cells. They convert chemical energy into mechanical work by the hydrolysis of ATP. A good example is the muscle protein myosin which "motors" the contraction of muscle fibers in animals. Motor proteins are the driving force behind most active transport of proteins and vesicles in the cytoplasm.

Processes around an Antarctic ice shelf The collapse of Larsen B has revealed a thriving chemotrophic ecosystem 800 m (half a mile) below the sea. The discovery was accidental. U.S. Antarctic Program scientists were in the north-western Weddell Sea investigating the sediment record in a deep glacial trough of roughly (twice the size of Texas or France). Methane and hydrogen sulfide associated with cold seeps is suspected as the source of the chemical energy powering the ecosystem.

A marathon runner's velocity at lactate threshold is strongly correlated to their performance. Lactate threshold or anaerobic threshold is considered a good indicator of the body's ability to efficiently process and transfer chemical energy into mechanical energy. A marathon is considered an aerobic dominant exercise, but higher intensities associated with elite performance use a larger percentage of anaerobic energy. The lactate threshold is the cross over point between predominantly aerobic energy usage and anaerobic energy usage.

A gas-fired power plant is a type of fossil fuel power station in which chemical energy stored in natural gas, which is mainly methane, is converted successively into: thermal energy, mechanical energy and, finally, electrical energy. Although they cannot exceed the Carnot cycle limit for conversion of heat energy into useful work the excess heat may be used in cogeneration plants to heat buildings, produce hot water, or to heat materials on an industrial scale.

Photosynthesis changes sunlight into chemical energy, splits water to liberate O2, and fixes CO2 into sugar. Photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs, which means that they are able to synthesize food directly from carbon dioxide and water using energy from light. However, not all organisms use carbon dioxide as a source of carbon atoms to carry out photosynthesis; photoheterotrophs use organic compounds, rather than carbon dioxide, as a source of carbon. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen.

The electron transport chain in the cell is the site of oxidative phosphorylation. The NADH and succinate generated in the citric acid cycle are oxidized, releasing the energy of O2 to power the ATP synthase. Oxidative phosphorylation (UK , US or electron transport-linked phosphorylation) is the metabolic pathway in which cells use enzymes to oxidize nutrients, thereby releasing the chemical energy stored within in order to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In most eukaryotes, this takes place inside mitochondria.

Bulk energy storage is currently dominated by hydroelectric dams, both conventional as well as pumped. Grid energy storage is a collection of methods used for energy storage on a large scale within an electrical power grid. The most commonly used storage method is pumped-storage hydroelectricity, which is feasible only at locations that are next to a large hill or a deep underground mine. Batteries, which store electricity as chemical energy readily reconvertible to electricity, are being deployed widely.

Anabolism is powered by catabolism, where large molecules are broken down into smaller parts and then used up in cellular respiration. Many anabolic processes are powered by the cleavage of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Anabolism usually involves reduction and decreases entropy, making it unfavorable without energy input. The starting materials, called the precursor molecules, are joined together using the chemical energy made available from hydrolyzing ATP, reducing the cofactors NAD+, NADP+, and FAD, or performing other favorable side reactions.

Mr Zokwana was elected as vice president in 1994, a position he held until 2000 when he was elected president. He was subsequently re-elected for the role and held the position until 2014. In 2005 Zokwana was elected as President of the International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and General Workers' Unions in 2005 and was subsequently re- elected in November 2011. Additionally, he was elected as Vice-President of the global union federation IndustriALL Global Union on June 19, 2012.

Sulfate residues are abundant on the glycan chains of the glycoprotein, giving it a negative charge. The negative charge is believed to stabilize the lattice in high-salt conditions. Amino acids are the main source of chemical energy for H. salinarum, particularly arginine and aspartate, though they are able to metabolize other amino acids, as well. H. salinarum have been reported to not be able to grow on sugars, and therefore need to encode enzymes capable of performing gluconeogenesis to create sugars.

As noted, it is equal to the difference between the rate at which the plants in an ecosystem produce useful chemical energy (GPP) and the rate at which they use some of that energy during respiration. Net primary production is available to be directed toward growth and reproduction of primary producers. As such it is available for consumption by herbivores. Both gross and net primary production are typically expressed in units of mass per unit area per unit time interval.

Myosin is a major contractile protein which converts chemical energy into mechanical energy through the hydrolysis of ATP. Myosin is a hexameric protein composed of a pair of myosin heavy chains (MYH) and two pairs of nonidentical light chains. This gene is a member of the MYH family and encodes a protein with an IQ domain and a myosin head-like domain. Mutations in this gene have been associated with two congenital contracture (arthrogryposis) syndromes, Freeman–Sheldon syndrome and Sheldon–Hall syndrome.

However, at the symposium in San Diego only one working laser was reported, which was laced with photodissociation of iodine. In 1965, Kasper and Pimentel discovered the laser radiation HCl, arising from the explosion of the system H2 / Cl2. After the discovery of the laser based on the reaction of F + H2 in 1967, the number of chemical lasers found by the Pimentel laboratory rapidly increased. Thus, Pimentel first transformed the chemical energy obtained as a result of vibrational excitation into laser radiation.

His main research was to uncover the basic mechanisms for how plants and bacteria use photosynthesis to convert light into chemical energy. His contributions to science were the development of spectroscopic tools and their applications, in particular, to problems in biochemistry and biophysics. He was the first to develop a form of double-frequency spectroscopy, Electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR), for which he chose a name reminiscent of the biblical witch of Endor. This was the forerunner of many other double-resonance methods.

An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert energy into useful mechanical motion. Heat engines, including internal combustion engines and external combustion engines (such as steam engines) burn a fuel to create heat, which then creates motion. Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air and others—such as clockwork motors in wind-up toys—use elastic energy. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use chemical energy to create motion.

Cytoplasmic dynein on a microtubule Dynein is a family of cytoskeletal motor proteins that move along microtubules in cells. They convert the chemical energy stored in ATP to mechanical work. Dynein transports various cellular cargos, provides forces and displacements important in mitosis, and drives the beat of eukaryotic cilia and flagella. All of these functions rely on dynein's ability to move towards the minus-end of the microtubules, known as retrograde transport, thus, they are called "minus-end directed motors".

Quantum dots also function as photocatalysts for the light driven chemical conversion of water into hydrogen as a pathway to solar fuel. In photocatalysis, electron hole pairs formed in the dot under band gap excitation drive redox reactions in the surrounding liquid. Generally, the photocatalytic activity of the dots is related to the particle size and its degree of quantum confinement. This is because the band gap determines the chemical energy that is stored in the dot in the excited state.

Similar to plants, diatoms convert light energy to chemical energy by photosynthesis, although this shared autotrophy evolved independently in both lineages. Unusually for autotrophic organisms, diatoms possess a urea cycle, a feature that they share with animals, although this cycle is used to different metabolic ends in diatoms. The family Rhopalodiaceae also possess a cyanobacterial endosymbiont called a spheroid body. This endosymbiont has lost its photosynthetic properties, but has kept its ability to perform nitrogen fixation, allowing the diatom to fix atmospheric nitrogen.

Aerobic organisms release the chemical energy stored in the weak sigma bond of atmospheric dioxygen, the terminal oxidant in cellular respiration. The ground state of dioxygen is known as triplet oxygen, 3O2, because it has two unpaired electrons. The first excited state, singlet oxygen, 1O2, has no unpaired electrons and is metastable. The doublet state requires an odd number of electrons, and so cannot occur in dioxygen without gaining or losing electrons, such as in the superoxide ion () or the dioxygenyl ion ().

Since fuel cells and batteries can generate useful power when all components of the system are at the same temperature (T=T_H=T_C), they are clearly not limited by Carnot's theorem, which states that no power can be generated when T_H=T_C. This is because Carnot's theorem applies to engines converting thermal energy to work, whereas fuel cells and batteries instead convert chemical energy to work. Nevertheless, the second law of thermodynamics still provides restrictions on fuel cell and battery energy conversion.

In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrial cristae. It comprises the electron transport chain that establishes a proton gradient (chemiosmotic potential) across the boundary of the inner membrane by oxidizing the NADH produced from the Krebs cycle. ATP is synthesized by the ATP synthase enzyme when the chemiosmotic gradient is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP. The electron transfer is driven by the chemical energy of exogenous oxygen and, with the addition of two protons, water is formed.

In size-exclusion chromatography, the residence time of a molecule is related to its volume, which is roughly proportional to its molecular weight. Residence times also affect the performance of continuous fermentors. Biofuel cells utilize the metabolic processes of anodophiles (electronegative bacteria) to convert chemical energy from organic matter into electricity. A biofuel cell mechanism consists of an anode and a cathode that are separated by an internal proton exchange membrane (PEM) and connected in an external circuit with an external load.

During his engagement with DECHEMA, Leitner was on the board of the newly founded specialist section "Advanced Fluids" in 2007 and on the first board of the German Society for Catalysis (GeCatS) in 2008. On 1 October 2017, Leitner was appointed Director of the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion (MPI CEC) where he was appointed scientific director of the "Molecular Catalysis" Department. Leitner will continue his chair at RWTH for an initial period of five years as part-time professorship.

The gun was then closed and the hammer cocked for firing. When the gun fired the stem and grenade were forced from the barrel. Upon hitting the target the graze fuze in the base of the grenade ignited the explosive filling which collapsed the internal steel cone to create a superplastic high-velocity jet to punch through enemy armor. Since HEAT weapons rely on chemical energy to penetrate enemy armor the low velocity of the grenade did not adversely affect penetration.

As one of 84 institutes in the Max Planck Society, it was first part of the neighboring Max Planck Institute for Coal Research and became independent in 1981 under the name of Max Planck Institute for Radiation Chemistry. It was renamed to Max Planck Institute for Bioinorganic Chemistry in 2003, to reflect its changing research focus. Following a significant restructuring and expansion of its departments in 2011, it was re-established in 2012 as the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion.

These problems and the resulting higher costs have been an obstacle for the use of solar powered refrigerators in developing areas. In the mid-1990s NASA JSC began work on a solar powered refrigerator that used phase change material rather than battery to store thermal energy rather than chemical energy. The resulting technology has been commercialized and is being used for storing food products and vaccines. Solar direct-drive refrigerators don't require batteries, instead using thermal energy to solar power.

General Motors EV1 electric car. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs), also known as all-electric vehicles (AEVs), are electric vehicles whose main energy storage is in the chemical energy of batteries. BEVs are the most common form of what is defined by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) as zero emission vehicle (ZEV) because they produce no tailpipe emissions at the point of operation. The electrical energy carried on board a BEV to power the motors is obtained from a variety of battery chemistries arranged into battery packs.

The simple but challenging principle of transforming solar energy into chemical energy capable of performing a desired reaction remains the basis of application-based photocatalysis, most notably artificial photosynthesis (production of solar fuels). After several decades of experiments centered around the reduction of carbon dioxide, interest began to spread to other light-induced reactions involving naturally occurring materials. These experiments usually focused on reactions analogous to known biological processes, such as soil nitrification, for which the photochemical counterpart "photonitrification" was first reported in 1930.

When exposed to cold, the human body can increase heat production by shivering, or non- shivering process known as thermogenesis in which BAT, also known as brown fat, converts chemical energy to heat. Mild cold exposure is known to increase BAT activity. A group of scientists in the Netherlands wondered whether frequent exposure to extreme cold, as practiced in the Wim Hof Method, would have comparable effects. The Hof brothers are identical twins, but unlike Wim, Andre has a sedentary lifestyle without exposure to extreme cold.

Hill made many exacting measurements of the heat released when skeletal muscles contract and relax. A key finding was that heat is produced during contraction, which requires investment of chemical energy, but not during relaxation, which is passive. His earliest measurements used equipment left behind by the Swedish physiologist Magnus Blix, Hill measured a temperature rise of only 0.003 °C. After publication he learned that German physiologists had already reported on heat and muscle contraction and he went to Germany to learn more about their work.

The Ren is powered by a turbine and a lithium-ion electric motor, but there are three specification options, making the setups different. The option for a turbine-electric motor combination was, according to CEO Matthew Jin, to make the conversion process of freeing the combustion engine to convert chemical energy into mechanical energy more efficient. There are three specification options. The first one contains the turbine and two electric motors, which does and , which means the power-to-weight ratio sits at per ton.

The GREEN Cell is at the core of the shipping concept. Each GREEN cell is envisaged as a container-sized source of electricity, based on inherent chemical energy (battery), in addition to solar energy and wind energy. Each cell provides electricity to the ship's network. The electrical power potential of each GREEN cell depends on the sum of the power in the battery, the size of solar panel area obtained, the efficiency of the solar panel and the efficiency of the wind power system.

Components of a coal-fired power station As a type of thermal power station, a coal-fired power station converts chemical energy stored in coal successively into thermal energy, mechanical energy and, finally, electrical energy. The coal is usually pulverized and then burned in a pulverized coal-fired boiler. The furnace heat converts boiler water to steam, which is then used to spin turbines that turn generators. Compared to a thermal power station burning other fuel types, coal specific fuel processing and ash disposal is required.

Batteries convert the chemical energy of the two metals (electrodes) interacting with the acid on the matboard (electrolyte) into electrical energy. In this situation, the metal surface serves as the electrode and an electric current (movement of electrons from one metal to the other) is created when the wire connects both metal surfaces. In the first hour, a five cell penny battery is able to provide about watts. Each cell is defined as a stack of a zinc penny, matboard, and a copper penny.

Plants usually convert light into chemical energy with a photosynthetic efficiency of 3–6%. Absorbed light that is unconverted is dissipated primarily as heat, with a small fraction (1–2%) re-emitted as chlorophyll fluorescence at longer (redder) wavelengths. This fact allows measurement of the light reaction of photosynthesis by using chlorophyll fluorometers. Actual plants' photosynthetic efficiency varies with the frequency of the light being converted, light intensity, temperature and proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and can vary from 0.1% to 8%.

A Stirling engine capable of producing electricity from biomass combustion heat Bioenergy is renewable energy made available from materials derived from biological sources. Biomass is any organic material which has stored sunlight in the form of chemical energy. As a fuel it may include wood, wood waste, straw, and other crop residues, manure, sugarcane, and many other by-products from a variety of agricultural processes. By 2010, there was of globally installed bioenergy capacity for electricity generation, of which was in the United States.

The cells of the human body have many structures which move throughout them. Cytoplasmic streaming is a way which cells move molecular substances throughout the cytoplasm, various motor proteins work as molecular motors within a cell and move along the surface of various cellular substrates such as microtubules, and motor proteins are typically powered by the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and convert chemical energy into mechanical work. Vesicles propelled by motor proteins have been found to have a velocity of approximately 0.00000152 m/s.

In contrast to catabolic pathways, anabolic pathways require an energy input to construct macromolecules such as polypeptides, nucleic acids, proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids. The isolated reaction of anabolism is unfavorable in a cell due to a positive Gibbs Free Energy (+ΔG). Thus, an input of chemical energy through a coupling with an exergonic reaction is necessary. The coupled reaction of the catabolic pathway affects the thermodynamics of the reaction by lowering the overall activation energy of an anabolic pathway and allowing the reaction to take place.

In the charged state, the chemical energy of the battery is stored in the potential difference between the pure lead at the negative side and the PbO2 on the positive side, plus the aqueous sulfuric acid. The electrical energy produced by a discharging lead–acid battery can be attributed to the energy released when the strong chemical bonds of water (H2O) molecules are formed from H+ ions of the acid and O2− ions of PbO2. Conversely, during charging, the battery acts as a water-splitting device.

Lithium-ion batteries store chemical energy in reactive chemicals at the anodes and cathodes of a cell. Typically, anodes and cathodes exchange lithium (Li+) ions through a fluid electrolyte that passes through a porous separator which prevents direct contact between the anode and cathode. Such contact would lead to an internal short circuit and a potentially hazardous uncontrolled reaction. Electric current is usually carried by conductive collectors at the anodes and cathodes to and from the negative and positive terminals of the cell (respectively).

Heptanitrocubane is a new experimental high explosive based on the cubic eight-carbon cubane molecule and closely related to octanitrocubane. Seven of the eight hydrogen atoms at the corners of the cubane molecule are replaced by nitro groups, giving the final molecular formula . As with octanitrocubane, not enough heptanitrocubane has been synthesized to perform detailed tests on its stability and energy. It is hypothesized to have slightly better performance than explosives such as HMX, the current high-energy standard explosive, based on chemical energy analysis.

Luminous efficacy is a measure of how well a light source produces visible light. It is the ratio of luminous flux to power, measured in lumens per watt in the International System of Units (SI). Depending on context, the power can be either the radiant flux of the source's output, or it can be the total power (electric power, chemical energy, or others) consumed by the source. Which sense of the term is intended must usually be inferred from the context, and is sometimes unclear.

A battery electric vehicle (BEV) uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs as its only source for propulsion. BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines (ICEs) for propulsion. A plug-in hybrid operates as an all-electric vehicle or BEV when operating in charge-depleting mode, but it switches to charge-sustaining mode after the battery has reached its minimum state of charge (SOC) threshold, exhausting the vehicle's all-electric range (AER). See definitions in pp. 1–2.

Parts of the membranes of haloarchaea are purplish in color, and large blooms of haloarchaea appear reddish, from the pigment bacteriorhodopsin, related to the retinal pigment rhodopsin, which it uses to transform light energy into chemical energy by a process unrelated to chlorophyll-based photosynthesis. Haloarchaea have a potential to solubilize phosphorus. Phosphorus-solubilizing halophilic archaea may well play a role in P (phosphorus) nutrition to vegetation growing in hypersaline soils. Haloarchaea may also have applications as inoculants for crops growing in hypersaline regions.

Apart from high overpotential; these systems have a few advantages including sustainability (nothing is consumed in this system apart from light energy), direct conversion of solar energy to chemical energy, utilization of renewable energy resource for energy intensive process, stability of the process (semiconductors are really stable under illumination) etc. A different approach for photo-reduction of CO2 involves molecular catalysts, photosensitizers and sacrificial electron donors. In this process sacrificial electron donors are consumed during the process and photosensitizers degrade under long exposure to illumination.

Jetstream was a mutant who could generate thermo-chemical energy, accompanied by plasma (a super-heated state of matter), and release it through his skin. Jetstream could only release this energy downward beneath him, and the result was that it propelled him through the air like a human rocket. He could also release energy from all of his limbs, thus delivering at close to the speed of sound. Jetstream's body was immune to damage from the intense heat released by these energy discharges and by the plasma.

After a postdoctoral research position at the University of Nijmegen and a period as a visiting researcher at DuPont, she was appointed a professor at the State University of New York at Stony Brook. In 2009, she became the Geoffrey Moorhouse Gibson Professor in Materials Chemistry at the University of Cambridge. From 2009-2010 she was the Director of the Northeastern Chemical Energy Storage Center, and associate director 2011-2014. She is current the director of the EPSRC Centre for Advanced Materials for Integrated Systems.

A type of electric propulsion, spacecraft such as Dawn use an ion engine. In an ion engine, electric power is used to create charged particles of the propellant, usually the gas xenon, and accelerate them to extremely high velocities. The exhaust velocity of conventional rockets is limited by the chemical energy stored in the fuel's molecular bonds, which limits the thrust to about 5 km/s. They produce a high thrust (about 10⁶ N), but they have a low specific impulse, and that limits their top speed.

Wood is one of the first fuels used by humans. A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases energy as heat energy or to be used for work. The concept was originally applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy (via nuclear fission and nuclear fusion). The heat energy released by reactions of fuels is converted into mechanical energy via a heat engine.

With the energy in the form of chemical energy that could be released through combustion, but the concept development of the steam engine in the United Kingdom in 1769, coal came into more common use as a power source. Coal was later used to drive ships and locomotives. By the 19th century, gas extracted from coal was being used for street lighting in London. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the primary use of coal is to generate electricity, providing 40% of the world's electrical power supply in 2005.

Power density increased with the number of batteries in the system. Volatilization of ammonia from the spent anolyte by heating (simulating distillation), and re-addition of this ammonia to the spent catholyte chamber with subsequent operation of this chamber as the anode (to regenerate copper on the other electrode), produced a maximum power density of 60 ± 3 W m−2, with an average discharge energy efficiency of 29% (electrical energy captured versus chemical energy in the starting solutions). An acid added to the catholyte increased power 126 ± 5 W m−2.

Similarly, when a cannon is fired, the projectile will shoot out of the barrel towards the target, and the barrel will recoil, in accordance with the principle of conservation of momentum. This does not mean that the projectile leaves the barrel at high velocity because the barrel recoils. While recoil of the barrel must occur, as described by Newton's third law, it is not a causal agent. The causal mechanism is in the energy conversions: the explosion of the gunpowder converts potential chemical energy to the potential energy of a highly compressed gas.

Facilitated diffusion in cell membrane, showing ion channels and carrier proteins Facilitated diffusion (also known as facilitated transport or passive-mediated transport) is the process of spontaneous passive transport (as opposed to active transport) of molecules or ions across a biological membrane via specific transmembrane integral proteins. Being passive, facilitated transport does not directly require chemical energy from ATP hydrolysis in the transport step itself; rather, molecules and ions move down their concentration gradient reflecting its diffusive nature. Insoluble molecules diffusing through an integral protein. Facilitated diffusion is different from simple diffusion in several ways.

Leaves also function to store chemical energy and water (especially in succulents) and may become specialized organs serving other functions, such as tendrils of peas and other legumes, the protective spines of cacti and the insect traps in carnivorous plants such as Nepenthes and Sarracenia. Leaves are the fundamental structural units from which cones are constructed in gymnosperms (each cone scale is a modified megaphyll leaf known as a sporophyll) and from which flowers are constructed in flowering plants. Vein skeleton of a leaf. Veins contain lignin that make them harder to degrade for microorganisms.

In a fossil fuel power plant the chemical energy stored in fossil fuels such as coal, fuel oil, natural gas or oil shale and oxygen of the air is converted successively into thermal energy, mechanical energy and, finally, electrical energy. Each fossil fuel power plant is a complex, custom-designed system. Multiple generating units may be built at a single site for more efficient use of land, natural resources and labor. Most thermal power stations in the world use fossil fuel, outnumbering nuclear, geothermal, biomass, or concentrated solar power plants.

Cannonball is a mutant who possesses the ability to bodily generate thermo- chemical energy and release it from his skin. This energy is used as thrust to cause his body to be propelled through the air like a rocket, at great heights and speeds with considerable maneuverability. He can control his speed and direction through sheer act of will. At first, he could only release this energy from his feet and legs, but now he can fire it from almost any part of his body, to a wide variety of effects.

Applied Optics and functional Surfaces Solar energy systems convert solar radiation incident on the earth into thermal, electrical or chemical energy. In order to better transmit, reflect, absorb, filter, redirect or concentrate the incoming radiation, Fraunhofer ISE develops optical components and systems. This business area serves as an interdisciplinary field and serves many areas of solar technology: windows and facades, solar thermal collectors, concentrator systems for photovoltaics and solar power plants as well as photovoltaic module technology. Solar Thermal Systems This business area covers the markets of low and high temperature applications.

Batteries are expensive and they increase the investment amount and maintenance of a PV-RO plant, due to the periodic maintenance required by batteries. Also, when electrical energy from the PV is converted to chemical energy in the battery and send to the pumps of the RO system, energy is lost. Hence, the use of batteries could decrease the efficiency of the plant. Reported average cost of seawater desalination with RO is 0.56 USD/m3, while, using renewable energy sources, that cost could increase up to 16 USD/m3.

The essential critique given by these sources is that when considering energy technology, the growing nature of the power grid must be taken into consideration. If this is not done, a given class energy technology may emit more CO2 over its lifetime than it initially thought it would mitigate, with this most well documented in wind energy's case. A problem that energy analysis method cannot resolve is that different energy forms—heat, electricity, chemical energy etc.—have different quality and value as a consequence of the two main laws of thermodynamics.

Most of the improvements were instead made in ammunition and fire control systems. With kinetic energy penetrator rounds, solid shot and armour-piercing shell gave way to armour-piercing discarding sabot (APDS) (a product of 1944), and fin-stabilized (APFSDS) rounds with tungsten or depleted uranium penetrators. Parallel developments brought rounds based on chemical energy; High explosive squash head (HESH), and shaped-charge High explosive anti-tank (HEAT), with penetrating power independent of muzzle velocity or range. Stadiametric range- finders were successively replaced by coincidence and laser rangefinders.

Luminescent bacteria emit light as the result of a chemical reaction during which chemical energy is converted to light energy. Luminescent bacteria exist as symbiotic organisms carried within a larger organism, such as many deep sea organisms, including the Lantern Fish, the Angler fish, certain jellyfish, certain clams and the Gulper eel. The light is generated by an enzyme- catalyzed chemoluminescence reaction, wherein the pigment luciferin is oxidised by the enzyme luciferase. The expression of genes related to bioluminescence is controlled by an operon called the lux operon.

Multiple layers of photosystem I gather photonic energy, convert it into chemical energy and create a current that goes through the cell. The cell itself consists of many of the same non-organic materials that are found in other solar cells with the exception of the injected photosystem I complexes which are introduced and gathered for several days in the gold layer. After days the photosytem I are made visible and appear as a thin green film. It is this thin film that helps and improves the energy conversion.

A long-distance runner's velocity at the lactate threshold is strongly correlated to their performance. Lactate threshold is the cross over point between predominantly aerobic energy usage and anaerobic energy usage and is considered a good indicator of the body's ability to efficiently process and transfer chemical energy into mechanical energy. For most runners, the aerobic zone doesn't begin until around 120 heart beats per minute. Lactate threshold training involves tempo workouts that are meant to build strength and speed, rather than improve the cardiovascular system's efficiency in absorbing and transporting oxygen.

Sulfurimonas are commonly found in (sulfidogenic) habitats, such as marine sediments, deep-sea hydrothermal vents, pelagic redoxclines and oil fields . The habitats where they are found is reflected in their gene content; some members have fewer genes while others have more genes that are related to the environments where they occur. Some of these genes allow the use of different electron donors and acceptors, enabling them to inhabit a range on environments. In deep-sea hydrothermal vents sulfide oxidation is the most important chemical energy source for Sulfurimonas spp.

This proton gradient is the driving force for ATP synthesis via photophosphorylation and coupling the absorption of light energy and photolysis of water to the creation of chemical energy during photosynthesis. The O2 remaining after oxidation of the water molecule is released into the atmosphere. Water oxidation is catalyzed by a manganese- containing enzyme complex known as the oxygen evolving complex (OEC) or water- splitting complex found associated with the lumenal side of thylakoid membranes. Manganese is an important cofactor, and calcium and chloride are also required for the reaction to occur.

Previous technical obstacles have included hydrogen storage issuesR&D; of large stationary hydrogen/CNG/HCNG storage vessels and the purity requirement of hydrogen used in fuel cells, as with current technology, an operating fuel cell requires the purity of hydrogen to be as high as 99.999%. Other fuel cell technologies based on the exchange of metal ions (e.g. zinc-air fuel cells) are typically more efficient at energy conversion than hydrogen fuel cells, but the widespread use of any electrical energy → chemical energy → electrical energy systems would necessitate the production of electricity.

In his 1981 Ph.D. thesis, Youvan found inhibitors (hypermodified nucleosides) of retroviral reverse transcriptase present in ribosomal RNA. In a 1984 publication with John E. Hearst, and in collaboration with Barry L. Marrs, Youvan published the nucleotide and deduced protein sequence for the photosynthetic reaction center – the proteins that convert light to chemical energy in photosynthetic organisms. This work correctly predicted the secondary structure of the 11 transmembrane helices of the reaction center as confirmed by X-ray crystallography. In 1987 Youvan and E. Bylina constructed the first site-directed mutants of bacterial reaction centers.

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) plantation ready for harvest, Ituverava, São Paulo State. Brazil. A sugar/ethanol plant located in Piracicaba, São Paulo State. This plant produces the electricity it needs from bagasse residuals from sugarcane left over by the milling process, and it sells the surplus electricity to the public grid. Sucrose accounts for little more than 30% of the chemical energy stored in the mature plant; 35% is in the leaves and stem tips, which are left in the fields during harvest, and 35% are in the fibrous material (bagasse) left over from pressing.

A simplified outline of redox metabolism, showing how NAD and NADH link the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The redox reactions catalyzed by oxidoreductases are vital in all parts of metabolism, but one particularly important function of these reactions is to enable nutrients to unlock the energy stored in the relatively weak double bond of oxygen. Here, reduced compounds such as glucose and fatty acids are oxidized, thereby releasing the chemical energy of O2. In this process, NAD is reduced to NADH, as part of beta oxidation, glycolysis, and the citric acid cycle.

In addition, no solid fuel burns completely. Solid-fuel stoves produce a small amount of ash, and they can coat the bottoms of cooking vessels with tars and soot. In addition, because some of the chemical energy of the fuel remains locked up in the smoke and soot, solid fuel releases less heat, gram for gram. A simple hobo stove is constructed out of a discarded tin can of any size by removing the top of the can, punching a number of holes near the upper edge, and punching corresponding holes in the opposite base.

The majority of cellular ATP is generated by this process. Although the citric acid cycle itself does not involve molecular oxygen, it is an obligately aerobic process because O2 is used to recycle the NADH and FADH2 and provides the chemical energy driving the process. In the absence of oxygen, the citric acid cycle ceases. The generation of ATP by the mitochondrion from cytosolic NADH relies on the malate-aspartate shuttle (and to a lesser extent, the glycerol-phosphate shuttle) because the inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to NADH and NAD+.

The Fe protein, the dinitrogenase reductase or NifH, is a dimer of identical subunits which contains one [Fe4S4] cluster and weighs approximately 60-64kDa. The function of the Fe protein is to transfer electrons from a reducing agent, such as ferredoxin or flavodoxin to the nitrogenase protein. The transfer of electrons requires an input of chemical energy which comes from the binding and hydrolysis of ATP. The hydrolysis of ATP also causes a conformational change within the nitrogenase complex, bringing the Fe protein and MoFe protein closer together for easier electron transfer.

AAA proteins or ATPases Associated with diverse cellular Activities are a protein family sharing a common conserved module of approximately 230 amino acid residues. This is a large, functionally diverse protein family belonging to the AAA+ protein superfamily of ring-shaped P-loop NTPases, which exert their activity through the energy-dependent remodeling or translocation of macromolecules. AAA proteins couple chemical energy provided by ATP hydrolysis to conformational changes which are transduced into mechanical force exerted on a macromolecular substrate. AAA proteins are functionally and organizationally diverse, and vary in activity, stability, and mechanism.

The core of the system is a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyser. The electrolyser converts electrical energy into chemical energy, which in turn facilitates the storage of electricity. A gas mixing plant ensures that the proportion of hydrogen in the natural gas stream does not exceed two per cent by volume, the technically permissible maximum value when a natural gas filling station is situated in the local distribution network. The electrolyser supplies the hydrogen-methane mixture at the same pressure as the gas distribution network, namely 3.5 bar.

The terms conventional weapons or conventional arms generally refer to weapons whose ability to damage comes from kinetic or incendiary, or explosive energy and exclude weapons of mass destruction (e.g. nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons). Any armament used in crimes, conflicts or wars are categorized as conventional weapons and includes small arms, defensive shields and light weapons, sea and land mines, as well as (non-weapons of mass destruction) bombs, shells, rockets, missiles and cluster munitions. These weapons use explosive material based on chemical energy, as opposed to nuclear energy in nuclear weapons.

A non-covalent interaction differs from a covalent bond in that it does not involve the sharing of electrons, but rather involves more dispersed variations of electromagnetic interactions between molecules or within a molecule. The chemical energy released in the formation of non-covalent interactions is typically on the order of 1–5 kcal/mol (1000–5000 calories per 6.02 × 1023 molecules).Noncovalent bonds – Molecular Cell Biology (textbook), Lodish, Berk, Zipursky, Matsudaira, Baltimore, Darnell. Non-covalent interactions can be classified into different categories, such as electrostatic, π-effects, van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic effects.

Some applications also use platinum-silver alloy; other bridgewire materials in use are platinum, gold, silver, tungsten, etc. Care has to be taken when selecting the material as it is in direct contact with the pyrotechnic composition and should not undergo corrosion in such conditions. Another material, able to actively release chemical energy, is Pyrofuze, aluminium wire clad with palladium; when being heated it undergoes strongly exothermic reaction as the molten metals form an alloy. A variant with the same function consists of laminated thin alternate layers of aluminium and nickel.

Hydraulic hybrids are said to be power dense, while electric hybrids are energy dense. This means that electric hybrids, while able to deliver large amounts of energy over long periods of time are limited by the rate at which the chemical energy in the batteries is converted to mechanical energy and '. This is largely governed by reaction rates in the battery and current ratings of associated components. Hydraulic hybrids on the other hand are capable of transferring energy at a much higher rate, but are limited by the amount of energy that can be stored.

Their relatives are sulfur-oxidizing chemoautotrophs that use energy from oxidation of sulfur compounds in the environment (e.g. sulfide) to fuel the production of biomass by carbon fixation. The symbionts of Astomonema are likely to also be sulfur-oxidizers because they have at least one of the key genes, aprA, encoding the alpha subunit of adenylyl-sulfate reductase, involved in the metabolic pathway of sulfur oxidation. This is an example of chemosynthetic symbiosis, where symbiotic prokaryotes use chemical energy to produce biomass and feed their host animals, which often have highly-reduced digestive systems.

DCMU is a very specific and sensitive inhibitor of photosynthesis. It blocks the QB plastoquinone binding site of photosystem II, disallowing the electron flow from photosystem II to plastoquinone. This interrupts the photosynthetic electron transport chain in photosynthesis and thus reduces the ability of the plant to turn light energy into chemical energy (ATP and reductant potential). DCMU only blocks electron flow from photosystem II, it has no effect on photosystem I or other reactions in photosynthesis, such as light absorption or carbon fixation in the Calvin cycle.

Thoracic temperature changes in a moth recorded with an infra-red camera Several large insects have evolved to warm-up previous to flight so that energetically demanding activities, such as flight, are possible. Insect behavior involves inefficient muscle operation that produces excess heat and establishes the thermal range in which specific muscles best function. The high metabolic cost of insect flight muscles means that great amounts of chemical energy are utilized by these specific muscles. However, only a very small percentage of this energy translates into actual mechanical work or wing movement.

The first is shivering, in which a warm-blooded creature produces involuntary contraction of skeletal muscle in order to produce heat. In addition, shivering also signals the body to produce irisin, a hormone that has been shown to convert white fat to brown fat, which is used in non- shivering thermogenesis, the second type of human thermogensis. Non-shivering thermogenesis occurs in the brown fat, which contains the uncoupling protein thermogenin. This protein decreases the proton gradient generated in oxidative phosphorylation during the synthesis of ATP, uncoupling the electron transport in the mitochondrion from the production of chemical energy (ATP).

After comparing the metabolic responses between oat plants under an average light intensity to that of oat plants under extreme light intensity, Quiles noted that the amount of PS II produced was of a lower amount in the leaves that underwent chlororespiration in extreme light. Whereas higher levels of PS II were yielded by those leaves that underwent average light intensity. A higher of PS II is more efficient for chemical energy synthesis and thus for a plant's survival. Quiles indicates that although the chlororespiratory pathway is less efficient, it still serves as a back-up response for energy production in plants.

Daniel Israel Arnon (November 14, 1910 – December 20, 1994) was a Polish-born American plant physiologist whose research led to greater insights into the operation of photosynthesis in plants. In 1973, he was awarded the National Medal of Science for "his fundamental research into the mechanism of green plant utilization of light to produce chemical energy and oxygen and for contributions to our understanding of plant nutrition." He discovered the essentiality of molybdenum for the growth of all plants and of vanadium for the growth of green algae. Arnon was born on November 14, 1910, in Warsaw, to a Jewish family.

One of the main functions of the chloroplast is its role in photosynthesis, the process by which light is transformed into chemical energy, to subsequently produce food in the form of sugars. Water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are used in photosynthesis, and sugar and oxygen (O2) is made, using light energy. Photosynthesis is divided into two stages—the light reactions, where water is split to produce oxygen, and the dark reactions, or Calvin cycle, which builds sugar molecules from carbon dioxide. The two phases are linked by the energy carriers adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+).

In 2002, he chaired the Second World Rubber Industries Conference in São Paulo, Brazil and served as chair of the Rubber Sector of the International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and General Workers' Unions (ICEM). A member of the executive committee of the International Metalworkers' Federation, he co-chaired the federation's World Aluminum Conference in 2003. Gerard is a member of the Labor Advisory Committee to the United States Trade Representative and the Secretary of Labor and the National Commission on Energy Policy. He is also a member of the Advisory Committee on Trade Policy and Negotiations (ACTPN).

In 2004, Lim founded NextLabs, where he is currently serving as chairman and chief executive officer. NextLabs is an enterprise software company that provides information risk management solutions. Its highly rated productsReview of NextLabs Enterprise DLP, SC Magazine, July 1, 2009KMWorld Trend-Setting Products of 2009, KMWorld, August 28, 2009NextLabs Awards, Recognition and Honors and solutions are used by companies in the financial services, aerospace and defense, chemical, energy, manufacturing, and financial industries, where global operations and partner collaborations require the sharing and protection of sensitive data. Lim holds 54 patents in policy-driven information controls and internet security.

The name of this metabolic pathway is derived from the citric acid (a tricarboxylic acid, often called citrate, as the ionized form predominates at biological pH) that is consumed and then regenerated by this sequence of reactions to complete the cycle. The cycle consumes acetate (in the form of acetyl-CoA) and water, reduces NAD+ to NADH, releasing carbon dioxide. The NADH generated by the citric acid cycle is fed into the oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport) pathway. The net result of these two closely linked pathways is the oxidation of nutrients to produce usable chemical energy in the form of ATP.

Petroleum and Natural Gas Senior Staff Association of Nigeria popularly known as PENGASSAN is a Nigerian trade union formally established in November 1979. The union's jurisdiction is upper and middle level employees in the petroleum and gas industry as opposed to NUPENG, whose jurisdiction include junior staff members of the oil and gas industry. The impetus behind is establishment was to safeguard and promote the welfare of workers and national interest in the industry and regulate terms and conditions of employment. The union was affiliated with International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and General Workers' Unions.

The federation remained at around 10,000 workers until 1993, when member unions in the Belgium, Israel and the Netherlands decided to relaunch it, with a focus on attracting unions outside Europe. It began campaigning against poor labour practices in diamond mining, including a call for children under 14 being banned from working in the industry, and a ban on dangerous cobalt "scaifes" (polishing wheels). This was successful, and by 2006 had members in Africa, Asia and Latin America. In September 2000, the federation merged into the much larger International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and General Workers' Unions.

The combination of these two factors determines the thermodynamically favourable direction for an ion's movement across a membrane. An electrochemical gradient is analogous to the water pressure across a hydroelectric dam. Membrane transport proteins such as the sodium-potassium pump within the membrane are equivalent to turbines that convert the water's potential energy to other forms of physical or chemical energy, and the ions that pass through the membrane are equivalent to water that ends up at the bottom of the dam. Also, energy can be used to pump water up into the lake above the dam.

The torpedo's stored chemical energy propulsion system uses a small tank of sulfur hexafluoride gas, which is sprayed over a block of solid lithium, which generates enormous quantities of heat, which generates steam. The steam propels the torpedo in a closed Rankine cycle, supplying power to a pump-jet. This propulsion system offers the very important deep-water performance advantage in that the combustion products—sulfur and lithium fluoride—occupy less volume than the reactants, so the torpedo does not have to force these out against increasing water pressure as it approaches a deep-diving submarine.

Data extracted from the Prasinophyceae are defined by their cellular scales which are composed of carbohydrates, and Chlorodendrales are unique within this group due to these scales forming a fused thecal wall. Cells of Chlorodendrales are completely covered in scales, which fuse around the cell body producing the theca, but remain individually separated on the flagella, of which there are typically four per cell. Species within Chlorodendrales live in both marine and fresh water habitats, occupying both benthic and planktonic food webs. Additionally, they are photoautotrophs, meaning they produce their own food through the conversion of sunlight into chemical energy.

R. vannielii is an anoxygenic bacteria, meaning it uses light as an energy source and converts it into ATP without the production of oxygen as a byproduct of the reaction. R. vannielii grows better in anaerobic-light conditions compared to growth in aerobic-dark. This growth shows that cells are capable of also growing chemoheterophically in the dark, meaning it can derive its energy from chemical energy sources as well as from sunlight. However, the microbe cannot use carbon dioxide as its sole carbon source, but requires other compounds from the environment to meet their carbon requirements.

Bloom claims a conversion efficiency of around 50%, or up to 65% when new. A modern combined cycle gas turbine power plant (CCGT) can reach 60% overall efficiency, while cogeneration (electricity and district heating) can achieve greater than 95% efficiency. Sridhar stated that Bloom's products convert chemical energy to electrical energy in one step, are more fuel efficient than current gas-fired power stations and reduce transmission/distribution losses by producing power where it is used. Each Bloom Energy Server ES5700 is said to provide 200 kW of power, similar to the baseload needs of 160 average homes or one office building.

It takes multiple reactions between myosin and actin to effectively produce one muscle contraction, and, therefore, the availability of large amounts of ATP is required to produce each muscle contraction. For this reason, biological processes have evolved to produce efficient ways to replenish the potential energy of ATP from ADP. Breaking one of ATP's phosphorus bonds generates approximately 30.5 kilojoules per Mole of ATP (7.3 kcal). ADP can be converted, or powered back to ATP through the process of releasing the chemical energy available in food; in humans, this is constantly performed via aerobic respiration in the mitochondria.

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to large lead acid batteries or lithium-ion batteries in vehicles, and at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby or emergency power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers. Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common fuels such as gasoline. In automobiles, this is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of electric motors in converting chemical energy to mechanical work, compared to combustion engines.

It may seem that the rocket is getting energy for free, which would violate conservation of energy. However, any gain to the rocket's kinetic energy is balanced by a relative decrease in the kinetic energy the exhaust is left with (the kinetic energy of the exhaust may still increase, but it does not increase as much). Contrast this to the situation of static firing, where the speed of the engine is fixed at zero. This means that its kinetic energy does not increase at all, and all the chemical energy released by the fuel is converted to the exhaust's kinetic energy (and heat).

All forms of energy are either potential energy (e.g. Chemical, gravitational, electrical energy, temperature differential, latent heat, etc.) or kinetic energy (e.g. momentum). Some technologies provide only short-term energy storage, and others can be very long-term such as power to gas using hydrogen or methane and the storage of heat or cold between opposing seasons in deep aquifers or bedrock. A wind-up clock stores potential energy (in this case mechanical, in the spring tension), a battery stores readily convertible chemical energy to operate a mobile phone, and a hydroelectric dam stores energy in a reservoir as gravitational potential energy.

Once ignited and burnt, the combustion products—hot gases—have more available thermal energy than the original compressed fuel-air mixture (which had higher chemical energy). The available energy is manifested as high temperature and pressure that can be translated into work by the engine. In a reciprocating engine, the high-pressure gases inside the cylinders drive the engine's pistons. Once the available energy has been removed, the remaining hot gases are vented (often by opening a valve or exposing the exhaust outlet) and this allows the piston to return to its previous position (top dead center, or TDC).

A catabolic pathway is a series of reactions that bring about a net release of energy in the form of a high energy phosphate bond formed with the energy carriers adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and guanosine diphosphate (GDP) to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and guanosine triphosphate (GTP), respectively. The net reaction is, therefore, thermodynamically favorable, for it results in a lower free energy for the final products. A catabolic pathway is an exergonic system that produces chemical energy in the form of ATP, GTP, NADH, NADPH, FADH2, etc. from energy containing sources such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

Fully recharged: Lead dioxide positive plate, Lead negative plate, and concentrated, aqueous sulfuric acid solution In the fully charged state, the negative plate consists of lead, and the positive plate is lead dioxide. The electrolyte solution has a higher concentration of aqueous sulfuric acid, which stores most of the chemical energy. Overcharging with high charging voltages generates oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis of water, which bubbles out and is lost. The design of some types of lead–acid battery allows the electrolyte level to be inspected and topped up with pure water to replace any that has been lost this way.

Instead of transferring the generated NADH, a malate dehydrogenase enzyme converts oxaloacetate to malate, which is translocated to the mitochondrial matrix. Another malate dehydrogenase-catalyzed reaction occurs in the opposite direction, producing oxaloacetate and NADH from the newly transported malate and the mitochondrion's interior store of NAD+. A transaminase converts the oxaloacetate to aspartate for transport back across the membrane and into the intermembrane space. In oxidative phosphorylation, the passage of electrons from NADH and FADH2 through the electron transport chain releases the chemical energy of O2 to pump protons out of the mitochondrial matrix and into the intermembrane space.

A typical flow battery consists of two tanks of liquids which are pumped past a membrane held between two electrodes. A flow battery, or redox flow battery (after reduction–oxidation), is a type of electrochemical cell where chemical energy is provided by two chemical components dissolved in liquids that are pumped through the system on separate sides of a membrane. Ion exchange (accompanied by flow of electric current) occurs through the membrane while both liquids circulate in their own respective space. Cell voltage is chemically determined by the Nernst equation and ranges, in practical applications, from 1.0 to 2.2 volts.

Most ceramic materials are almost entirely immune to corrosion. The strong chemical bonds that hold them together leave very little free chemical energy in the structure; they can be thought of as already corroded. When corrosion does occur, it is almost always a simple dissolution of the material or chemical reaction, rather than an electrochemical process. A common example of corrosion protection in ceramics is the lime added to soda-lime glass to reduce its solubility in water; though it is not nearly as soluble as pure sodium silicate, normal glass does form sub-microscopic flaws when exposed to moisture.

These acceptors can be the organic material itself or may be supplied by inorganic oxides from within the input material. When the oxygen source in an anaerobic system is derived from the organic material itself, the 'intermediate' end products are primarily alcohols, aldehydes, and organic acids, plus carbon dioxide. In the presence of specialised methanogens, the intermediates are converted to the 'final' end products of methane, carbon dioxide, and trace levels of hydrogen sulfide.Adapted from In an anaerobic system, the majority of the chemical energy contained within the starting material is released by methanogenic bacteria as methane.

The energy content of biofuel is a description of the chemical energy contained in a given biofuel, measured per unit mass of that fuel, as specific energy, or per unit of volume of the fuel, as energy density. A biofuel is a fuel, produced from living organisms. Biofuels include bioethanol, an alcohol made by fermentation—often used as a gasoline additive, and biodiesel, which is usually used as a diesel additive. Specific energy is energy per unit mass, which is used to describe the energy content of a fuel, expressed in SI units as joule per kilogram (J/kg) or equivalent units.

While the thermal efficiency (mechanical output to chemical energy in fuel) of petroleum engines has increased since the beginning of the automotive era, this is not the only factor in fuel economy. The design of automobile as a whole and usage pattern affects the fuel economy. Published fuel economy is subject to variation between jurisdiction due to variations in testing protocols. One of the first studies to determine fuel economy in the United States was the Mobil Economy Run, which was an event that took place every year from 1936 (except during World War II) to 1968.

Water oxidation is catalyzed by a manganese-containing cofactor contained in photosystem II known as the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) or water-splitting complex. Manganese is an important cofactor, and calcium and chloride are also required for the reaction to occur. The stoichiometry this reaction follows: : 2H2O ⟶ 4e− \+ 4H+ \+ O2 The protons are released into the thylakoid lumen, thus contributing to the generation of a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane. This proton gradient is the driving force for ATP synthesis via photophosphorylation and coupling the absorption of light energy and oxidation of water to the creation of chemical energy during photosynthesis.

Indirect calorimetry measures O2 consumption and CO2 production. On the assumption that all the oxygen is used to oxidize degradable fuels and all the CO2, thereby evolved is recovered, it is possible to calculate the total amount of energy produced. It should be clear that “energy production” means conversion of the chemical free-energy of nutrients into the chemical energy of ATP plus loss of some energy during the oxidation process. Respiratory indirect calorimetry, or indirect calorimetry (IC) as it is known by most authors, is a noninvasive and highly accurate method of metabolic rate which has an error rate lower than 1%.

One of the major triumphs of bioenergetics is Peter D. Mitchell's chemiosmotic theory of how protons in aqueous solution function in the production of ATP in cell organelles such as mitochondria. This work earned Mitchell the 1978 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Other cellular sources of ATP such as glycolysis were understood first, but such processes for direct coupling of enzyme activity to ATP production are not the major source of useful chemical energy in most cells. Chemiosmotic coupling is the major energy producing process in most cells, being utilized in chloroplasts and several single-cell organisms in addition to mitochondria.

A ram accelerator also uses chemical energy like the space gun but it is entirely different in that it relies on a jet-engine-like propulsion cycle utilizing ramjet and/or scramjet combustion processes to accelerate the projectile to extremely high speeds. It is a long tube filled with a mixture of combustible gases with a frangible diaphragm at either end to contain the gases. The projectile, which is shaped like a ram jet core, is fired by another means (e.g., a space gun, discussed above) supersonically through the first diaphragm into the end of the tube.

In biology, carbon source refers to the molecules used by an organism as the source of carbon for building its biomass. A carbon source can be an organic compound or an inorganic compound. Heterotrophs needs organic compounds as source of carbon and source of energy, while autotrophs can use inorganic compounds as carbon source and an abiotic sources of energy, as light (photoautotrophs) or inorganic chemical energy (chemolithotrophs). The biological use of carbon is part carbon cycle, where it starts from an inorganic source of carbon, such as carbon dioxide, that passes through the process of carbon fixation.

A giant isopod (Bathynomus giganteus) At this depth, there is not enough light for photosynthesis to occur and not enough oxygen to support animals with a high metabolism. To survive, creatures have slower metabolisms which require less oxygen; they can live for long periods without food. Most food either comes from organic material that falls from above or from eating other creatures that have derived their food through the process of chemosynthesis (the process of changing chemical energy into food energy). Because of the sparse distributions of creatures, there is always at least some oxygen and food.

Sketch of nuclear thermal rocket In a nuclear thermal rocket or solar thermal rocket a working fluid, usually hydrogen, is heated to a high temperature, and then expands through a rocket nozzle to create thrust. The energy replaces the chemical energy of the reactive chemicals in a traditional rocket engine. Due to the low molecular mass and hence high thermal velocity of hydrogen these engines are at least twice as fuel efficient as chemical engines, even after including the weight of the reactor. The US Atomic Energy Commission and NASA tested a few designs from 1959 to 1968.

Increased energy efficiency has allowed wastewater treatment plants to comply with discharge limits reducing the energy demand even up to 50% without affecting treatment performances. However, energy efficiency strategies by themselves are not sufficient to achieve independence from the electricity grid and fossil fuel-based energy sources. To achieve energy neutrality, multiple studies have looked at the feasibility of integrating a variety of renewable energy sources into wastewater treatment plants. The wastewater itself is a carrier of energy and a theoretical calculation, based on the characteristic of the sewage, shows that the composition of the embedded energy is 80% thermal energy and 20% chemical energy.

There are three paralogs of non-muscle myosin II (NM II), NM IIA, IIB, and IIC, with each having the heavy chain encoded on a different chromosome. All three paralogs appear to bind the same or very similar light chains and share basic properties as to structure and activation, but all three play distinct roles during vertebrate development and adulthood (for general reviews on NM IIs, see ). All NM IIs have two important features: they are MgATPase enzymes that can hydrolyze ATP thereby converting chemical energy into mechanical movement. In addition, they can form bipolar filaments which can interact with and exert tension on actin filaments.

The photosynthetic efficiency is the fraction of light energy converted into chemical energy during photosynthesis in green plants and algae. Photosynthesis can be described by the simplified chemical reaction :6 H2O + 6 CO2 \+ energy → C6H12O6 \+ 6 O2 where C6H12O6 is glucose (which is subsequently transformed into other sugars, cellulose, lignin, and so forth). The value of the photosynthetic efficiency is dependent on how light energy is defined – it depends on whether we count only the light that is absorbed, and on what kind of light is used (see Photosynthetically active radiation). It takes eight (or perhaps ten or moreRenewable biological systems for unsustainable energy production.

Green is the color between blue and yellow on the visible spectrum. It is evoked by light which has a dominant wavelength of roughly 495570 nm. In subtractive color systems, used in painting and color printing, it is created by a combination of yellow and blue, or yellow and cyan; in the RGB color model, used on television and computer screens, it is one of the additive primary colors, along with red and blue, which are mixed in different combinations to create all other colors. By far the largest contributor to green in nature is chlorophyll, the chemical by which plants photosynthesize and convert sunlight into chemical energy.

3D rendering of a computed tomography scan of a leaf Leaves are the most important organs of most vascular plants. Green plants are autotrophic, meaning that they do not obtain food from other living things but instead create their own food by photosynthesis. They capture the energy in sunlight and use it to make simple sugars, such as glucose and sucrose, from carbon dioxide and water. The sugars are then stored as starch, further processed by chemical synthesis into more complex organic molecules such as proteins or cellulose, the basic structural material in plant cell walls, or metabolized by cellular respiration to provide chemical energy to run cellular processes.

Gas vesicles are likely one of the most early mechanisms of motility among microscopic organisms due to the fact that it is the most widespread form of motility conserved within the genome of prokaryotes, some of which have evolved about 3 billion years ago. Modes of active motility such as flagella movement require a mechanism that could convert chemical energy into mechanical energy, and thus is much more complex and would have evolved later. Functions of the gas vesicles are also largely conserved among species, although the mode of regulation might differ, suggesting the importance of gas vesicles as a form of motility. In certain organism such as enterobacterium Serratia sp.

DoE. Internal combustion engines have thermodynamic limits on efficiency, expressed as fraction of energy used to propel the vehicle compared to energy produced by burning fuel. Gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories, and diesel engines can reach on-board efficiency of 20%, while electric vehicles have efficiencies of 69-72%, when counted against stored chemical energy, or around 59-62%, when counted against required energy to recharge. Electric motors are more efficient than internal combustion engines in converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. However, they are not equally efficient at all speeds.

In the Visual Cycle, exposure to light causes 11-cis-retinal to isomerize to all- trans-retinal (as part of the rhodopsin complex). The isomerisation results in the release of chemical energy, which is processed into an electrical signal (by a series of different cells) that is transmitted to the brain. The all- trans-retinal is released from opsin, reduced to all-trans-retinol, then transported from the photoreceptor cells back to the RPE cells, where it is stored for recycling and future use as retinol palmitate. The transportation of all-trans-retinal back to RPE cells is not 100% efficient, and a small amount of all-trans-retinal can escape.

Sucrose extracted from sugarcane accounts for little more than 30% of the chemical energy stored in the harvested parts of the mature plant; 35% is in the leaves and stem tips, which are left in the fields during harvest, and 35% are in the fibrous material (bagasse) left over from pressing. Most of the industrial processing of sugarcane in Brazil is done through a very integrated production chain, allowing sugar production, industrial ethanol processing, and electricity generation from byproducts. Report NWS-E-2006-110, The typical steps for large-scale production of sugar and ethanol include milling, electricity generation, fermentation, distillation of ethanol, and dehydration.

The XM1111 Mid-Range Munition (MRM) was a 120 mm precision guided munition developed for the Rheinmetall 120mm Gun (known as the "M256" in the US military) used by several Western tanks. It was also intended to fulfill a requirement for Future Combat Systems (canceled) for a long-range, Beyond Line of Sight tank munition. The U.S. Army awarded two contracts in a competition to validate the requirement, one for a kinetic energy penetrator round (MRM- KE) and one for a chemical energy HEAT warhead round (MRM-CE). In December 2007, Raytheon's CE-based concept was awarded the system-design-and- development contract to develop the round.

The MRM-CE uses a dual-mode MMW, imaging infrared (IIR) autonomous seeker or SAL is used to acquire and guide towards the target with high accuracy. The dual-mode seeker was developed and successfully demonstrated during a two-year, Army-managed science and technology program. MRM-CE refined seeker technology developed as part of the XM1007 Tank Extended Range Munition (TERM) program. For a beyond-line-of-sight mission, the chemical energy warhead was a better solution; with proven lethality against the primary target of threat armor, and better effects against the secondary targets of buildings, fortifications, and light armor than a less versatile kinetic energy penetrator.

The system uses a miniature EFP which penetrates the threat envelope and disintegrates RPGs at a safe distance from the vehicle. In the ATGM's case, the EFP will affect the chemical energy jet, dramatically decreasing its penetration capability into medium-sized platforms. Moreover, it has been proven in tests and wartime, that such a kill mechanism poses an extremely low risk to dismounts around the vehicle, and therefore does not affect usual combined arms tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTP). In order to provide thousands of systems to its customers, Rafael established the first Trophy production line in Israel in 2007, which began delivery in 2010.

Both types of paints have extensive application where artistic lighting effects are desired, particularly in "black box" entertainments and environments such as theaters, bars, shrines, etc. The effective wattage needed to light larger empty spaces increases exponentially, with narrow-band light such as UV wavelengths being rapidly scattered in outdoor environments. The fluorescent type of luminescence is different from the natural bioluminescence of bacteria, insects and fish such as the case of the firefly. Bio-luminescent material does not require illumination by any radiation to give off light, the light is generated from internal chemical energy in the organism (via the chemistry of Luciferin).

In the Summer of 2011, she moved to Germany and started to work as a W2-Professor and research group leader at the Max Planck Institute for Bioinorganic Chemistry (since 2012 Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion, MPI CEC) in Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany. Since 2012 she has held the position of an Adjunct Professor at Cornell University as well as an Honorary Faculty position at Ruhr University Bochum since 2014. DeBeer headed the research group "X-ray Spectroscopy" at MPI CEC until 2017 when she was appointed director at this institute and promoted to a W3-Professor. Currently she leads the department of "Inorganic Spectroscopy" at MPI CEC.

Macrovesicular steatosis is the more common form of fatty degeneration and may be caused by oversupply of lipids due to obesity, obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), insulin resistance, or alcoholism. Nutrient malnutrition may also cause the mobilisation of fat from adipocytes and create a local oversupply in the liver where lipid metabolism occurs. Excess alcohol over a long period of time can induce steatosis. The breakdown of large amounts of ethanol in alcoholic drinks produces large amounts of chemical energy in the form of NADH, signalling to the cell to inhibit the breakdown of fatty acids (which also produces energy) and simultaneously increase the synthesis of fatty acids.

The orange colour of carrots, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, oranges, and many other fruits and vegetables comes from carotenes, a type of photosynthetic pigment. These pigments convert the light energy that the plants absorb from the sun into chemical energy for the plants' growth. Similarly the hues of autumn leaves are from the same pigment after chlorophyll is removed. In Europe and America, surveys show that orange is the colour most associated with amusement, the unconventional, extroverts, warmth, fire, energy, activity, danger, taste and aroma, the autumn and Allhallowtide seasons, as well as having long been the national color of the Netherlands and the House of Orange.

The thermal decomposition of nitrate esters mainly yields the gases molecular nitrogen (N2) and carbon dioxide. The considerable chemical energy of the detonation is due to the high strength of the bond in molecular nitrogen. This stoichiometry is illustrated by the equation for the detonation of nitroglycerin. :420px Illustrative of the highly sensitive nature of some organic nitrates is Si(CH2ONO2)4.The Sila- Explosives Si(CH2N3)4 and Si(CH2ONO2)4: Silicon Analogues of the Common Explosives Pentaerythrityl Tetraazide, C(CH2N3)4, and Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate, C(CH2ONO2)4Thomas M. Klapötke, Burkhard Krumm, Rainer Ilg, Dennis Troegel, and Reinhold Tacke J. Am. Chem. Soc.

The freezing of water limits low temperature performance. The lithium battery, which does not (and cannot) use water in the electrolyte, provides improved performance over other types; a rechargeable lithium-ion battery is an essential part of many mobile devices. The flow battery, an experimental type, offers the option of vastly larger energy capacity because its reactants can be replenished from external reservoirs. The fuel cell can turn the chemical energy bound in hydrocarbon gases or hydrogen directly into electrical energy with much higher efficiency than any combustion process; such devices have powered many spacecraft and are being applied to grid energy storage for the public power system.

Photosynthesis is defined as a series of biochemical reactions that phototrophic cells perform to transform light energy to chemical energy and store it in carbon-carbon bonds of carbohydrates. As it is widely known, this process happens inside of the chloroplast of photosynthetic plant cells where light absorbing pigments can be found embedded in the membranes of structures called thylakoids. There are 2 main pigments present in the Photosystems of higher plants: chlorophyll (a or b) and carotenes. These pigments are organized to maximize the light reception and transfer, and they absorb specific wavelengths to broaden the amount of light that can be captured and used for photo-redox reactions.

In thermodynamic terms, all organic tissues are composed of chemical energy, which, when not maintained by the constant biochemical maintenance of the living organism, begin to chemically break down due to the reaction with water into amino acids, known as hydrolysis. The breakdown of the proteins of a decomposing body is a spontaneous process. Protein hydrolysis is accelerated as the anaerobic bacteria of the digestive tract consume, digest, and excrete the cellular proteins of the body. Putrefaction in human hands after several days of one of the Oba Chandler victims underwater in Florida, United States The bacterial digestion of the cellular proteins weakens the tissues of the body.

A turbo generator transforms the energy of pressurised steam into electrical energy Energy may be transformed between different forms at various efficiencies. Items that transform between these forms are called transducers. Examples of transducers include a battery, from chemical energy to electric energy; a dam: gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy of moving water (and the blades of a turbine) and ultimately to electric energy through an electric generator; or a heat engine, from heat to work. Examples of energy transformation include generating electric energy from heat energy via a steam turbine, or lifting an object against gravity using electrical energy driving a crane motor.

Biomachining is the machining process of using lithotropic bacteria to remove material from metal parts, contrasted with chemical machining methods such as chemical milling and physical machining methods such as milling. Certain bacteria, such as Thiobacillus ferrooxidans and Thiobacillus thiooxidans, which are also used in the mineral refinement process of bioleaching, utilize the chemical energy from oxidation of iron or copper to fix carbon dioxide from the air. A metal object, when placed in a culture fluid containing these metal-metabolizing bacteria, will have material removed from its surface over time. Biomachining is ideal for micromachining due to its very low material removal rate.

The compression process partially transforms the chemical energy of the explosives into the energy of an intense magnetic field surrounded by a correspondingly large electric current. The purpose of the flux generator can be either the generation of an extremely strong magnetic field pulse, or an extremely strong electric current pulse; in the latter case the closed conductor is attached to an external electric circuit. This technique has been used to create the most intense manmade magnetic fields on Earth; fields up to about 1000 teslas (about 1000 times the strength of a typical neodymium permanent magnet) can be created for a few microseconds.

In fact, some energy would be lost in converting water to hydrogen and then burning the hydrogen because some waste heat would always be produced in the conversions. Releasing chemical energy from water, in excess or in equal proportion to the energy required to facilitate such production, would therefore violate the first or second law of thermodynamics. Professor doubts water car claims – A leading alternative fuels expert throws water on Japanese company claims that it's developed the world's first car powered by just water. Professor Theodosios Korakianitis at Queen Mary University of London says water by itself would not be enough to get your car going.

CubeSat propulsion has made rapid advancements in the following technologies: cold gas, chemical propulsion, electric propulsion, and solar sails. The biggest challenge with CubeSat propulsion is preventing risk to the launch vehicle and its primary payload while still providing significant capability. Components and methods that are commonly used in larger satellites are disallowed or limited, and the CubeSat Design Specification (CDS) requires a waiver for pressurization above 1.2 standard atmospheres, over 100 Wh of stored chemical energy, and hazardous materials. Those restrictions pose great challenges for CubeSat propulsion systems, as typical space propulsion systems utilize combinations of high pressures, high energy densities, and hazardous materials.

The energy in fuel is required to overcome various losses (wind resistance, tire drag, and others) encountered while propelling the vehicle, and in providing power to vehicle systems such as ignition or air conditioning. Various strategies can be employed to reduce losses at each of the conversions between the chemical energy in the fuel and the kinetic energy of the vehicle. Driver behavior can affect fuel economy; maneuvers such as sudden acceleration and heavy braking waste energy. Electric cars do not directly burn fuel, and so do not have fuel economy per se, but equivalence measures, such as miles per gallon gasoline equivalent have been created to attempt to compare them.

Energy conversion by the inner mitochondrial membrane and chemiosmotic coupling between the chemical energy of redox reactions in the respiratory chain and the oxidative phosphorylation catalysed by the ATP synthase (sometimes called as "mitochondrial mushrooms"). The movement of ions across the membrane depends on a combination of two factors: # Diffusion force caused by a concentration gradient - all particles tend to diffuse from higher concentration to lower. # Electrostatic force caused by electrical potential gradient - cations like protons H+ tend to diffuse down the electrical potential, from the positive (P) side of the membrane to the negative (N) side. Anions diffuse spontaneously in the opposite direction.

Many organisms are capable of using hydrogen () as a source of energy. While several mechanisms of anaerobic hydrogen oxidation have been mentioned previously (e.g. sulfate reducing- and acetogenic bacteria), hydrogen can also be used to unlock the chemical energy of O2 in the aerobic Knallgas reaction: :2 H2 \+ O2 → 2 H2O + energy In these organisms, hydrogen is oxidized by a membrane-bound hydrogenase causing proton pumping via electron transfer to various quinones and cytochromes. In many organisms, a second cytoplasmic hydrogenase is used to generate reducing power in the form of NADH, which is subsequently used to fix carbon dioxide via the Calvin cycle.

The size of a farmer's holding and yield per unit area are limited by several things and paramount among them is the rapidity with which a family can weed its crops. More human labor may be expended to weed crops than on any other single human enterprise, and most of that labor is expended by women. Weed control in the Western world and other developed areas of the world is done by sophisticated machines and by substituting chemical energy (herbicides) for mechanical and human energy. There is a relationship between the way farmers control weeds and the ability of a nation to feed its people.

Halobacterium species can be found in the Great Salt Lake, the Dead Sea, Lake Magadi, and any other waters with high salt concentration. Purple Halobacterium species owe their color to bacteriorhodopsin, a light-sensitive protein which provides chemical energy for the cell by using sunlight to pump protons out of the cell. The resulting proton gradient across the cell membrane is used to drive the synthesis of the energy carrier ATP. Thus, when these protons flow back in, they are used in the synthesis of ATP (this proton flow can be emulated with a decrease in pH outside the cell, causing a flow of H+ ions).

However, the Abrams' turret features composite armoring across both the front and the sides. In addition, the side skirts of the frontal half of the hull are also made of composite, providing superior ballistic protection against chemical energy munitions such as HEAT rounds. The composition of the Abrams' composite armor consists of sandwiched plates of non-explosive reactive armor (NERA) between conventional steel plates. The NERA plates feature elasticity, allowing them to flex and distort upon perforation, disrupting the penetrating jets of shaped charges and providing more material and space for a kinetic round to pass through, thus providing increased protection compared to conventional steel armor of similar weight.

The World Federation of Industry Workers (WFIW) was a global union federation representing workers in a range of primary and secondary industries. The federation was formed on 14 October 1985, when the International Federation of Christian Miners' Unions merged with the International Federation for the Graphical Industries, the World Federation of Energy, Chemical and Various Industry Workers' Unions, and the World Federation for the Metallurgic Industry. Like all its predecessors, the union affiliated to the World Confederation of Labour (WCL). In 2004, the federation began discussing a merger with the International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and General Workers' Unions (ICEM), an affiliate of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU).

Mitochondria are sometimes described as "cellular power plants" because they generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a source of chemical energy. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been regarded as unwanted by-products of oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria by the proponents of the free-radical theory of aging promoted by Denham Harman. The free-radical theory suggests that the use of compounds which inactivate ROS, such as antioxidants, would lead to a reduction of oxidative stress and thereby produce an increase in lifespan. ROS may perform an essential and potentially lifespan-promoting role as redox signaling molecules which transduce signals from the mitochondrial compartment to other compartments of the cell.

485 Energy balance, through biosynthetic reactions, can be measured with the following equation: :Energy intake (from food and fluids) = Energy expended (through work and heat generated) + Change in stored energy (body fat and glycogen storage) The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. But energy can be converted from one form of energy to another. So, when a calorie of food energy is consumed, one of three particular effects occur within the body: a portion of that calorie may be stored as body fat, triglycerides, or glycogen, transferred to cells and converted to chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP – a coenzyme) or related compounds, or dissipated as heat.

Photocatalysis – from material design to engineering reactor system. Presentation given by Professor Amal on the occasion of her being elected a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science, 2014 Throughout her career, Amal's work has been focused on "fine particle aggregation, photocatalysis, nanoparticle synthesis" and their applications in areas such as the control of water pollution and air quality, clean energy technologies and biotechnology. She is particularly interested in designing nanomaterials and engineering systems for solar and chemical energy conversion applications. Some of her most cited works include a review on the role of nanoparticles in photocatalysis and a study on a bismuth vanadate-reduced graphene oxide composite for enhanced photoelectrochemical water splitting.

The term "energy" is used by writers and practitioners of various esoteric forms of spirituality and alternative medicine to refer to a variety of claimed experiences and phenomena that defy measurement and thus can be distinguished from the scientific form of energy. There is no scientific evidence for the existence of such energy and scientists and educators criticize the use of the term "energy" to describe the ideas as the promulgation of a misconception. It can also be seen as a mental energy that is totally distinct from chemical energy. Therapies that purport to use, modify, or manipulate unknown energies are thus among the most contentious of all complementary and alternative medicines.

The electron flow produced by the reaction center chlorophyll pigments is used to pump H+ ions across the thylakoid membrane, setting up a chemiosmotic potential used mainly in the production of ATP (stored chemical energy) or to reduce NADP+ to NADPH. NADPH is a universal agent used to reduce CO2 into sugars as well as other biosynthetic reactions. Reaction center chlorophyll–protein complexes are capable of directly absorbing light and performing charge separation events without the assistance of other chlorophyll pigments, but the probability of that happening under a given light intensity is small. Thus, the other chlorophylls in the photosystem and antenna pigment proteins all cooperatively absorb and funnel light energy to the reaction center.

The law of conservation of mass was challenged with the advent of special relativity. In one of the Annus Mirabilis papers of Albert Einstein in 1905, he suggested an equivalence between mass and energy. This theory implied several assertions, like the idea that internal energy of a system could contribute to the mass of the whole system, or that mass could be converted into electromagnetic radiation. However, as Max Planck pointed out, a change in mass as a result of extraction or addition of chemical energy, as predicted by Einstein's theory, is so small that it could not be measured with the available instruments and could not be presented as a test to the special relativity.

Alstom Coradia iLint, a hydrogen-powered passenger train, at InnoTrans 2016 Hydrail is the generic (not capitalized) adjective term describing all forms of rail vehicles, large or small, which use on-board hydrogen fuel as a source of energy to power the traction motors, or the auxiliaries, or both. Hydrail vehicles use the chemical energy of hydrogen for propulsion, either by burning hydrogen in a hydrogen internal combustion engine, or by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to run electric motors. Widespread use of hydrogen for fueling rail transportation is a basic element of the proposed hydrogen economy. The term is used extensively by research scholars and technicians around the world.

A key technology of a typical hydrogen propulsion system is the fuel cell. This device converts the chemical energy contained within the hydrogen in order to generate electricity, as well as water and heat. As such, a fuel cell would operate in a manner that is essentially inverse to the electrolysis process used to create the fuel; consuming pure hydrogen to produce electricity rather than consuming electrical energy to produce hydrogen, albeit incurring some level of energy losses in the exchange. Reportedly, the efficiency of converting electricity to hydrogen and back again is just beneath 30 per cent, roughly similar to contemporary diesel engines but less than conventional electric traction using overhead catenary wires.

5'-guanosyl-methylene-triphosphate 5'-adenosyl-methylene-triphosphate 5'-guanosyl-methylene-triphosphate (GDPCP) and 5'-adenosyl-methylene- triphosphate (ADPCP) are analogues of guanosine 5'-triphosphate (GTP) and adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP), which store chemical energy from metabolism in the cell. Hydrolysis of nucleoside triphosphates (NTPs) such as ATP and GTP yields energy, inorganic phosphate (Pi or PPi), and either NDP or NMP. GDPCP and ADPCP are not subject to hydrolysis under the same conditions as NTPs; it is this property which makes them useful in experiments in biochemistry and molecular biology. NTPs can be hydrolyzed at the phosphodiester bonds between phosphates, releasing energy and one or more of the three phosphate groups.

An account of the evening recalled: > "He proceeded to state that photography had revealed the fact that > photographically active rays extended a distance of nine or ten times the > length of the visual spectrum. and both from the ultra violet and the infra > red portion of the spectrum; there emanated a long series of rays which, > though quite invisible, possessed chemical energy and heat, and with which > it was quite possible to make radiographs through many opaque substances, > and it was supposed that somehow in these outskirts of the spectrum, the > X-rays would be found if they are associated with light at all." Sutton then explained the apparatus he had prepared to demonstrate.

At very high speeds the mechanical power imparted to the rocket can exceed the total power liberated in the combustion of the propellant; this may also seem to violate conservation of energy. But the propellants in a fast-moving rocket carry energy not only chemically, but also in their own kinetic energy, which at speeds above a few kilometres per second exceed the chemical component. When these propellants are burned, some of this kinetic energy is transferred to the rocket along with the chemical energy released by burning. The Oberth effect can therefore partly make up for what is extremely low efficiency early in the rocket's flight when it is moving only slowly.

This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into useful work. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1860 and the first modern internal combustion engine was created in 1876 by Nicolaus Otto (see Otto engine). The term internal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in which combustion is intermittent, such as the more familiar four-stroke and two-stroke piston engines, along with variants, such as the six-stroke piston engine and the Wankel rotary engine. A second class of internal combustion engines use continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet engines and most rocket engines, each of which are internal combustion engines on the same principle as previously described.

After completing her PhD, Dyson joined the University of California, Berkeley and worked as a postdoctoral researcher at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Stanford University, University of California San Francisco, and Princeton University. She worked as a management consultant at Boston Consulting Group between 2004 and 2006, where she helped multi-national companies manage and run their business. She has worked with the chemical, energy, transportation, travel, automotive, packaging, and telecommunications industries. In 2008 she co-founded Kiverdi with Dr. John Reed, a biotechnology company that uses microbes to turn carbon dioxide and carbon-rich waste, such as wood and agricultural residue, into alternative fuels, protein replacements, oils, and biodegradable materials for applications such as food and agriculture.

Structure of ATP Structure of ADP Four possible resonance structures for orthophosphate ATP hydrolysis is the catabolic reaction process by which chemical energy that has been stored in the high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is released by splitting these bonds, for example in muscles, by producing work in the form of mechanical energy. The product is adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and an inorganic phosphate, orthophosphate (Pi). ADP can be further hydrolyzed to give energy, adenosine monophosphate (AMP), and another orthophosphate (Pi). ATP hydrolysis is the final link between the energy derived from food or sunlight and useful work such as muscle contraction, the establishment of electrochemical gradients across membranes, and biosynthetic processes necessary to maintain life.

A flow battery is a rechargeable fuel cell in which an electrolyte containing one or more dissolved electroactive elements flows through an electrochemical cell that reversibly converts chemical energy directly to electricity. Electroactive elements are "elements in solution that can take part in an electrode reaction or that can be adsorbed on the electrode." Additional electrolyte is stored externally, generally in tanks, and is usually pumped through the cell (or cells) of the reactor, although gravity feed systems are also known. Flow batteries can be rapidly "recharged" by replacing the electrolyte liquid (in a similar way to refilling fuel tanks for internal combustion engines) while simultaneously recovering the spent material for re-energization.

The mass–energy equivalence formula was displayed on Taipei 101 during the event of the World Year of Physics 2005. Mass–energy equivalence states that all massive objects have intrinsic energy in the form of mass, even when they are stationary. In the rest frame of the object, where it has no momentum, the mass and energy are equivalent and they differ only by a constant, the speed of light squared. In Newtonian mechanics, a motionless body has no kinetic energy, and it may or may not have other amounts of internal stored energy, like chemical energy or thermal energy, in addition to any potential energy it may have from its position in a field of force.

Most Planck units are extremely small, as in the case of Planck length or Planck time, or extremely large, as in the case of Planck temperature or Planck acceleration. For comparison, the Planck energy is approximately equal to the energy stored in an automobile gas tank (57.2 L of gasoline at 34.2 MJ/L of chemical energy). The ultra-high-energy cosmic ray observed in 1991 had a measured energy of about 50 J, equivalent to about 2.5×10−8 . Theoretically, the highest energy photon carries about 1 of energy (see Ultra-high-energy gamma ray), and any further increase of energy (trans-Planckian photon) will make it indistinguishable from a Planck particle carrying the same momentum.

Because of this, energy release behind the shock is able to be transported acoustically to the shock for its support. For a self-propagating detonation, the shock relaxes to a speed given by the Chapman–Jouguet condition, which induces the material at the end of the reaction zone to have a locally sonic speed in the reference frame in which the shock is stationary. In effect, all of the chemical energy is harnessed to propagate the shock wave forward. However, in the 1960s, experiments revealed that gas-phase detonations were most often characterized by unsteady, three- dimensional structures, which can only in an averaged sense be predicted by one-dimensional steady theories.

Similarly, the International Federation of Pottery Workers dissolved before World War II, and in 1947, the federation held the first conference of its new pottery industry section. In 1954, it held a conference for the rubber industry. In 1950, the federation was renamed as the International Federation of Industrial Organisations and General Workers' Unions (IFF), and then in 1964 it became the International Federation of Chemical and General Workers' Unions (ICF). At this time, the organisation was in competition with the International Federation of Petroleum and Chemical Workers, but that collapsed in 1976, with many of its affiliates joining the IFCGW, which renamed itself as the International Federation of Chemical, Energy and General Workers' Unions (ICEF).

Type 212 submarine with fuel cell propulsion of the German Navy in dock Siemens has developed a 30–50 kilowatt fuel cell unit, a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel and oxidiser into electricity. Fuel cells differ from batteries in that they require a continuous source of fuel (such as hydrogen) and oxygen, which are carried in the vessel in pressurized tanks, to sustain the chemical reaction. Nine of these units are incorporated into Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft AG's 1,830 t submarine , lead ship for the Type 212A of the German Navy. The other boats of this class and HDW's AIP equipped export submarines (, Type 209 mod and Type 214) use two modules, also from Siemens.

Most crop plants store ~0.25% to 0.5% of the sunlight in the product (corn kernels, potato starch, etc.), sugar cane is exceptional in several ways to yield peak storage efficiencies of ~8%. Ethanol fuel in Brazil has a calculation that results in: "Per hectare per year, the biomass produced corresponds to 0.27 TJ. This is equivalent to 0.86 W/m2. Assuming an average insolation of 225 W/m2, the photosynthetic efficiency of sugar cane is 0.38%." Sucrose accounts for little more than 30% of the chemical energy stored in the mature plant; 35% is in the leaves and stem tips, which are left in the fields during harvest, and 35% are in the fibrous material (bagasse) left over from pressing.

In February 2012, Nocera agreed to move his research group to the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology at Harvard University in Cambridge, MA, where he became the Patterson Rockwood Professor of Energy. Nocera's major areas of interest are in biological and chemical energy conversion, focusing on mechanisms at the molecular level and the photogeneration of hydrogen and oxygen. His work on artificial photosynthesis grows out of his basic research into mechanisms of energy conversion in biology and chemistry, particularly those involving multielectron excited states and proton coupled electron transfer (PCET). Nocera argues that a better understanding of the photosynthesis process is essential to the development of energy strategies, because solar energy has the potential to scale up to meet long-term energy demands.

Because of his powers and connection to the Speed Force, he can run at varying speeds for extended periods of time without needing rest or causing damage to his body. It is his connection to the Speed Force that constantly rejuvenates him while running, making it so he does not literally feed upon his own body to generate the energy for super speed. Even so, he has a sped up metabolism and finds it necessary to eat often and in great quantities to help supply the chemical energy needed. Using his abilities, Wally can run at such speed that he can run on water, create powerful vortices with his arms or body, and vibrate at such speeds that he becomes invisible to the naked eye.

From 1983 to 1984 he worked as a Max Kade Fellow at UC San Diego in the Physics Department with George Feher on EPR and ENDOR in photosynthesis. In 1989 he became an associate professor of experimental physics at the University of Stuttgart. In 1991 he returned to Berlin as a Full Professor and Chair of Physical Chemistry at the Max Volmer Institute at the Technical University Berlin. He stayed until 2000 when he became a Scientific Member of the Max Planck Society and Director at the Max Planck Institute for Radiation Chemistry (in 2003 renamed Max Planck Institute for Bioinorganic Chemistry and in 2012 Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion) in Mülheim an der Ruhr, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.

One of the main offerings of a hydrogen economy is that the fuel can replace the fossil fuel burned in internal combustion engines and turbines as the primary way to convert chemical energy into kinetic or electrical energy, thereby eliminating greenhouse gas emissions and pollution from that engine. Ad van Wijk, a professor at Future Energy Systems TU Delft also mentions that hydrogen is better for larger vehicles - such as trucks, buses and ships - than electric batteries. This because a 1 kg battery, , can store 0.1 kWh of energy whereas 1 kg of hydrogen has a usable capacity of 33 kWh. Although hydrogen can be used in conventional internal combustion engines, fuel cells, being electrochemical, have a theoretical efficiency advantage over heat engines.

This is the case with the conversion of diamond to lower energy graphite at atmospheric pressure, in such a reaction diamond is considered metastable and will not be observed converting into graphite. If the products are higher in chemical energy than the reactants then the reaction will require energy to be performed and is therefore an endergonic reaction. Additionally if the product is less stable than a reactant, then Leffler's assumption holds that the transition state will more closely resemble the product than the reactant. Sometimes the product will differ significantly enough from the reactant that it is easily purified following the reaction such as when a product is insoluble and precipitates out of solution while the reactants remained dissolved.

In the United States, in 1885, the chemist Russell S. Penniman invented "ammonium dynamite", a form of explosive that used ammonium nitrate as a substitute for the more costly nitroglycerin. Ammonium nitrate has only 85% of the chemical energy of nitroglycerin. It is rated by either "weight strength" (the amount of ammonium nitrate in the medium) or "cartridge strength" (the potential explosive strength generated by an amount of explosive of a certain density and grain size used in comparison to the explosive strength generated by an equivalent density and grain size of a standard explosive). For example, high-explosive 65% Extra Dynamite has a weight strength of 65% ammonium nitrate and 35% "dope" (the absorbent medium mixed with the stabilizers and additives).

Species, including humans, known to possess animal cognition require large amounts of energy, and have adapted to specific conditions, including an abundance of atmospheric oxygen and the availability of large quantities of chemical energy synthesized from radiant energy. If humans are to colonize other planets, true Earth analogs in the CHZ are most likely to provide the closest natural habitat; this concept was the basis of Stephen H. Dole's 1964 study. With suitable temperature, gravity, atmospheric pressure and the presence of water, the necessity of spacesuits or space habitat analogues on the surface may be eliminated, and complex Earth life can thrive. Planets in the CHZ remain of paramount interest to researchers looking for intelligent life elsewhere in the universe.

Nucleotides are composed of three subunit molecules: a nitrogenous base (also known as nucleobase), a five-carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and a phosphate group consisting of one to three phosphates. The four nitrogenous bases in DNA are guanine, adenine, cytosine and thymine; in RNA, uracil is used in place of thymine. Nucleotides also play a central role in metabolism at a fundamental, cellular level. They provide chemical energy—in the form of the nucleoside triphosphates, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), guanosine triphosphate (GTP), cytidine triphosphate (CTP) and uridine triphosphate (UTP)—throughout the cell for the many cellular functions that demand energy, including: amino acid, protein and cell membrane synthesis, moving the cell and cell parts (both internally and intercellularly), cell division, etc.

Grid energy storage is a collection of methods used for energy storage on a large scale within an electrical power grid. Common examples of energy storage are the rechargeable battery, which stores chemical energy readily convertible to electricity to operate a mobile phone, the hydroelectric dam, which stores energy in a reservoir as gravitational potential energy, and ice storage tanks, which store ice frozen by cheaper energy at night to meet peak daytime demand for cooling. Fossil fuels such as coal and gasoline store ancient energy derived from sunlight by organisms that later died, became buried and over time were then converted into these fuels. Food (which is made by the same process as fossil fuels) is a form of energy stored in chemical form.

Diesel's idea of a rational heat motor was designing a cycle that would allow maximum heat utilisation, based on the Carnot cycle. To overcome the low efficiency of steam and combustion engines of the time, Diesel wanted to build an entirely new type of internal combustion engine. In the 1890s, regular gas engines were capable of transforming only 6% of the fuel energy into kinetic energy; good triple expansion steam engines were slightly better than that, they could convert 7.2% of the fuel energy into kinetic energy. Diesel said that his rational heat motor has a thermal efficiency of 73%, thus being capable of converting approximately ″6 to 7-times as much″ chemical energy into kinetic energy, meaning that it has an efficiency of approximately 50%.

Thus, the rest of this chemical energy is transformed into heat that in turn produces body temperatures significantly greater than those of the ambient. These high temperatures at which flight muscles work impose a constraint on low temperature take-off because an insect at rest has its flight muscles at ambient temperature, which is not the optimal temperature for these muscles to function. So, heterothermic insects have adapted to make use of the excess heat produced by flight muscles to increase their thoracic temperature pre-flight. Both the dorsolongitudinal muscles (which flip down the wings during flight) and the dorsoventral muscles (which cause the wings to flip upward during flight) are involved in the pre-flight warm-up behavior but in a slightly different way.

In 1903 Chlorophylls a and b were separated by thin layer chromatography then, through the 1920s and 1930s, biochemists, notably Hans Krebs (1900–1981) and Carl (1896–1984) and Gerty Cori (1896–1957) began tracing out the central metabolic pathways of life. Between the 1930s and 1950s it was determined that ATP, located in mitochondria, was the source of cellular chemical energy and the constituent reactions of photosynthesis were progressively revealed. Then, in 1944 DNA was extracted for the first time. Along with these revelations there was the discovery of plant hormones or "growth substances", notably auxins, (1934) gibberellins (1934) and cytokinins (1964) and the effects of photoperiodism, the control of plant processes, especially flowering, by the relative lengths of day and night.

The Entomopter is propelled by a pair of flapping wings driven by a Reciprocating Chemical Muscle (RCM) which is capable of generating autonomic wing beating from a chemical energy source without an ignition source, combustion, or atmospheric oxygen. Through direct conversion, the RCM also provides small amounts of electricity for onboard systems and further provides differential lift enhancement on the wings through circulation control (Coanda effect) to achieve pitch, roll, yaw, and heave to effect steered flight. In addition, the RCM propulsion system is anaerobic, which would allow it to function without oxidizers, for example, in the carbon dioxide Mars atmosphere. The Entomopter performs obstacle avoidance and altimetry through the use of a frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) acoustic transmission created from the waste gas product from fuel decomposition within the RCM.

In 1937, Hans Adolf Krebs, who discovered the citric acid cycle bearing his name, confirmed the anaerobic dismutation of pyruvic acid into lactic acid, acetic acid and CO2 by certain bacteria according to the global reaction: :2 pyruvic acid + H2O → lactic acid + acetic acid + CO2 The dismutation of pyruvic acid in other small organic molecules (ethanol + CO2, or lactate and acetate, depending on the environmental conditions) is also an important step in fermentation reactions. Fermentation reactions can also be considered as disproportionation or dismutation biochemical reactions. Indeed, the donor and acceptor of electrons in the redox reactions supplying the chemical energy in these complex biochemical systems are the same organic molecules simultaneously acting as reductant or oxidant. Another example of biochemical dismutation reaction is the disproportionation of acetaldehyde into ethanol and acetic acid.

Because the vehicle remains near periapsis only for a short time, for the Oberth maneuver to be most effective the vehicle must be able to generate as much impulse as possible in the shortest possible time. As a result the Oberth maneuver is much more useful for high-thrust rocket engines like liquid-propellant rockets, and less useful for low-thrust reaction engines such as ion drives, which take a long time to gain speed. The Oberth effect also can be used to understand the behavior of multi-stage rockets: the upper stage can generate much more usable kinetic energy than the total chemical energy of the propellants it carries. The Oberth effect occurs because the propellant has more usable energy due to its kinetic energy in addition to its chemical potential energy.

DNA uses the deoxynucleotides C, G, A, and T, while RNA uses the ribonucleotides (which have an extra hydroxyl(OH) group on the pentose ring) C, G, A, and U. Modified bases are fairly common (such as with methyl groups on the base ring), as found in ribosomal RNA or transfer RNAs or for discriminating the new from old strands of DNA after replication. Each nucleotide is made of an acyclic nitrogenous base, a pentose and one to three phosphate groups. They contain carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and phosphorus. They serve as sources of chemical energy (adenosine triphosphate and guanosine triphosphate), participate in cellular signaling (cyclic guanosine monophosphate and cyclic adenosine monophosphate), and are incorporated into important cofactors of enzymatic reactions (coenzyme A, flavin adenine dinucleotide, flavin mononucleotide, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate).

Succinate is a key intermediate in the tricarboxylic acid cycle, a primary metabolic pathway used to produce chemical energy in the presence of O2. Succinate is generated from succinyl-CoA by the enzyme succinyl-CoA synthetase in a GTP/ATP-producing step: Succinyl-CoA + NDP + Pi → Succinate + CoA + NTP Catalyzed by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), succinate is subsequently oxidized to fumarate: Succinate + FAD → Fumarate + FADH2 SDH also participates in the mitochondrial electron transport chain, where it is known as respiratory Complex 2. This enzyme complex is a 4 subunit membrane-bound lipoprotein which couples the oxidation of succinate to the reduction of ubiquinone via the intermediate electron carriers FAD and three 2Fe-2S clusters. Succinate thus serves as a direct electron donor to the electron transport chain, and itself is converted into fumarate.

This strain can be only be lowered by the clockwise rotation of the triptycene rotor in d, as both counterclockwise rotation as well as the inverse process of d are energetically unfavorable. In this respect the preference for the rotation direction is determined by both the positions of the functional groups and the shape of the helicene and is thus built into the design of the molecule instead of dictated by external factors. The motor by Kelly and co-workers is an elegant example of how chemical energy can be used to induce controlled, unidirectional rotational motion, a process which resembles the consumption of ATP in organisms in order to fuel numerous processes. However, it does suffer from a serious drawback: the sequence of events that leads to 120° rotation is not repeatable.

Solar sails (also called light sails or photon sails) are a form of spacecraft propulsion using the radiation pressure (also called solar pressure) from stars to push large ultra-thin mirrors to high speeds, requiring no propellant. Force from a solar sail scales with the sail's area, this makes sails well suited for use in CubeSats as their small mass results in the greater acceleration for a given solar sail's area. However, solar sails still need to be quite large compared to the satellite, which means useful solar sails must be deployed, adding mechanical complexity and a potential source of failure. This propulsion method is the only one not plagued with restrictions set by the CubeSat Design Specification, as it does not require high pressures, hazardous materials, or significant chemical energy.

A generic icy moon will consist of a water layer sitting atop a silicate core. For a small satellite like Enceladus, an ocean will sit directly above the silicates and below a solid icy shell, but for a larger ice-rich body like Ganymede, pressures are sufficiently high that the ice at depth will transform to higher pressure phases, effectively forming a "water sandwich" with an ocean located between ice shells. An important difference between these two cases is that for the small satellite the ocean is in direct contact with the silicates, which may provide hydrothermal and chemical energy and nutrients to simple life forms. Because of the varying pressure at depth, models of a water world may include "steam, liquid, superfluid, high-pressure ices, and plasma phases" of water.

Energy is typically stored within electrostatic fields (capacitors), magnetic fields (inductors), as mechanical energy (using large flywheels connected to special- purpose high-current alternators), or as chemical energy (high-current lead- acid batteries, or explosives). By releasing the stored energy over a very short interval (a process that is called energy compression), a huge amount of peak power can be delivered to a load. For example, if one joule of energy is stored within a capacitor and then evenly released to a load over one second, the average power delivered to the load would only be 1 watt. However, if all of the stored energy were released within one microsecond, the average power over one second would still be one watt, but the instantaneous peak power would be one megawatt, a million times greater.

Later, as armour became thicker on newer models, the effectiveness of a man-portable rifle lessened. This was particularly true in Malaya, where the light Japanese tanks specially configured for jungle conflict rode roughshod over British forces supplied with the Boys anti-tank rifle. At first small cannons up to 20mm calibre were used, but the anti-tank role soon required more powerful weapons which were based on the application of chemical energy in the form of the shaped charge anti-tank rifle grenade. To these were added rocket launchers such as the bazooka, recoilless rifles such as the Panzerfaust, and rocket-propelled grenades — some anti-armour successes were achieved with heavy-calibre autocannon by the Luftwaffe, especially with the Bordkanone BK 3,7 autocannon, mounted in twin gun pods against Soviet armour on the Eastern Front.

In addition to reduce the voltage required for electrolysis via the increasing of the temperature of the electrolysis cell it is also possible to electrochemically consume the oxygen produced in an electrolyser by introducing a fuel (such as carbon/coal, methanol, ethanol, formic acid, glycerol, etc.) into the oxygen side of the reactor. This reduces the required electrical energy and has the potential to reduce the cost of hydrogen to less than 40~60% with the remaining energy provided in this manner. In addition, carbon/hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis (CAWE) has the potential to offer a less energy intensive, cleaner method of using chemical energy in various sources of carbon, such as low-rank and high sulfur coals, biomass, alcohols and methane (Natural Gas), where pure CO2 produced can be easily sequestered without the need for separation.

Compared to the IG 37 and IG 42 which weighed the Pak 50 was much heavier and its maximum elevation of +27° was less than either of the infantry support guns. Its lack of elevation would suggest it was a direct-fire instead of an indirect-fire weapon and its weight would indicate it fired a larger projectile than the infantry support guns. It's possible it used a shell smaller than the fixed 75×714mm R shell from the Pak 40 and rather than firing a conventional armor-piercing round it could have fired a HEAT round. The advantage is if it fired a HEAT round the size of the propellant charge, its muzzle velocity and amount of recoil could all be lessened since HEAT rounds rely on chemical energy to penetrate armor and not velocity.

There are more than 352 thermochemical cycles which can be used for water splitting,UNLV Thermochemical cycle automated scoring database (public) around a dozen of these cycles such as the iron oxide cycle, cerium(IV) oxide-cerium(III) oxide cycle, zinc zinc-oxide cycle, sulfur-iodine cycle, copper-chlorine cycle and hybrid sulfur cycle are under research and in testing phase to produce hydrogen and oxygen from water and heat without using electricity. These processes can be more efficient than high-temperature electrolysis, typical in the range from 35% - 49% LHV efficiency. Thermochemical production of hydrogen using chemical energy from coal or natural gas is generally not considered, because the direct chemical path is more efficient. None of the thermochemical hydrogen production processes have been demonstrated at production levels, although several have been demonstrated in laboratories.

Zirconia has been proposed to electrolyze carbon monoxide and oxygen from the atmosphere of Mars to provide both fuel and oxidizer that could be used as a store of chemical energy for use with surface transportation on Mars. Carbon monoxide/oxygen engines have been suggested for early surface transportation use as both carbon monoxide and oxygen can be straightforwardly produced by zirconia electrolysis without requiring use of any of the Martian water resources to obtain hydrogen, which would be needed for the production of methane or any hydrogen-based fuels. Zirconia can be used as photocatalyst since its high band gap (~ 5 eV) allows the generation of high energetic electrons and holes. Some studies demonstrated the activity of doped zirconia (in order to increase visible light absorption) in degrading organic compounds and reducing Cr(VI) from wastewaters.

Diagram of mechanisms of euxinia in the Canfield Ocean The basic requirements for the formation of euxinic conditions are the absence of oxygen (O2), and the presence of sulfate ions (SO42−), organic matter (CH2O), and bacteria capable of reducing sulfate to hydrogen sulfide (H2S). The bacteria utilize the redox potential of sulfate as an oxidant and organic matter as a reductant to generate chemical energy through cellular respiration. The chemical species of interest can be represented via the reaction: 2CH2O + SO42− → H2S + 2HCO3− In the reaction above, the sulfur has been reduced to form the byproduct hydrogen sulfide, the characteristic compound present in water under euxinic conditions. Although sulfate reduction occurs in waters throughout the world, most modern-day aquatic habitats are oxygenated due to photosynthetic production of oxygen and gas exchange between the atmosphere and surface water.

The three primary elements of such artificial cells are the formation of a lipid membrane, DNA and RNA replication through a template process and the harvesting of chemical energy for active transport across the membrane. The main hurdles foreseen and encountered with this proposed protocell are the creation of a minimal synthetic DNA that holds all sufficient information for life, and the reproduction of non-genetic components that are integral in cell development such as molecular self-organization. However, it is hoped that this kind of bottom-up approach would provide insight into the fundamental questions of organizations at the cellular level and the origins of biological life. So far, no completely artificial cell capable of self-reproduction has been synthesized using the molecules of life, and this objective is still in a distant future although various groups are currently working towards this goal.

James Prescott Joule first published in December 1840, an abstract in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, suggesting that heat could be generated by an electrical current. Joule immersed a length of wire in a fixed mass of water and measured the temperature rise due to a known current flowing through the wire for a 30 minute period. By varying the current and the length of the wire he deduced that the heat produced was proportional to the square of the current multiplied by the electrical resistance of the immersed wire. In 1841 and 1842, subsequent experiments showed that the amount of heat generated was proportional to the chemical energy used in the voltaic pile that generated the template This led Joule to reject the caloric theory (at that time the dominant theory) in favor of the mechanical theory of heat (according to which heat is another form of energy).

If the charges are moved by an 'exterior force' through the device in the direction from the lower electric potential to the higher, (so positive charge moves from the negative to the positive terminal), work will be done on the charges, and energy is being converted to electric potential energy from some other type of energy, such as mechanical energy or chemical energy. Devices in which this occurs are called active devices or power sources; such as electric generators and batteries. Some devices can be either a source or a load, depending on the voltage and current through them. For example, a rechargeable battery acts as a source when it provides power to a circuit, but as a load when it is connected to a battery charger and is being recharged, or a generator as a power source and a motor as a load.

According to the currently accepted laws of physics, there is no way to extract chemical energy from water alone. Water itself is highly stable—it was one of the classical elements and contains very strong chemical bonds. Its enthalpy of formation is negative (-68.3 kcal/mol or -285.8 kJ/mol), meaning that energy is required to break those stable bonds, to separate water into its elements, and there are no other compounds of hydrogen and oxygen with more negative enthalpies of formation, meaning that no energy can be released in this manner either. Most proposed water-fuelled cars rely on some form of electrolysis to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen and then recombine them to release energy; however, because the energy required to separate the elements will always be at least as great as the useful energy released, this cannot be used to produce net energy.

In a nuclear thermal rocket a working fluid, usually liquid hydrogen, is heated to a high temperature in a nuclear reactor, and then expands through a rocket nozzle to create thrust. The nuclear reactor's energy replaces the chemical energy of the reactive chemicals in a chemical rocket engine. Due to the higher energy density of the nuclear fuel compared to chemical fuels, about 107 times, the resulting specific impulse of the engine is at least twice as good as chemical engines. The overall gross lift-off mass of a nuclear rocket is about half that of a chemical rocket, and hence when used as an upper stage it roughly doubles or triples the payload carried to orbit. A nuclear engine was considered for some time as a replacement for the J-2 used on the S-II and S-IVB stages on the Saturn V and Saturn I rockets.

Cathode polarity with respect to the anode can be positive or negative depending on how the device is being operated. Positively charged cations always move towards the cathode and negatively charged anions move towards the anode, although cathode polarity depends on the device type, and can even vary according to the operating mode. In a device which absorbs energy of charge (such as recharging a battery), the cathode is negative (electrons flow into the cathode, and charge flows out of it), and in a device which provides energy (such as battery in use), the cathode is positive (electrons flow into it and charge flows out): A battery or galvanic cell in use has a cathode that is the positive terminal since that is where the current flows out of the device. This outward current is carried internally by positive ions moving from the electrolyte to the positive cathode (chemical energy is responsible for this "uphill" motion).

The goals of the mission are derived directly from the most recent decadal survey: first, to determine primordial sources of organics and the sites of organic synthesis today; and second, to determine if there are current habitats in Enceladus where the conditions for life could exist today, and if life exists there now. To achieve these goals, the ELF mission has three objectives: #To measure abundances of a carefully selected set of neutral species, some of which were detected by Cassini, to ascertain whether the organics and volatiles coming from Enceladus have been thermally altered over time. #To determine the details of the interior marine environment -- pH, oxidation state, available chemical energy, and temperature -- that permit characterization of the life- carrying capacity of the interior. #To look for indications that organics are the result of biological processes through three independent types of chemical measurements that are widely recognized as diagnostic of life.

The subject of study in biochemistry is the chemical processes in living organisms, and its history involves the discovery and understanding of the complex components of life and the elucidation of pathways of biochemical processes. Much of biochemistry deals with the structures and functions of cellular components such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and other biomolecules; their metabolic pathways and flow of chemical energy through metabolism; how biological molecules give rise to the processes that occur within living cells; it also focuses on the biochemical processes involved in the control of information flow through biochemical signalling, and how they relate to the functioning of whole organisms. Over the last 40 years the field has had success in explaining living processes such that now almost all areas of the life sciences from botany to medicine are engaged in biochemical research. Among the vast number of different biomolecules, many are complex and large molecules (called polymers), which are composed of similar repeating subunits (called monomers).

The SI unit of energy is the joule, which is the energy transferred to an object by the work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton. Common forms of energy include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the potential energy stored by an object's position in a force field (gravitational, electric or magnetic), the elastic energy stored by stretching solid objects, the chemical energy released when a fuel burns, the radiant energy carried by light, and the thermal energy due to an object's temperature. Mass and energy are closely related. Due to mass–energy equivalence, any object that has mass when stationary (called rest mass) also has an equivalent amount of energy whose form is called rest energy, and any additional energy (of any form) acquired by the object above that rest energy will increase the object's total mass just as it increases its total energy.

The energy released in oxidative phosphorylation can mostly be attributed to O2 with its relatively weak double bond. The transport of electrons from redox pair NAD+/ NADH to the final redox pair 1/2 O2/ H2O can be summarized as 1/2 O2 \+ NADH + H+ → H2O + NAD+ The potential difference between these two redox pairs is 1.14 volt, which is equivalent to -52 kcal/mol or -2600 kJ per 6 mol of O2. When one NADH is oxidized through the electron transfer chain, three ATPs are produced, which is equivalent to 7.3 kcal/mol x 3 = 21.9 kcal/mol. The conservation of the energy can be calculated by the following formula Efficiency = (21.9 x 100%) / 52 = 42% So we can conclude that when NADH is oxidized, about 42% of energy is conserved in the form of three ATPs and the remaining (58%) energy is lost as heat (unless the chemical energy of ATP under physiological conditions was underestimated).

Hollywood and video game depictions of firearm shooting victims being thrown several feet backwards are inaccurate, although not for the often-cited reason of conservation of energy, which would also be in error because conservation of momentum would apply. Although energy (and momentum) must be conserved (in a closed system), this does not mean that the kinetic energy or momentum of the bullet must be fully deposited into the target in a manner that causes it to fly dramatically away. For example, a bullet fired from an M16 rifle has approximately 1763 joules of kinetic energy as it leaves the muzzle, but the recoil energy of the gun is less than 7 joules. Despite this imbalance, energy is still conserved because the total energy in the system before firing (the chemical energy stored in the propellant) is equal to the total energy after firing (the kinetic energy of the recoiling firearm, plus the kinetic energy of the bullet and other ejecta, plus the heat energy from the explosion).

Recently, to reduce the energy input, the utilization of carbon (coal), alcohols (hydrocarbon solution), and organic solution (glycerol, formic acid, ethylene glycol, etc.) with co-electrolysis of water has been proposed as a viable option. The carbon/hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis (so-called CAWE) process for hydrogen generation would perform this operation in a single electrochemical reactor. This system energy balance can be required only around 40% electric input with 60% coming from the chemical energy of carbon or hydrocarbon. This process utilizes solid coal/carbon particles or powder as fuels dispersed in acid/alkaline electrolyte in the form of slurry and the carbon contained source co-assist in the electrolysis process as following theoretical overall reactions: Carbon/Coal slurry (C + 2H2O) -> CO2 \+ 2H2 E' = 0.21 V (reversible voltage) / E' = 0.46 V (thermo-neutral voltage) or Carbon/Coal slurry (C + H2O) -> CO + H2 E' = 0.52 V reversible voltage) / E' = 0.91 V (thermo-neutral voltage) Thus, this CAWE approach is that the actual cell overpotential can be significantly reduced to below 1 V as compared to 1.5 V for conventional water electrolysis.

Deep-sea hydrothermal vent or black smoker The deep sea vent, or alkaline hydrothermal vent, theory posits that life may have begun at submarine hydrothermal vents, Martin and Russell have suggested > that life evolved in structured iron monosulphide precipitates in a seepage > site hydrothermal mound at a redox, pH, and temperature gradient between > sulphide-rich hydrothermal fluid and iron(II)-containing waters of the > Hadean ocean floor. The naturally arising, three-dimensional > compartmentation observed within fossilized seepage-site metal sulphide > precipitates indicates that these inorganic compartments were the precursors > of cell walls and membranes found in free-living prokaryotes. The known > capability of FeS and NiS to catalyze the synthesis of the acetyl- > methylsulphide from carbon monoxide and methylsulphide, constituents of > hydrothermal fluid, indicates that pre-biotic syntheses occurred at the > inner surfaces of these metal-sulphide-walled compartments,... These form where hydrogen-rich fluids emerge from below the sea floor, as a result of serpentinization of ultra-mafic olivine with seawater and a pH interface with carbon dioxide-rich ocean water. The vents form a sustained chemical energy source derived from redox reactions, in which electron donors (molecular hydrogen) react with electron acceptors (carbon dioxide); see Iron–sulfur world theory.