291 Sentences With "capitulations" | Random Sentence Generator

Mr. Trump's oddest capitulations to Iran are in Iraq and Syria.

How surprised are you by the capitulations of Republicans in the Trump era?

Despite Jia's apparent capitulations, Evergrande failed to deliver that first $300 million payment.

The intervening period has seen a spate of head-spinning capitulations from Pyongyang.

But no doubt there was also the pandering and strategic capitulations you mentioned.

The result has been weak sanctions for Erdogan's misbehavior and quick capitulations to his demands.

People who are paid to talk about this stuff—and many people who aren't—will see a deal that just makes sense in the way that so many other capitulations to management and ownership just make sense, provided those capitulations are being made by other people.

But instead of a corporate battle royale, all consumers got was a series of increasingly high profile capitulations.

Israeli Tourism Minister Yariv Levin called Airbnb's move "the most wretched of wretched capitulations to the boycott efforts".

His ethical capitulations for wealth and influence are all the more disturbing because he expresses himself so eloquently.

Second to his Iran capitulations, I must now consider whether President Obama's appointment of Hillary Clinton was his worst mistake.

One scenario would have Mr. Cuomo taking the ballot line, but that would involve some high-level negotiations, if not capitulations.

"I mean, it was a series of extraordinary capitulations that really do legitimately call into question what is going on," Rice said.

Tactically, it means Democrats will need to keep the focus on Trump's capitulations to Putin and Russian electoral meddling for a few months.

A deal with the Taliban or unilateral withdrawal, the likeliest alternatives, would require humiliating capitulations or watching idly as the country collapsed further.

That the president was attended in Helsinki by a team of competent and patriotic advisors makes his blunders and capitulations all the more painful and inexplicable.

But the fine print shows secondary capitulations: In addition to allocating only $153 billion for the wall, the bill includes limitations on where it can be built. Rep.

But the fine print shows secondary capitulations: In addition to allocating only $1.37 billion for the wall, the bill includes limitations on where it can be built. Rep.

Mr. Martinez argues that the French government's numerous capitulations would never have happened if he hadn't kept tens of thousands of his people in the streets, week after week.

These contradictions and capitulations, along with the overwhelming corporatization, have led many in queer activist communities to resent the word "Pride," to feel anxious at the sight of rainbow iconography.

The sorts of carrots, capitulations, or concessions that Washington would have to dangle at Beijing would have to be big -- really big (perhaps related to the US-Japan alliance, South China Sea, or Taiwan).

McCain has long voiced confidence in Trump's national security team, which he praised Monday as "competent and patriotic," and said he found it "inexplicable" how they allowed the president's "blunders and capitulations" to happen.

The liquidation of Barneys New York is the latest in a number of recent retailer capitulations, which include the closing of Gap, Tommy Hilfiger, Lord & Taylor and Polo Ralph Lauren stores in New York, for example.

" The 81-year-old senator, a frequent critic of Trump but one who has often expressed confidence in the president's national security team, said he found it "painful and inexplicable" how his advisers could allow such "blunders and capitulations.

Though it may be possible to identify the rational and moral elements of Huggins's fear, are not some fears, like those we experience when our lives are threatened, purely rational, and the capitulations they authorize blameless concessions to threatening force?

Public anger over the protest's disruption of Islamabad, the capital, had been growing by the day, and the agreement was widely seen as another in a string of capitulations by the government to religious extremists who command growing popularity in Pakistan.

"Local ceasefires in areas under siege, where rebels have handed over heavy weapons and the government has in turn relaxed its control over the transfer of goods ... are hard to distinguish from capitulations by rebels," the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace's Aron Lund wrote in a 2014 piece.

More practically, in making the kinds of contractual concessions necessary to bring players like Mark Teixeira, Alex Rodriguez, and CC Sabathia to New York—or to keep them there, particularly via further capitulations when the latter two opted out of their agreements—the Yankees saddled themselves with players enjoying sinecures.

The group's fourth album, "A Deeper Understanding," which comes out on August 25th, is a big and purposeful record that shares some genetic material with late-career releases by Rod Stewart, Dire Straits, Tom Petty, and Don Henley—the songwriting lacks the wholeness and negligence of youth, but hasn't yet been softened by the capitulations of adulthood.

For the heirs of a people whose endurance over millenniums was because of the miracle of a tradition of thought nourished, rekindled and resown with each generation and through a constantly refined body of commentary, the challenge is clear: Any sacrifice of the calling to intellectual, moral and human excellence; any renunciation of the duty of exceptionalism that — from Rabbi Yehuda to Kafka and from Rashi to Proust and Levinas — has provided the ferment for its almost incomprehensible resistance; any concession, in a word, to Trumpian nihilism would be the most atrocious of capitulations, one tantamount to suicide.

In 1914, the Committee of Union and Progress abolished the capitulations in the Ottoman Empire and introduced economic policies that would benefit the Ottoman economy. As far as Turkey is concerned, the capitulations were abolished by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), specifically by Article 28: Capitulations in Egypt ended in 1949 as stipulated in the Montreux Convention Regarding the Abolition of the Capitulations in Egypt in 1937.Convention regarding the Abolition of the Capitulations in Egypt, Protocol, and Declaration by the Royal Egyptian Government (Montreux, 8 May 1936) Art 1.

On 10 September 1915, Interior Minister Talat Pasha abolished the "Capitulations". On 10 September 1915 Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha annulled (Vizer had the authority on annuls) the Capitulations, which ended the special privileges they granted to foreign nationals. The capitulation holders refused to recognize his action (unilateral action). The American ambassador expressed the Great Power view: Beside the capitulations, there was another issue which evolved under the shadow of capitulations.

The Capitulations of Irvine, is housed in the National Archives, Kew Surrey, England.

LA was against the Capitulations of Granada and an alleged process of colonization of Andalusia by Spain.

The capitulations were again renewed in 1604, and lasted up until the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923.

In spite of this, electoral capitulations were subscribed in the majority of the conclaves held in the next 300 years.

During the Conclave of November 1406, Cardinal Angelo Correr had promised, along with all the other cardinals who signed the Electoral Capitulations, that if elected Pope, he would not create new cardinals except to keep the college of the Roman Obedience on a par with the Avignon Obedience. When he was elected Pope Gregory XII, he signed and ratified those capitulations. But in May 1408, without need, he insisted on creating four new cardinals, two of whom were his nephews. The current cardinals objected loudly, citing the Electoral Capitulations, and they actually refused to attend the Consistory to elevate the four new cardinals.

Title page of the electoral capitulation agreed to by the new prince- bishop of Freising in 1790 The use of electoral capitulations in the elections of prince-bishops started during the first half of the 13th century and spread to all the prince-bishoprics of the Holy Roman Empire. Capitulations in advance of episcopal elections were banned by Pope Innocent XII in 1695 and by the emperor in 1698 but the ban was ignored by the cathedral chapters, and episcopal capitulations were sworn by would-be bishops until the end of the Empire in the early 19th century.

The Capitulations by Juan II Coloma, 1st Lord of Elda The Capitulations of Santa Fe between Christopher Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs, Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, were signed in Santa Fe, Granada on April 17, 1492.MEMORY OF THE WORLD REGISTER – Santa Fe Capitulations. Ref N̊ 2006-42 Discussion of the historical significance of the document, history, translation of text. They granted Columbus the titles of admiral of the Ocean Sea, viceroy, and governor-general and the honorific don, and also the tenth part of all riches to be obtained from his intended voyage.

In the first instance capitulations were granted separately to each Christian state, beginning with the Genoese in 1453, which entered into peaceful relations with the Ottoman Empire. Afterwards new capitulations were obtained which summed up in one document earlier concessions, and added to them in general terms whatever had been conceded to one or more other states; a stipulation which became a most favored nation article. Around 1535 a capitulation was made by Suleiman the Magnificent regarding France. France signed its first treaty of Capitulations with the Mamluk Sultanate in Cairo in 1500, during the rule of Louis XII.

The author postulated that the Capitulations regulated the status of foreigners living in ancient Romania, exempting them from the consequences of common law, and creating major legal problems after 1800.Ulinici, p.110, 114-115 His research produced the article România față de capitulațiile Turciei ("Romania in Relation to the Turkish Capitulations"), taken up by the Academy's official yearbook.Ulinici, p.110.

Capitulations were used by the College of Cardinals to assert its collective authority and limit papal supremacy, to "make the Church an oligarchy instead of a monarchy."Van Dyke, 1897, p. 172. Similar electoral capitulations were used on occasion from the 14th to the 17th centuries in Northern and Central Europe to constrain an elected king, emperor, prince, or bishop.

In contrast to the protectionism of China, Japan, and Spain, the Ottoman Empire had a liberal trade policy, open to imports. This has origins in capitulations of the Ottoman Empire, dating back to the first commercial treaties signed with France in 1536 and taken further with capitulations in 1673 and 1740, which lowered duties to 3% for imports and exports.

French merchants began to play an active role in Levant trade routes after French-Ottoman alliance. Ottomans gave safe passage for French traders and approved the capitulations for the French state. Especially after the Tanzimat Era, the Capitulations were approved for other European states. Consequently, there was a significant increase in the numbers of Europeans who came to Ottoman territories, especially in coastal cities.

Capitulations signified that which was arranged under distinct headings; the Ottoman Turkish phrase was ahid nameh, whereas a "treaty" was mouahed. The latter did, and the former did not, signify a reciprocal engagement. According to Capitulations, and treaties confirmatory of them, made between the Porte and other states, foreigners resident in Turkey were subject to the laws of their respective countries. Thus, although the Turkish capitulations were not in themselves treaties, yet by subsequent confirmation they acquired the force of commercial durable instead of personal nature; the conversion of permissive into perfect rights; questions as to contraband and neutral trade stated in definite terms.

The capitulations system was introduced into Egypt during the 19th century as a result of pressure on the foreign powers by the people. Following the First World War, a wave of nationalism was on the rise in Egypt, and the government, backed by the newly established Wafd Party, put growing demands before the British government - then in control of Egypt - to abolish the capitulations system while placing foreigners under the local Egyptian legal system. As a result, several of the foreign consular courts were abolished in 1920–1921, while their nationals were placed under British consular jurisdiction. This did not satisfy the demands of the Egyptian government regarding the total abolition of capitulations.

As regards technical distinctions, an agreement, an exchange of notes, or a convention properly applies to one specific subject; whereas a treaty usually comprises several matters, whether commercial or political. The Turkish Capitulations were grants made by successive Sultans to Christian nations, conferring rights and privileges in favour of their subjects resident or trading in the Ottoman dominions, following the policy towards European states of the Byzantine Empire. According to these capitulations traders entering the Ottoman Empire were exempt from local prosecution, local taxation, local conscription, and the searching of their domicile. The capitulations were initially made during the Ottoman Empire's military dominance, to entice and encourage commercial exchange with Western merchants.

The capitulations ceased to have effect in Turkey in 1923, by virtue of the Treaty of Lausanne, and in Egypt they were abolished by the Montreux Convention in 1949.

Walsh, 2003, p. 109. The capitulations of the 1484 (Pope Innocent VIII)Baumgartner, 2003, p. 82. and 1513 (Pope Leo X) conclaves contained the same restriction.Baumgartner, 2003, p. 92.

The Capitulations of Santa Fe, between Christopher Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, signed in Santa Fe, Granada on April 17, 1492 granted Columbus, among other things, the tenth part of all riches to be obtained from his intended voyage.John Michael Francis, Will Kaufman. Iberia and the Americas, ABC-CLIO, 2005, p. 176 Although not a formal agreement, the capitulations resulted from negotiation.

The French Ordonnance de la Marine (1681) abolished the jus entirely and put castaways under royal protection. The Turkish capitulations of 1535 and 1740 contain clauses banning the jus naufragii.

Jean de La Forêt negotiated the capitulations on 18 February 1536, on the model of previous Ottoman commercial treaties with Venice and Genoa, although they only seem to have been ratified by the Ottomans later, in 1569, with ambassador Claude Du Bourg. These capitulations allowed the French to obtain important privileges, such as the security of the people and goods, extraterritoriality, freedom to transport and sell goods in exchange for the payment of the selamlik and customs fees. These capitulations would in effect give the French a near trade monopoly in seaport-towns that would be known as les Echelles du Levant. Foreign vessels had to trade with Turkey under the French banner, after the payment of a percentage of their trade.

They consequently broadcast their own, doctored, German version, which differed significantly from that signed, specifically in that warships in the Baltic were not included nor was the territory in Schleswig around Flensburg itself; and especially, the surrender was described as a 'truce', not a capitulation. As was Dönitz's intention, this broadcast exacerbated Stalin's suspicions of the partial capitulations, especially as the greater parts of the 3rd Panzer Army and 21st Army had indeed been able to surrender to the British and Americans, rather than the Soviets. Realising this, Eisenhower determined that no further partial capitulations would be negotiated. The capitulations at Luneberg and Haar could do nothing, however, for the bulk of the German forces in Army Group Centre, fighting the Soviets in Bohemia and Saxony.

Charles IX and Selim II. Draft of the 1536 Treaty or Capitulations negotiated between French ambassador Jean de La Forêt and Ibrahim Pasha, a few days before his assassination, expanding to the whole Ottoman Empire the privileges received in Egypt from the Mamluks before 1518. Capitulation reopening trade between Venice and the Ottoman Empire signed 2 October 1540, following the Battle of Preveza. 1 piaster overprint on 25-centime Type Sage, used at the French Post Office, Beirut in December 1885 Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire were contracts between the Ottoman Empire and European powers, particularly France. Turkish capitulations, or Ahidnâmes were generally bilateral acts whereby definite arrangements were entered into by each contracting party towards the other, not mere concessions.

Mahmut Esat was born to Hasan Bey of Hacı Mahmutoğulları in Kuşadası, Aydın Vilayet during the Ottoman Empire era in 1892. He finished the idadi (high school) in İzmir in 1908, and graduated from İstanbul University's School of Law in 1912. He traveled to Fribourg, Switzerland for further studies. He completed his doctorate thesis Du régime des capitulations ottomanes ("On the Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire") with summa cum laude, "highest honor" at the University of Fribourg.

A new opportunity arose following the conclusion of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936, after which negotiations began to settle the abolition of capitulations in Egypt. This led to the conclusion of the convention.

Longdon, pp. 56–57. The two archdeacons were already in existence in 877, when they are mentioned at the head of the Capitulations issued by Archbishop Hincmar. They were both appointees of the Archbishop.

Said then presented Wangenheim with six proposals—not conditions—which the ambassador immediately accepted and which were signed later that day: # Support in abolishing the foreign capitulations. # Support in negotiating agreements with Romania and Bulgaria.

Built by Helsingørs Jemsk & Maka in Denmark, she was launched on 4 June 1898, and christened Danmark. On 21 May 1899, she began her service life in the company Danmark Em 2 Sviter Bjerg Enterprise Copenhagen. In accordance with the Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire, foreign-flagged ships were allowed to serve in Ottoman territorial waters, and Danmark was one of the ships serving in the Ottoman territorial waters. However, during World War I, the Ottoman Empire abolished the capitulations and took hold of the ship.

18 When in 1710 Estonia and Livonia capitulated to Russia during the Great Northern War, the capitulations explicitly referred to the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti, with the respective references being confirmed in the Treaty of Nystad (1721).

There was plenty to fight about. The cardinals eventually drew up a set of Electoral Capitulations, which are enumerated by the new Pope, Innocent VI, in the bull by which he annulled them.Baronio (ed. A.Theiner), Vol.

These requests were usually granted, usually on the spot. Each cardinal had to draw up his list. A copy of the Capitulations was seen by the Florentine diarist, Luca Landucci. He reported that there were thirty clauses.

Influenced by Dutch humanism, his methodical analysis of the constitutional law of the Holy Roman Empire focused no longer on Roman law but on Imperial sources of public law, such as Imperial basic laws and electoral capitulations.

Yurdusev et al., 41.Watson, 217. The origins of the capitulations comes from Harun al Rashid and his dealings with the Frankish kingdoms, but they were also used by both his successors and by the Byzantine Empire.

This has origins in capitulations of the Ottoman Empire, dating back to the first commercial treaties signed with France in 1536 and taken further with capitulations in 1673 and 1740, which lowered duties to 3% for imports and exports. The liberal Ottoman policies were praised by British economists, such as J. R. McCulloch in his Dictionary of Commerce (1834), but later criticized by British politicians such as Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who cited the Ottoman Empire as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in the 1846 Corn Laws debate.

After protests, only the French ships and goods were kept, totalling an amount of about 42,000 ducats.The Papacy and the Levant by Kenneth M. Setton p.937 The goods were at least partially returned with the signature of the 1569 Capitulations.

In the 14th century, the abbesses were sovereigns at the same time. To avoid electing a stranger, electoral capitulations were inaugurated. The oldest preserved capitulation of the chapter dates back to the year of Elisabeth’s election.Küppers-Braun, Ute: Macht in Frauenhand.

The College had made informal attempts to influence the actions of Popes before drafting formal capitulations. The first capitulation was drafted in the conclave of 1352, which elected Pope Innocent VI,Jugie, Pierre. Levillain, ed. 2002. "Cardinal." pp. 241-242.

The Montreux Convention Regarding the Abolition of the Capitulations in Egypt was an international convention concluded on May 8, 1937, which led to the abolition of the extraterritorial legal system for foreigners in Egypt, known as the capitulations. It was signed by the governments of Egypt, the United States of America, Belgium, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Spain (the Republican side in the civil war), France, Greece, Italy, Ethiopia, Norway, the Netherlands, Portugal and Sweden. It went into effect on October 15, 1937, and was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on the same day.League of Nations Treaty Series, vol.

The Empire of Brazil was the second state in the Americas (after the United States) to enter into treaty relations with the Ottoman Empire (predecessor of modern Turkey). On 5 February 1858, the two empires signed a Treaty of Commerce and Navigation, which had eleven articles and was similar in nature to the other Ottoman capitulations to Christian powers.Edward A. Van Dyck, Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire Since the Year 1150, Part 1 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1881), p. 23. Brazil set up four consulates in the Ottoman Empire: at Cairo, Jaffa, Mansouri and Tanta.

The agreement provided for the total abolition of capitulations and the placing of foreigners in Egypt under the Egyptian legal system. The date set for the abolition of the consular courts was October 15, 1949, after a transition period of 12 years.

Today, France claims ownership of the land on which both churches and the entire monastery are standing under the Ottoman capitulations and further it claims this has been formalised by the Fischer-Chauvel Agreement of 1948, which has not been ratified by Israel.

McCabe, p.233 Louis's mother, Anne of Austria, was a Habsburg too. In 1673, Louis sent a fleet to the Dardanelles and obtained new capitulations recognizing him as sole protector of the Catholics. Soon Louis revived the alliance to facilitate his expansionist policies.

Such documents have not been preserved: modern Romanian historians have revealed that Capitulations, as invoked in the 18th and 19th centuries to invoke Romanian rights vis à vis the Ottomans, and as reclaimed by nationalist discourse in the 20th century, were forgeries.

After the abolition of Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), foreign concessions were suppressed, rail transport, electric power generation and distribution, telephone network and other big industrial firms were nationalized by Turkish government between 1928 and 1940.

Smith 2006 p. 320 Israel used that in hopes of preventing all peace talks, which could have resulted in getting greater land capitulations from Arab countries due to Israel's military strength.Smith 2006 p.320 Nasser forestalled any movement toward direct negotiations with Israel.

The order of battle may be useful to trace the battles of Schleiz and Saalfeld, which occurred before Jena-Auerstedt, as well as battles and capitulations that happened after 14 October, such as Erfurt, Halle, Prenzlau, Pasewalk, Stettin, Waren-Nossentin, and Lübeck.

The English capitulations date from 1569, and then secured the same treatment as the Venetians, French, Poles and the subjects of the emperor of Germany; they were revised in 1675, and as then settled were confirmed by treaties of subsequent date now and for ever.

115–116 The land reform of the so-called reduction which had been introduced by the Swedish king Charles XI, and transformed many serfs to subjects of the Crown, was reversed. The Swedish Empire formally accepted the capitulations in the Treaty of Nystad in 1721.

Mary L. Eckhart. Columbus' Dictionary, Branden Books, 1992, p. 9 The capitulations were sealed at the Santa Fe encampment, which had been built on the outskirts of Granada as a military base of operations during the city's siege. The original version has not survived.

In the turmoil and confusion following major reverses and capitulations at Sedan, Paris, and Metz, the remaining French armies faced major supply difficulties which restricted their movements. The Armée de l'Est was tasked with reaching and assisting Belfort, where Colonel Denfert- Rochereau still held out.

35 He tried to incite the Sultan to wage war against Philip II and to limit the activities of Barbary pirates on the French coasts of Provence, but in vain, leading to tense relations between France and the Porte. Savary de Brèves spoke Turkish and Arabic and was famed for his knowledge of Ottoman culture. Through his efforts, Capitulations were signed between Henry IV of France and Sultan Ahmed I on 20 May 1604, giving a marked advantage for French trade, against that of the English and the Venetians. In these capitulations, the protection of the French king over Jerusalem and the Holy Land is also recognized.

In 1871 de Martimprey was a member of the council of inquiry into the capitulations of Strasbourg and Metz. His hereditary title of "Count" was confirmed by decree of President MacMahon on 21 May 1874. Edmond-Charles de Martimprey died in Paris on 24 February 1883.

Ahmed I renewed trade treaties with England, France and Venice. In July 1612, the first ever trade treaty with the Dutch Republic was signed. He expanded the capitulations given to France, specifying that merchants from Spain, Ragusa, Genoa, Ancona and Florence could trade under the French flag.

There has been significant problems in Turkish economy after Levantines and Greeks left the country. Turkey faced exportation problems. Most of exports remained at the hands of local Turkish villagers. However, Turkish government left all capitulations of Levantines in order to break the monopoly for Turkish entrepreneurs.

Capitulations were trade deals with other countries. They were a unique practice of Muslim diplomacy that was adopted by Ottoman rulers. In legal and technical terms, they were unilateral agreements made by the Sultan to a nation's merchants. These agreements were temporary, and subject to renewal by subsequent Sultans.

The Chevalier d'Arvieux also reports the ambiguous attitude of France toward Téméricourt-Beninville, which he witnessed in 1671. This attitude, also shared by the marquis de Nointel, Ambassador of France at Constantinople several years later, was a means of applying quasi-diplomatic pressure when the subject of renegotiating the capitulations came up. Likewise, the marquis de Fleury, considered a pirate, came to settle in the Cyclades with financial backing from the Marseille Chamber of Commerce at a moment when the renewal of the capitulations was being negotiated. Certain Western traders (above all those evading bankruptcy) also put themselves in service of the pirates in the islands they frequented, buying their booty and providing them with equipment and supplies.

The Capitulations system has been introduced into the legal system of the Ottoman Empire and some other Middle Eastern countries as a result of western pressure. This system provides that in case a foreign citizen was charged with a crime, he or she shall not be tried by the local legal system, but be tried by a special court to consist of foreign judges, in accordance with his country's laws. The Capitulations system also prevailed in Egypt, which was under actual British rule from 1882 onward. Following the First World War, pressure was mounting on the British authorities in Egypt to grant greater freedom of action to the Egyptian government in matters of control over its own legal system.

The Capitulations system has been introduced into the legal system of the Ottoman empire and some other Middle Eastern countries as a result of western pressure. This system provided that in case a foreign citizen was charged with a crime, he or she shall not be tried by the local legal system, but be tried by a special court to consist of foreign judges, in accordance with his country laws. The Capitulations system also prevailed in Egypt, which was under actual British rule from 1882 onward. Following the First World War, pressure was mounting on the British authorities in Egypt to grant greater freedom of action to the Egyptian government in matters of control over its own legal system.

The Capitulations system was introduced into the legal system of the Ottoman Empire and some other Middle Eastern countries as a result of western pressure. This system provided that in case a foreign citizen was charged with a crime, he or she shall not be tried by the local legal system, but be tried by a special court to consist of foreign judges, in accordance with his country laws. The Capitulations system also prevailed in Egypt, which was under actual British rule from 1882 onward. Following the First World War, pressure was mounting on the British authorities in Egypt to grant greater freedom of action to the Egyptian government in matters of control over its own legal system.

The capitulations system had been introduced into the legal system of the Ottoman Empire and some other Middle Eastern countries as a result of Western pressure. This system provided that in case a foreign citizen was charged with a crime, he or she would not be tried by the local legal system, but by a special court to consist of foreign judges in accordance with his country's laws. The capitulations system also prevailed in Egypt, which was under British rule from 1882 onward. Following the First World War, pressure mounted on the British authorities in Egypt to grant greater freedom of action to the Egyptian government in matters of control over its own legal system.

In these capitulations, the protection of the French king over Jerusalem and the Holy Land is also recognized. Brèves was interested in establishing an Arabic printing press under his own account in order to introduce Oriental studies in France. He had Arabic, Turk, Persian and Syriac types cast while in Istanbul.

After the outbreak of World War I the Sublime Porte de facto abolished the personal exterritoriality and consular jurisdiction for foreigners according to Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire on 7 September 1914.Foerster 1991, p. 124. Many young male parishioners left Jaffa to join the German Imperial Army.Foerster 1991, pp. 125seq.

While there are a variety of sources discussing the fates of some of the individual German units, there does not appear to be a single comprehensive work presenting the combat actions and capitulations of the German units in Army Groups Centre and Ostmark during the period 6–11 May 1945.

The Bundesgericht was chiefly confined to civil cases in which the Confederation was a party, but also took in great political crimes. All constitutional questions are however reserved for the Federal Assembly. A federal university and a polytechnic school were to be founded. All capitulations were forbidden in the future.

Franco-Ottoman Capitulations between Sultan Ahmed I and Henry IV, published by Savary de Brèves in 1615. Persian characters developed by Savary de Brèves. François Savary de Brèves (1560, in Melay – 22 April 1628, in Paris) was a French ambassador of the 16th and 17th centuries as well as an Orientalist.

Old Mosque in Mértola, Portugal. Converted into a church. Arabs relying largely on Berbers conquered the Iberian Peninsula starting in 711, subduing the whole Visigothic Kingdom by 725. The triumphant Umayyads got conditional capitulations probably in most of the towns, so that they could get a compromise with the native population.

Joannes Burchard, the papal Master of Ceremonies, records that the Conclave was enclosed at the first hour of the night on 31 October. Next morning there was a Mass of the Holy Spirit, held at the "sixteenth hour". This was followed by the signing of the Capitulations, by all thirty-seven cardinals.

Retrieved: 2016-05-25. The Cardinals who were present, however, were in no hurry. Although the Conclave began on 1 October, they did not complete their Electoral Capitulations until October 5."Convenzioni fatto e giurato dei Cardinali nel conclave di papa Clemente VII," Giornale Storico degli Archivi Toscani Anno 1858 No. 2.

His signature can be found in the Capitulations of Santa Fe together with Christopher Columbus. Later in his career, Almazán oversaw Portugal's international diplomacy with France, Italy and Flanders. One of his responsibilities was finding a suitable husband for the royal daughters, Juana and Catalina. Almazán participated in the Treaty of Villafáfila.

Various capitulations were a series of treaties between the Sublime Porte and Western nations, from the sixteenth through the early nineteenth centuries. The legal impenetrability of the Ottoman legal code created during the Tanzimat era began to weaken continuously through the spread of European colonialism and the prevalence of legal positivism. The laws and regulations created for Ottoman subjects to abide by often did not apply to European nationals conducting business and trade in the provinces of the empire, and thus various capitulations were brought into effect with respect to many foreign powers. The various overlapping governmental laws led to legal pluralism in which jurisdiction often was left up to the great powers to institute and organize their own legal structures to represent their citizens abroad.

Following the signing in 1525 of the first capitulations by Suleiman the Magnificent and Blaise de Montluc, Ambassador of King Francis I to Constantinople, France was granted the right to protect its subjects residing or trading in the Ottoman Empire, the Christian Holy Places in the Empire, particularly those in the Holy Land, and to appoint consuls in the cities of the Empire. The capitulations constituted the legal basis of the French protectorate exercised over the Holy places, Catholic Christians, and by extension over Orthodox Christians. France was then granted a special status in the Holy Land. After an incident involving the Franciscans and the Armenians at the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, King Louis XIII was called upon to restore the rights of the Latins.

Salomon Sprecher von Bernegg, Diarium der Belagerung von Breslau; und Capitulations-Puncte von der Übergabe an Se. Königl. Majestät in Preussen: Nebst einem Verzeichniß mit Nahmen, derer Generals, Staabs-Officiers und andern Officiers, dann vom Feldwebel an summariter derer Kayserl. Königl. Trouppen, so den 21ten December ... 21 Dec 1757. pp. 5–14. Berlin, 1758.

During the Napoleonic Wars, the city was occupied by French troops in 1808. General Pierre Dupont de l'Étang, after conquering Córdoba, established his HQ at Andújar. From Andújar Dupont sent troops to Bailén, where he lost the battle there. After this battle, the capitulations were signed at Andújar in the Palace of Gracia Real.

Martène & Durand, p. 1099. Then, the Archbishop of Pisa read out a document containing Electoral Capitulations, signed and sealed by each of the cardinals, promising that whoever was elected pope would carry out a reform of the Church, and would not allow the Council to dissolve until that goal had been achieved.Hefele, p. 49. Mansi, Volume XXVI, p. 1228.

Then came the two Australian capitulations against Laker and Lock in the Tests. Harvey made 11 as Australia were bowled out for 143 and forced to follow on in the Third Test played on a turning pitch at Headingley. He then contributed 69 of 140 in the second innings of the Third Test at Headingley,Haigh, p. 330.

The Cardinal Camerlengo, Raffaele Riario, accompanied by Cardinal d' Aragona and Cardinal Farnese, made the traditional examination of the entire area of the Conclave, and then supervised the sealing of the doors.Papebroch, p. 149. The first several days were spent in the regular daily Congregations on the drafting of Electoral Capitulations and regulating the procedures of the Conclave.

The Sierra Morena. Vedel carried new orders from Madrid and Bayonne: Dupont was instructed to stop his march on Cádiz and fall back north-eastwards on the mountains (a fait accompli), watching the Spanish movements in Andalusia while awaiting the reinforcements to be released upon the capitulation of Zaragoza and Valencia.Foy, p. 318 These capitulations never came.

The earliest surviving copy is contained in the confirmations issued by the Crown in Barcelona in 1493. The omission of the word 'Asia' has led some historians to suggest that Columbus never intended to go there, but only to discover the new lands. In 2009 the Santa Fe Capitulations were inscribed on UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register.

The Worlds of Christopher Columbus, Cambridge University Press, 1993, p. 133 Although not a formal agreement, the capitulations resulted from negotiation. When Columbus's proposal was initially rejected, Queen Isabella convoked another assembly, made up from sailors, philosophers, astrologers and others to reexamine the project. The experts considered absurd the distances between Spain and the Indies that Columbus calculated.

Coding Office, no 56/27; no 67/186 Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire granted missionaries a protectorate state (see:Protectorate of missions). There is a group of rules that grant rights to missionaries under the Ottoman Empire. Another decipher orders the Catholic Armenian missionaries not to leave the Ottoman Empire until the next order.BOA. DH. SFR, nr.

Aiming to annihilate his opponents' forces, Napoleon launched his Grande Armée in a headlong pursuit. A large portion of the fleeing Prussians took refuge in the fortress of Magdeburg where they were surrounded. Another large segment was intercepted and destroyed in the Battle of Prenzlau. This event triggered a series of capitulations of Prussian troops and fortresses.

A man of three worlds Mercedes García-Arenal, Gerard Albert Wiegers p.114 The Treaty give France preferential treatment, known as Capitulations: preferential tariffs, the establishment of a Consulate and freedom of religion for French subjects.France in the age of Louis XIII and Richelieu by Victor Lucien Tapié p.259 The Treaty was ratified by Louis XIII in 1632.

In 1539 pope Paul III had authorized the diocese of Ciudad Real; Ciudad Real diocesis included Chiapas, Soconusco, la Vera Paz (including the Lacandon jungle), Tabasco and the still non-conquered Yucatán Peninsula. That year, Alonso de Maldonado -under pressure by Spanish settlers- began a military campaign in Tezulutlán y gave all the natives in encomiendas. This flagrant violation to the Capitulations enraged Las Casas who traveled to Spain to denounce it before the king Charles V. On January 9, 1540 a royal document was issued in which the Tezulutlán Capitulations ere ratified and gave the region to the protection of the Order of Preachers. On October 17 of that year, Cardinal García de Loaysa -then president of the Indias Council- ordered the México Audiencia to comply with these laws.

The Russian administration, under supreme command of Boris Sheremetev, reacted by prohibiting contacts of the local population to Sweden. On 30 August 1721, the Treaty of Nystad formalized Russia's acquisition of the Baltic provinces and the respective capitulations in articles IX, X, XI and XII.Luts (2006), p. 162 Sweden had to relinquish her claims "forever", and strike the provinces from the royal title.

He received the papal blessing on 16 October 1595 (Clement VIII wrote a papal breve on 18 March 1595 against electoral capitulations which were settled at Bernhard's election). In April 1595, Müller received the obeisance of his subordinates. On 14 June 1595, Emperor Rudolf II confirmed the jura regalia. On 13 April 1630, he abdicated his abbacy for reasons connected with his health.

The immediate purpose of the abolition of capitulations and the cancellation of foreign debt repayments was to reduce the foreign stranglehold on the Ottoman economy; a second purpose — and one to which great political weight was attached – was to extirpate non—Muslims from the economy by transferring assets to Muslim Turks and encouraging their participation with government contracts and subsidies.

Goofman, p.110 Further, the Ottomans supported the Calvinists in Transylvania and Hungary but also in France.Goffman, p.111 The contemporary French thinker Jean Bodin wrote:Goffman p.111 Capitulations between Charles IX and Selim II. Henri de Valois was elected king of Poland in 1572, partly due to the desire of Polish nobles to be agreeable to the Ottoman Empire.

Churches had to be placed in inconspicuous areas, where the everyday populace would not see them. Eventually, Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire (contracts with European powers) were negotiated, protecting the religious rights of Christians within the Empire. The Russians became formal protectors of the Eastern Orthodox groups in 1774, the French of the Catholics, and the British of the Jews and other groups.

In a Royal communication, dated in Barcelona, Spain in 1543, Spanish Emperor Carlos V, among other things, thanks native chief Pedro from Sacatepéquez his help for friars Pedro de Angulo, Rodrigo de Ladrada and Bartolomé de las Casas, O.P. during the pacific conquest of the Teculiclán and Lacandón provinces (which became the Verapaces), a process known as the "Tezulutlan Capitulations".

The fighting continued, with another attack on the Nasrid emirate and the Vega de Granada, defense of Baza, and on 23 April 1491 a fresh attack on the Vega de Granada to end the armed conflict. Don Diego Fernández de Córdoba, count of Cabra, Viscount of Iznájar, lord of Baena is listed among those present in December 1491 in the Capitulations of Santa Fe.

In 866, Khafaja marched once more against Syracuse. From there he marched along the coast towards the north. There he met a delegation of the citizens of Taormina, who concluded a treaty with him, but soon broke it. In the same year, the Muslims retook Noto and Ragusa, which the Byzantines had apparently recaptured, or which had simply failed to renew their tribute payments after previous capitulations.

Article 1 stipulated for the renunciation by the Portuguese government of its privileges under the Capitulations system. Article 2 provided for the termination of all Portuguese consular courts, except for those dealing with current cases. Article 3 stipulated that Portuguese citizens in Egypt shall enjoy the same privileges as British citizens. Article 4 stipulated that Portuguese consular agents shall retain their diplomatic privileges as before.

At the time of the capitulation, Murat had about 16,000 troops near Erfurt. Historian Francis Loraine Petre remarked that Erfurt was the first of a series of "pusillanimous capitulations" by Prussian fortress commanders, writing that Napoleon's plans might have been delayed had the city held out for just a few days. Instead, the French emperor was able to immediately launch the entire army after his fleeing enemies.

Three years in Constantinople by Charles White p.139Three years in Constantinople by Charles White p.147 After the Turks conquered Egypt in the Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517), the Ottomans upheld the capitulations to the French and applied them to the entire empire. The Ottoman-French Treaty of 1740 marked the apogee of French influence in the Ottoman Empire in the eighteenth century.

However, anti- revolutionary sources conjectured that just 32 were killed. Khomeini was released after eight months of house arrest and continued his agitation, condemning Iran's close cooperation with Israel and its capitulations, or extension of diplomatic immunity, to American government personnel in Iran. In November 1964, Khomeini was re-arrested and sent into exile where he remained for 15 years (mostly in Najaf, Iraq), until the revolution.

Stanford J. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (Cambridge University 1976) at I: 29–30, 97–98, and (re French capitulations of 1569) 177. Also in 1830 the French royal army occupied the central coastal lands in neighboring Algeria.Richard M. Brace, Morocco Algeria Tunisia (Prentice-Hall 1964) at 34–36. At that time, they were inexperienced about and lacked the knowledge of how to develop a colony.

The Battle of Halle occurred on 17 October between Bernadotte's corps and Duke Eugene of Württemberg's Reserve. In the action, the French inflicted 5,000 casualties on the Reserve.Smith, 226-227 Historian Francis Loraine Petre remarked that Erfurt was the first of a series of "pusillanimous capitulations" by Prussian fortress commanders. He wrote that Napoleon's plans might have been delayed if the city had held out for just a few days.

Strategically, the alliance with the Ottoman Empire also allowed France to offset to some extent the Habsburg Empire's advantage in the New World trade, and French trade with the eastern Mediterranean through Marseille indeed increased considerably after 1535. After the Capitulations of 1569, France also gained precedence over all other Christian states, and her authorization was required for when another state wished to trade with the Ottoman Empire.

The Allies, without considering the extent of Ankara's successes, hoped to impose modified Serves as a peace settlement on Ankara. Allies offered to raise the Sèvres limits on the Turkish army to 85,000 men, eliminating the European financial controls over the Turkish government, but retaining the Capitulations and Public Debt Commission. Kemal rejected this proposal. According to NutukTurkish: Dedim ki: «Hatt-ı müdafaa yoktur, Saht-ı müdafaa vardır.

Herbert J. Redman, Frederick the Great and the Seven Years' War, 1756–1763, McFarland, 2014, p. 167.Salomon Sprecher von Bernegg, Diarium der Belagerung von Breslau; und Capitulations-Puncte von der Uebergabe an Se. Königl. Majestät in Preussen: Nebst einem Verzeichniß mit Nahmen, derer Generals, Staabs-Officiers und andern Officiers, dann vom Feldwebel an summariter derer Kayserl. Königl. Trouppen, so den 21ten December ...; 21 Dec 1757. pp. 5–14.

But Wolsey was not in Rome, and the Cardinals had sworn never to elect an absentee again. Adrian of Utrecht had been more than enough for them. On 5 October the Cardinals completed their Electoral Capitulations. On the 6th, three French cardinals arrived, François de Castelnau de Clermont, Louis de Bourbon-Vendôme, and Jean de Lorraine, and they brought the news that King Francis was opposed to Cardinal de' Medici.

Collins & Steichele, 2000, p. 22. In 1867, the Jerusalem—Jaffa route operated twice a week, and beginning in 1884, the Nablus—Jaffa route received daily despatches. In the last century of Ottoman rule, in addition to the Ottoman state postal service, up to six foreign powers were also allowed to operate postal services on Ottoman territory, with such rights originating in the Ottoman capitulations and other bilateral treaties.Tranmer, 1976, p. 54.

They also served in the New World: Samuel De Champlain's map of the Île Sainte-Croix (Saint Croix Island) settlement shows a barracks for the Swiss.Morison, Samuel Eliot, Samuel De Champlain, Father of New France, 1972, p. 44. The Swiss mercenaries were recruited according to contracts (capitulations) between the French Monarchy and Swiss cantons or individual noble families. By 1740 more than 12,000 Swiss soldiers were in French service.

John Harrison in 1633. Abu Marwan Abd al-Malik II ibn Zidan, also known as Abd el-Malik II (? – 10 March 1631) was the Sultan of Morocco from 1627 to 1631. After the expeditions of Isaac de Razilly to Morocco, he signed a Franco-Moroccan treaty with France in 1631, giving France preferential treatment, known as Capitulations: preferential tariffs, the establishment of a Consulate and freedom of religion for French subjects.

While the jurisdictions in the secular states of Europe had become territorial, the Ottomans perpetuated the legal system they inherited from the Byzantine Empire. The law in many matters was personal, not territorial, and the individual citizen carried his nation's law with him wherever he went.The Abrogation of the Turkish Capitulations, Norman Bentwich, Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law, Third Series, Vol. 5, No. 4 (1923), pp.

Economists who advocated free trade believed trade was the reason why certain civilizations prospered economically. For example, Smith pointed to increased trading as being the reason for the flourishing of not just Mediterranean cultures such as Egypt, Greece and Rome, but also of Bengal (East India) and China. The great prosperity of the Netherlands after throwing off Spanish Imperial rule and pursuing a policy of free trade made the free trade/mercantilist dispute the most important question in economics for centuries. Free trade policies have battled with mercantilist, protectionist, isolationist, socialist, populist and other policies over the centuries. The Ottoman Empire had liberal free trade policies by the 18th century, with origins in capitulations of the Ottoman Empire, dating back to the first commercial treaties signed with France in 1536 and taken further with capitulations in 1673, in 1740 which lowered duties to only 3% for imports and exports and in 1790.

Turkish tobacco was an important industrial crop, where its cultivation and manufacture were monopolies under capitulations of the Ottoman Empire. The tobacco and cigarette trade was controlled by two French companies the "Regie Compagnie interessee des tabacs de l'empire Ottoman", and "Narquileh tobacco.Stanford J. Shaw "History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey" pages 232-233." These companies founded as a monopoly in 1862 by the Ottoman government for the payment of its international debt.

The Swiss constitution, as amended in 1874, forbade all military capitulations and recruitment of Swiss by foreign powers,Bundesverfassung, Constitution fédérale, 29 May 1874, AS 1, RO 1 [BV 1874, Cst 1874] art. 11 (Switz.). although volunteering in foreign armies continued until prohibited outright in 1927. The Papal Swiss Guard (see above) remains an exception to this prohibition, reflecting the unique political status of the Vatican and the bodyguard-like role of the unit.

Article 1 stipulated for the renunciation by the Greek government of its privileges under the Capitulations system. Article 2 provided for the termination of all Greek consular courts, except for those dealing with current cases. Article 3 stipulated that Greek citizens in Egypt will still enjoy special legal status in Egypt, but under British law instead of Greek law. Article 4 stipulated that Greek consular officials shall retain their diplomatic privileges as before.

Falls p. 365 The Capitulations, however provided some protection to the Europeans who controlled both these industries.Falls p. 366 In the autumn of 1917 GHQ was transferred from Cairo to the front leaving garrison battalions. This move took the commander in chief of the EEF, who was responsible for martial law, out of touch with the civil authorities, and unrest in Egypt became serious during the winter of 1917/18.Falls pp.

After approximately two weeks of bombardment, resulting in enormous hardship on the Allied troops within,Redman, 167, the garrison surrendered to the Prussians.Salomon Sprecher von Bernegg, Diarium der Belagerung von Breslau; und Capitulations-Puncte von der Übergabe an Se. Königl. Majestät in Preussen: Nebst einem Verzeichniß mit Nahmen, derer Generals, Staabs-Officiers und andern Officiers, dann vom Feldwebel an summariter derer Kayserl. Königl. Trouppen, so den 21ten December ...; 21 Dec 1757. pp. 5–14.

There were therefore two ballots which did not name della Rovere. After his election, Cardinal Oliviero Carafa, the senior Cardinal Bishop, presented the new Pope with the Fisherman's ring (anulus Piscatoris) which had belonged to Pius III, but Julius produced a ring of his own, which caused some surprise. He then signed the Electoral Capitulations and took the oath to observe them. This was officially witnessed by Burchard in his capacity as a notary.

The extensive employment of Swiss mercenaries by the French monarchy between 1444 and 1792, was governed by contracts. Concluded between the French monarchy and individual Swiss cantons or noble families, these documents were known as "capitulations", because of a standard format which involved the division of the document into capitula (chapters). While differing in details, the usual agreement covered commitments such as the number of soldiers to be provided, payments or other benefits, and immunity from French law.

As the diversity and number of settlers in the canal region rose, Ismail directed Nubar to begin his decade-long journey of revising the judicial system from a system of capitulations to a system of mixed tribunals. The company made an appeal at the 1867 Universal Exposition of Art and Industry to attempt to sell an additional 100 million francs (4 million pounds) worth of debt in the form of bonds - maturing in 50 years - to finish the project.

The Ottoman Empire entered Yemen in 1538 when Suleiman the Magnificent was Sultan. Under the military leadership of Özdemir Pasha, the Ottomans conquered Sanaʽa in 1547. With Ottoman approval, European captains based in the Yemeni port towns of Aden and Mocha frequented Sanaʽa to maintain special privileges and capitulations for their trade. In 1602 the local Zaydi imams led by Imam al-Mu'ayyad reasserted their control over the area, and forced out Ottoman troops in 1629.

There were also electoral capitulations for the election of the Venetian doges, the promissione ducale, Kurt Heller: Kultur und Leben in der Republik 697-1797. Vienna/Cologne/Weimar, 1999, pp. 136-157 the oldest of which has survived from 1192. The promissione ducale was drafted before the election of a new doge by a specially formed commission, the Correttori alle promissione ducale, the Doge had to read it at his election, to praise it and was only crowned afterwards.

A French embassy and a Christian chapel were established in the town of Galata across the Golden horn from Constantinople, and commercial privileges were also given to French merchants in the Turkish Empire. Through the capitulations of 1535, the French received the privilege to trade freely in all Ottoman ports. A formal alliance was signed in 1536. The French were free to practice their religion in the Ottoman Empire, and French Catholics were given custody of holy places.

In accordance with the directives of Mustafa Kemal, while discussing matters regarding the control of Turkish finances and justice, the Capitulations, the Turkish Straits and the like, he refused any proposal that would compromise Turkish sovereignty.Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, 365 Finally, after long debates, on 24 July 1923, the Treaty of Lausanne was signed. Ten weeks after the signature the Allied forces left Istanbul.Kinross, Atatürk, The Rebirth of a Nation, 373.

The justification for setting aside the capitulations, seen to be under way by the Duke of Milan's ambassador as early as 21 September, lay in connecting any abridgement of the Pope's absolute monarchy in the Papal States with a consequent abridgement of his sole authority in spiritual matters.Pastor, vol. IV, p. 21. Almost from his coronation, Paul withdrew and became inaccessible: audiences were only granted at night and even good friends waited a fortnight to see him.

The monarchs also became doubting, but a group of influential courtiers convinced them that they would lose little if the project failed and would gain much if it succeeded. Among those advisors were the archbishop of Toledo Hernando de Talavera, the notary Luis de Santángel and the chamberlain Juan Cabrero. The royal secretary Juan II Coloma was ordered to formulate the capitulations. The agreement took three months to prepare because the monarchs were busy with other matters.

The terms regarding religious freedom forbade any regulation of the traditional Protestant order by religious or secular authorities, and ruled that cases of disagreements be judged only by Protestant scholars. When in 1710 Estonia and Livonia capitulated to Russia during the Great Northern War, the capitulations explicitly referred to the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti, with the respective references being confirmed in the Treaty of Nystad (1721).Kahle, Wilhelm (1984). "Die Bedeutung der Confessio Augustana für die Kirche im Osten".

Mannheim had been garrisoned by a Bavarian commander, Lieutenant General Baron von Belderbusch, and several battalions of Bavarian grenadiers, fusiliers, and guard regiments, plus six companies of artillery. A small Austrian force augmented the Bavarian contingent. At the same time, further north, the fortified town of Düsseldorf, also garrisoned by Bavarians, capitulated to the French. With these capitulations, the French controlled the Rhine crossings at Düsseldorf and at the junction of the Rhine and the Main rivers.

Maronites gained self-rule and secured their position in the independent Lebanon in 1943. French intervention on behalf of the Maronites had begun with the capitulations of the Ottoman Empire, agreements made during the 16th to the 19th centuries. In 1866, when Youssef Bey Karam led a Maronite uprising in Mount Lebanon, a French-led naval force arrived to help, making threats against the governor, Dawood Pasha, at the Sultan's Porte and later removing Karam to safety.

Dutch Prime Minister Mark Rutte receives Turkish President Abdullah Gül at the Binnenhof Dutch–Turkish relations refer to interstate relations between the Netherlands and Turkey. The diplomatic relations widely encompass and span four centuries, beginning in 1612. The first Turkish representative in the Netherlands started activities in 1859. Before the Dutch had their own consuls in the Levant, they traded under the French Capitulations of 1569 until they sent Cornelius Haga as a Consul to Istanbul in 1611.

Warner departed from Amsterdam in December 1644, travelling overland via Gdańsk and Lviv in the Polish- Lithuanian Commonwealth. He finally arrived in Istanbul in the autumn of 1645. The first years he worked as a secretary for Nicolaas Ghisbrechti or Ghysbrechtsz, a jeweller originally from the Southern Netherlands who had been involved in the Capitulations accorded to the Dutch Republic in 1612. When Ghisbrechti became resident for the Dutch Republic, in 1647, Warner continued working for him.

In 1624 he was given charge of an embassy to the pirate harbour of Salé in Morocco, in order to solve the affair of the Zaydani Library of Mulay Zidan. In 1630, Razilly was able to negotiate the purchase of French slaves from the Moroccans. He visited Morocco again in 1631, and helped negotiate the Franco-Moroccan Treaty (1631). The Treaty gave France preferential treatment, known as Capitulations: preferential tariffs, the establishment of a Consulate, and freedom of religion for French subjects.

First letter from Suleiman to Francis I in February 1526. The alliance was an opportunity for both rulers to fight against the hegemony of the House of Habsburg. The objective for Francis I was to find an ally against the Habsburgs, although the policy of courting a Muslim power was in reversal of that of his predecessors. The pretext used by Francis I was the protection of the Christians in Ottoman lands, through agreements called "Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire".

The French released Ascanio Sforza from captivity for his vote. The cardinals began by drafting a conclave capitulation, unlike all previous capitulations in that it contained no mention of limiting the size of the College of Cardinals to 24. It did, however, include a payment of 2,400 ducats from the pope annually to any cardinal with income less than 6,000 ducats. The French cardinals soon discovered the wisdom of the bookmakers, having underestimated della Rovere's ambition and overestimated his loyalty.

The Capitulations were officially published on January 21, 1541 in the church of Sevilla. Las Casas was appointed bishop of Chiapas in 1544, but he tried to apply the new lays in his diocese, these were flatly rejected by the encomenderos. In 1545, Guatemala bishop Francisco Marroquín visited Tezulutlán y met with the preachers. Back in the city of Gracias a Dios, where the Audiencia de los Confines had its main office- met with Las Casas and with Nicaragua bishop Antonio de Valdivieso.

The Agreement between Great Britain and Portugal Relating to the Suppression of the Capitulations in Egypt (1920) was an agreement concluded between the British and Portuguese governments in Lisbon on 9 December 1920, in order to regulate legal relations between Portuguese citizens and the court system in Egypt. Ratifications were exchanged in Lisbon on 29 September 1921 and the agreement went into effect. It was registered in the League of Nations Treaty Series on 12 December 1921.League of Nations Treaty Series, vol.

Santa Fe is a Spanish municipality in the province of Granada, situated in the Vega de Granada, irrigated by the river Genil. The town was originally built by the Catholic armies besieging Granada (c. 1490) after a fire destroyed much of their encampment. The Capitulations of Santa Fe between Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs were signed there shortly after the fall of Granada (2 January 1492) on 17 April 1492, and the city therefore advertises itself as "the cradle of hispanicity".

Plaza de Colón, Madrid (1881–85) Through the Capitulations of Santa Fe, Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus received finances and was authorized to sail west and claim lands for Spain. The monarchs accorded him the title of Admiral of the Ocean Sea and he was given broad privileges. His voyage west resulted in the European colonization of the Americas and brought the knowledge of its existence to Europe. Columbus' first expedition to the supposed Indies actually landed in the Bahamas on October 12, 1492.

They finished the Electoral Capitulations on 8 September, and the bulls referring to conclave rules were read on 9 September. Du Bellay, however, was ill, and did not attend the reading. In the First Scrutiny, held later that day, he had to cast his vote from his sickbed. Beginning on 26 September various ambassadors, led by the Spanish Ambassador, appeared at the entrance to the Conclave area and harangued the cardinals inside about the necessity of getting a pope elected.

In September 1739, Fleury scored another diplomatic success. France's mediation in the war between the Holy Roman Empire and the Ottoman Empire led to the Treaty of Belgrade (September 1739), which favoured the Ottoman Empire, beneficiary of a Franco-Ottoman alliance against the Habsburgs since the early 16th century. As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1740 renewed the French capitulations, which marked the supremacy of French trade in the Middle East. With these successes, Louis XV's prestige reached its highest point.

By this time Muslims in Castile numbered half a million. After the fall, "100,000 had died or been enslaved, 200,000 emigrated, and 200,000 remained as the residual population. Many of the Muslim elite, including Muhammad XII, who had been given the area of the Alpujarras mountains as a principality, found life under Christian rule intolerable and passed over into North Africa." Under the conditions of the Capitulations of 1492, the Muslims in Granada were to be allowed to continue to practice their religion.

Saladin, sultan of Babylon (Cairo), granted a charter to the town of Pisa in 1173. The Byzantine Emperors followed this example, and Genoa, Pisa and Venice all obtained capitulations. The explanation of the practice is to be found in the fact that the sovereignty of the state was held in those ages to apply only to its subjects; foreigners were excluded from its rights and obligations. The privilege of citizenship was considered too precious to be extended to the alien, who was long practically an outlaw.

They argued that they were in fact French, originally from the banks of the Somme (Sommaripa being the Italianised form of Sommerive), so as to pass under the protection of the capitulations. Elsewhere too, it was easier, using this model, to leave in place the ruling families who passed under Ottoman suzerainty. The largest of the Cyclades kept their Latin seigneurs, but paid an annual tax to the Porte as a sign of their new vassalage. Four of the smallest islands found themselves under direct Ottoman administration.

Ludwig Pastor,Pastor VII, p. 20. the historian of the Papacy, quotes those and others: that any cardinal who did not already possess an income of 6000 ducats would be given a subsidy of 200 ducats per month; that no cardinal would be appointed a Legate against his will; that all benefices connected with the Lateran Basilica and the Vatican Basilica would be conferred on Romans only. The list went on. No pope ever felt obliged to carry out all or any of these Capitulations.

During the Middle Ages, rival Christian and Muslim kingdoms forbade the trade of particular goods to enemy kingdoms including weaponry and other contraband items. The popes forbade the export of these commodities to the Islamic world. The Ottomans too forbade the export of weapons and other strategic items, declaring them memnu eşya or memnu olan to Christian states even in peace treaties, however friendly states could import some of the prohibited goods through capitulations. Despite these prohibitions, trade of contraband occurred on both sides.

Jean-Claude Lutanie was born in Poitiers, France in 1951. In the 1970s and 80s, he entered into social protest and contestation, but early on, broke off from any movement in particular. In 1981, he publishes Protestation devant les libertaires du présent et du futur sur les capitulations de 1980 anonymously,republished by Editions Lutanie in 2011 followed by Une lecture paranoïaque-critique de La Maison Tellier (Guy de Maupassant) in 1993.Le Veilleur Éditeur Lutanie’s university research focused on the work of Jean-Pierre Brisset.

Lewis (1999), p. 128 This view is countered by Jane Gerber, who maintains that of all dhimmis, Jews had the lowest status. Gerber maintains that this situation was especially pronounced in the latter centuries, when Christian communities enjoyed protection, unavailable to the Jews, under the provisions of Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire. For example, in 18th century Damascus, a Muslim noble held a festival, inviting to it all social classes in descending order, according to their social status: the Jews outranked only the peasants and prostitutes.

He easily accepted British and French colonial rule in Palestine, Syria and Iraq. Although İsmet would surely have loved to negate the old Ottoman debt, a great weight on the new state, he accepted a proportional division of the debt among the successor states of the empire. On matters on independence, the Turks were resolute in their stance. The capitulations and the rules that had allowed foreigners to have their own legal systems in the Ottoman Empire, their own post offices and other extraterritorial rights were ended.

Those who settled permanently in the Ottoman Empire retained their Tuscan or Italian nationality, so as to have the benefit of the Ottoman Capitulations. In Tunisia there was a community of Juifs Portugais, or L'Grana (Livornese), separate from, and (of course) regarding itself as superior to, the native Tunisian Jews (Tuansa).Etsion Koren, Nimrod, The Livornese Jewry in Tunis: Experiences of the Diasporic Community in the Unification of Italy and Beyond, 1830s-1939, (July 21, 2018). Journal of Education, Society and Behavioural Science, Vol.

French policy supporting the Turkish independence movement were set back during the Conference of Lausanne on the abolition of the Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire. French objections during the discussions on abolition were perceived as contravening full Turkish independence and sovereignty. Furthermore, the fact that the sanjak of Alexandretta remained under French control also contributed to the tension between the two countries, as the Turks claimed the land in the Misak-ı Millî. The positive attitude developed with the Treaty of Ankara remained friendly, if limited.

The interior of the church houses a series of paintings by Miguel de Santiago depicting the life of St. Augustine. The building includes a small atrium (decorated by a large stone cross), an inside yard with a large garden and a large session hall where the frayers held dissertations or "capitulations" of faith. The cloister and convent have a separate entrance which leads to the garden. The bell tower reaches a high of 22 meters (70 feet) and houses two bronze bells of the period.

He took part in the Conclave of 1352, which followed the death of Pope Clement VI on 6 December 1352. The Conclave's opening ceremonies took place on Sunday 16 December, after the official nine-day mourning period (Novendiales). There were extensive Electoral Capitulations, which were annulled by the new pope, Innocent VI on 6 July 1353 in the Bull Solicitudo pastoris. The Conclave lasted only two days, achieving a successful result on Tuesday 8 December, with the election of Cardinal Étienne Aubert of Limoges, the Bishop of Ostia.

The major stumbling block to the plan was the hostility between Cardinal Colonna and Cardinal de' Medici. There was also a division among the cardinals between 'the Elders' and the 'Younger Cardinals' (those created by Leo X de' Medici); the Elders were most reluctant to support Cardinal Giulio de' Medici. The Cardinals were in no hurry to begin the scrutinies, since the French cardinals had not yet arrived. They occupied their time with the Electoral Capitulations (a sort of party platform, to which they all could and would subscribe) until 5 October.

Before the Dutch had their own consuls in the Levant, they traded under the French Capitulations of 1569 until they sent Cornelius Haga as a Consul to Istanbul in 1611. The States-General was responsible for appointing the consul, but the Levant merchants in these cases were closely consulted. The poor payment system for the consuls disrupted the potential successes of the relationship between consul and merchant community. The merchants requested changing to the Venetian fixed salary payment, but the States-General went against their wishes and tried to find other means of income.

Nointel entering Jerusalem in 1674Vandal, 1900, p. 113The Treasure Behind the Wall, by Vanessa Friedman, Jan. 21, 2019, The New York Times: they write that it is by Arnould de Vuez, and not Jacques Carrey Charles-Marie-François Olier, marquis de NointelHe bore the additional title of marquis de Angervilliers. (1635—1685), a councillor to the Parlement de Paris, was the French ambassador to the Ottoman court of Mehmed IV, from 1670 to 1679, charged from the first with renegotiating the Capitulations under which French merchants and others did business within the Ottoman Empire.

In Norway, the electoral capitulation was used in the period from 1449 (Christian I and Charles Knutsson) to 1648, the electoral capitulations of 1449 and 1524 (Frederick I) only being applied to Norway, whilst the rest were applied to Denmark, but because the king reigned in personal union, they also applied automatically to Norway. The capitulation of 1648 was succeeded by absolutism in 1660. The capitulation was a prerequisite for the coronation. In the period between the capitulation and the coronation, the king bore the title "elected king" (erwählter König or utvalgt konge).

For a long period, from the 15th to 17th centuries, it was common at the election of a new pope for the college of cardinals to demand a capitulation. As early as 1352 an electoral capitulation was compiled for the election of Pope Innocent VI, although he declared it invalid. The Council of Constance (1414–1417) took the view that the rival popes, Gregory XII and Benedict XIII were guilty of perjury because they had broken the terms of their electoral capitulations. In 1431, Pope Eugene IV confirmed his capitulation in a formal papal bull.

In the 18th century, foreign countries maintained courier services through their official missions in the Empire, to permit transportation of mail between those countries and Constantinople. Nine countries had negotiated "Capitulations" or treaties with the Ottomans, which granted various extraterritorial rights in exchange for trade opportunities. Such agreements permitted Russia (1720 & 1783), Austria (1739), France (1812), Great Britain (1832) and Greece (1834), as well as Germany, Italy, Poland, and Romania, to maintain post offices in the Ottoman Empire. Some of these developed into public mail services, used to transmit mail to Europe.

Ibrahim Pasha, a few days before his assassination, expanding to the whole Ottoman Empire the privileges received in Egypt from the Mamluks before 1518. Treaties, or capitulations, were passed between the two countries starting in 1528 and 1536. The defeat in the Conquest of Tunis (1535) at the hands of Andrea Doria motivated the Ottoman Empire to enter into a formal alliance with France. Ambassador Jean de La Forêt was sent to Istanbul, and for the first time was able to become permanent ambassador at the Ottoman court and to negotiate treaties.

Capitulations between Charles IX and Selim II, negotiated under Guillaume de Grandchamp de Grantrie by Claude du Bourg de Guérines.The Papacy and the Levant by Kenneth M. Setton p.938 Guillaume de Grandchamp de Grantrie was French Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1566 to 1571. From 1566, he notably proposed to the Ottoman Court a plan, devised by Charles IX of France and Catherine de Medicis, to settle French Huguenots and French and German Lutherans in Moldavia, in order to create a military colony and a buffer against the Habsburgs.

The Erzurum congress drafted a deceleration with the representatives of the six eastern provinces. Later known as the National Pact, it affirmed the inviolability of the Ottoman "frontiers"—that is, all the Ottoman lands inhabited by Turks when the Armistice of Mudros was signed. It declared the provisional government, which is named as Turkish Grand National Assembly (GNA). On the economic front, this document also followed the Ottoman position of rejection of special status arrangements for the minorities, which was named as the Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire.

Postcard with frontal view of the hospice, late 19th century The Ottoman Empire entered the First World War on the side of the Four League. In the course of the mobilisation phase, on 9 September 1914, the capitulations for the members of the Entente were dissolved and the ecclesiastical institutions of the now enemy nations were requisitioned. When the Sultan declared Jihad against the British in November 1914, all citizens of the Entente, including the clergy, had to leave Jerusalem. During this time, there was a depressed and hostile atmosphere in the city.

Rymer's most lasting contribution to scholarship was the Foedera, a collection of "all the leagues, treaties, alliances, capitulations, and confederacies, which have at any time been made between the Crown of England and any other kingdoms, princes and states." Documents were presented in Latin with summaries in English. Begun under a royal warrant in 1693, it was "an immense labour of research and transcription on which he spent the last twenty years of his life".. The quote is from page xviii. The first edition of the Foedera consisted of 20 volumes dated 1704–1735.

After the Capitulations were dealt with, the Conclavists were removed and the doors closed, so that the voting could begin. The voting was by written ballot, and it was a preference ballot. One cardinal could name several candidates on the ballot, and five Cardinals did in fact take the trouble and time to do so. The details of each and every ballot were recorded by Burchard in his Diary, who also comments that all of the ballots were in the handwriting of the cardinal, except for three, which were written by an attendant.

Volume 1 Législation ottomane, ou Recueil des lois, règlements, ordonnances, traités, capitulations et autres documents officiels de l'Empire ottoman is a collection of Ottoman law published by Gregory Aristarchis (as Grégoire Aristarchi) and edited by Demetrius Nicolaides (as Démétrius Nicolaïdes). The volumes were published from 1873 to 1888. It was one of the first collections of the Ottoman Law in seven volumes in French,Sinan Kuneralp (2000) Ottoman diplomacy and the controversy over the interpretation of the Article 4 of the Turco-American Treaty of 1830. The Turkish Yearbook, vol. 31, pp.13, 14.

Expulsion of the Moriscos from Valencia During the expansion south of the northern Christian kingdoms, depending on the local capitulations, local Muslims were allowed to remain (Mudéjars) with extreme restrictions, while some were forcefully converted to the Christian faith. After the conquest of Granada, all the Spanish Muslims were under Christian rule. The new acquired population spoke Arabic or Mozarabic, and the campaigns to convert them were unsuccessful. Legislation was gradually introduced to remove Islam, culminating with the Muslims being forced to convert to Catholicism by the Spanish Inquisition.

However, surviving capitulations from the 16th and 17th centuries are not known to contain provisions to this effect. With the passing of the amendment to the Swiss Constitution of 1874 banning the recruitment of Swiss citizens by foreign states, such contractual relations ceased. Military alliances had already been banned under the Swiss constitution of 1848, though troops still served abroad when obliged by treaties. One such example were the Swiss regiments serving under Francis II of the Two Sicilies, who defended Gaeta in 1860 during the Italian War of Unification.

The Allies were to control the Ottoman Empire's finances, such as approving and supervising the national budget, implementing financial laws and regulations and totally controlling the Ottoman Bank. The Ottoman Public Debt Administration, instituted in 1881, was redesigned to include only British, French, and Italian bondholders. The Ottoman debt problem had dated back to the time of the Crimean War (1854–1856) during which the Ottoman Empire had borrowed money from abroad, mainly from France. Also the capitulations of the Ottoman Empire, which had been abolished in 1914 by Talaat Pasha, were restored.

From the 17th to the 19th century, several Jews of Spanish and Italian origin settled in Syria for trading reasons. Whenever possible, they kept their European nationality in order to be under the jurisdiction of the consular courts under the Ottoman capitulations, rather than being treated as dhimmis under Islamic law. These European Jews were known as Señores Francos and maintained a sense of social superiority to the native Jews, both Musta'arabi and Sephardi. They did not form separate synagogues, but often held services of their own in private houses.

The Order of Preachers settled the Salamá doctrine in the 1550s. Salamá was settled as a doctrine by the Order of Preachers in the 1550s, as part of the Tezulutlán Capitulations that friar Bartolome de las Casas lobbied from the Crown. The friars had thousands of acres with hills, forest, a section of the plain and abundant water supply. Both location and weather were ideal for vines; the characteristic soil and dried grass from the rest of the plain was replaced by vines thanks to a superb irrigation system the friars built inspired by the Romans.

A group of women led by Georgina Fletcher met with then-president of Colombia Enrique Olaya Herrera with the intention of asking him to support the transformation of the Colombian legislation regarding women's rights to administer properties. The law was named ley sobre Régimen de Capitulaciones Matrimoniales ("Law about marriage capitulations regime") which was later proposed in congress in December 1930 by Ofelia Uribe as a constitutional reform. The law's main objective was to allow women to administer their properties and not their husbands, male relatives or tutors, as had been the case. The move generated a scandal in congress.

85 It was then reprinted by the official Editura Academiei press, under the supervision of historian Nicolae Iorga. The encounter was confrontational: Iorga decided to cut out entire passages where, he argued, the author had gone into too much detail. The intervention was unwittingly destructive, as part of the documents cited by Filitti, and only by him, have since been destroyed. It was also in 1915 that Filitti contributed his views on the thorny issue of "Capitulations", contracts reputedly signed by two Danubian Principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia) when they first came under the Ottoman Empire's suzerainty.

Isabella then sent a royal guard to fetch Columbus, who had travelled several kilometers toward Córdoba. In the April 1492 "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella promised Columbus that if he succeeded he would be given the rank of Admiral of the Ocean Sea and appointed Viceroy and Governor of all the new lands he could claim for Spain. He had the right to nominate three persons, from whom the sovereigns would choose one, for any office in the new lands. He would be entitled to 10 percent of all the revenues from the new lands in perpetuity.

The establishment of strong diplomatic and commercial relations with the Ottoman Empire through the Capitulations led to French money being drained to the Levant and Persia for the purchase of luxury goods such as knotted-pile carpets. Due to these concerns, and also because French luxury arts had collapsed in the disorders of civil violence in the Wars of Religion, Henri IV attempted to develop French luxury industries that could replace imports. The king provided craftsmen with studios and workshops. These efforts to develop an industry for luxury goods was continued by Louis XIII and Louis XIV.

At the time, Egypt still functioned under the Capitulations system, by which foreign nationals were tried under the laws of their own states. And, because neither Italy nor Greece had death penalties, only the Egyptian Jew faced the gallows for the crime, which he was said to have masterminded. This legal absurdity and its direct linkage to the question of sovereignty quickly became the subject of a heated political debate in both the Egyptian press and the country's new parliament. Salomon's funeral procession clogged traffic in Cairo streets as it inched toward the ancient palm-lined Jewish Bassatine cemetery.

Two years later, Palestine was conquered by Muhammad Ali's Egypt, but Egyptian rule was challenged in 1834 by a countrywide popular uprising against conscription and other measures considered intrusive by the population. Its suppression devastated many of Palestine's villages and major towns. In 1840, Britain intervened and returned control of the Levant to the Ottomans in return for further capitulations. The death of Aqil Agha marked the last local challenge to Ottoman centralization in Palestine, and beginning in the 1860s, Palestine underwent an acceleration in its socio-economic development, due to its incorporation into the global, and particularly European, economic pattern of growth.

The Ottoman government was not doing all that it could to suppress the nationalists. On 28 January the deputies met secretly and proposals were made to elect Mustafa Kemal president of the Chamber, however this was deferred in the certain knowledge that the British would prorogue the Chamber. On 28 January, the Ottoman parliament developed the National Pact (Misak-ı Millî) drawn up in the Erzurum and Sivas Congress and published it on 12 February. This pact adopted six principles, which called for self-determination, the security of Constantinople, and the opening of the Straits, also the abolition of the capitulations.

On 18 December 1461, Ammannati was made a cardinal, and was commonly known as the Cardinal of Pavia. He accompanied Pius II to Ancona and attended him in his last illness. In the subsequent conclave he favored the election of Pope Paul II, whose displeasure he afterward incurred by insisting on the full observance of the ante-election capitulations that the pope had signed. The imprisonment of his private secretary by Paul II on a charge of complicity in the Conspiracy of the Roman Academy offended Ammannati still more, and his open defense of the secretary aggravated the pope's ill-will.

Some of the Italian Levantines may have ancestral origins also in the eastern Mediterranean coast (the Levant, particularly in present-day Lebanon and Israel) dating back to the period of the Crusades and the Byzantine Empire. A small group came from Crimea and from the Genoese colonies in the Black Sea, after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. The majority of the Levantines in modern Turkey are the descendants of traders/colonists from the Italian maritime republics of the Mediterranean (especially Genoa and Venice) and France, who obtained special rights and privileges called the Capitulations from the Ottoman sultans in the 16th century.

The ARVN could not punch through from An Lộc to Tong Le Chon when repeated efforts to attack even a few miles north of Lai Khê had failed. A division could not be assembled with the road to An Lộc held by the PAVN and in any case, all ARVN divisions were heavily committed coping with other threats. The second option was equally unrealistic due to the political repercussions and the precedent could portend future such capitulations, some possibly with less than adequate justification. Only the third option had any merit, but the decision had to be referred to President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu.

He was requested to give counsel concerning the foundation of the Holy Inquisition in Aragon and sent a royal diplomat to the king of France Charles VIII. At the request of his patrons, he designed the conditions that Columbus could receive the royal patronage for his expedition. He concluded the important document with the royal approbation for Columbus in 1491. This concluded in the Capitulations of Santa Fe.The Book of Privileges Issued To Christopher Columbus By King Fernando and Queen Isabel 1492-1502 Ferdinand was grateful and bestowed noble status to his first wife in 1506.

E. J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands (1980) The Capitulations constituted the legal basis of the French protectorate over the Holy Places, Catholic Christians, and by extension, Orthodox Christians. In 1623, King Louis XIII appointed the first consul in Jerusalem "for the Glory of God and to relieve the pious pilgrims whom by devotion visit the Holy Places." The presence of consuls in Jerusalem was intermittent until 1843. Amidst the growing competition between European powers over the exclusive protectorate that France was entitled to exercise over Christians, the rank of the Consul in Jerusalem was raised to that of a Consul General in 1893.

The Court of Lions as shown frommthe Alhambra, the palace of Nasrid Granada. Mass forced conversions of Muslims in 1499 led to a revolt that spread to Alpujarras and the mountains of Ronda; after this uprising the capitulations were revoked. In 1502 the Catholic Monarchs decreed the forced conversion of all Muslims living under the rule of the Crown of Castile, although in the kingdoms of Aragon and Valencia (both now part of Spain) the open practice of Islam was allowed until 1526. Descendants of the Muslims were subject to expulsions from Spain between 1609 and 1614 (see Expulsion of the Moriscos).

The embassy departed Paris on 13 February 1535 with the new French ambassador to the Porte, Jean de la Forest, accompanied by Charles de Marillac and the scholar Guillaume de Postel. Jean de la Forest would successfully negotiate the Capitulations giving advantages and pre-eminence to France in relations with the Ottoman Empire.Garnier, p.91 De la Forest also had secret instructions describing how he was to coordinate the military efforts between France and the Ottoman Empire: The embassy arrived in Marseille on 3 April 1535 and departed on 11 April 1535 on the Ottoman galleys that had been waiting there.

Frangipani returned with an answer from Suleiman, on 6 February 1526:. Top-level strategic relations between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of France started during the reigns of Süleyman the Magnificent and the Valois king Francis I in the first quarter of the 16th century, at a time when the French king was in critical need of alliance and assistance from the Ottoman Sultan. The contacts were further enhanced, especially in a commercial viewpoint, with the capitulations granted by the sultan in 1535 and starting with Jean de la Forest in that year, France had an ambassadorial representative in Turkey ever since.

In November 1917, General Salle reported that the attempt at cooperation between Christians and Muslims had resulted in frequent difficulties. At the end of 1917 Gërmenji was accused of collaboration with the Central Powers and executed in Thessaloniki after being sentenced to death by the French military court. General Salle removed the already limited autonomy of the Council on February 16, 1918. After the armistices and capitulations at the end of First World War, it was agreed that France and Italy should continue to govern the territories they occupied, and that France, Italy and the British Empire together should govern Shkodër.

Such agreements may be rashly concluded with an inferior officer, on whose authority the enemy are not, in the actual position of the war, entitled to place reliance. When an agreement is made by an officer who has not the proper authority or who has exceeded the limits of his authority, it is termed a "sponsion", and, to be binding, must be confirmed by express or tacit ratification. The Hague Convention (1899) on the laws and the customs of war lays down that capitulations agreed on between the contracting parties must be in accordance with the rules of military honor. When once settled they must be observed by both the parties.

After Mass on Monday morning, the Bull of Julius II against simony was read out, and the cardinals adopted the Electoral Capitulations which had been put forward in 1513 without discussion or dissent. In the early evening of Monday, 11 October, the cardinals reached a unanimous agreement on the choice of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, the Dean of the College of Cardinals. They sent Ippolito de' Medici and Jean de Lorraine to convey their wishes to Farnese, and they invited him to come with them to the chapel. There the election by acclamation was formally witnessed by three Masters of Ceremonies, who were also Protonotaries Apostolic.

The Ottoman–Bulgarian alliance may have been a prerequisite for Bulgaria's joining the Central Powers after Turkey entered the war. On 9 September 1914, the Porte unilaterally abrogated the capitulations granted to foreign powers. The British, French, Russian, Italian, Austro-Hungarian and German ambassadors signed a joint note of protest, but privately the Austro- Hungarian and German ambassadors informed the Grand Vizier that they would not press the issue. On 1 October, the Ottoman government raised its customs duties, previously controlled by the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, and closed all foreign post offices. On 28 September the Turkish Straits were closed to naval traffic.

Many merchants maintained a presence in both Italy and countries in the Ottoman Empire, and even those who settled permanently in the Ottoman Empire retained their Tuscan or other Italian nationality, so as to have the benefit of the capitulations of the Ottoman Empire. Thus, in Tunisia there was a community of Juifs Portugais, or L'Grana (Livornese), separate from, and regarding itself as superior to, the native Tunisian Jews (Tuansa). Smaller communities of the same kind existed in other countries, such as Syria, where they were known as Señores Francos. They were generally not numerous enough to establish their own synagogues, instead meeting for prayer in each other's houses.

The word Mudéjar is a Medieval Spanish corruption of the Arabic word Mudajjan (مدجن), meaning "domesticated", in reference to the Muslims who submitted to the rule of the Christian monarchs. By this means many Islamic communities survived in the Málaga area after the Reconquista, protected by the capitulations they signed during the war. These covenants were feudal in nature: the Moors recognised the sovereignty of the Catholic Monarchs, surrendered their fortresses, delivered all Christian captives, and committed to continue paying traditional taxes. In return, they received protection for their persons and property, and legal assurances that their beliefs, laws and social customs would be respected.

Viscount Allenby, the British High Commissioner to Egypt, considered Stack an old and trusted friend. He was thus determined to avenge the crime and in the process humiliate the Wafd and destroy its credibility in Egypt. Allenby demanded that Egypt apologize, prosecute the assailants, pay a £500,000 indemnity, withdraw all troops from Sudan, consent to an unlimited increase of irrigation in Sudan and end all opposition to the capitulations (Britain's demand of the right to protect foreign interests in the country). Zaghloul wanted to resign rather than accept the ultimatum, but Allenby presented it to him before Zaghloul could offer his resignation to the king.

At the Conclave, therefore, the continuation of the Council was a major concern, and was written into the Electoral Capitulations. At his last audience for the Cardinals, on 19 February, Pope Julius advised the Cardinals not to allow the schismatic cardinals from the 'Council of Pisa'Bernardino López de Carvajal, Guillaume Briçonnet, Francesco Borgia, Federico Sanseverino, and René de Prie were deprived of their functions and declared schismatics on 11 October 1511: Guilelmus van Gulik & Conradus Eubel Hierarchia catholica medii et recentioris aevi III, edition altera (Monasterii 1923), p. 4, column 2, note 1. to take part in the Conclave, nor to allow the Ecumenical Council any part in the proceedings.

One provided that the Pope could not create more than two cardinals from members of his own family, when the number of Cardinals was below 24, and with the agreement of two-thirds of the cardinals. Another required that there be a General Council of Christians to reform the Church, and to prepare a crusade against the Infidel. Another required that the text of the Capitulations be read out twice a year in Congregation. Another stated that the Roman Curia could not be transferred elsewhere in Italy without the consent of half of the cardinals; and that it could not be transferred outside of Italy without the consent of two-thirds.

The Ottoman System lost the mechanisms of its existence from the assignment of protection of citizen rights of their subjects to other states. People were not citizens of the Ottoman Empire anymore but of other states, due to the Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire to European powers, protecting the rights of their citizens within the Empire. The Russians became formal Protectors of Eastern Orthodox groups, the French of Roman Catholics and the British of Jews and other groups. Russia and England competed for the Armenians; the Eastern Orthodox perceived American Protestants, who had over 100 missionaries established in Anatolia by World War I, as weakening their own teaching.

Latin-Syriac psalter by Gabriel Sionita, 1625, printed by Antoine Vitré with the fonts of François Savary de Brèves. Oriental studies continued to take place towards the end of the 16th century, especially with the work of Savary de Brèves, also former French ambassador in Constantinople. Brèves spoke Turkish and Arabic and was famed for his knowledge of Ottoman culture.Marbled paper: its history, techniques, and patterns by Richard J. Wolfe p.35 Through his efforts, Capitulations were signed between Henry IV of France and Sultan Ahmed I on 20 May 1604, giving a marked advantage for French trade, against that of the English and the Venetians.

The former U.S. Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, Morgenthau relates his experience with German-Ottoman relations during the World War I. He referred to the CUP as the "boss system" inside the Ottoman Empire, and related how it proved useful to the German Empire to bring the Ottomans to their side. He also outlines the details of Germany's influence in preventing the sale of American warships to Greece, their plans for new territories, coaling stations, indemnities and the closing of the Dardanelles to separate the Russian Empire from the Allies during the World War I. It also contains information about Ottoman Empire's abrogation of the capitulations.

Ottoman Loan certificate, 1933; printed in French The Capitulations were the main discussion during the period. It was believed incoming foreign assistance with capitulation could benefit the Empire. Ottoman officials, representing different jurisdictions, sought bribes at every opportunity and withheld the proceeds of a vicious and discriminatory tax system, which ruined every struggling industry by the graft, and fought against every show of independence on the part of Empire's many subject peoples. The Ottoman public debt was part of a larger scheme of political control, through which the commercial interests of the world had sought to gain advantages that may not have been of the Empire's interest.

Morris goes back through history to assess where the Turks came from, their imperial past, and their long and complex relationship with Europe concluding that modern Turks have unresolved feelings about the messy Ottoman era, which achieved its Golden Age under Süleyman the Magnificent, whose conquests instilled fear and loathing in the European psyche, before slowly degenerating into decadence and corruption, imbedded in the European psyche as a comic figure, with the infamous ‘capitulations’ to foreign powers, still a source suspicion for many Turks, and finally being swept away by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in the aftermath of disastrous defeat in the First World War.

Isabella was finally convinced by the king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would bring his ideas elsewhere, and offered to help arrange the funding. Isabella then sent a royal guard to fetch Columbus, who had travelled several kilometers toward Córdoba. In the April 1492 "Capitulations of Santa Fe", Columbus was promised he would be given the title "Admiral of the Ocean Sea" and appointed viceroy and governor of the newly claimed and colonised for the Crown; he would also receive ten percent of all the revenues from the new lands in perpetuity if he was successful.Stuart, Isabella of Castile: The First Renaissance Queen, 2004, p. 295.

Curzon prepared a list of British demands separated into two categories. Essential ones included the Greek retention of Western Thrace, the freedom of the Straits to shipping, demilitarised zones on the coasts and the retention of Allied troops in Istanbul until a new treaty was ratified. Most desirable ones included measures for the protection of the minorities in Turkey, preliminary safeguards of the Armenian population, the satisfaction of Allied requirements of the Ottoman debt, capitulations and the future financial and economic regime in Turkey. Preliminary meetings, taking place in Paris between Curzon and French Prime Minister Raymond Poincaré on 18 November 1922, lasted five hours.

In May 1512 a general or ecumenical council, the Fifth Council of the Lateran, was held in Rome. According to an oath taken on his election to observe the Electoral Capitulations of the Conclave of October 1513,Joannes Burchard, Diarium III, pp. 292, 294, 295-298: Ego Julius II electus in summum Pontificem praemissa omnia et singula promitto juro et voveo observare et adimplere in omnibus et per omnia purae et simpliciter et bona fide realiter et cum effectu, et sub poena perjurii et anathematis, a quibus nec me ipsum absolvam, nec alicui absolutionem commitam. Ita me Deus adjuvet, et haec sancta Dei Evangelia.

The Elizabethan Treaty was renewed and would survive for 343 years with England and Turkey. The Turkish powers were furious; and the Englishman was threatened several times by French to be turfed out. Harborne also succeeded in obtaining from the Ottomans capitulations and other tariff reductions for English goods, and was charged with obtaining samples and information regarding dyestuffs and fabrics used in the production of cloth and clothing in Turkey at that time. The ambassador departed in August 1588 succeeded by Sir Edward Barton, by which time trade had begun to thrive and the post was one of the most powerful positions in the English foreign service.

Would-be princes were forced to raise enormous sums to bribe their way to power, and peasant life grew more miserable as taxes and exactions increased. Any prince wishing to improve the peasants' lot risked a financial shortfall that could enable rivals to out-bribe him at the Porte and usurp his position.The Ottoman Invasions in U.S. Library of Congress country study on Romania (1989, Edited by Ronald D. Bachman). Constantin Cantacuzino According to the treaties (Capitulations) between the Romanian Principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia), Turkish subjects were not allowed to settle in the Principalities, to own land, to build houses or mosques, or to marry.

Borders of the Ottoman Empire according to the Treaty of Sèvres (1920) which was annulled and replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 The Conference of Lausanne began on 21 November 1922. Turkey, represented by İsmet İnönü of the GNA, refused any proposal that would compromise Turkish sovereignty,Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, 365 such as the control of Turkish finances, the Capitulations, the Straits and other issues. Although the conference paused on 4 February, it continued after 23 April mainly focusing on the economic issues. On 24 July 1923, the Treaty of Lausanne was signed by the Powers with the GNA, thus recognising the latter as the government of Turkey.

Saint Brigid at the Market Square of Kildare is dedicated to the memory of the victims at Gibbet Rath General Duff received no censure for the massacre and, upon his arrival in Dublin the following day, was feted as a hero by the population who honoured him with a victory parade. General Dundas, by contrast, was denounced for having shown clemency towards the rebels. However, because of the massacre, wavering rebels were discouraged from surrendering and there were no further capitulations in county Kildare until the final surrender of William Aylmer in July. Dr Chambers (see below) considers that Lake and Duff were not in communication about the surrenders, being on opposites sides of the Curragh.

Ensign in 1758, captain in 1759 in the Regiment Widmer, major in 1768 in the Regiment Boccard, he became a lieutenant colonel in 1773 and was made a Knight of the Royal and Military Order of Saint Louis in 1778. He was in charge of the training of the French troops sent to fight in North America against Great Britain in the American War of Independence and introduced the Prussian drill in the French Army. In 1779 he was promoted to colonel and in 1789 was appointed to the Supreme War Council. The French Revolution brought with it the destruction of the Swiss Guard Regiment and the end of the Capitulations between the French Monarchy and the Swiss Confederation.

French forces massed on the west bank of the River Var, giving warning of preparations for an invasion.Jean-Loup Fontana, « Les capitulations des forts de Nice, Villefranche et Mont-Alban », Au cœur des Alpes : Utrecht, colloquim organised by the musée de Colmars, l’écomusée de la Roudoule, l’association Sabença de la Valeia, 14–16 September 2012. Actes à paraître en 2013 However, the Savoy stronghold at Nice did not prepare for a siege – at the end of the year, its powder reserves were sent to the Piedmont. In spring 1705 the French armies under the command of duc de La Feuillade laid siege to the imposing bastions and towers of the town of Nice.

The Spaniards were demoralized by these failures: during the two previous invasions not even one stronghold had resisted (a success rate of one hundred percent); while this time not even one fortress had been taken,"In November the enemy attacked two small places, Marvão and Ouguela, but the long record of shameful capitulations at last ended. Ouguela was successfully held by a Portuguese commander, and Marvão... was defended by captain Brown of Armstrong’s with a British detachment and some Portuguese. He replied to the summons with a reminder of the recent fall of Havana and dispersed the assailants with a burst of shellfire." In Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, vol. 59, London, 1981, p. 40.

The CUP, which got the public mandate from the electrode, did not compromise with minority parties like their predecessors (that is being Sultan Abdul Hamid) had been. The first three years of relations between the new regime and the Great Powers were demoralizing and frustrating. The Powers refused to make any concessions over the Capitulations and loosen their grip over the Empire's internal affairs. The territorial gains of the Balkan states after the Balkan Wars When the Italian War and the counterinsurgency operations in Albania and Yemen began to fail, a number of high-ranking military officers, who were unhappy with the counterproductive political involvement in these wars, formed a political committee in the capital.

The population may have foremost comprised Muslim Nogais from the Budjak who were captured in skirmishes, although, according to one theory, the first of them may have been Cumans captured long before the first Ottoman and Tatar incursions. The issue of Muslim presence on the territory of the two countries is often viewed in relation to the relations between the Ottoman Sultans and local Princes. Romanian historiography has generally claimed that the latter two were bound by bilateral treaties with the Porte. One of the main issues was that of Capitulations (Ottoman Turkish: ahdnâme), which were supposedly agreed between the two states and the Ottoman Empire at some point in the Middle Ages.

While no concrete date has been agreed upon with respect to the origins of the Constitutional Revolution itself, the seeds for revolution were sown with increasing foreign influence within the country (namely British and Russian influence) during the 19th century. Various concessions granted to foreign powers by the Shah(s) ranging from capitulations to the Reuters Concession of 1872 Abrahamian, E. A History of Modern Iran. Cambridge University Press, 2008, p.38 created contempt and distrust amidst the clergy, bazaaris and merchants amongst others, but none proved more inflammatory than the Tobacco Règie of 1890, in which the Shah granted Britain a monopoly over the production, sale, and export of all Iranian tobacco.

Franco-Ottoman Capitulations between Ahmed I and Henry IV of France, published by François Savary de Brèves in 1615 The new Grand Vizier, Nasuh Pasha, did not want to fight with the Safavids. The Safavid Shah also sent a letter saying that he was willing to sign a peace, with which he would have to send 200 loads of silk every year to Constantinople. On 20 November 1612, the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha was signed, which ceded all the lands the Ottoman Empire had gained in the war of 1578–90 back to Persia and reinstated the 1555 boundaries. However, the peace ended in 1615 when the Shah did not send the 200 loads of silk.

On 1 April 1916, Mustafa Kemal was promoted to the rank of Mirliva, equivalent to Major General today. In Ottoman military ranks, Pasha was a common title given to all ranks at and above Mirliva, and he was from then on addressed as "Mustafa Kemal Pasha" (). Kemal Pasha, disgusted by the capitulations and concessions made by the Sultan to the Allies, and by the occupation of Constantinople (known as Istanbul in English since 1930) by the British, resigned from his post on 8 July 1919. He escaped from Istanbul by sea, passing through British Royal Navy patrols and landing on the Black Sea port city of Samsun, to organize the resistance against the Allied Powers' occupation of Anatolia.

From this time, it was illegal for the individual cantons to declare war or to sign capitulations or peace agreements. Paragraph 13 explicitly prohibited the federation from sustaining a standing army, and the cantons were allowed a maximum standing force of 300 each (not including the Landjäger corps, a kind of police force). Paragraph 18 declared the obligation of every Swiss citizen to serve in the federal army if conscripted (Wehrpflicht), setting its size at 3% of the population plus a reserve of one and one half that number, amounting to a total force of some 80,000. The first complete mobilization, under the command of Hans Herzog, was triggered by the Franco-Prussian War in 1871.

All commercial disputes were to be settled in the empire's Sharia courts, until the 1670s when they were granted the right to appeal major cases directly to Istanbul, where they could be argued by their resident ambassadors. Capitulations were granted first to the French (1569), then the English (1580), and finally to the Dutch (1612). The arrival of Western European traders in the Levant, dubbed the "Northern Invasion", did not result in their takeover or domination of Mediterranean commerce, but it did usher in certain changes. Venice in particular suffered from heavy competition, and its commercial presence declined significantly, particularly after 1645, when the Ottomans and Venetians went to war over Crete.

In countries outside of its borders, a foreign power often has extraterritorial rights over its official representation (such as a consulate). If such concessions are obtained, they are often justified as protection of the foreign religion (especially in the case of Christians in a Muslim state) such as the ahdname or capitulations granted by the Ottoman Sultan to commercial Diasporas residing in the Ottoman Empire. The Sultan did not see this agreement as a bilateral agreement between equals, but merely as acknowledging the nation of foreigners living within his territory and offering them privileges similar to those given to non-Ottoman subjects. However, the European states viewed the ahdname as formal and official and therefore had difficulty enforcing the privileges to their satisfaction on many occasions.

In 1936, he left for Egypt where he became a judge at the Mixed Courts of Egypt, in Mansoura and then in Alexandria. These courts had to deal with trials involving non Egyptian citizens and were known for the quality of their judgments. The Montreux Convention, signed on May 8, 1937 and effective on October 15 of the same year, abolished the Capitulations regime in Egypt but kept the Mixed Courts during a 12 years transition period, with some legal restrictions compared to their previous status. During the war, Arnold Struycken volunteered to patrol in the Port of Alexandria, where Italian airplanes and frogmen were trying to place mines, and after that, as an ambulance driver on the Egyptian front during the battle of Al Alamein.

Gradually, however, Mack heard of the capitulations at Heidenheim and Neresheim and agreed to surrender five days before schedule on 20 October. Fifteen hundred troops from the Austrian garrison managed to escape, but the vast majority of the Austrian force marched out on 21 October and laid down their arms without incident, all with the Grande Armée drawn up in a vast semicircle observing the capitulation (see infobox picture). The officers were permitted to leave, pending their signatures on a parole in which they agreed not to take up arms against France until they were exchanged. More than ten general officers were included in this agreement, including Mack, Johann von Klenau, Maximilian Anton Karl, Count Baillet de Latour, Prince Liechtenstein, and Ignaz Gyulai.

An electoral capitulation () was initially a written agreement in part of Europe, principally the Holy Roman Empire, whereby from the 13th century onward, a candidate to a prince-bishopric had to agree to a set of preconditions presented by the cathedral chapter prior to electing a bishop to a vacant see. Starting with the election of Emperor Charles V in 1519, a similar electoral capitulation was presented by the prince-electors to the future emperor. In both episcopal and imperial capitulations, the candidate swore to respect the terms and conditions set in the capitulation in the event of his election. The capitulation usually reaffirmed the privileges of the electors and place limitations on the future prince-bishop or emperor's authority to exercise power.

In the aftermath of the botched Tobacco Règie, political instability reached a new apex with the assassination of Nasser al-Din Shah Qajar in 1896. Despite some beliefs that the largely, if not entirely, autocratic, corrupt rule imposed by the Shah would end with his death, capitulations and concessions continued under Muzaffar al-Din Shah. The failure of the Tobacco Règie worked to decrease the perceived stranglehold the British had on the region with respect to the other foreign powers, which led to the growing influence of Russian interests and new concessions granted to the Russian Empire. The role of foreign influence in Iran (then Persia) may have changed slightly following 1892, but the dynamics of Iran's domestic front remained severely bleak.

1 piaster overprint on 25-centime Type Sage, used at Beirut in December 1885 The French post offices in the Ottoman Empire were post offices in various cities of the Ottoman Empire run by France between 1812 and 1923. France was one of a half-dozen European countries, the others being Austria, Russia, Great Britain, Germany and Italy, which had been granted the right to maintain post offices within the Empire. This privilege was distinct from the so-called "Capitulations" which, since the 16th century, had been negotiated with a much larger number of countriesIncluding Spain, Denmark, Sweden, Portugal, Sardinia, Bavaria, Prussia, Belgium, Brazil, The Netherlands, the United States. and which granted some extraterritorial rights to citizens and commercial enterprises of those countries.

Castile was already engaged in a race of exploration with Portugal to reach the Far East by sea when Columbus made his bold proposal to Isabella. In the Capitulations of Santa Fe, dated on 17 April 1492, Christopher Columbus obtained from the Catholic Monarchs his appointment as viceroy and governor in the lands already discovered and that he might discover thenceforth; thereby, it was the first document to establish an administrative organization in the Indies. Columbus' discoveries inaugurated the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Spain's claim to these lands was solidified by the Inter caetera papal bull dated 4 May 1493, and Dudum siquidem on 26 September 1493, which vested the sovereignty of the territories discovered and to be discovered.

With the Capitulations of Santa Fe, the Crown of Castile granted expansive power to Christopher Columbus, including exploration, settlement, political power, and revenues, with sovereignty reserved to the Crown. The first voyage established sovereignty for the crown, and the crown acted on the assumption that Columbus's grandiose assessment of what he found was true, so Spain negotiated the Treaty of Tordesillas with Portugal to protect their territory on the Spanish side of the line. The crown fairly quickly reassessed its relationship with Columbus and moved to assert more direct crown control over the territory and extinguish his privileges. With that lesson learned, the crown was far more prudent in the specifying the terms of exploration, conquest, and settlement in new areas.

St. Stepanos Armenian Church (1863) located in the Basmane district served the Armenian community of İzmir. It was burned during the Great Fire of Smyrna in 1922. İzmir's remarkable growth began in the late 16th century when cotton and other products of the region brought French, English, Dutch and Venetian traders here. With the privileged trading conditions accorded to foreigners in 1620 (these were the infamous capitulations that were later to cause a serious threat and setback for the Ottoman state in its decline), İzmir began to be one of the foremost trade centers of the Empire. Foreign consulates moved from Chios to the city by the early 17th century (1619 for the French Consulate, 1621 for the British), serving as trade centers for their nations.

European merchants active in the Ottoman Empire are by far the most highly studied aspect of Ottoman commerce, a fact which has frequently caused their importance to be exaggerated. European merchants were by no means dominant in the empire during this period, and far from imposing their will upon the Ottomans, they were required to accommodate themselves to the terms which the Ottomans set for them. These terms were defined in a series of trade agreements known as the "capitulations" (), which granted Europeans the right to establish mercantile communities in specified Ottoman ports and to pay a lower rate of tariff on their goods. European communities were except from regular taxation and were given judicial autonomy with regard to personal and family issues.

In Turkey arrangements termed capitulations, and treaties confirmatory of them, have been made between the Porte and other states by which foreigners resident in Turkey are subject to the laws of their respective countries. In the 9th century, the caliph Harun al-Rashid granted guarantees and commercial facilities to such Franks, subjects of the emperor Charlemagne, as should visit the East with the authorization of their emperor. After the break-up of the Frankish empire, similar concessions were made to some of the practically independent Italian city-states that grew up on its ruins. Thus, in 1098, the prince of Antioch granted a charter of this nature to the city of Genoa; the king of Jerusalem extended the same privilege to Venice in 1123 and to Marseille in 1136.

The newly elected Ottoman parliament in Constantinople did not recognize the occupation; they developed a National Pact (Misak-ı Milli). They adopted six principles, which called for self-determination, the security of Constantinople, the opening of the Straits, and the abolition of the capitulations. While in Constantinople, self-determination and protection of the Ottoman Empire were voiced; the Khilafat Movement in India tried to influence the British government to protect the caliphate of the Ottoman empire, and although it was mainly a Muslim religious movement, the Khilafat struggle was becoming a part of the wider Indian independence movement. Both these two movements (Misak-ı Milli and the Khilafat Movement) shared a lot of notions on the ideological level, and during the Conference of London (February 1920) Allies concentrated on these issues.

Atatürk and Celâl Bayar visiting the Sümerbank Nazilli Cotton Factory, which was established as a part of the cotton-related industry Atatürk and İsmet İnönü's pursuit of state-controlled economic policies was guided by a national vision; their goal was to knit the country together, eliminate foreign control of the economy, and improve communications within Turkey. Resources were channeled away from Istanbul, a trading port with international foreign enterprises, in favor of other, less developed cities in order to achieve a more balanced economic development throughout the country.Mango, Atatürk, 470 For Atatürk and his supporters, tobacco remained wedded to his pursuit of economic independence. Turkish tobacco was an important industrial crop, but its cultivation and manufacture had been under French monopolies granted by capitulations of the Ottoman Empire.

An embassy was again sent to Louis XIII in 1607, and from Mehmed IV to Louis XIV in 1669 in the person of ambassador Müteferrika Süleyman Ağa, who created a sensation at the French court and even triggered a Turkish fashion. The Orient came to have a strong influence in French literature, as about 50% of French travel guides in the 16th century were dedicated to the Ottoman Empire. French influence remained paramount at Constantinople, and the Capitulations were renewed in 1604, forcing all nations to trade under the protection and flag of France, except for England and Venice which were competing, with the Dutch Republic, for influence in the Levant. In the context of competition for influence between Western powers, relations between France and the Ottoman Empire started to cool significantly.

The most significant rivalry is with the Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs and started during the 1980s when the clubs faced one another in Grand Finals in 1984 and 1986 as well as regular play-off matches during this period. This rivalry received renewed impetus during the Super League war when Parramatta recruited 4 notable Bulldogs players. In 1998, Parramatta and Canterbury played against each other in the preliminary final with the winners to play the Brisbane Broncos in the grand final. Parramatta were leading the match 18-2 with under 10 minutes to play until what happened next can only be described as one of the greatest capitulations in finals history. Canterbury scored 3 tries in 10 minutes and took the game to extra time winning the game 32-20.

According to the capitulations of Santa Fe, all lands discovered by Christopher Columbus were part of his viceroyalty: In his first trip to the Americas (it got to Guanahani on 12 October 1492), Columbus discovered the Bahamas, Cuba and The Hispaniola, exerting his position as viceroy and governor in them, leaving to return to Spain to 39 men in La Navidad in Hispaniola, which was founded on December 25, 1492. the fort was destroyed shortly then by the Indians of the island, killing all its occupants. Christopher Columbus Travels On his second trip in 1493 Christopher Columbus discovered Guadalupe and other islands located on the side of Atlantic Ocean between it and Puerto Rico, the which it arrived on 19 November 1493. Later he found Jamaica and explored Cuba.

On his return he was made Egypt's first minister of public works, and was distinguished for the energy which he threw into the creation of a new department; but in 1866 he was made minister of foreign affairs, and at once went on a special mission to Constantinople, where he succeeded in the other two projects that had been left in abeyance since his last visit. In June 1867 Ismail was declared khedive of Egypt, with succession in favor of his eldest son. Nubar now had a harder task to undertake than ever before. The antiquated system of capitulations which had existed in the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century had grown in Egypt to be a practical creation of seventeen imperia in imperio: seventeen consulates of seventeen different powers administered seventeen different codes in courts before which alone their subjects were amenable.

Letter of Suleiman to Francis I in 1536, informing Francis I of the successful campaign of Iraq, and acknowledging the permanent French embassy of Jean de La Forest at the Ottoman court. In February 1536, de la Forêt obtained the signature of a commercial treaty called Capitulations (of which only a draft has been recovered), which was the foundation for French influence in the Ottoman Empire and the Levant until the 19th century.Renaissance diplomacy Garrett Mattingly p.154 Suleiman seemingly had some doubts about French commitment, expressing: "How can I have trust in him? He has always promised more than he can carry out", referring to the lack of French commitment in 1534–35, when Tunis was finally recaptured by Charles V, but he nevertheless agreed to the alliance upon Francis I's invasion of Piedmont in early 1536.

Bilingual Franco-Turkish translation of the 1604 Franco- Ottoman Capitulations between Sultan Ahmed I and King Henry IV, published by Savary de Brèves in 1615. Even before Henry IV's accession to the throne, the French Huguenots were in contact with the Moriscos in plans against Habsburg Spain in the 1570s. Around 1575, plans were made for a combined attack of Aragonese Moriscos and Huguenots from Béarn under Henri de Navarre against Spanish Aragon, in agreement with the Bey of Algiers and the Ottoman Empire, but these projects foundered with the arrival of John of Austria in Aragon and the disarmament of the Moriscos. In 1576, a three-pronged fleet from Constantinople was planned to disembark between Murcia and Valencia while the French Huguenots would invade from the north and the Moriscos accomplish their uprising, but the Ottoman fleet failed to arrive.

Curzon described an "unconditional surrender to the Turks", adamantly refused to accept any of the "eleventh hour proposals" and went on to decide on a fixed date for the departure of the British delegation from the conference. On that day, he explained, the Turks would be asked to accept or to reject the text of the treaty that Britain was drawing up without including any of Poincaré’s amendments. When the draft was presented to the Turks on 31 January, İsmet asked for an adjournment of eight days. There was further meetings of the Allied delegations on the morning of 2 January during which Curzon reluctantly agreed to further modifications on capitulations and the tariffs, the abandonment of reparations due from Turkey and the removal of all restrictions on the size of the Turkish Army in Thrace.

As European military and technological power began to be felt in 19th century Iran, Westerners insisted on special treatment in Iranian courts. This came in the form of treaties between most European governments and Iran requiring the presence at the trial of any European in Iran of a representative of that European's home country, who would countersign the decision of the Iranian court, and without whose countersignature the "decision of the Iranian court could have no effect". The Europeans insisted on this legal veto right—" called the regime of capitulations"—on the grounds that Iran had no written legal code so that "no one knew what laws foreigners would be judged by." Iran followed the traditional Islamic practice of each judge giving his own interpretation of Islamic law for a given litigation, with no right of appeal.

The governorate was created as one of King Charles V's grants of 1529, establishing the adelantado Simón de Alcazaba y Sotomayor as its first governor, captain general, and chief justice. The territory was described as extending 200 leagues down the Pacific coast from Pedro de Mendoza's grant of New Andalusia. On May 21, 1534 the king signed three other capitulations to explore and occupy the American lands, establishing provinces or governorates of 200 leagues of north-south extension, including the governorship of Nueva León, granted to Simón de Alcazaba and Sotomayor, also from Atlantic Ocean to Pacific, south of 36° 57' 09S (line from Coronel to Pinamar) and up to 48° 22' 52s (line from Campana Island to Laura Bay). The Governorate was subsequently extended to the Strait of Magellan and the southern lands from it.

The Conclave to elect his successor began on the evening of 10 October, with thirty-two cardinals in attendance at the opening ceremonies, one of whom was Agostino Trivulzio. On the 11th, the various bulls governing conclaves were read out, including Pope Julius II's bull against simony, and the cardinals took solemn oaths to observe the bulls. They also voted to accept and authorize the Electoral Capitulations which had been drawn up for the Conclave of 1513, and to use an open ballot with an accessio when the voting began next day. Shortly after sunset on the 11th, however, the representatives of the Imperial and the French factions, Cardinals Ippolito de' Medici and Jean de Lorraine, met with Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, the Dean of the College of Cardinals, and informed him that there was agreement that he would be the next pope.

The decree states that it was created as a response to severe crimes and massacres by Spanish soldiers after the fall of the First Republic, in which Spanish leaders allegedly stole property and executed thousands of Republicans: "we could not indifferently watch the afflictions inflicted to you by the barbaric Spaniards, who have annihilated you with robbery and destroyed you with death, infringed the most solemn treaties and capitulations [a reference to the San Mateo Capitulation, 1812]; in one word, committed every crime, reducing the Republic of Venezuela to the most horrific desolation." It proclaimed that all Peninsular people in Spanish America who didn't actively participate in favor of its independence would be killed, and all South Americans would be spared, even if they had cooperated with the Spanish authorities.Stoan, Pablo Morillo, 47-50. (See below for full declaration).

The Torino squad of 1941–42 was a team then very competitive and tested but, as mentioned, the two capitulations that cost participation in the Coppa Italia and the league title ambitions happen all against the same team, the Valentino Mazzola- and Ezio Loik-led Venezia. The first is an excellent playmaker, the second a fast winger; both are already staples of the Italy of Vittorio Pozzo. Novo senses they are the cherries that are missing from the cake to make the team unbeatable. At the end of a Venezia-Torino, third last of the championship, which in practice puts an end to the dreams of the tricolor granata, Novo went to the locker room and directly purchased the two, that will end up costing 1,400,000 liras together, along with two other players (Petron and Mezzadra).

During the period of formalization of the employment of Swiss mercenaries in organized bodies from the late 16th century on, customary capitulations existed between employing powers and the Swiss cantons or noble families assembling and supplying these troops. Such contracts would generally cover specific details such as the numbers, quality, pay rates and equipment of recruits. Provisions were commonly made that Swiss soldiers would only serve under officers of their own nationality, would be subject to Swiss laws, would carry their own flags and would not be employed in campaigns that would bring them into conflict with Swiss in the service of another country.Page 619 "Cambridge Modern History, Volume 1: The Renaissance" It has been claimed that such contracts might also contain a commitment that Swiss units would be returned if the confederation came under attack.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, many Italian Jews (mostly but not exclusively from the Spanish and Portuguese group) maintained a trading and residential presence in both Italy and countries in the Ottoman Empire: even those who settled permanently in the Ottoman Empire retained their Tuscan or other Italian nationality, so as to have the benefit of the Ottoman Capitulations. Thus in Tunisia there was a community of Juifs Portugais, or L'Grana (Livornese), separate from, and regarding itself as superior to, the native Tunisian Jews (Tuansa). Smaller communities of the same kind existed in other countries, such as Syria, where they were known as Señores Francos, though they generally were not numerous enough to establish their own synagogues, instead meeting for prayer in each other's houses. European countries often appointed Jews from these communities as their consular representatives in Ottoman cities.

To these was added the circulation of fake documents which were supposed to reflect the text of Capitulations awarded by the Ottoman Empire to its Wallachian and Moldavian vassals in the Middle Ages, claiming to stand out as proof of rights and privileges which had been long neglected (see also Islam in Romania).Hitchins, pp. 192–3. Education, still accessible only to the wealthy, was first removed from the domination of the Greek language and Hellenism upon the disestablishment of Phanariotes sometime after 1821; the attempts of Gheorghe Lazăr (at the Saint Sava College) and Gheorghe Asachi to engender a transition towards Romanian-language teaching had been only moderately successful, but Wallachia became the scene of such a movement after the start of Ion Heliade Rădulescu's teaching career and the first issue of his newspaper, Curierul Românesc.

Capitulation of the Estonian nobles, second paragraph, excerpt: "Alle Privilegia, Donationes, Statuten, Immunitäten, Alte wohlhergebrachte Landes Gewohnheiten von deren Glorwürdigsten Königen in Dennemark, item denen Hoch- vnd Herr Meistern dem Lande und Adel gegebene und von Zeiten zu Zeiten confirmirte Praerogativen, wie Selbe in Ihrem tenore von Wort zu Wort lauten, zu confirmiren und zuerhalten." Luts (2006), p. 161. The reduction of these privileges by Swedish absolutism had caused exiled Livonian nobleBushkovitch (2001), p. 217 and spokesman of the Livonian noblesKappeler (2008), p. 68 Johann Reinhold von Patkul to successfully lobby for war against Sweden in the pretext of the war, and their confirmation was to assure loyalty of the Baltic elites, who in the majority had fiercely resisted Russian conquest, to the tsar.Dauchert (2006), p. 54 The capitulations were concluded exclusively by the Baltic German burghers and noble class, the Estonian and Latvian speaking population was not mentioned.Dauchert (2006), p.

The term became current in English in the 16th century, along with the first English merchant adventurers in the region; English ships appeared in the Mediterranean in the 1570s, and the English merchant company signed its agreement ("capitulations") with the Ottoman Sultan in 1579.. The English Levant Company was founded in 1581 to trade with the Ottoman Empire, and in 1670 the French Compagnie du Levant was founded for the same purpose. At this time, the Far East was known as the "Upper Levant". Postcard bearing a French stamp inscribed Levant In early 19th-century travel writing, the term sometimes incorporated certain Mediterranean provinces of the Ottoman empire, as well as independent Greece (and especially the Greek islands). In 19th-century archaeology, it referred to overlapping cultures in this region during and after prehistoric times, intending to reference the place instead of any one culture.

The Treaty of Lausanne, signed in 1923 that guarenteed Turkey's independence, replacing the Treaty of Sèvres The Treaty of Lausanne, finally signed in July 1923, led to international recognition of the Grand National Assembly as the legitimate government of Turkey and sovereignty of the Republic of Turkey as the successor state to the defunct Ottoman Empire. Most goals on the condition of sovereignty were granted to Turkey. In addition to Turkey's more favorable land borders compared with Treaty of Sèvres (as can be seen in the picture to the left), capitulations were abolished, the issue of Mosul would be decided by a League of Nations plebiscite in 1926, while the border with Greece and Bulgaria would become demilitarized. The Turkish Straits would be under an international commission which gave Turkey more of a voice (this arrangement would be replaced by the Montreux Convention in 1936).

Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 ), p. 875 In the mid-14th century, the two Venetian colonies suffered greatly from the Black Death, so that it was necessary to send a fresh batch of colonists from home, and the franchise was extended to all the inhabitants, except the Jews. The two fortresses began to be governed by a series of minutely detailed Statutes and Capitulations issued by the metropolitan government, containing such clauses as a regulation that forbade the Venetian garrison to wear beards, so as to distinguish them from the local Greeks. Unlike other Latin rulers in Greece, the Venetians allowed the Greek Orthodox bishops to reside in their sees alongside their Catholic counterparts, but in the latter half of the 14th century, there are reports of mistreatment of the Greek population, which fled from Venetian territory to the Franks of Achaea.

With the end of the war, the Swiss troops were no longer bound along the Rhine and in the Grisons. The cantons concluded new mercenary contracts, so called capitulations, with the Duchy of Milan and soon got deeply involved in the Italian Wars, where Swiss mercenaries ended up fighting on both sides. The involvement of the Old Swiss Confederacy, acting in its own interests in these wars, was brought to an end by the defeat against French forces in the battle of Marignano in 1515 and a subsequent peace treaty with the French king in 1516, the so-called Eternal Peace. However, Swiss mercenaries from individual cantons of the federation continued to participate in the Italian Wars well beyond (until the middle of the 16th century) in the service of various parties and, following that peace with France, in particular in the service of the French king.

Swiss mercenaries crossing the Alps (Luzerner Schilling) In the Burgundy Wars, the Swiss soldiers had gained a reputation of near invincibility, and their mercenary services became increasingly sought after by the great European political powers of the time. Shortly after the Burgundy Wars, individual cantons concluded mercenary contracts, so-called "capitulations", with many parties, including the Pope — the papal Swiss Guard was founded in 1505 and became operational the next year.History of the Pontifical Swiss Guards Official Vatican web page, Roman Curia, Swiss Guards, retrieved February 9, 2009 More contracts were made with France (a Swiss Guard of mercenaries would be destroyed in the storm of the Tuileries in Paris in 1792Information from the Glacier Garden in Lucerne accessed 9 February 2009), the Duchy of Savoy, Austria, and still others. Swiss mercenaries would play an initially important, but later minor role on European battlefields until well into the 18th century.

Atatürk the economy advanced from state based policies to a mixed economy in line with the increase in capital in the society At the time of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire (see Economy of the Ottoman Empire) during World War I and the subsequent birth of the Republic, the Turkish economy was underdeveloped: agriculture depended on outmoded techniques and poor-quality livestock, and Turkey's industrial base was weak; the few factories producing basic products such as sugar and flour were under foreign control as a result of the capitulations. Turkey's economy recovered remarkably once hostilities ceased. From 1923 to 1926, agricultural output rose by eighty-seven percent, as agricultural production returned to pre-war levels. Industry and services grew at more than nine percent per year from 1923 to 1929; however, their share of the economy remained quite low at the end of the decade.

Upon the 1834 Burning of Parliament, Black boasted that he had been the earliest researcher to rush into the parliament buildings in hope of saving their valuable records. Thanks to the many literary contacts he had made while a reader at the British Museum, Black obtained a position at the Record Commission, a 19th-century royal commission into the state of the nation's archives. This position at the commission proved valuable to Black, as his antiquarian interests were occupied with the training of junior transcribers, and revision of Thomas Rymer's Foedera, a set of volumes detailing "all the leagues, treaties, alliances, capitulations, and confederacies, which have at any time been made between the Crown of England and any other kingdoms, princes and states". He also produced an original work in this time, Docquets of Letters Patent Passed Under Charles I, 1642-6, which was printed in 1837, but only published posthumously.

However, it is doubtful Columbus actually signed the original letter that way. According to the Capitulations of Santa Fe negotiated prior to his departure (April 1492), Christopher Columbus was not entitled to use the title of "Admiral of the Ocean Sea" unless his voyage was successful. It would be highly presumptuous for Columbus to sign his name that way in February or March, when the original letter was drafted, before that success was confirmed by the royal court. Columbus only obtained confirmation of his title on March 30, 1493, when the Catholic monarchs, acknowledging the receipt of his letter, address Columbus for the first time as "our Admiral of the Ocean Sea and Vice- Roy and Governor of the islands which have been discovered in the Indies" ("nuestro Almirante del mar Océano e Visorrey y Gobernador de las Islas que se han descubierto en las Indias").

Inscription placed in front of the building in 2013, which records the mosque's legendary foundation by Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik (erroneously put in 715 AD) as its actual foundation date View of the minaret, originally the belfry. After the Fall of Constantinople, according to the Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire with the Republic of Genoa, the church, which by that time was known by the Turks under the name of Mesa Domenico, remained in Genoese hands,The Sultan required only the delivery of the bells. Mamboury (1953), p. 319 but between 1475 and 1478 it was transformed, with minor modifications, into a mosque by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II and became known as Galata Camii ("Galata Mosque") or Cami-i Kebir ("Great Mosque"). The friars were transferred in the friary of San Pietro in Galata in 1476, while all the altar clothes had already been brought to Genoa, and the archives to Caffa.

The large foreign presence in Alexandria, including Syro- Lebanese like the Takla brothers, helped limit enforcement of the laws, since many foreigners enjoyed some form of protected status in Egypt, a system that began with the Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire. The educational system further provoked resistance to censorship by developing and enlarging the intellectual class. Furthermore, by allowing newspapers more license, Isma'il Pasha hoped “to use the press to fight off the increasing influence of Britain and France over Egyptian internal affairs” and therefore “allowed a livelier Arabic political press to grow up that had some hope of surviving financially.” Eventually, the Takla brothers did run afoul of censorship laws. They first “had their Sada al-Ahram suspended and fined for finding fault with Isma'il, and on its second serious offense the Publications Department simply ordered it out of existence.” However, the Takla brothers had other newspapers, and this setback did not prevent them from continuing to attempt to exert political influence using their other outlets.

And although they usually shunned the term, it could be applied to settlers of British or American background as well, in function of their adoption of the elusive Levantine culture and lifestyle or integration into the local economy and social life. Typical Levantines acted at the top of the hierarchy of class of intermediaries governing the relations of the Ottoman Empire with the outside world;According to one estimate, by 1868, British capitalist-farmers had acquired one third of all arable lands in the entire vilayet of İzmir (Aydın in name) and by 1878 the majority of the arable land. - Osmanlı Ekonomisi ve Dünya Kapitalizmi - Ottoman economy and the world capitalism (1820-1913); Yurt Yayınları, 1984, Ankara; by Şevket Pamuk. coming before, generally richer than, and individually collaborating and socially in competition with the locals, all on the background of the decline of the Empire, in a regime characterized by the capitulations and other privileges, foreign debt and outside intervention into politics.

In 1536 Nicaragua governor, Rodrigo de Contreras, organized a military expedition, but Las Casas was able to postpone it by a couple of years after he notified queen Isabel de Portugal, wife of Carlos V. Given the authorities hostilities, Las Casas left Nicaragua y went to Guatemala. On November 1536, Las Casas settled in Santiago de Guatemala, then the capital of Guatemala; a few months later, his friend bishop Juan Garcés, invited him to move to Tlascala, but after a few weeks he came back to Guatemala. On May 2, 1537 governor Alfonso de Maldonado granted him the Tezulutlán Capitulations - a written commitment ratified on July 6, 1539 by Antonio de Mendoza, México Viceroy- in which everybody agreed that Tezulutlán natives, once conquered, would not be given as encomienda but would be King's subjects. Las Casas, along with friars Rodrigo de Landa, Pedro Angulo and Luis de Cancer, looked for four Christian nataives and taught them Christian hymns where the Gospel basic principles were explained.

In an audience he gave to the Cardinals, who wanted him to sign the Electoral Capitulations from the conclave and to guarantee that he would make no more cardinals than those agreements allowed, he refused to sign, stating that he would show his intent by deeds not words. In his first audience with the Ambassadors of France and Spain, he warned the Ambassadors that their monarchs should keep the peace that had been agreed upon, and that if they did not, not only would they be sent Nuncios and Legates, but that the Pope himself would come and admonish them. He wrote letters to the Emperor, to Queen Mary I of England, and to Cardinal Reginald Pole (in which he confirmed Pole's Legateship in England).Paul Friedmann (editor), Les dépêches de Giovanni Michiel, Ambassadeur de Venise en Angleterre pendent les années 1554–1557 (Venice 1869), p. 36, dispatch of 6 May 1555.

Franco-Ottoman Capitulations between Sultan Ahmed I and Henry IV of France, published by François Savary de Brèves (1615) Even before Henry's accession to the French throne, the French Huguenots were in contact with Aragonese Moriscos in plans against the Habsburg government of Spain in the 1570s. Around 1575, plans were made for a combined attack of Aragonese Moriscos and Huguenots from Béarn under Henry against Spanish Aragon, in agreement with the king of Algiers and the Ottoman Empire, but this project floundered with the arrival of John of Austria in Aragon and the disarmament of the Moriscos. In 1576, a three-pronged fleet from Constantinople was planned to disembark between Murcia and Valencia while the French Huguenots would invade from the north and the Moriscos accomplish their uprising, but the Ottoman fleet failed to arrive. After his crowning, Henry continued the policy of a Franco-Ottoman alliance and received an embassy from Sultan Mehmed III in 1601.

The Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand I, proposed a military alliance with Janbulad against the Ottomans, which Janbulad kept secret To prop up his nascent Syrian state Ali moved to obtain recognition, as well as loans or trade revenue, from regional powers. In November 1606 the Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand I, sent as envoys a Tuscan noble with close ties to Florentine merchants and King Philip III of Spain, Hippolito Leoncini, and an Aleppine-born dragoman Michael Angiolo Corai, who maintained close contacts with the Safavid Shah Abbas and the Aleppo Janissaries. Ferdinand sought to reconquer Cyprus for the Christians and had similar designs on the Holy Land, while also seeking commercial ties with Aleppo, the principal outlet for the export of Iranian silk and other commodities to European markets. The Tuscans had also been refused the capitulations and trading rights maintained by the French, English and Venetians with the Porte in Constantinople, and Ferdinand viewed the Aleppine port Iskenderun as a suitable Levantine harbor for his political and economic ambitions.

Following these partial capitulations, the major remaining German forces in the field (other than those bottled-up on islands and fortress-ports) consisted of Army Group Ostmark facing Soviet forces in eastern Austria and western Bohemia; Army Group E facing Yugoslav forces in Croatia; the remains of Army Group Vistula facing Soviet forces in Mecklenburg; and Army Group Centre facing Soviet forces in eastern Bohemia and Moravia. From 5 May, Army Group Centre was also engaged in the brutal suppression of the Prague uprising. An occupying army of around 400,000 well-equipped German troops remained in Norway, under the command of General Franz Böhme, who was contacted by the German Minister in Sweden early on 6 May, to determine whether a further partial capitulation might be arranged for his forces with neutral Sweden acting as an intermediary, but he was unwilling to comply with anything other than a general surrender order from the German High Command. The surrenders in the west had succeeded in ceasing hostilities between the Western allies and German forces on almost all fronts.

Replica of the Santa María, Columbus's flagship during his first voyage, at his Valladolid house Columbus had always claimed the conversion of non-believers as one reason for his explorations, but he grew increasingly religious in his later years. Probably with the assistance of his son Diego and his friend the Carthusian monk Gaspar Gorricio, Columbus produced two books during his later years: a Book of Privileges (1502), detailing and documenting the rewards from the Spanish Crown to which he believed he and his heirs were entitled, and a Book of Prophecies (1505), in which he considered his achievements as an explorer but a fulfillment of Bible prophecy in the context of Christian eschatology. In his later years, Columbus demanded that the Spanish Crown give him 10 percent of all profits made in the new lands, as stipulated in the Capitulations of Santa Fe. Because he had been relieved of his duties as governor, the crown did not feel bound by that contract and his demands were rejected. After his death, his heirs sued the Crown for a part of the profits from trade with America, as well as other rewards.

The High Mayor of Nicoya continued to depend on the province of Nicaragua until 1588. In 1573, the Province of Costa Rica was officially created to replace the Province of Nuevo Cartago y Costa Rica (1540). In 1576, Diego de Artieda Chirino y Uclés was appointed governor in charge of the three entities: Nicaragua, Nicoya and Costa Rica. This situation was maintained until 1588, when Artieda was deposed by the Audiencia of Guatemala, and autonomy was granted to the three entities separately. Between 1588 and 1593, Nicoya enjoyed political autonomy, both in Nicaragua and Costa Rica. In 1593, it was decided to add the Mayor of Nicoya to the province of Costa Rica, when King Phillip II confirmed the capitulations given to Diego Artieda Chirino in 1573, appointing Fernando de la Cueva y Escobedo. During the period 1593 to 1602 period, the governor of Costa Rica was appointed at the same time Mayor of Nicoya. This situation was maintained until 1602, when the High Mayor was declared again autonomous. From 1602 and for eighty years, the Mayor of Nicoya enjoyed political autonomy in its functions, independent of the colonial governments of Nicaragua and Costa Rica.

Touched by your misfortunes, we could not indifferently watch the afflictions inflicted to you by the barbaric Spaniards, who have annihilated you with robbery and destroyed you with death, infringed the most solemn treaties and capitulations; in one word, committed every crime, reducing the Republic of Venezuela to the most horrific desolation. It is so that justice demands vindication, and necessity forces us to take it. May the monsters that infest Colombian soil, and have covered it with blood disappear for good; may their punishment be equal to the magnitude of their treason, so that the stain of our ignominy is washed off, and to show the nations of the universe that the sons of America cannot be offended without punishment. In spite of our just resentments against the iniquitous Spaniards, our magnanimity still deigns itself to open, for the last time, a route to conciliation and friendship; we still invite them to live peacefully among us, if, hating their crimes and turning to good faith, they cooperate with us in the destruction of the intruding government of Spain, and the reestablishment of the Republic of Venezuela.

On 5 May 1945, all German forces in Bavaria and Southwest Germany signed an act of surrender to the Americans at Haar, outside Munich; coming into effect on 6 May. The impetus for the Caserta capitulation had arisen from within the local German military command; but from 2 May 1945, the Dönitz government assumed control of the process, pursuing a deliberate policy of successive partial capitulations in the west to play for time in order to bring as many as possible of the eastern military formations westwards so as to save them from Soviet or Yugoslav captivity, and surrender them intact to the British and Americans. In addition, Dönitz hoped to continue to evacuate soldiers and civilians by sea from the Hela peninsula and the surrounding Baltic coastal areas. Dönitz and Keitel were resolved against issuing any orders to surrender to Soviet forces, both from undiminished anti-Bolshevism; but also because they could not be confident they would be obeyed, and might consequently place troops continuing to fight in the position of refusing a direct order, thereby stripping them of any legal protection as prisoners of war.