68 Sentences With "body lice" | Random Sentence Generator

On my return to the UK, I saw a doctor about the scabies and body lice I'd contracted.

You won't get diseases from head lice (whereas body lice, which are far less common, can transmit illness, including typhus).

With no running water or sanitation, disease spreads easily, with severe infestations of body lice and scabies commonplace, says Djurdjevic.

Typhus refers to a group of infectious diseases caused by Rickettsia bacteria, which can be spread to humans by fleas, ticks, mites (chiggers), and body lice.

Lice can spread typhus Children who do not wash regularly are likely to pick up body lice and "some of those lice could carry typhus," said Markel.

The model outcomes therefore suggest the spread of the plague back then was mainly attributable to human fleas and body lice, according to the study published Monday.

The most serious form of typhus—spread by body lice—has killed millions of people throughout history, but nowadays, thanks to better sanitation and living conditions, as well as the discovery of antibiotics, it's rarely seen in most of the world.

The horrific Black Death, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis and often referred to simply as "plague," was spread by human fleas and body lice, and not similar parasites found on rats, according to research published yesterday in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Homeless people, especially the chronically homeless, experience health problems as disparate as tooth infections and eye problems, trench foot, and body lice up through infectious diseases like tuberculosis and hepatitis A. Many of these wouldn't happen at all in people who were housed, or would be easily treatable in early stages in people who had access to primary health care.

While it is difficult to determine if a parasitehost switch occurred in evolutionary history, this explanation is the most parsimonious (containing the fewest evolutionary changes). Additionally, the DNA differences between head lice and body lice provide corroborating evidence that humans used clothing between 80,000 and 170,000 years ago, before leaving Africa. Human head and body lice occupy distinct ecological zones: head lice live and feed on the scalp, while body lice live on clothing and feed on the body. Because body lice require clothing to survive, the divergence of head and body lice from their common ancestor provides an estimate of the date of introduction of clothing in human evolutionary history.

Body lice can cause the cutaneous condition Pediculosis corporis, characterised by intense itching. Unlike other species of lice they can also act as vectors to transmit disease. Some types of bacterial infections that are transmitted by body lice are Rickettsia prowazekii (causes typhus), Borrelia recurrentis (causes relapsing fever), and Bartonella quintana (causes trench fever). Body lice are dependent on a variety of conditions that can lead to an increase in population.

In the Napoleonic Wars, French soldiers used the flowers to keep away fleas and body lice.

Pigeons and doves are parasitised by two major groups of lice; wing lice and body lice. Most birds are host to both groups, which eat the downy parts of feathers that are close to the body. Body lice have been found to be more likely to be host specific than wing lice, possibly due to their host ecology where terrestrial pigeons feeding on the ground may create an easier transfer of lice and therefore be more likely to carry host specific body lice than arboreal birds.

Pediculosis corporis is a cutaneous condition caused by body lice (specifically Pediculus corporis) that lay their eggs in the seams of clothing.

Body lice are spread through direct contact with the body, clothing, or other personal items of a person already carrying lice. Pubic lice are most often spread by intimate contact with an infested person. Head lice occur on the head hair, body lice on the clothing, and pubic lice mainly on the hair near the groin. Lice cannot burrow into the skin.

The young moult three times before reaching the final adult form, usually within a month after hatching. Humans host three different kinds of lice: head lice, body lice, and pubic lice. Head lice and body lice are subspecies of Pediculus humanus, and pubic lice are a separate species, Pthirus pubis. Lice infestations can be controlled with lice combs, and medicated shampoos or washes.

This condition is caused by body louse (Pediculus humanus humanus, sometimes called Pediculus humanus corporis), a louse which infests humans and is adapted to lay eggs in clothing, rather than at the base of hairs, and is thus of recent evolutionary origin. Pediculosis is a more serious threat due to possible contagion of diseases such as typhus. Epidemiology and treatment of human body lice is described in the article on body lice.

Body lice are a nuisance in themselves and cause intense itching. They are also vectors (transmitters) of other diseases and can spread epidemic typhus, trench fever, and louse-borne relapsing fever.

This research focused primarily on determining how colonization occurs and why wing lice are better colonizers than body lice. Vertical transfer is the most common occurrence, between parent and offspring, and is much-studied and well understood. Horizontal transfer is difficult to measure, but in lice seems to occur via phoresis or the "hitchhiking" of one species on another. Harbison found that body lice are less adept at phoresis and excel competitively, whereas wing lice excel in colonization.

Body lice infestations can involve thousands of mites, each biting an average of 5 times per day. When an individual is infested with body lice, this condition is called pediculosis. The number and severity of the bites can vary depending on how many lice that individual is infested with. Since an infestation can include thousands of lice and with each of them biting 5 times a day, the bites can cause uncontrollable itching that can result in infections.

Mating attachment frequently lasts more than an hour. Young males can successfully pair with older females, and vice versa. Experiments with P. h. humanus (body lice) emphasize the attendant hazards of lice copulation.

Lice have been the subject of significant DNA research in the 2000s that led to discoveries on human evolution. The three species of sucking lice that parasitize human beings belong to two genera, Pediculus and Pthirus: head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis), body lice (Pediculus humanus humanus), and pubic lice (Pthirus pubis). Human head and body lice (genus Pediculus) share a common ancestor with chimpanzee lice, while pubic lice (genus Pthirus) share a common ancestor with gorilla lice. Using phylogenetic and cophylogenetic analysis, Reed et al.

Since body lice can't jump or fly, they spread by direct contact with another person or by coming into contact with clothing or bed sheets that are infested. Body lice are disease vectors because they can transmit the parasites that cause human diseases such as epidemic typhus, trench fever, and relapsing fever. By contrast their close relative the head louse does not transmit diseases. In most developed countries, infestations are only a problem in areas of poverty where there is poor body hygiene, crowded living conditions and the lack of access to clean clothing.

Scientists are still debating when people started wearing clothes. Estimates by various experts have ranged from 40,000 to 3 million years ago. Some more recent studies involving the evolution of body lice have implied a more recent development with some indicating a development of around 170,000 years ago and others indicating as little as 40,000. No single estimate is widely accepted. Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking, anthropologists at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, conducted a genetic analysis of human body lice that suggests clothing originated around 170,000 years ago.

Crab lice feed exclusively on blood, and take a blood meal 4–5 times daily. Adults are 1.5–2.0 mm long and flattened. They are much broader in comparison to head and body lice. Adults are found only on the human host and require human blood to survive.

A 2012 study claimed that this behavior likely evolved in humans to share head lice among friends and relatives. Head lice infestations might serve as a protection against body lice by inducing cross-resistance. This can be adaptive because only the latter type of lice transmit potentially lethal human pathogens.

Sumerians from 4500 years ago have said to use insecticides in the form of sulfur compounds. Additionally, the Chinese from about 3200 years ago used mercury and arsenic compounds to control body lice. Agrochemicals were introduced to protect crops from pests and enhance crop yields. The most common agrochemicals include pesticides and fertilizers.

Body lice are spread through prolonged direct physical contact with a person who has them or through contact with articles such as clothing, beds, bed linens, or towels that have been in contact with an infested person. In the United States, body lice infestations are rare, typically found mainly in homeless transient populations who do not have access to bathing and regular changes of clean clothes. Infestation is unlikely to persist on anyone who bathes regularly and who has at least weekly access to freshly laundered clothing and bedding. Although louse-borne (epidemic) typhus is no longer widespread, outbreaks of this disease still occur during times of war, civil unrest, natural or man-made disasters, and in prisons where people live together in unsanitary conditions.

Humans are the only known hosts of the crab louse, although a closely related species, Pthirus gorillae, infects gorilla populations. The human parasite diverged from Pthirus gorillae approximately 3.3 million years ago. It is more distantly related to the genus Pediculus, which contains the human head and body lice and a louse that affects chimpanzees and bonobos.

Adults are 1.5–2.0 mm long and flattened. They are much broader in comparison to head and body lice. Adults are found only on the human host and require human blood to survive. Pubic lice are transmitted from person to person most-commonly via sexual contact, although fomites (bedding, clothing) may play a minor role in their transmission.

Body lice frequently lay their eggs on or near the seams of clothing. They must feed on blood and usually only move to the skin to feed. They exist worldwide and infest people of all races and can therefore spread rapidly under crowded living conditions where hygiene is poor (homeless, refugees, victims of war or natural disasters).

They are much broader in comparison to head and body lice. Adults are found only on the human host and require human blood to survive. If adults are forced off the host, they will die within 24–48 hours without a blood feeding. Symptoms of a crab louse infection in the pubic area is intense itching, redness and inflammation.

Pubic lice found on the head or eyelashes of children may be an indication of sexual exposure or abuse. Pubic lice do not transmit disease; however, secondary bacterial infection can occur from scratching of the skin. They are much broader in comparison to head and body lice. Adults are found only on the human host and require human blood to survive.

Doggett and Reyes arrive at the school to talk to Winky. During their interview, body lice mysteriously attack him and bite "Dumbass" into his flesh. While watching the Dumbass recordings, Doggett notices that Dylan was at each of the stunts and decides to question him. While the two agents talk to Dylan, his mother appears and tries to stop the questioning.

Epidemic typhus is due to Rickettsia prowazekii spread by body lice, scrub typhus is due to Orientia tsutsugamushi spread by chiggers, and murine typhus is due to Rickettsia typhi spread by fleas. Vaccines have been developed, but none are commercially available. Prevention is achieved by reducing exposure to the organisms that spread the disease. Treatment is with the antibiotic doxycycline.

During the war, Knipling's research was diverted to support U.S. Army efforts to repel and control insects that threatened Allied troops with diseases including typhus and malaria. Credited with leading the USDA team that developed DDT as an effective control of body lice and weapon against typhus, Knipling won the 1947 U.S. Medal of Merit and the 1948 King's Medal for Service from the United Kingdom for these achievements.

Andy buys powder to kill body lice. Ed Wently, a Peace Corps supervisor, arrives with a transfer from Sierra Leone, Ward Rockwell. Rockwell moves in with Andre and is tasked with teaching math and building the latrine for the school. Rockwell's frequent talk of and enthusiasm for hygiene and building the latrine annoys Andy, who considers Rockwell's most annoying characteristic as always being partly correct in his statements.

Luntiala's third novel, Petri Vallin toinen elämä ("The Other Life of Petri Vall"), was released in 2010. It is about a man who steals a dead man's identity, abandoning his old life and starting a new one as Petri Vall. Aviador Kustannus published Luntiala's fourth novel, titled Ihmissyöjän päiväkirja ("The Diary of a Man-Eater"), in fall 2016 in Finland. It tells the story of two immigrant body lice.

The body louse diverged from the head louse at around 100,000 years ago, hinting at the time of the origin of clothing.Archive Body lice were first described by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae. The human body louse had its genome sequenced in 2010, and at that time it had the smallest known insect genome. Other lice that infest humans are the head louse and the crab louse.

Development of Pediculus humanus humanus (body lice), which is similar to that of head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis) Head lice, like other insects of the order Phthiraptera, are hemimetabolous. Newly hatched nymphs will moult three times before reaching the sexually- mature adult stage. Thus, mobile head lice populations contain members of up to four developmental stages: three nymphal instars, and the adult (imago). Metamorphosis during head lice development is subtle.

The body louse (Pediculus humanus humanus, sometimes called Pediculus humanus corporis) is a hematophagic ectoparasite louse that infests humans. It is one of three such lice, the other two are the head louse, and the pubic louse. Despite the name, body lice do not directly live on the host. They lay their eggs in articles of clothing or bedding and only come into contact with the host whenever they need to feed.

If an individual or a population of people are exposed to a long-term infestation, they may start to experience apathy, lethargy and fatigue. When feeding, the body lice resemble a mosquito feeding process. The body louse pierces the skin of the host and injects a salivary anticoagulant that helps the louse consume the hosts blood. Bites of the body louse can produce skin lesions that looks like a rash and in some cases, pruritus.

He wrote about eradicating bed bugs in the barracks, and dusting personnel with DDT to control body lice and prevent typhus. He was discharged from the military after the 1945 bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, having spent nearly four years with the army. His graduate education was at Ohio State University, where he earned his MS degree in 1946 and his PhD in Entomology in 1949. He also worked as an ornithological assistant to Donald J. Borror.

Treatment of lice usually involves the manual removal treatment techniques or chemicals known as pediculicides. In many cases, the change in the individual's personal hygiene can treat the body lice without the use of pediculicides. The infected individuals should shower as well as wash all of their clothes, towels, and bed sheets in hot water that is at least and dried on the hot cycle. The itching can be treated with topical antibiotics; corticosteroids and systemic antihistamines.

Body lice are an indicator of clothes- wearing, since most humans have sparse body hair, and lice thus require human clothing to survive. Their research suggests that the invention of clothing may have coincided with the northward migration of modern Homo sapiens away from the warm climate of Africa, thought to have begun between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago. However, a second group of researchers using similar genetic methods estimate that clothing originated around 540,000 years ago.

The pubic or crab louse (Pthirus pubis) is a parasitic insect which spends its entire life on human hair and feeds exclusively on blood. Humans are the only known host of this parasite, although it is more closely related to the louse parasites in other primate species, than are human head or body lice which probably evolved from it as the "original" louse infestation of humans. Epidemiology and treatment of pubic lice is discussed in the article on pubic lice.

The spiny stick insect (Heteropteryx dilatata) of Malaysia does not reach the extreme lengths of its cousins, the body reaching up to long, but it is much bulkier. The largest Heteropteryx weighed about and was wide across the thickest part of the body. ;Lice (Phthiraptera) :These insects, which live parasitically on other animals, are as a rule quite small. The largest known species is the hog louse, Haematopinus suis, a sucking louse that lives on large livestock like pigs and cattle.

Infection can also be prevented by vaccination. Some of the simplest methods of prevention and treatment focus on preventing infestation of body lice. Complete change of clothing, washing the infested clothing in hot water, and in some cases also treating recently used bedsheets all help to prevent typhus by removing potentially infected lice. Clothes also left unworn and unwashed for 7 days also cause both lice and their eggs to die, as they have no access to their human host.

Pediculus humanus humanus (the body louse) is indistinguishable in appearance from Pediculus humanus capitis (the head louse) but will interbreed only under laboratory conditions. In their natural state, they occupy different habitats and do not usually meet. Compared to the other two related lice species (head and pubic lice), body lice do not directly live on the host. They lay their eggs in articles of clothing or bedding and only come into contact with the host whenever they need to feed.

This has been attributed to living in unsanitary conditions and crowded areas, where the risk of coming into contact with other individuals carrying B. quintana and ectoparasites (body lice) is increased. Also noteworthy, the increasing migration worldwide may also play a role in spreading trench fever, from areas where it is endemic to susceptible populations in urban areas. Recent concern is the possibility of the emergence of new strains of B. quintana through horizontal gene transfer, which could result in the acquisition of other virulence factors.

Many POWs suffered from frostbite which could lead to gangrene. Typhus, spread by body lice, was a risk for all POWs, but was now increased by using overnight shelter previously occupied by infected groups. Some men simply froze to death in their sleep. In addition to these conditions were the dangers from air attack by Allied forces mistaking the POWs for retreating columns of German troops. On April 19, 1945, at a village called Gresse, 30 Allied POWs died and 30 were seriously injured (possibly fatally) when strafed by a flight of RAF Typhoons.

Barry Robert Pittendrigh is a Canadian American molecular biologist, researcher and educator. He is an MSU Foundation Professor, associate departmental chairperson and the director of Feed the Future Legume Systems Research Innovations Lab at Michigan State University. Pittendrigh's research has been focused on the molecular mechanisms of insecticide resistance, the structural and functional genomics of head and body lice, the genomics of termites, and the development of pest controls strategies for cowpea pests within a West African context. He has written over 175 scientific papers and book chapters.

Pittendrigh has actively published on work facilitated by the availability of this genome, including research on determining that parasites evolve faster than their hosts, understanding vector competence in body lice (as compared to head lice that do not vector diseases),Kim, J.H, D.J. Previte, K.S. Yoon, E. Murenzi, J.M. Clark, J.E. Koehler, B.R. Pittendrigh and S. H. Lee. 2017. Comparison of the proliferation and excretion of Bartonella quintana between body and head lice following oral challenge: Insights into the vector competence difference. Insect Molecular Biology. 26(3): 266-276.

Here they were taught the intracacies of the weapons they would be using as well as solutions to tactical problems in trench warfare. When training in the practice trenches was finished, the Americans were assigned a four-week stint in a quiet French or British sector to complete their trench warfare training. Here they became accustomed to life at the front. They went out into no man's land to listen for enemy activity, became familiar with body lice, fought off the trench rats and saw their first action.

Head lice (especially in children) have been, and still are, subject to various eradication campaigns. Unlike body lice, head lice are not the vectors of any known diseases. Except for rare secondary infections that result from scratching at bites, head lice are harmless, and they have been regarded by some as essentially a cosmetic rather than a medical problem. Head lice infestations may be beneficial in helping to foster a natural immune response against lice which helps humans in defense against the far more dangerous body louse, which is capable of transmission of dangerous diseases.

Mathematical modelling is used to match the spreading patterns and the means of transmission. A research in 2018 challenged the popular hypothesis that "infected rats died, their flea parasites could have jumped from the recently dead rat hosts to humans". It suggested an alternative model in which "the disease was spread from human fleas and body lice to other people". The second model claims to better fit the trends of death toll because the rat-flea-human hypothesis would have produced a delayed but very high spike in deaths, which contradict historical death data.

Trench fever (also known as "five-day fever", "quintan fever" (), and "urban trench fever") is a moderately serious disease transmitted by body lice. It infected armies in Flanders, France, Poland, Galicia, Italy, Salonika, Macedonia, Mesopotamia, Russia and Egypt in World War I. Three noted sufferers during WWI were the authors J. R. R. Tolkien, A. A. Milne, and C. S. Lewis. From 1915 to 1918 between one-fifth and one-third of all British troops reported ill had trench fever while about one-fifth of ill German and Austrian troops had the disease. The disease persists among the homeless.

A body lice infestation is treated by improving the personal hygiene of the infested person, including assuring a regular (at least weekly) change of clean clothes. Clothing, bedding, and towels used by the infested person should be laundered using hot water (at least ) and machine dried using the hot cycle. Sometimes the infested person also is treated with a pediculicide (a medicine that can kill lice); however, a pediculicide generally is not necessary if hygiene is maintained and items are laundered appropriately at least once a week. A pediculicide should be applied exactly as directed on the bottle or by a physician.

Oral ivermectin at a dose of 12 mg on days 0, 7 and 14 has been used in a small trial of 33 people in Marseilles, but did not result in complete eradication, although there was a significant fall in the number of parasites and proportion of people infected. At the moment, ivermectin cannot be routinely recommended for the treatment of body lice. Medication, insecticide or burning of clothing and bedding is usually not necessary, as the problem normally goes away with daily bathing, weekly (or more frequent) laundering and drying of clothing, bedding, towels, etc. in a hot clothes drier.

The living conditions made it so that countless diseases and infections occurred, such as trench foot, shell shock, blindness/burns from mustard gas, lice, trench fever, "cooties" (body lice) and the 'Spanish flu'. To maintain morale, wartime censors minimised early reports of widespread influenza illness and mortality in Germany, the United Kingdom, France, and the United States. Papers were free to report the epidemic's effects in neutral Spain (such as the grave illness of King Alfonso XIII). This created a false impression of Spain as especially hard hit, thereby giving rise to the pandemic's nickname, "Spanish flu".

In 1965, the U.S. military removed DDT from the military supply system due in part to the development of resistance by body lice to DDT; it was replaced by lindane. DDT became a prime target of the growing anti-chemical and anti-pesticide movements, and in 1967 a group of scientists and lawyers founded the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) with the specific goal of enacting a ban on DDT. Victor Yannacone, Charles Wurster, Art Cooley and others in the group had all witnessed bird kills or declines in bird populations and suspected that DDT was the cause. In their campaign against the chemical, the EDF petitioned the government for a ban and filed lawsuits.

Delphinine is a toxic diterpenoid alkaloid found in plants from the Delphinium (larkspur) and Atragene (a clematis) genera, both in the family Ranunculaceae. Delphinine is the principal alkaloid found in Delphinium staphisagria seeds – at one time, under the name stavesacre, a very well known herbal treatment for body lice. It is related in structure and has similar effects to aconitine, acting as an allosteric modulator of voltage gated sodium channels, and producing low blood pressure, slowed heart rate and abnormal heart rhythms. These effects make it highly poisonous ( 1.5–3.0 mg/kg in rabbit and dog; frogs are ~10x more susceptible), but in very small doses it has some uses in herbal medicine.

Indirect evidence of tailoring by Neanderthals includes the ability to manufacture string, which could indicate weaving ability, and a naturally-pointed horse metatarsal bone from Cueva de los Aviones, Spain, which was speculated to have been used as an awl, perforating dyed hides, based on the presence of orange pigments. Whatever the case, Neanderthals would have needed to cover up most of their body, and contemporary humans would have covered 80–90%. Since human/Neanderthal admixture is known to have occurred in the Middle East, and no modern body louse species descends from their Neanderthal counterparts (body lice only inhabit clothed individuals), it is possible Neanderthals (and/or humans) in hotter climates did not wear clothes, or Neanderthal lice were highly specialised.

It is known that head lice and body lice (the latter can only inhabit clothed individuals) for modern humans diverged about 170 kya, well before modern humans left Africa, meaning clothes were already well in use before encountering cold climates. One of the first uses of animal hide is thought to have been for clothing, and the oldest hide scrapers date to about 780 kya, though this is not indicative of clothing. ;Seafaring Acheulean artifacts discovered on isolated islands that were never connected to land in the Pleistocene may show seafaring by H. erectus as early as 1 Mya in Indonesia. They had arrived on the islands of Flores, Timor, and Roti, which would have necessitated crossing the Lombok Strait (the Wallace Line), at least before 800 kya.

By late 1915, a typhus epidemic was wreaking havoc in Mexico City, Puebla and other cities. Known to infect war-torn areas where poverty and unsanitary practices abound, typhus, spread by body lice, resulted in 20,000 to 30,000 cases in Mexico City alone, according to the New York Times, as the revolution raged throughout the country. In January 1916, the Mexican Superior Board of Health acknowledged 2,001 deaths during December 1915, according to Claudia Agostoni of the Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas of the National Autonomous University of Mexico. In an attempt to stave off the disease, health officials in El Paso wanted to set up a quarantine station for immigrants coming from Mexico. The disease, which has an incubation period of 10 to 14 days before high fever sets in, had been diagnosed in three men who had recently arrived from Aguascalientes, Mexico.

Firstly they need to obtain three references from clients to be recognized as adventurers and luckily there are three active quests, all insect extermination requests, on the notice board they can use. A potion stand owner's customers are being scared away by his neighbor's disgusting body lice, which require a complex series of potions in order to clean up. A woman's garden, needed for royal banquet flowers, is threatened by attack from giant hornets forcing Liam and Reemus to track down their nest and smoke them out. A giant beetle is occupying a bridge leading into town trapping an icicle pop vendor on the other side with all of his merchandise, and Reemus and Liam end up removing the beetle by collapsing the bridge under him, and have the vendor use spare icicle pop sticks as a temporary bridge.

While at the Plague Research Laboratory he made what was probably his chief contribution to medicine, the discovery that the body louse, a blood-sucking insect, might serve as a vector for the transmission of relapsing fever. In August 1907 Mackie was sent to investigate an outbreak of relapsing fever that had broken out at a mission settlement in Nasik (now Nashik), in the state of Maharashtra. The boys and girls residing at the settlement were housed in separate, similar bungalows but many more of the boys than the girls were taken ill with the disease and Mackie's investigation pointed to the cause. The boys were found to be infested with body lice, while the girls were almost free of them. Confirmation of the body louse as vector came from microscopic examination of the lice, which showed they were carrying large numbers of the spirochetes characterizing the human disease and that they were multiplying within the insects’ stomachs.

Walløe complains that all of these authors "take it for granted that Simond's infection model, black rat → rat flea → human, which was developed to explain the spread of plague in India, is the only way an epidemic of Yersinia pestis infection could spread", whilst pointing to several other possibilities. Similarly, Green has argued that greater attention is needed to the range of (especially non-commensal) animals that might be involved in the transmission of plague. Archaeologist Barney Sloane has argued that there is insufficient evidence of the extinction of numerous rats in the archaeological record of the medieval waterfront in London and that the disease spread too quickly to support the thesis that Y. pestis was spread from fleas on rats; he argues that transmission must have been person to person. This theory is supported by research in 2018 which suggested transmission was more likely by body lice and human fleas during the second plague pandemic.