771 Sentences With "assembly language" | Random Sentence Generator

Eventually they gave him a computer and told him to learn assembly language.

First, the system that crashed relied on programming in what's called Assembly Language.

Addis, with his knowledge of assembly language and C++, helped turn their games into reality.

We were moving from writing in assembly language — remember, UNIX was just coming of age.

This is mostly all C (and the next lowest-level step beyond C, which is assembly language).

One example is "The Art of Assembly Language," an older computer manual published by No Starch Press.

Code is compiled to assembly language by a compiler and is then assembled from that by an assembler.

IngramSpark printed and sold 203 copies of "The Art of the Assembly Language" over the next three months.

Assembly language is the final stop in any program's trip from programmer to programming language to actual machine instructions.

For example, the Department of the Treasury still runs on assembly language code — a computer language first created in the 1950's.

A programmer who used Assembly Language soon after leaving college in, say, 85033 is likely to be at least 80 years old.

That month, a counterfeiter sent 11 digital files — including "The Art of Assembly Language" — to IngramSpark, a print-on-demand publisher in Tennessee.

It was necessary to write some of the code in assembly language, the low-level code that languages like C are built upon.

Benioff was a 19-year-old college student in 1984 when Jobs gave him his first job as an assembly language programmer at Apple.

Today's computer networks use languages several generations more advanced and are more likely to be attacked by the grandchildren of the Assembly Language generation.

The best I came up with this is: This is assembly language instructing the processor to flip a single bit in the register named eax.

The first operating system written in a high-level language, as opposed to in assembly language, and of course, that influenced our thinking as well.

To better understand what he was getting into, Barth consulted Michael Abrash's Graphics Programming Black Book, a tome published in 1997 on old graphics and assembly language.

That file "is written in assembly language code — a low-level computer code that is difficult to write and maintain — and operates on an IBM mainframe," the report said.

" IRS's 6900s code The master file at the Internal Revenue Service where the public's taxes are assessed and refunds are generated is running on a 2628s "assembly language code.

Much like the device you're currently reading this on is based on primitive assembly language, it was these atomic operations (instructions) that enabled a theoretically unlimited scope of computability.

Mostly, it's done via the most bare-bones reductions of the C programming language possible (Embedded C, generally), or even just whatever assembly language corresponds to the processor in question.

On his blog, Phillips has been meticulously chronicling his journey learning to code on old hardware and in what's known as assembly language—code that directly interfaces with the CPU.

As JackTech explains in an info-packed 12-minute video, everything had to be written in assembly language using basic commands that also had to account for the Gameboy's minimal storage.

The big IRS mainframes in Martinsburg, W.Va., are unlikely to come under attack by a crew of geriatric hackers who know Assembly Language and are ready to get into the guts of it and cause trouble.

Treasury's master business file, which contains all tax data on individual business income taxpayers, likewise is written in that same assembly language code, which was first used in the 1950s, and maintained on the old-school IBM mainframe.

I could also just write some assembly language code from scratch to do the same number outputting thing above, though what I'd write winds up being about the same thing as what the compiler delivers, give or take a few lines.

According to a 2016 report by the Government Accountability Office, some agencies still use systems with components that are at least 50 years old, including a U.S. Treasury Department database to assess taxes and generate tax refunds that is written in 56-year-old assembly language code.

A conditional assembly language is that part of an assembly language used to write macros.

Programming languages for the 1400 series included Symbolic Programming System (SPS, an assembly language), Autocoder (a more fully featured assembly language), COBOL, FORTRAN, Report Program Generator (RPG), and FARGO.

Staog was written in assembly language by the hacker group VLAD.

MACRO-11 is an assembly language with macro facilities for PDP-11 minicomputers from Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). It is the successor to PAL-11 (Program Assembler Loader), an earlier version of the PDP-11 assembly language without macro facilities. The MACRO-11 assembly language was designed for the PDP-11 minicomputer family. It was supported on all DEC PDP-11 operating systems.

ARB assembly language is a low-level shading language, which can be characterized as an assembly language. It was created by the OpenGL Architecture Review Board (ARB) to standardize GPU instructions controlling the hardware graphics pipeline.

A library for the functional language OCaml was written in assembly language and C.

HLA was originally conceived as a tool to teach assembly language programming at the college-university level. The goal is to leverage students' existing programming knowledge when learning assembly language to get them up to speed as fast as possible. Most students taking an assembly language programming course have already been introduced to high-level control flow structures, such as IF, WHILE, FOR, etc. HLA allows students to immediately apply that programming knowledge to assembly language coding early in their course, allowing them to master other prerequisite subjects in assembly before learning how to code low-level forms of these control structures.

The Burroughs MCP (1961) was the first computer for which an operating system was not developed entirely in assembly language; it was written in Executive Systems Problem Oriented Language (ESPOL), an Algol dialect. Many commercial applications were written in assembly language as well, including a large amount of the IBM mainframe software written by large corporations. COBOL, FORTRAN and some PL/I eventually displaced much of this work, although a number of large organizations retained assembly-language application infrastructures well into the 1990s. Most early microcomputers relied on hand-coded assembly language, including most operating systems and large applications.

It also meant good programming productivity even in assembly language, as high level languages such as Fortran or Algol were not always available or appropriate. Indeed, microprocessors in this category are sometimes still programmed in assembly language for certain types of critical applications.

He was an adjunct professor at Palomar College, teaching CSCI 212, an assembly language course.

Windows NT is written in C and C++, with a very small amount written in assembly language. C is mostly used for the kernel code while C++ is mostly used for user-mode code. Assembly language is avoided where possible because it would impede portability.

Judicious commenting is essential in assembly language programs, as the meaning and purpose of a sequence of binary machine instructions can be difficult to determine. The "raw" (uncommented) assembly language generated by compilers or disassemblers is quite difficult to read when changes must be made.

The book The Art of Assembly Language Programming by Randall Hyde uses HLA for this purpose.

In Stage3D shaders are expressed in a low-level language called Adobe Graphics Assembly Language (AGAL).

A disassembler is a computer program that translates machine language into assembly language—the inverse operation to that of an assembler. A disassembler differs from a decompiler, which targets a high-level language rather than an assembly language. Disassembly, the output of a disassembler, is often formatted for human-readability rather than suitability for input to an assembler, making it principally a reverse-engineering tool. Assembly language source code generally permits the use of constants and programmer comments.

The term derives from "macro instruction", and such expansions were originally used in generating assembly language code.

In computer programming, assembly language (or assembler language), often abbreviated asm, is any low-level programming language in which there is a very strong correspondence between the instructions in the language and the architecture's machine code instructions. Because assembly depends on the machine code instructions, every assembly language is designed for exactly one specific computer architecture. Assembly language may also be called symbolic machine code. Assembly code is converted into executable machine code by a utility program referred to as an assembler.

The High-Level Shading Language (also called HLSL for short) is a C-style shader language for DirectX 9 and higher and Xbox game consoles. It is related to Nvidia's Cg but is only supported by DirectX and Xbox. HLSL programs are compiled into bytecode equivalent of DirectX shader assembly language. HLSL was introduced as an optional alternative to the shader assembly language in Direct3D 9, but became a requirement in Direct3d 10 and higher, where the shader assembly language is deprecated.

The following examples show code in PDP-8 assembly language as one might write for the PAL-III assembler.

Although Redcode is meant to resemble an ordinary CISC assembly language, it differs in many ways from "real" assembly.

On exokernels, libraries shield user applications from the very low level kernel API, and provide abstractions and resource management. IBM's OS/360 and DOS/360 implement most system calls through a library of assembly language macros, although there are a few services with a call linkage. This reflects their origin at a time when programming in assembly language was more common than high-level language usage. IBM system calls were therefore not directly executable by high-level language programs, but required a callable assembly language wrapper subroutine.

The earliest system software was written in assembly language primarily because there was no alternative, but also for reasons including efficiency of object code, compilation time, and ease of debugging. Application languages such as FORTRAN were used for system programming, although they usually still required some routines to be written in assembly language.

DAP Fortran compiled to an assembly language called APAL (Array Processor Assembly Language). The DAP had a Single Instruction Multiple Data (SIMD) architecture. Each operation could be performed under the control of a mask which controlled which elements were affected. Array programs were executed as subroutines of normal mainframe FORTRAN programs and IO was handled by the mainframe.

For example, W32/Simile consisted of over 14,000 lines of assembly language code, 90% of which is part of the metamorphic engine.

Babbage is the high level assembly language for the GEC 4000 series minicomputers. It was named after Charles Babbage, an English computing pioneer.

In assembly language programming, the function prologue is a few lines of code at the beginning of a function, which prepare the stack and registers for use within the function. Similarly, the function epilogue appears at the end of the function, and restores the stack and registers to the state they were in before the function was called. The prologue and epilogue are not a part of the assembly language itself; they represent a convention used by assembly language programmers, and compilers of many higher-level languages. They are fairly rigid, having the same form in each function.

Typical examples of large assembly language programs from this time are IBM PC DOS operating systems, the Turbo Pascal compiler and early applications such as the spreadsheet program Lotus 1-2-3. Assembly language was used to get the best performance out of the Sega Saturn, a console that was notoriously challenging to develop and program games for. The 1993 arcade game NBA Jam is another example. Assembly language has long been the primary development language for many popular home computers of the 1980s and 1990s (such as the MSX, Sinclair ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, Commodore Amiga, and Atari ST).

In computer science, a typed assembly language (TAL) is an assembly language that is extended to include a method of annotating the datatype of each value that is manipulated by the code. These annotations can then be used by a program (type checker) that processes the assembly language code in order to analyse how it will behave when it is executed. Specifically, such a type checker can be used to prove the type safety of code that meets the criteria of some appropriate type system. Typed assembly languages usually include a high-level memory management system based on garbage collection.

DARSIMCO, short for Dartmouth Simplified Code, was a simple programming language written by John Kemeny in 1956 that expanded simple mathematical operations into IBM 704 assembly language (Share Assembly Language, SAL). It was an attempt to simplify basic mathematical processing, a common theme in the 1950s, but found little use before the arrival of FORTRAN at MIT the next year.

According to programmer and co- creator Todd Replogle, John Carmack helped him program some low-level parts of the game code in assembly language.

It is in this textbook that the LC-3 Assembly Language is introduced. In 2009, Patt received an honorary doctorate from the University of Belgrade.

First the Fortran, or COBOL, had to be compiled into assembly language, then the assembly language had to be assembled into binary code; finally the compiled and assembled code had to be linked with previously written libraries of subroutines. WATFOR and WATBOL allowed simple programs, to be compiled, linked, and executed, in a single step. In 1982 Carol Vogt wrote that 230 other institutions were using WATBOL.

All examples in the books use a language called "MIX assembly language", which runs on the hypothetical MIX computer. Currently, the MIX computer is being replaced by the MMIX computer, which is a RISC version. Software such as GNU MDK exists to provide emulation of the MIX architecture. Knuth considers the use of assembly language necessary for the speed and memory usage of algorithms to be judged.

In the mid-1950s, when assembly language programming was commonly used to write programs for digital computers, the use of macro instructions was initiated for two main purposes: to reduce the amount of program coding that had to be written by generating several assembly language statements from one macro instruction and to enforce program writing standards, e.g. specifying input/output commands in standard ways. Macro instructions were effectively a middle step between assembly language programming and the high-level programming languages that followed, such as FORTRAN and COBOL. Two of the earliest programming installations to develop "macro languages" for the IBM 705 computer were at Dow Chemical Corp.

Patinho Feio was an 8-bit minicomputer with a memory of 8 kB and an instruction cycle of 2 microseconds. It was programmed in assembly language.

Hand Talk, which won the gold medal in Computer Go, was original written in assembly language by a retired chemistry professor of Sun Yat-sen University, China.

William Barden Jr. is an author of books and articles on computer programming. Barden's writings mainly covered microcomputers, computer graphics and assembly language and BASIC programming. He was a contributing editor for The Rainbow magazine in which he wrote a monthly column called Barden's Buffer on low-level assembly language programming on the TRS-80 Color Computer. Some of his books were published under the name William T. Barden.

However, by the 1980s (1990s on microcomputers), their use had largely been supplanted by higher-level languages, in the search for improved programming productivity. Today, assembly language is still used for direct hardware manipulation, access to specialized processor instructions, or to address critical performance issues. Typical uses are device drivers, low- level embedded systems, and real-time systems. Historically, numerous programs have been written entirely in assembly language.

A much more readable rendition of machine language, called assembly language, uses mnemonic codes to refer to machine code instructions, rather than using the instructions' numeric values directly, and uses symbolic names to refer to storage locations and sometimes registers. For example, on the Zilog Z80 processor, the machine code `00000101`, which causes the CPU to decrement the `B` processor register, would be represented in assembly language as `DEC B`.

Punched tape used for PDP-11 MACRO-11 is the assembly language for the PDP-11. It is the successor to PAL-11 (Program Assembler Loader), an earlier version of the PDP-11 assembly language without macro facilities. MACRO-11 was supported on all DEC PDP-11 operating systems. PDP-11 Unix systems also include an assembler (called "as"), structurally similar to MACRO-11, but with different syntax and fewer features.

HUD with 6502 assembly language The site's intention is to connect screenshots to specific extracts of original code. The author accepts examples submitted by readers for future publication.

Basic Assembly Language (BAL) is the commonly used term for a low-level programming language used on IBM System/360 and successor mainframes. Originally, "Basic Assembly Language" applied only to an extremely restricted dialect designed to run under control of IBM Basic Programming Support (BPS/360) on systems with only 8 KB of main memory, and only a card reader, a card punch, and a printer for input/output — thus the word "Basic". However, the full name and the initialism "BAL" almost immediately attached themselves in popular use to all assembly-language dialects on the System/360 and its descendants. BAL for BPS/360 was introduced with the System/360 in 1964.

CTOS ran on Intel x86 computers, and could run concurrently with Windows NT on Unisys PC. The system API was presented to both high-level languages and assembly language.

The characters can also ask each other questions which behave as conditional statements. On the whole, the programming model is very similar to assembly language but much more verbose.

Kathleen Booth was the programmer and Andrew built the machines. Kathleen developed Assembly Language at this time. Kateryna Yushchenko created the Address programming language for the MESM in 1955.

Vedit can edit any file, including binary files and huge multi-gigabyte files. Still it is compact and extremely fast, perhaps because it is written mostly in Assembly language.

AlphaBASIC shares much in common with other BASIC languages. It does offer some fairly unusual features such as multi-user orientation, ability to control memory layout of variables (MAP statement), calling of external assembly language subroutines (XCALL statement). The language is designed for developers of vertical market software packages. The compiler and runtime system are written in Motorola 68000 assembly language, and thus are only able to run on Alpha Microsystems hardware.

By 1985, a version for the IBM PC existed called PC-BLIS. Originally, most operating systems were written in assembly language for a particular processor or family of processors. Non-assembler operating systems were comparatively slow, but were easier for revision and repair. One of the reasons for the C programming language's low-level features, which resemble assembly language in some ways, is an early intent to use it for writing operating systems.

They adopt straight forward load/store architecture. In addition, the "interlock" mechanism both for the data hazards and for the branch hazards are implemented, in other words, assembly language programmer does not need to consider any delay slots. 32 general-purpose registers provide flexibility for assembly language users. Mixture of hand-assembled codes and C language compiled codes is available by using compiler options, such as "-mno-app-regs" in Gnu Compiler Collection.

The suite is coded in a blend of C, C++ and assembly language. It runs on x86 processors and supports the MMX, SSE, SSE2, S-SSE3, and SSE4.1 instruction sets.

The following example uses x86 assembly language to implement a spinlock. It will work on any Intel 80386 compatible processor. ; Intel syntax locked: ; The lock variable. 1 = locked, 0 = unlocked.

In computer science, a NOP, no-op, or NOOP (pronounced "no op"; short for no operation) is an assembly language instruction, programming language statement, or computer protocol command that does nothing.

SYSLINUX can be extended by COMBOOT modules written in C or assembly language. 32-bit modules typically use the `.c32` filename extension. Version 5 and later do not support 16-bit `.

In addition, System RPL includes many advanced functions that are not available in User RPL. System RPL programs can be created without the use of PC software (although it is available), thanks to the calculator's built-in compiler, MASD. MASD also can compile Saturn assembly language and, with the latest firmware revision for the 49g+/50g, ARMv4T assembly language on the calculator itself. Many tools exist to assist programmers and make the calculator a powerful programming environment.

INT is an assembly language instruction for x86 processors that generates a software interrupt. It takes the interrupt number formatted as a byte value. When written in assembly language, the instruction is written like this: :`INT X` where `X` is the software interrupt that should be generated (0-255). As is customary with machine binary arithmetic, interrupt numbers are often written in hexadecimal form, which can be indicated with a prefix 0x or with the suffix h.

It was created by the OpenGL ARB (OpenGL Architecture Review Board) to give developers more direct control of the graphics pipeline without having to use ARB assembly language or hardware-specific languages.

A disk-based version of SCOPE was eventually made available for the upper-3000 systems. FORTRAN, COBOL, and ALGOL were available. The assembly language was called COMPASS. These were available from CDC.

These positions of switches corresponded to the machine codes, similar to today's assembly language. Nowadays, EEPROMs are used for bootstrapping mechanism as BIOS, and no need to operate mechanical switches for programming.

Tanglewood was programmed in 68000 assembly language using original Sega development tools and processes from the 1990s. The game was released on physical carts that can be played on Mega Drive systems.

Holding frequently used values in registers can be critical to a program's performance. Register allocation is performed either by a compiler in the code generation phase, or manually by an assembly language programmer.

One of the most time-consuming operations is an ACS butterfly, which is usually implemented using an assembly language and appropriate instruction set extensions (such as SSE2) to speed up the decoding time.

The Push programming language is a genetic programming system that is explicitly designed for creating self- modifying programs. While not a high level language, it is not as low level as assembly language.

The TI-83 was the first calculator in the TI series to have built in assembly language support. The TI-92, TI-85, and TI-82 were capable of running assembly language programs, but only after sending a specially constructed (hacked) memory backup. The support on the TI-83 could be accessed through a hidden feature of the calculator. Users would write their assembly (ASM) program on their computer, assemble it, and send it to their calculator as a program.

High Level Assembly (HLA) is a high-level assembly language developed by Randall Hyde. It allows the use of higher-level language constructs to aid both beginners and advanced assembly developers. It fully supports advanced data types and object-oriented programming. It uses a syntax loosely based on several high-level programming languages (HLLs), such as Pascal, Ada, Modula-2, and C++, to allow creating readable assembly language programs, and to allow HLL programmers to learn HLA as fast as possible.

The entries in the literal pool are placed into the object relocation table during assembly, and are then resolved at link edit time. In certain ways, a literal pool resembles a TOC or a global offset table (GOT), except that the implementation is considerably simpler, and there may be multiple literal tables per object. Perhaps the most common type of literal pool are the literal pools used by the `LDR Rd,=const` pseudo-instruction in ARM assembly language "Writing ARM Assembly Language > Literal pools" and similar instructions in IBM System/360 assembly language. "High Level Assembler for z/OS & z/VM & z/VSE V1R6 (HLASM V1R6) Language Reference": Literal pool which are compiled to a LOAD with a PC-relative addressing mode and the constant stored in the literal pool.

This, alongside the introduction of subroutines, enabled complex structures to be expressed by hierarchical decomposition into simpler procedural structures. Many imperative programming languages (such as Fortran, BASIC, and C) are abstractions of assembly language.

MACRO-10 is an assembly language with extensive macro facilities for DEC's PDP-10-based Mainframe computer systems, the DECsystem-10 and the DECSYSTEM-20. MACRO-10 is implemented as a two-pass assembler.

The OS supports many languages: RPG, assembly language, C, C++, Pascal, Java, EGL, Perl, Smalltalk, COBOL, SQL, BASIC, PHP, PL/I, Python, REXX, Ruby, PHP, Node.js(JavaScript), Lua, R, Ublu,Ublu Qshell, and more.

Visopsys uses a monolithic kernel, written in the C programming language, with elements of assembly language for certain interactions with the hardware. The operating system sports a graphical user interface, with a small C library.

A second version, published in 1983, is programmed in assembly language for improved performance, and the computer controls any unused players. Version 2 was available for both the Atari 8-bit family and Commodore 64.

Under a framework called Driver J was a successful operating environment for high volume commercial real time systems. Programming languages used were assembler and COBOL and Fortran (an Algol 60 compiler was provided but not used much, if at all). The system was controlled from a console composed of a mechanical printer and keyboard – very like a Teletype. The assembly language (known as Usercode) non-privileged instruction set was identical to IBM System 360 Assembly Language; in privileged mode there were a few extras.

All processors, including TTA processors, include control flow instructions that alter the program counter, which are used to implement subroutines, if-then-else, for-loop, etc. The assembly language for TTA processors typically includes control flow instructions such as unconditional branches (JUMP), conditional relative branches (BNZ), subroutine call (CALL), conditional return (RETNZ), etc. that look the same as the corresponding assembly language instructions for other processors. Like all other operations on a TTA machine, these instructions are implemented as "move" instructions to a special function unit.

A program written in assembly language consists of a series of mnemonic processor instructions and meta-statements (known variously as directives, pseudo-instructions, and pseudo-ops), comments and data. Assembly language instructions usually consist of an opcode mnemonic followed by a list of data, arguments or parameters. These are translated by an assembler into machine language instructions that can be loaded into memory and executed. For example, the instruction below tells an x86/IA-32 processor to move an immediate 8-bit value into a register.

Although considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract high-level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently (and thereby help reduce programmer error). High level languages are usually "compiled" into machine language (or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language) using another computer program called a compiler.High level languages are also often interpreted rather than compiled.

Cosmos has many facilities to improve the experience of developing operating systems with it, designed to make the process as fast and painless as possible, knowledge of the assembly language is not required to use Cosmos.

Sargon (or SARGON) is a line of chess-playing software for personal computers. The original SARGON from 1978 was written in assembly language by Dan and Kathleen "Kathe" Spracklen for the Z80-based Wavemate Jupiter III.

The instructions constituting a program are rarely specified using their internal, numeric form (machine code); they may be specified by programmers using an assembly language or, more commonly, may be generated from programming languages by compilers.

Intel Architecture Software Developer Manual, Volume 2: Instruction Set Reference. Available for download at However, it has a higher latency than conditional branch instructions.Fog, A: Optimizing subroutines in assembly language. An optimization guide for x86 platforms.

Unfortunately MARC's author, Ed Ziemba, perished in a snorkeling accident before he could complete the project.InfoWorld (17 Aug 1981) In 2002, Leor Zolman released the 8080 assembly language source code for BDS C into the public domain.

PAL-11R is an assembly language, and an assembler, for the PDP-11's disk operating system, DOS-11. It was the precursor to MACRO-11. The original assembler for Unix, as, was based on PAL-11R.

Complex images, such as a cabin made of many logs, use a loop instruction, similar to for loop in C, with a constant loop limit. The assembly language has no concept of variables, and no branching instructions.

Much of the content of Zen of Assembly Language was updated in Zen of Code Optimization: The Ultimate Guide to Writing Software That Pushes PCs to the Limit (1994), along with new material. The presentation of stepwise program refinement empirically demonstrated how algorithm re-design could improve performance up to a factor of 100. Assembly language re-coding, on the other hand, may only improve performance by a factor of 10. Abrash also showed how elusive performance improvement can be, and improving performance in one subroutine can expose bottlenecks in other routines.

VxWorks had its beginnings in the mid 1980s as compiler and assembly language tools to supplement VRTX (i.e. VRTX works, or VxWorks) and later Wind River created their own offering of a real-time kernel similar to VRTX.

In November 2012, Christophe de Dinechin released the complete assembly language and GFA BASIC development tools source code for the Atari ST version. There is also a started PC port in C++ on sourceforge by the original author.

5 No. 6, June 1979 pg. 102. Retrieved 2013-04-11. At the time, his music entry program was the largest Assembly Language program available for the Apple IIALF Products newsletter, 1979, ALF Alpha 1. Retrieved 2013-04-11.

Animator-Pro on github.com As of April 2014 most of the assembly language source code was ported to platform-agnostic C code and SDL was used as target back-end framework.PJ: remove add_check_tflx_toram and rem_check_tflx_toram. by wangds on github.

Both the compression and the decompression algorithms are implemented in an open source library, written in the C programming language. There are also several alternate implementations of the decompression algorithm available (for instance in JavaScript and 8-bit assembly language).

It allows programming by entering sequences of 6502 opcodes. Later a two-pass assembler was available which allows the use of assembly language. Although the 6502 has two interrupt input pins (NMI and IRQ), neither is used by the UK101.

In high school Cohen wrote in MOS 6502 assembly language an Apple II compiler and computer game, and unsuccessfully tried to publish the latter through Broderbund. His most notable academic publication concerned the theoretical computer science problem of pancake sorting.

High level languages have never been developed for CARDIAC as they would defeat one of the purposes of the device: to introduce concepts of assembly language programming. Programs are hand assembled and then are penciled into the appropriate memory cells.

MenuetOS is an operating system with a monolithic preemptive, real-time kernel written in FASM assembly language. The system also includes video drivers. It runs on 64-bit and 32-bit x86 architecture computers. Its author is Ville M. Turjanmaa.

The project was started in 1999 by Tomasz Grysztar, a.k.a. Privalov, at that time, an undergraduate student of mathematics from Poland. It was released publicly in March 2000. FASM is completely written in assembly language and comes with full source.

The OS used very little assembly language. Among the programming languages available on the system was an ALGOL 68 variant which included extensions supporting parallel computing, to make good use of the C.mmp. The ALGOL compiler ran native on Hydra OS.

This is a minimal programming example in Nova assembly language. It is designed to run under RDOS and prints the string “Hello, world.” on the console. ; a "hello, world" program for Nova running RDOS ; uses PCHAR system call .titl hello .

The assembly language, a simplified version of real-world assembly languages, allows the node to accept external input or a numerical value sent from an adjacent node, perform basic math and logic operations, store and backup the current data value, and then send results to an adjacent node or to the program's output. Later puzzles introduce stack nodes and an output to a simple 5-color graphics display. The interface of TIS-100 presents the player with 12 assembly language-based nodes and other options to develop code in. In this puzzle, the top right node in red is unavailable for use.

There are three different types of programs which can be downloaded or programmed into the calculators: TI- BASIC, Z80 assembly language, and Flash applications (also written in Z80 assembly). The TI84+CE is different in that programs are written in TI-BASIC, eZ80 assembly language, or in the C programming language. In addition, there are programs available that are able to compile or interpret other programming languages. Also, there are several languages developed by community members for the calculators, notably ICE, which is for the TI84+CE, and Axe, which is for the TI84+ and TI84+SE.

Note that more powerful macro assemblers allowed use of conditional assembly constructs in macro instructions that could generate different code on different machines or different operating systems, reducing the need for multiple libraries. In the 1980s and early 1990s, desktop PCs were only running at a few MHz and assembly language routines were commonly used to speed up programs written in C, Fortran, Pascal and others. These languages, at the time, used different calling conventions. Macros could be used to interface routines written in assembly language to the front end of applications written in almost any language.

Executable files can be hand-coded in machine language, although it is far more convenient to develop software as source code in a high-level language that can be easily understood by humans. In some cases, source code might be specified in assembly language instead, which remains human-readable while being closely associated with machine code instructions. The high-level language is compiled into either an executable machine code file or a non- executable machine code – object file of some sort; the equivalent process on assembly language source code is called assembly. Several object files are linked to create the executable.

He is credited with co-creating the original biometric word list. Juola has also created a Java-based open source authorship attribution suite JGAAP, Java Graphical Authorship Attribution Program, with several students at Duquesne University including David Berdik, Sean Vinsick, Amanda Kroft, and Michael Ryan . Patrick Juola is the author of Principles of Computer Organization and Assembly Language, a textbook on computer organization and assembly language, published through Prentice-Hall. He also wrote Authorship Attribution, a survey and technical monograph on authorship attribution, the process of inferring the author or author's characteristics from the text of a document, published through NOW Publishers.

Originally a single integrated product, now known as the "Classic IDE", the IDE was later replaced with Eclipse IDE. The current versions are 6.3 of the Classic IDE, and 11.0 for the Eclipse IDE. Languages supported are C, C++, and assembly language.

Lorinda Cherry is a computer programmer. She received her Masters in computer science from Stevens Institute of Technology in 1969. She joined Bell Labs in 1972 as an assembly language programmer, and worked there on the Unix operating system for several years.

The ETA10 itself had no graphical console or local network interface, and all visualization of resulting data was performed by separate workstations after being retrieved from the Apollos. Programming for the ETA10 series could be done in FORTRAN, C, or assembly language.

The ELCA compiler gradually replaced HLOC during the years 1975-1977. It ran faster and generated better code and incorporated many useful language extensions. It had the option to generate assembly language (GMAP) which could be processed on Honeywell Series 66 machines.

NAR 1 or just NAR (Serbian Nastavni Računar, en. Educational Computer) was a theoretical model of a computer created by Faculty of Mathematics of University of Belgrade professor Nedeljko Parezanović (In Serbian:Недељко Парезановић). It was used for Assembly language and Computer architecture courses.

A typed assembly language with a suitably expressive type system can be used to enable the safe execution of untrusted code without using an intermediate representation like bytecode, allowing features similar to those currently provided by virtual machine environments like Java and .NET.

The FX3 graphical debugger is bundled with all Absoft Pro Fortran releases. The FX3 graphical debugger is compatible with the GNU Compiler Collection (gcc) (on Macintosh and Linux), Apple C, Microsoft Visual Studio C/C++ (Windows only), and assembly language on all three platforms.

The commercial GP software Discipulus uses automatic induction of binary machine code ("AIM")(Peter Nordin, 1997, Banzhaf et al., 1998, Section 11.6.2-11.6.3) to achieve better performance. µGP uses directed multigraphs to generate programs that fully exploit the syntax of a given assembly language.

In other words, user-written assembly language routines must be updated to save/restore XMM6 and XMM7 before/after the function when being ported from x86 to x86-64. Starting with Visual Studio 2013, Microsoft introduced the calling convention which extends the x64 convention.

In computer programming, an inline assembler is a feature of some compilers that allows low-level code written in assembly language to be embedded within a program, among code that otherwise has been compiled from a higher-level language such as C or Ada.

Also known as GLSL or glslang, this standardized shading language is meant to be used with OpenGL. The language unifies vertex and fragment processing in a single instruction set, allowing conditional loops and (more generally) branches. Historically, GLSL was preceded by the ARB assembly language.

In the lists in the following two sections, the assembly-language programmer appended B to the instruction symbol to specify a byte operation; for example, MOV became MOVB. A few instructions, for example MARK and SOB, were not implemented on some PDP-11 models.

Conversely, retargetable assemblers are capable of generating object files of different formats, which is useful in porting assembly language programs to various operating systems that run on the same CPU architecture (such as Windows and Linux on the x86 platform). NASM is one such assembler.

CPU Sim allows the user to edit and run assembly language programs for the CPU being simulated. CPU Sim has been programmed using the Java Swing package. This means that it is platform independent (runs on every platform that has a Java virtual machine installed).

Core War is a 1984 programming game created by D. G. Jones and A. K. Dewdney in which two or more battle programs (called "warriors") compete for control of a virtual computer. These battle programs are written in an abstract assembly language called Redcode.

The conversion process is referred to as assembly, as in assembling the source code. Assembly language usually has one statement per machine instruction (1:1), but comments and statements that are assembler directives, macros, and symbolic labels of program and memory locations are often also supported. The term "assembler" is generally attributed to Wilkes, Wheeler and Gill in their 1951 book The preparation of programs for an electronic digital computer, who, however, used the term to mean "a program that assembles another program consisting of several sections into a single program". Each assembly language is specific to a particular computer architecture and sometimes to an operating system.

Packages of macros have been written providing structured programming elements to encode execution flow. The earliest example of this approach was in the Concept-14 macro set, originally proposed by Harlan Mills (March 1970), and implemented by Marvin Kessler at IBM's Federal Systems Division, which provided IF/ELSE/ENDIF and similar control flow blocks for OS/360 assembler programs. This was a way to reduce or eliminate the use of GOTO operations in assembly code, one of the main factors causing spaghetti code in assembly language. This approach was widely accepted in the early 1980s (the latter days of large-scale assembly language use).

In 1959, Douglas E. Eastwood and Douglas McIlroy of Bell Labs introduced conditional and recursive macros into the popular SAP assembler, creating what is known as Macro SAP. McIlroy's 1960 paper was seminal in the area of extending any (including high- level) programming languages through macro processors. Macro Assemblers allowed assembly language programmers to implement their own macro-language and allowed limited portability of code between two machines running the same CPU but different operating systems, for example, early versions of MSDOS and CPM-86. The macro library would need to be written for each target machine but not the overall assembly language program.

DECsys, the first operating system for DEC's 18-bit computer family (and DEC's first operating system for a computer smaller than its 36-bit timesharing systems), was introduced in 1965. It provided an interactive, single user, program development environment for Fortran and assembly language programs. In 1969, Ken Thompson wrote the first UNIX system in assembly language on a PDP-7, then named Unics as a pun on Multics, as the operating system for Space Travel, a game which requires graphics to depict the motion of the planets. A PDP-7 was also the development system used during the development of MUMPS at MGH in Boston a few years earlier.

The TI-83 Plus series are very similar in the languages natively supported by the calculator. These include "TI-BASIC", an interpreted language used by all of TI's calculators, and "TI-ASM", an unofficial name for the native Z80 assembly language on which the calculator is based.

After this, Assembly Language - which came to be known as Second Generation Programming Languages - came into existence. This symbolic machine code grew popular among programmers as they were able to utilize alphabet letters for coding. This led to less errors in programs and improved code readability.

Kathleen Booth (born 1922) wrote the first assembly language and designed the assembler and autocode for the first computer systems at Birkbeck College, University of London. She helped design three different machines including the ARC (Automatic Relay Calculator), SEC (Simple Electronic Computer), and APE(X)C.

Petzold showed the staff some small assembly-language programs he had written. Soon he was busy writing little 300-500 byte .COM file utilities for PC Magazine. Petzold was soon getting so much freelance work from PC Magazine that he was able to quit his job.

C Standard section 6.8.6.1 The goto statement In assembly language labels can be used anywhere an address can (for example, as the operand of a `JMP` or `MOV` instruction). Also in Pascal and its derived variations. Some languages, such as Fortran and BASIC, support numeric labels.

This implementation is subroutine-threaded, with about 20 words written in assembly language, and the complete system occupying a total of about 8K of RAM. It was cross-developed from a VAX to an RTX2000 Forth system connected to dual-ported RAM accessible to the microcontroller.

In the CIL standard, metadata is defined in ILAsm (assembly language) form, an on-disk representation form for storage, and a form that is embedded into assemblies of the Portable Executable (PE, .exe or .dll) format. The PE form is based on the on-disk form.

The 8080 was successful enough that translation compatibility at the assembly language level became a design requirement for the Intel 8086 when its design began in 1976, and led to the 8080 directly influencing all later variants of the ubiquitous 32-bit and 64-bit x86 architectures.

For example, where Intel uses the mnemonics MOV, MVI, LDA, STA, LXI, LDAX, STAX, LHLD, and SHLD for various data transfer instructions, the Z80 assembly language uses the mnemonic LD for all of them. A similar case is the NEC V20 and V30 CPUs, enhanced copies of the Intel 8086 and 8088, respectively. Like Zilog with the Z80, NEC invented new mnemonics for all of the 8086 and 8088 instructions, to avoid accusations of infringement of Intel's copyright. (It is questionable whether such copyrights can be valid, and later CPU companies such as AMD and Cyrix republished Intel's x86/IA-32 instruction mnemonics exactly with neither permission nor legal penalty.) It is doubtful whether in practice many people who programmed the V20 and V30 actually wrote in NEC's assembly language rather than Intel's; since any two assembly languages for the same instruction set architecture are isomorphic (somewhat like English and Pig Latin), there is no requirement to use a manufacturer's own published assembly language with that manufacturer's products.

Computer clubs and individuals from all parts of the United States and the world soon created Tiny BASIC interpreters for the Intel 8080, the Motorola 6800 and MOS Technology 6502 processors. The assembly language source code was published or the software was sold for five or ten dollars.

This chip was never sold commercially. Like EEC-I and -II, all code was written in assembly language. While the processor chips were manufactured by Motorola, the modules were designed and assembled by either Motorola, Toshiba or Ford. The designs were functionally equivalent but slightly different components were used.

Adept has its own robot control operating system, V+, which has come to version 17.x by 2009. The history of V+ dates back to the days of Unimation. At the time it was called VAL (Victor's Assembly Language), which evolved into VAL-II and VAL-III later.

Applicants should have at least a bachelor's > degree and a year of assembly language experience. Contact Paul Allen at > (505) 262-1486, or write to them at 300 San Mateo NE, Albuquerque, NM 87108. > Microsoft is the leader in microcomputer systems programming. I've applied > myself, by the way.

Variable Assembly Language (VAL) is a computer-based control system and language designed specifically for use with Unimation Inc. industrial robots. The VAL robot language is permanently stored as a part of the VAL system. This includes the programming language used to direct the system for individual applications.

In binary mode (`CLD`, clear D flag), the same operation would result in $9A and the carry flag being cleared. Other than Atari BASIC, BCD mode was seldom used in home-computer applications. See the Hello world! article for a simple but characteristic example of 6502 assembly language.

Earlier WATFOR compilers were written entirely in machine- dependent assembly language. Two components of the compiler are not portable. The code generator translates FORTRAN statements into native computer instructions and stores them in memory. The first version of WATFOR-77 generates instructions for the IBM 370 computer architecture.

He wrote his first computer virus in assembly language using the A86 assembler in the early 1990s. Haines was responsible for the viruses NoFrills, Dudley,28 May 1995 Computer underground Digest Volume 7 : Issue 43. X-Fungus/PuKE, Daemaen and 1984. NoFrills infected the Australian Tax Office (ATO).

In these cases, the most popular one is usually that supplied by the CPU manufacturer and used in its documentation. Two examples of CPUs that have two different sets of mnemonics are the Intel 8080 family and the Intel 8086/8088. Because Intel claimed copyright on its assembly language mnemonics (on each page of their documentation published in the 1970s and early 1980s, at least), some companies that independently produced CPUs compatible with Intel instruction sets invented their own mnemonics. The Zilog Z80 CPU, an enhancement of the Intel 8080A, supports all the 8080A instructions plus many more; Zilog invented an entirely new assembly language, not only for the new instructions but also for all of the 8080A instructions.

High-level languages are translated into machine language using a compiler or an interpreter or a combination of the two. Software may also be written in a low-level assembly language, which has strong correspondence to the computer's machine language instructions and is translated into machine language using an assembler.

To compile .NET CIL into assembly language, Cosmos developers created an ahead-of-time compiler named IL2CPU, designed to parse CIL and output x86 opcodes. (IL To CPU) is an AOT compiler that is written using a Common Intermediate Language compliant language (C#). It translates Common Intermediate Language to machine code.

GNU lightning is a free-software library for generating assembly language code at run-time. Version 2.1.3, released in September 2019, supports backends for SPARC (32-bit), x86 (32- and 64-bit), MIPS, ARM (32- and 64-bit), ia64, HPPA, PowerPC (32-bit), Alpha, S390 and RISC-V (64-bit).

FASM (flat assembler) is an assembler for x86 processors. It supports Intel- style assembly language on the IA-32 and x86-64 computer architectures. It claims high speed, size optimizations, operating system (OS) portability, and macro abilities. It is a low-level assembler and intentionally uses very few command-line options.

It was megabytes of undocumented, disorganized, messy assembly language. Andy Clitheroe, the lone programmer of both games, must have been some kind of genius, I think. The official release was of the TKG source code. However, when poking around the CD I found the original (and equally messy) AB3D source too.

Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand (machine language) is usually done by a computer program called an assembler. A 1970s punched card containing one line from a Fortran program. The card reads: "Z(1) = Y + W(1)" and is labeled "PROJ039" for identification purposes.

Macros were heavily used by the code to reduce the effort of programming such a large system in assembly language. In later versions the macro features of GIN were used to add structured programming features to the code. Writing the system was estimated to have taken 75 programmer-years of effort.

Jump 'n Bump was written C and Assembly language by Brainchild Design in 1998. The graphics were made with Deluxe Paint 2 and Paint Shop Pro 5. The Mod music was made with Fast Tracker 2. Although the players' scores are tracked, the game continues indefinitely until it is ended by the players.

A futuristic sequel otherwise similar in design, Blue Max 2001, was released in 1984 for the Atari 8-bit family and Commodore 64. Unlike the original, it received mixed reviews. Author Bob Polin made the assembly language source code of Blue Max publicly available in 2016.Blue Max source code for you.

XBasic has signed and unsigned 8-, 16- and 32-bit and signed 64-bit integers as well as 32- and 64-bit floating point values. The string data type is only for 8-bit characters. It is possible to generate an assembly language file. XBasic has a Windows only version called XBLite.

TIS-100 is a puzzle video game and programming game developed by Zachtronics Industries. The game has the player develop mock assembly language code to perform certain tasks on a virtualized 1970s computer that has been corrupted. The game was released for Microsoft Windows, OS X, and Linux personal computers in July 2015.

Some debuggers operate on a single specific language while others can handle multiple languages transparently. For example, if the main target program is written in COBOL but calls assembly language subroutines and PL/1 subroutines, the debugger may have to dynamically switch modes to accommodate the changes in language as they occur.

The features GNU lightning provides make it useful for Just-in- Time Compilation. In comparison to libraries such as LLVM or libJIT, GNU lightning provides only a low-level interface for assembling from a standardized RISC assembly language—loosely based on the SPARC and MIPS architectures—into the target architecture's machine language.

740, 779. By the late 1980s, optimizing compilers were sufficiently effective that programming in assembly language declined. This co-evolved with the development of RISC chips and advanced processor features such as instruction scheduling and speculative execution, which were designed to be targeted by optimizing compilers rather than by human-written assembly code.

AmigaBASIC provided not only the common BASIC language, but also attempted to provide an easy-to-use API for the Amiga's unique graphics and sound capabilities. OBJECT commands, for example, made it easy to create moving objects – sprites and bobs that could be drawn with an external drawing program, Object editor, that was supplied with AmigaBASIC. An unusual feature of the language is that it theoretically allowed the calling of handwritten assembly language subprograms; however, this feature never worked because of a bug that failed to align the assembly language instructions correctly on a word boundary, as required by the Amiga's native MC68000 processor. Compute!, a popular computer magazine published while AmigaBASIC was still being shipped, included many AmigaBASIC type in programs in their articles.

In a computer's assembly language, mnemonics are used that are directly equivalent to machine code instructions. The mnemonics are frequently three letters long, such as ADD, CMP (to compare two numbers), and JMP (jump to a different location in the program). The HCF instruction was originally a fictitious assembly language instruction, said to be under development at IBM for use in their System/360 computers, along with many other amusing three-letter acronyms like XPR (Execute Programmer) and CAI (Corrupt Accounting Information), and similar to other joke mnemonics such as "SDI" for "Self Destruct Immediately" and "CRN" for Convert to Roman Numerals. A list of such mnemonics, including HCF, shows up as "Overextended Mnemonics" in the April 1980 Creative Computing flip-side parody issue.

While it is possible to write programs directly in machine code, managing individual bits and calculating numerical addresses and constants manually is tedious and error-prone. For this reason, programs are very rarely written directly in machine code in modern contexts, but may be done for low level debugging, program patching (especially when assembler source is not available) and assembly language disassembly. The overwhelming majority of practical programs today are written in higher-level languages or assembly language. The source code is then translated to executable machine code by utilities such as compilers, assemblers, and linkers, with the important exception of interpreted programs,Such as many versions of BASIC, especially early ones, as well as Smalltalk, MATLAB, Perl, Python, Ruby and other special purpose or scripting languages.

This simple assembler program was then rewritten in its just-defined assembly language but with extensions that would enable the use of some additional mnemonics for more complex operation codes. The enhanced assembler's source program was then assembled by its predecessor's executable (A1) into binary or decimal code to give A2, and the cycle repeated (now with those enhancements available), until the entire instruction set was coded, branch addresses were automatically calculated, and other conveniences (such as conditional assembly, macros, optimisations, etc.) established. This was how the early assembly program SOAP (Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program) was developed. Compilers, linkers, loaders, and utilities were then coded in assembly language, further continuing the bootstrapping process of developing complex software systems by using simpler software.

The first version ("OS-9 Level One"), which dates back to 1979–1980, was written in assembly language for the Motorola 6809 CPU, and all of its processes ran within the 64KB address space of the CPU without a memory management unit. It was developed as a supporting operating system for the BASIC09 project, contracted for by Motorola as part of the 6809 development. A later 6809 version ("Level Two") takes advantage of memory mapping hardware, supported up to 2 MB of memory (ca. 1980) in most implementations, and included a GUI on some platforms. In 1983, OS-9/6809 was ported to Motorola 68000 assembly language and extended (called OS-9/68K); and a still later (1989) version was rewritten mostly in C for further portability.

The best hope for accuracy is . But accuracy of one car length in has been realized. The use of assembly language was necessitated to keep up with sensor input. One advantage with the system is the ability to create one's own digital maps and thus eliminate the need to buy such ones for every trip.

In April 1983 Compute! published Scriptor, a word processor written by staff writer Charles Brannon in BASIC and assembly language, as a type-in program for the Atari 8-bit family. In January 1984 version 1.0 of his new word processor SpeedScript appeared in Compute!'s Gazette for the Commodore 64 and VIC-20.

The system came with a single-user Keyboard monitor. DECsys, provided an interactive, single user, program development environment for Fortran and assembly language programs. Both FORTRAN II and FORTRAN IV were implemented for the PDP-9. MUMPS was originally developed on the PDP-7, and ran on several PDP-9s at the Massachusetts General Hospital.

The UNIVAC 418 was a transistorized, 18-bit word core memory machine made by Sperry Univac. The name came from its 4-microsecond memory cycle time and 18-bit word. The assembly language for this class of computers was TRIM III and ART418. Over the three different models, more than 392 systems were manufactured.

MCU 8051 IDE is a free software integrated development environment for microcontrollers based on 8051. MCU 8051 IDE has its own simulator and assembler (support for some external assemblers is also available). This IDE supports 2 programming languages: C (compiling with SDCC) and assembly language. This software seems to run only on linux platforms.

Although data structure alignment is a fundamental issue for all modern computers, many computer languages and computer language implementations handle data alignment automatically. Ada, PL/I, Pascal, certain C and C++ implementations, D, Rust, C#, and assembly language allow at least partial control of data structure padding, which may be useful in certain special circumstances.

This is considered very bad form, but is permitted for compatibility with old applications. You can only create such an application with assembly language. The standard compilers create one or more code banks and one or more data banks. Normally the code banks are marked as read-only as a debugging and reliability aid.

"Although DARPA was funding the PDP-10 at Harvard, there was no written policy regarding its use." While Allen modified their development software for the new 8080 microprocessor, Gates began writing 8080 assembly language by hand on yellow legal pads. They enlisted another Harvard student, Monte Davidoff, to write the math routines.Manes (1994), 50–54.

In 1985, SAS was rewritten in the C programming language. This allowed for the SAS' Multivendor Architecture that allows the software to run on UNIX, MS-DOS, and Windows. It was previously written in PL/I, Fortran, and assembly language. In the 1980s and 1990s, SAS released a number of components to complement Base SAS.

The contents of any word in store could also be set via the teleprinter's keyboard, and output onto its printer. The machine worked internally in binary, but it was able to carry out the necessary decimal to binary and binary to decimal conversions for its input and output respectively. There was no assembly language defined for the Mark 1.

Katz left Allen-Bradley in 1986 to work for Graysoft, a Milwaukee-based software company. At the time, he had worked on an alternative to Thom Henderson's ARC, named PKARC. ARC was written in C, with the source code available on System Enhancement Associates' bulletin board system (BBS). PKARC, written partially in assembly language, was much faster.

Some assembly language programmers reject HLA out of hand, because it allows programmers to do this. However, supporting both high-level and low-level programming gives any language an expanded range of applicability. If one must do only low-level-only coding, that is possible. If one must write more readable code, using higher-level statements is an option.

ALF Products Inc., or ALF (named after an assembly language instruction for "rotate the A register Left Four bits"), was a Colorado company primarily known for its computer-controlled music synthesizers and floppy disk supplies and duplicators.ALF Products' first logo. The line drawing, which was done using a computer plotter, is of a hypercube or tesseract.

Returning was accomplished by swapping back. All code was written in assembly language. Another feature on the EEC I/II modules was the use of a separate memory module that bolted to the housing of the control module. This was done to facilitate changing the software, a combination of algorithms ("strategy") and data ("calibration") in the field, if necessary.

Volkov Commander (VC) is a file manager for DOS inspired by the Norton Commander. Volkov Commander is purely written in assembly language, and is thus very small (less than 100 KB) and fast. Volkov Commander was written by Vsevolod V. Volkov, a programmer from Ukraine, born in 1971. The stable version of the program is released as shareware.

This experience of digital circuitry and assembly language programming formed the basis of his book Code: The Hidden Language of Computer Hardware and Software. Petzold purchased a two-diskette IBM PC in 1984 for $5,000. This debt encouraged him to use the PC to earn some revenue so he wrote an article about ANSI.SYS and the PROMPT command.

The IBM/360 and derivatives had powerful macro assembler facilities that were often used to generate complete assembly language programs or sections of programs (for different operating systems for instance). Macros provided with CICS transaction processing system had assembler macros that generated COBOL statements as a pre-processing step. Other assemblers, such as MASM, also support macros.

A FASTER transaction is a set of operations which together perform a task. Usually, the majority of transactions are relatively simple tasks such as updating the balance of an account. FASTER applications comprise transactions which were written in IBM Basic Assembly Language and interfaced with 2260 terminals. Each FASTER program was initiated using a transaction identifier.

Development was based on existing work recently undertaken writing Mallard BASIC for Acorn Computers Z80 addon for the BBC Micro. It is reported to have taken around 12 weeks to enhance the existing code, and was "very influenced" by BBC BASIC, though adding additional functions to do things that would have required assembly language on the BBC.

Renegade is a freeware bulletin board system (BBS) written for IBM PC- compatible computers running MS-DOS that gained popularity among hobbyist BBSes in the early to mid 1990s. It was originally written by Cott Lang in Turbo Pascal, optimized with assembly language, based on the source code of Telegard, which was in turn based on the earlier WWIV.

Originally systems programmers invariably wrote in assembly language. Experiments with hardware support in high level languages in the late 1960s led to such languages as PL/S, BLISS, BCPL, and extended ALGOL for Burroughs large systems. Forth also has applications as a systems language. In the 1970s, C became ubiquitous, aided by the growth of Unix.

A 6502 assembly language statement consists of a three-character instruction mnemonic, followed by any operands. Instructions that do not take a separate operand but target a single register based on the addressing mode combine the target register in the instruction mnemonic, so the assembler uses `INX` as opposed to `INC X` to increment the X register.

The designers attempted to make the assembly language orthogonal. That is, instructions are divided into operations and address modes, and almost all address modes are available for almost all instructions. There are 56 instructions and a minimum instruction size of 16 bits. Many instructions and addressing modes are longer to include more address or mode bits.

NAR 2 (Serbian Nastavni Računar 2, en. Educational Computer 2) is a theoretical model of a 32-bit word computer created by Faculty of Mathematics of University of Belgrade professor Nedeljko Parezanović as an enhancement to its predecessor, NAR 1. It was used for Assembly language and Computer architecture courses. The word "nar" means Pomegranate in Serbian.

IDEDOS is a ROM-based disk operating system written in 6502/65816 assembly language for the Commodore 64, 128 and SuperCPU. Its main purpose is to control ATA(PI) devices connected to an IDE64 cartridge and present them like normal Commodore drives. Additionally it supports networked drives (PCLink) and has a built-in machine code monitor and file manager.

VAX has been perceived as the quintessential CISC ISA, with its very large number of assembly-language-programmer-friendly addressing modes and machine instructions, highly orthogonal architecture, and instructions for complex operations such as queue insertion or deletion, number formatting, and polynomial evaluation. It is historically one of the most studied and commented-on ISA's in computer history.

An MTCS transaction is a set of operations which together perform a task. Usually, the majority of transactions are relatively simple tasks such as updating the balance of an account. MTCS applications comprise transactions which were written in IBM Basic Assembly Language and interfaced with 3270 terminals. Each MTCS program was initiated using a transaction identifier.

There, he became a computer programmer at the Washington University Computer Research Laboratory. In 1965, he moved back to New York, where he continued to work as a computer programmer, mostly with the IBM 360 assembly language. Abbott created all of his card games during the 1950s, starting with Babel in 1951, and ending with Auction in 1956.

JAL (Just Another Language) is a Pascal-like programming language and compiler that generates executable code for PIC microcontrollers. It is a free-format language with a compiler that runs on Linux, MS-Windows and MS-DOS (OSX support). It is configurable and extendable through the use of libraries and can even be combined with PIC assembly language.

WATIAC was a virtual computer developed for teaching the principles of assembly language programming to undergraduates. WATIAC, and the WATMAP assembly language that ran on it were developed in 1973 by the newly founded Computer Systems Group, at the University of Waterloo, under the direction of Wes Graham. In the 1970s most programming was conducted through batch stream processing, where the operating systems of the day, like IBM`s OS-360, would allow a single program to use all the resources of a large computer, for a limited period of time. Since student programs were only run a few times, possibly only once, after they had been successfully written, and debugged, efficient running of those programs was of relatively little importance, compared with quick compilation and relatively good error messages.

Barr 2006b. Barr had earlier created an analysis-of-variance modeling language inspired by the notation of statistician Maurice Kendall. He developed it in assembly language on the IBM 1410, as a graduate student at North Carolina State University from 1962 to 1963. Dr. A. Grandage, author of IBM 650 analysis-of-variance programs, advised on some of the statistical computations.

System 15000 is a 1984 video game by A.V.S. It was originally designed, and programmed by Lee Kristofferson (born John Wagstaff) in assembly language for the Commodore 64. Versions were later ported to the ZX Spectrum and BBC Micro, both written in BASIC. This was the first game to simulate computer hacking. A sequel was planned by Lee Kristofferson but never released.

These 16-bit versions of CP/M required application programs to be re-compiled for the new CPUs or if they were written in assembly language, to be translated using tools like Digital Research's XLT86, a program written by Gary Kildall in 1981, which translated .ASM source code for the Intel 8080 processor into .A86 source code for the Intel 8086.

The native assembly language was named '. The Easycoder assembler generated an object file as a binary card deck that could be punched to cards or written to magnetic tape instead. The object file began with a bootstrapping routine so that each program could be loaded into memory, from card reader or magnetic tape, using a boot command from the console.

Linux is written in a special C programming language supported by GCC, a compiler that extends in many ways the C standard, for example using inline sections of code written in the assembly language (in GCC's "AT&T-style;" syntax) of the target architecture. Since 2002 all the code must adhere to the 21 rules comprising the Linux Kernel Coding Style.

He did not make use of assembly language. After the VIC-20 he purchased a Sinclair QL, which he modified extensively, especially its operating system. "Because it was so hard to get software for it in Finland, Linus wrote his own assembler and editor (in addition to Pac-Man graphics libraries)" for the QL, as well as a few games.

Parrot is a register-based process virtual machine designed to run dynamic languages efficiently. It is possible to compile Parrot assembly language and Parrot intermediate representation (PIR, an intermediate language) to Parrot bytecode and execute it. Parrot is free and open source software. Parrot was started by the Perl community and is developed with help from the open source and free software communities.

As part of it, the code for the MonetDB 4 kernel and its XQuery components were frozen. In MonetDB 5, parts of the SQL layer were pushed into the kernel. The resulting changes created a difference in internal APIs, as it transitioned from MonetDB Instruction Language (MIL) to MonetDB Assembly Language (MAL). Older, no-longer maintained top-level query interfaces were also removed.

Epic Pinball is a 1993 pinball video game developed by James Schmalz and published by Epic MegaGames. The initial release pre-dated Schmalz' Digital Extremes name. The game is played seen from a 2D top-down view within a scrollable window with plain raster graphics in 320x200. It was noted for being programmed entirely in x86 assembly language for MS-DOS systems.

TriBBS was written by Mark Goodwin and marketed through his company, TriSoft. TriBBS was written in C++ and assembly language. TriBBS development was guided primarily by the requests and suggestions of the SysOps who used the program. As a result, the TriBBS Application Program Interface was added by Goodwin to aid other software developers in making third party software operate seamlessly with TriBBS.

A major topic in later years of the newsletter was the DBASIC interpreter. Hal produced a fast Basic interpreter for the Atari ST computer. It was written in hand-tuned assembly language, and ran very fast compared to other Basics. But it was non-standard: it couldn't run Microsoft Basic programs, and it couldn't read or write MS-DOS format floppy disks.

SIC uses a special assembly language with its own operation codes that hold the hex values needed to assemble and execute programs. A sample program is provided below to get an idea of what a SIC program might look like. In the code below, there are three columns. The first column represents a forwarded symbol that will store its location in memory.

The system software that bound the packages together was a mixture of BBC Basic and assembly language. The software development team was led by Paul Bond, a keen pilot who would occasionally fly team members in his Cessna when things were quiet. First versions of the Communicator were monochrome-only; later (but before first customer delivery), a daughterboard provided full colour.

First, because there isn't any form of macros error checking (as there is for C or assembly language), it is possible to make macros which will not work. Indeed, for the C language, the syntax of each macro is replaced by what has been declared by the preprocessor. Only after that does the compiler check the code. Example : //file example.

One of his early titles was Soul of CP/M.,Book review of Soul of CP/M by David Carroll. in and his book Assembly Language Primer for the IBM PC and XT was a best-seller. Later books included C++ Interactive Course, Object-Oriented Programming in C++, Turbo C Programming for the IBM, and C Programming Using Turbo C++.

The original program was written entirely in Assembly language with primitive graphics routines developed by Wolfgram. In 1982 John Bridges worked for an educational software company, Classroom Consortia Media, Inc., developing and writing Apple and IBM graphics libraries for CCM's software. Bridges and Wolfgram were friends who had been connected through a bulletin board system developed and run by Wolfgram.

FastCAD is written in x86 assembly language and will run well on basic hardware. FastCAD was written by Mike Riddle, the author of Interact for the Marinchip 9900 released back in 1979, one of the first PC-based CAD programs. Interact went on to become the architectural basis for early versions of AutoCAD. EasyCAD is the 2D-only version of FastCAD.

Depending on word size this is 16 GB, 20 GB, or 24 GB (using the common definition of an 8-bit "byte"). SHARC instructions may contain a 32-bit immediate operand. Instructions without this operand are generally able to perform two or more operations simultaneously. Many instructions are conditional, and may be preceded with "if condition " in the assembly language.

These operations are always 16-bits wide in native mode, regardless of the condition of the m bit in the status register. If the x bit in SR is set, not only will the index registers return to being 8 bits, whatever was in the MSB while in 16-bit mode will be lost, something an assembly language programmer cannot afford to forget.

SASM (short for SimpleASM) is a free and open source cross-platform integrated development environment for the NASM, MASM, GAS and FASM assembly languages. It features syntax highlighting and includes a debugger. SASM is intended to allow users to easily develop and run programs written in assembly language. It was written by the Dmitriy "Dman95" Manushin and licensed under the GNU GPL v3.0.

Next Byte Codes (NBC) is a simple open-source language with an assembly language syntax that can be used to program the NXT brick. Not eXactly C (NXC) is a high level open-source language, similar to C, built on top of the NBC compiler. It can also be used to program the NXT brick. NXC is basically NQC for the NXT.

Classic BPF is generally emitted by a program from some very high-level textual rule describing the pattern to match. One such representation is found in libpcap. Classic BPF and eBPF can also be written either directly as machine code, or using an assembly language for a textual representation. Notable assemblers include Linux kernel's tool (cBPF), (cBPF), and the assembler (eBPF).

The x86 assembly language prefixes implement zero-overhead loops for a few instructions (namely ). Depending on the prefix and the instruction, the instruction will be repeated a number of times with holding the repeat count, or until a match (or non-match) is found with or with . This can be used to implement some types of searches and operations on null-terminated strings.

The OpenGL Architecture Review Board established the ARB assembly language in 2002 as a standard low-level instruction set for programmable graphics processors. High-level OpenGL shading languages often compile to ARB assembly for loading and execution. Unlike high-level shading languages, ARB assembly does not support control flow or branching. However, it continues to be used when cross-GPU portability is required.

Adobe Systems added Pixel Bender as part of the Adobe Flash 10 API. Pixel Bender could only process pixel but not 3D-vertex data. Flash 11 introduced an entirely new 3D API called Stage3D, which uses its own shading language called Adobe Graphics Assembly Language (AGAL), which offers full 3D acceleration support. GPU acceleration for Pixel Bender was removed in Flash 11.8.

Joust was developed by Williams Electronics, with John Newcomer as the lead designer. The development also included programmer Bill Pfutzenrueter, artists Janice Woldenberg-Miller and Python Anghelo, and audio designers Tim Murphy and John Kotlarik. The game features amplified monaural sound and raster graphics on a 19-inch color CRT monitor. Like other Williams arcade games, Joust was programmed in assembly language.

As a teenager, Davis learned assembly language on a Commodore 64. He earned a master's degree in electrical engineering from Arizona State University and worked for several years at Ticketmaster as a programmer for VAX machines. In 1996, he began experiencing regular manic episodes, one of which led him to hospitalization. Initially diagnosed with bipolar disorder, he was later declared to have schizophrenia.

In the x86 assembly language, the `TEST` instruction performs a bitwise AND on two operands. The flags `SF`, `ZF`, `PF` are modified while the result of the AND is discarded. The `OF` and `CF` flags are set to `0`, while `AF` flag is undefined. There are 9 different opcodes for the TEST instruction depending on the type and size of the operands.

The development of OpenTTD was driven by the desire to extend the abilities of Transport Tycoon Deluxe to support user-made additions to the graphics and gameplay. Also, users wanted to play the game on more modern operating systems and alternative computer architectures which Transport Tycoon Deluxe did not support, being released in 1994 for DOS and programmed in assembly language.

PopCorn is a 1989 Breakout clone by French developers Christophe Lacaze and Frédérick Raynal. The game was released as freeware for MS-DOS IBM PC compatibles with a CGA. The game was also released with the European version of Little Big Adventure 2. The game is in French and was programmed in assembly language for the intel 8086 CPU clocked at 8Mhz.

Screenshot of the virus. The Cascade virus (also known as Herbstlaub in Germany) is a prominent computer virus that was a resident written in assembly language, that was widespread in the 1980s and early 1990s. It infected .COM files and had the effect of making text on the screen fall (or cascade) down and form a heap at the bottom of the screen.

The IDE provided several debugging facilities, including single stepping, examination and changing of variables, and conditional breakpoints. In later versions assembly-language blocks could be stepped through. The user could add breakpoints on variables and registers in an IDE window. Programs using IBM PC graphics mode could flip between graphics and text mode automatically or manually, or display both on two screens.

Eventually the team numbered nearly 20. The object model was inspired by the NeXT object model, modified by Mr. Cseri. Mr. Liaw and Mr. Spencer were in charge of the spreadsheet engine (written in assembly language) while Mr. Low wrote a large chunk of the UI. The product was internally codenamed "Thor" for the Norse god of Thunder. QPW featured two major innovations.

Win32/Simile (also known as Etap and MetaPHOR) is a metamorphic computer virus written in assembly language for Microsoft Windows. The virus was released in the most recent version in early March 2002. It was written by the virus writer "Mental Driller". Some of his previous viruses, such as Win95/Drill (which used the TUAREG polymorphic engine), have proved very challenging to detect.

Assembly language is a low-level programming language that uses mnemonics and labels instead of numeric instruction codes. Although the LMC only uses a limited set of mnemonics, the convenience of using a mnemonic for each instruction is made apparent from the assembly language of the same program shown below - the programmer is no longer required to memorize a set of anonymous numeric codes and can now program with a set of more memorable mnemonic codes. If the mnemonic is an instruction that involves a memory address (either a branch instruction or loading/saving data) then a label is used to name the memory address. :This example program can be compiled and run on the LMC simulator available on the website of York University (Toronto, Ontario, Canada) or on the desktop application written by Mike Coley.

Autonetics was the associate contractor for the Minuteman (MM) guidance system, which included the flight and prelaunch software. This software was programmed in assembly language into a D17 disk computer. TRW provided the guidance equations that Autonetics programmed and was also responsible for the verification of the flight software. When MM I became operational, the flight computer was the only digital computer in the system.

A draft specification for The IBM Mathematical Formula Translating System was completed by November 1954. The first manual for FORTRAN appeared in October 1956, with the first FORTRAN compiler delivered in April 1957. This was the first optimizing compiler, because customers were reluctant to use a high-level programming language unless its compiler could generate code with performance approaching that of hand-coded assembly language.

A Baker semi-space garbage collector is used, along with (in memory-constrained Windows 2.1 days) a software virtual memory system that swaps objects. A token threaded interpreter, written in 16-bit x86 assembly language, executes compiled code. Actor only was released for Microsoft Windows 2.1 and 3.0. Actor used a pure object-oriented framework over native operating system calls as its basic GUI architecture.

An example of this abstraction process is the generational development of programming languages from the machine language to the assembly language and the high-level language. Each stage can be used as a stepping stone for the next stage. The language abstraction continues for example in scripting languages and domain-specific programming languages. Within a programming language, some features let the programmer create new abstractions.

The first generation of software for early stored- program digital computers in the late 1940s had its instructions written directly in binary code, generally written for mainframe computers. Later, the development of modern programming languages alongside the advancement of the home computer would greatly widen the scope and breadth of available software, beginning with assembly language, and continuing on through functional programming and object-oriented programming paradigms.

A computer program in execution is normally treated as being different from the data the program operates on. However, in some cases, this distinction is blurred when a computer program modifies itself. The modified computer program is subsequently executed as part of the same program. Self-modifying code is possible for programs written in machine code, assembly language, Lisp, C, COBOL, PL/1, and Prolog.

In addition, software was also distributed through print media, fan magazines and books. The prevalent language for distribution was the Spectrum's BASIC dialect Sinclair BASIC. The reader would type the software into the computer by hand, run it, and save it to tape for later use. The software distributed in this way was in general simpler and slower than its assembly language counterparts, and lacked graphics.

The compiler was converted from ALGOL to XPL0 and was then able to compile itself and run on a microcomputer. XPL0 soon proved its worth in a variety of products based on the 6502. These embedded systems would otherwise have had their code written in assembly language, which is much more tedious to do. Boyle used XPL0 to write a disk operating system called Apex.

The architecture of MINIX 3 As can be seen, at the bottom level is the microkernel, which is about 4,000 lines of code (mostly in C, plus a small amount of assembly language). It handles interrupts, scheduling, and message passing. It also supports an application programming interface (API) of about 30 kernel calls that authorized servers and drivers can make. User programs cannot make these calls.

As a young programmer, Bailey was hired by General Motors in 1978 and trained in assembly language programming. She worked there for two years on displays, and microprocessor-based cruise control systems. Bailey's first exposure to video games came from when she first heard the song "Space Invader" by The Pretenders. A friend told her the song was inspired by the arcade video game Space Invaders.

All three were written in PDP-11/20 assembly language. Bell Labs used this initial text-processing system, consisting of Unix, roff, and the editor, for text processing of patent applications. Roff soon evolved into troff, the first electronic publishing program with full typesetting capability. As the system grew in complexity and the research team wanted more users, the need for a manual grew apparent.

X# is a low-level programming language developed for the x86 processor architecture as a part of Cosmos operating system to make operating system development easier. X# is designed to bring some of C-like language syntax to assembly language. In the beginning, X# was an aid for debugging services of Cosmos. The X# compiler is an open source console interface program with an atypical architecture.

Maclisp also has a load-on-demand feature.; the `autoload` property. Maclisp began on Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-6 and PDP-10 computers running the Incompatible Timesharing System (ITS); later it was ported to all other PDP-10 operating systems, for example, Timesharing / Total Operating System, TOPS-10 and TOPS-20. The original implementation was in assembly language, but a later implementation on Multics used PL/I.

In computing, the SEX assembly language mnemonic has often been used for the "`Sign EXtend`" machine instruction found in the Motorola 6809. A computer's or CPU's "sex" can also mean the endianness of the computer architecture used.For hardware, the Jargon File also reports the less common expression byte sex . It is unclear whether this terminology is also used when more than two orderings are possible.

The general decline of scratch-written assembly language software has made the use of a machine code monitor somewhat of a lost art. In most systems where higher-level languages are employed, debuggers are used to present a more abstract and friendly view of what is happening within a program. However, the use of machine code monitors persists, especially in the area of hobby-built computers.

Transforming assembly language into machine code is the job of an assembler, and the reverse can at least partially be achieved by a disassembler. Unlike high- level languages, there is a one-to-one correspondence between many simple assembly statements and machine language instructions. However, in some cases, an assembler may provide pseudoinstructions (essentially macros) which expand into several machine language instructions to provide commonly needed functionality.

CALLing another address gave a forced system reset (call 0), the famous "Press Any Key" (call &bb18;) or for eliminating flicker in animation by allowing you to synchronize with the monitor's raster scan via "sync frame-flyback" (call &bd19;); this was given its own dedicated command in Basic 1.1 - FRAME. With PEEK and POKE, CALL provided an interface to assembly language programming from BASIC.

Again, the basic assembly language code remained the same, only the macro libraries needed to be written for each target language. In modern operating systems such as Unix and its derivatives, operating system access is provided through subroutines, usually provided by dynamic libraries. High- level languages such as C offer comprehensive access to operating system functions, obviating the need for assembler language programs for such functionality.

Detailed charts listed memory requirements for each sysgen option, often as little as 100 bytes. A minimum system would leave just over 10 KB of storage available for a single batch partition which was enough to run utilities and all compilers except COBOL, PL/I, and full FORTRAN IV. To keep memory usage as small as possible, DOS was coded entirely in assembly language.

Developed and distributed by Peter Norton Computing. The guides were written by Warren Woodford for the x86 Assembly Language, C, BASIC, and Forth languages and made available to users via a TSR program that integrated with programming language editors on IBM PC-type computers. This appears to be the first example of a commercial product where programming reference information was integrated into the software development environment.

MenuetOS: In Assembler geschriebenes Betriebssystem, golem.de, 2009-08-10 The 64-bit MenuetOS, often referred to as Menuet 64, remains a platform for learning 64-bit assembly language programming. The 64-bit Menuet is distributed without charge for personal and educational use only, but without the source code, and the license includes a clause that prohibits disassembly. Multi-core support was added on 24 Feb 2010.

In many engineering schools the 8085 processor is used in introductory microprocessor courses. Trainer kits composed of a printed circuit board, 8085, and supporting hardware are offered by various companies. These kits usually include complete documentation allowing a student to go from soldering to assembly language programming in a single course. Also, the architecture and instruction set of the 8085 are easy for a student to understand.

MOL-360 is a mid-level systems programming language for the IBM System/360 family of computers based on Algol. The only data structure supported by the language is arrays. It has no support for floating point data, but allows direct access to processor registers and inline assembly language. MOL-360 was used by System Development Corporation (SDC) to develop the ADEPT time-sharing system.

IJVM is an instruction set architecture created by Andrew Tanenbaum for his MIC-1 architecture. It is used to teach assembly basics in his book Structured Computer Organization. IJVM is mostly a subset of the JVM assembly language that is used in the Java platform. This instruction set is so simple that it's difficult to write complex programs in it (for example, no shift instructions are provided).

Programs written in assembly would be stored as string expressions and accessed through the CUSTOM menu. Games such as Tetris and Boulder Dash are available, as are programs with more practical uses, such as versions of the periodic table. Total memory capacity was about 32 kilobytes, with 28226 bytes available for use. The assembly language shell ZShell is also available for the TI-85.

Wright enjoyed playing board wargames like PanzerBlitz as a teenager. While living in New York City he purchased an Apple II+. Wanting to implement Conway's Game of Life on it caused Wright to teach himself Applesoft BASIC, Pascal, and assembly language. As others like Bill Budge and Nasir Gebelli were already producing multiple Apple video games, Wright decided to develop for the newer Commodore 64.

It follows a write once, compile anywhere philosophy and is available for many CPU architectures and operating systems (see Targets). It supports inline assembly language and includes an internal assembler capable of parsing several dialects such as AT&T; and Intel style. Separate projects exist to facilitate developing cross- platform graphical user interface (GUI) applications, the most prominent one being the Lazarus integrated development environment (IDE).

Next Byte Codes (NBC) is a simple open source language with an assembly language syntax that can be used to program the NXT brick. BricxCC also has the capability to decompile standard .rxe NXT executables to NBC Not eXactly C (NXC) is a high level open-source language, similar to C, built on the NBC compiler. It can also be used to program the NXT brick.

Linux systems intended to run on i686 are generally not compatible with these Vortex86 models because the GNU C Library, when built for i686, uses a CMOV instruction in its assembly language strcmp function, which its dynamic loader (ld.so) uses. Hence, no program that uses shared libraries can execute. Below are the properties of a Vortex86 original CPU reported by the Linux kernel tool `/proc/cpuinfo`.

The IBM PC port performs all disk access via IN/OUT instructions to the floppy controller instead of using the BIOS (this was done both to improve performance and as a copy protection). It also was not completely rewritten from the ground up, but instead contained the original Z80 code from the TRS-80 with an interpreter to convert it to x86 assembly language.

DASL (Datapoint's Advanced Systems Language) was a programming language and compiler proprietary to Datapoint. Primarily influenced by Pascal with some C touches, it was created in the early 1980s by Gene Hughes. The compiler output was assembly language, which was typically processed through a peep-hole optimizer before the assembler and linker. Reflecting its name, DASL was used for systems programming, mainly by the vendor itself.

Most instructions allocate six bits to specify an operand. Three bits select one of eight addressing modes, and three bits select one of the eight general registers. The use of three-bit groups makes octal notation natural. In the following sections, each item includes an example of how the operand would be written in assembly language for a prototypical single-operand instruction with symbol OPR.

The CP/M and DOS versions of Vedit were written 100% in Assembly language. The DOS-exe file size is only 158k. The Windows version was written mostly in Assembly, but the user interface has been written in C. The size of exe file is 573k, and no DLLs are used. Vedit uses its own file buffering which is faster than the virtual memory of Windows.

The Cray Operating System (COS) succeeded Chippewa Operating System (shipped with earlier computer systems CDC 6000 series and CDC 7600) and is Cray Research's now discontinued proprietary operating system for its Cray-1 (1976) and Cray X-MP supercomputers, and those platforms' main OS until replaced by UNICOS in the late 1980s. COS was delivered with Cray Assembly Language (CAL), Cray FORTRAN (CFT), and Pascal.

Radare2 (also known as r2) is a complete framework for reverse-engineering and analyzing binaries; composed of a set of small utilities that can be used together or independently from the command line. Built around a disassembler for computer software which generates assembly language source code from machine-executable code, it supports a variety of executable formats for different processor architectures and operating systems.

Parallax Propeller in dual in-line package The Parallax P8X32A Propeller is a multi-core processor parallel computer architecture microcontroller chip with eight 32-bit reduced instruction set computer (RISC) central processing unit (CPU) cores.makezine.com makezine.com Introduced in 2006, it is designed and sold by Parallax, Inc. The Propeller microcontroller, Propeller assembly language, and Spin interpreter were designed by Parallax's cofounder and president, Chip Gracey.

Diagram outlining Cozy Bear and Fancy Bear's process of using of malware to penetrate targets Kaspersky Lab determined that the earliest samples of the MiniDuke malware attributed to the group date from 2008. The original code was written in assembly language. Symantec believes that Cozy Bear had been compromising diplomatic organizations and governments since at least 2010. The CozyDuke malware utilises a backdoor and a dropper.

Assembly language for the 8086 family provides the mnemonic MOV (an abbreviation of move) for instructions such as this, so the machine code above can be written as follows in assembly language, complete with an explanatory comment if required, after the semicolon. This is much easier to read and to remember. MOV AL, 61h ; Load AL with 97 decimal (61 hex) In some assembly languages (including this one) the same mnemonic, such as MOV, may be used for a family of related instructions for loading, copying and moving data, whether these are immediate values, values in registers, or memory locations pointed to by values in registers or by immediate (a/k/a direct) addresses. Other assemblers may use separate opcode mnemonics such as L for "move memory to register", ST for "move register to memory", LR for "move register to register", MVI for "move immediate operand to memory", etc.

For example, for a machine that lacks a "branch if greater or equal" instruction, an assembler may provide a pseudoinstruction that expands to the machine's "set if less than" and "branch if zero (on the result of the set instruction)". Most full-featured assemblers also provide a rich macro language (discussed below) which is used by vendors and programmers to generate more complex code and data sequences. Since the information about pseudoinstructions and macros defined in the assembler environment is not present in the object program, a disassembler cannot reconstruct the macro and pseudoinstruction invocations but can only disassemble the actual machine instructions that the assembler generated from those abstract assembly- language entities. Likewise, since comments in the assembly language source file are ignored by the assembler and have no effect on the object code it generates, a disassembler is always completely unable to recover source comments.

The earliest versions were written in assembly language for the IBM 704, then for the IBM 709 and IBM 7090. DYNAMO II was written in AED-0, an extended version of Algol 60. Dynamo II/F, in 1971, generated portable FORTRAN code and both Dynamo II/F and Dynamo III improved the system's portability by being written in FORTRAN. Computer & Control Abstracts, Volume 11, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers p.

The original Furby source code was written in assembly language for the 6502 microprocessor. The first Furby model was based around a 6502-style Sunplus SPC81A microcontroller, which had 80 KiB of ROM and 128 bytes of RAM. Its core differed from the original 6502 in the lack of the Y index register. The TSP50C04 chip from Texas Instruments, implementing the LPC codec, was used for voice synthesis.

In computer architecture, register renaming is a technique that abstracts logical registers from physical registers. Every logical register has a set of physical registers associated with it. While a programmer in assembly language refers for instance to a logical register `accu`, the processor transposes this name to one specific physical register on the fly. The physical registers are opaque and cannot be referenced directly but only via the canonical names.

The user would then execute the command "Send (9prgmXXX" (where XXX is the name of the program), and it would execute the program. Successors of the TI-83 replaced the Send() backdoor with a less-hidden Asm() command. Z80 assembly language gives a programmer much more power over the calculator than the built-in language, TI-BASIC. On the downside, Z80 assembly is more difficult to learn than TI-BASIC.

Apex Computer Productions was the brothers John and Steve Rowlands, British based game designers and programmers on the Commodore 64 in the late 1980s and early 1990s. They programmed in pure assembly language and their earliest commercial release was Cyberdyne Warrior, a platform shooter, for Hewson in 1989. Soon after, they entered a relationship with Thalamus, the game publishing arm of Newsfield, who published their next game, Retrograde.

Its reputation was based on being much faster than either the Assembler Editor or the standalone Atari Macro Assembler. Brian Moriarty of Infocom wrote, "No assembler [at the time] on the C64 even comes CLOSE to MAC/65. Take it from someone who looked for one." It was used to write numerous commercial games and applications, and the majority of assembly language listings in ANALOG Computing were written with MAC/65.

LIL, the Little Implementation Language, was a system programming language during the early days of Unix history on PDP-11 machines. It was written by P. J. Plauger of Bell Labs. LIL attempted to fill the gap between assemblers and machine-independent system implementation languages (such as the C programming language), by basically adding structured programming to the PDP-11 assembly language. LIL resembled PL360 with C-like flow control syntax.

GCC support for OpenACC was slow in coming. A GPU-targeting implementation from Samsung was announced in September 2013; this translated OpenACC 1.1-annotated code to OpenCL. The announcement of a "real" implementation followed two months later, this time from NVIDIA and based on OpenACC 2.0. This sparked some controversy, as the implementation would only target NVIDIA's own PTX assembly language, for which no open source assembler or runtime was available.

TI-BASIC 83,TI-BASIC Z80 or simply TI-BASIC, is the built-in programming language for the Texas Instruments programmable calculators in the TI-83 series. Calculators that implement TI-BASIC have a built in editor for writing programs. While the considerably faster Z80 assembly language is supported for the calculators, TI-BASIC's in-calculator editor and more user friendly syntax make it easier to use. TI-BASIC is interpreted.

MonetDB architecture is represented in three layers, each with its own set of optimizers. The front end is the top layer, providing query interface for SQL, with SciQL and SPARQL interfaces under development. Queries are parsed into domain-specific representations, like relational algebra for SQL, and optimized. The generated logical execution plans are then translated into MonetDB Assembly Language (MAL) instructions, which are passed to the next layer.

The MPT8080 "Microtutor" is a microprocessor trainer based on the Intel 8080 processor, developed by Limrose Electronics. It was designed in the mid-1970s to assist in the understanding of the then-new microprocessors. Users of the MPT8080 enter assembly language programs via binary switches or a hexadecimal keypad. While the code executes, the user can observe what is happening on the address, data, and control signals of the microprocessor.

Apple Assembly Line was a monthly newsletter edited by Bob Sander-Cederlof from October 1980 through May 1988. The publisher was S-C Software Corporation based in Dallas, Texas. The newsletter focused on assembly language programming for the Apple II personal computer. Initially, the programs were only written for the 6502 microprocessor, but this expanded to the 65C02, 65802, and 65816 microprocessors as the Apple II family continued to develop.

Ports are also available by third parties for various other Unix operating systems. Several different hardware architectures are supported, including x86, PowerPC, and SPARC (Solaris only). Porting HotSpot is difficult as the code, while mostly written in C++, contains much assembly language. To remedy this, the IcedTea project has developed a generic port of the HotSpot interpreter called zero-assembler Hotspot (or zero), with almost no assembly code.

In this mode it was possible to read and write directly in RAM memory, video memory, CPU registers, interrupt vectors, clock counter, etc, using hexadecimal codes equivalent to assembly language. This allowed writing sophisticated programs directly into RAM. As this mode was a single-user system effectively running without an operating system, a determined user could manage the memory space and write stable multi-tasking programs using interrupts.

The Parrot intermediate representation (PIR), previously called Intermediate code (IMC), is one of the two assembly languages for the Parrot virtual machine. The other is Parrot assembly language or PASM. Compared to PASM, PIR exists at a slightly higher abstraction layer, and provides temporary registers and named registers, simplifying code generation. While Parrot is still evolving, it is currently being used in many different capacities, and has undergone several releases.

He was then recruited by Bauer and joined Ramo-Wooldridge in 1955, where he did numerical analysis and programming in assembly language and FORTRAN.Frank, "Achieving the American Dream", pp. 33–36. Working with pioneers of scientific computing such as David M. Young, Jr. and George Forsythe, Frank published several important articles on numerical analysis in Journal of the ACM and other publications.Frank, "Achieving the American Dream", pp. 36–37.

From 1982 until 1985, Hudson was a technical editor for Atari 8-bit computer magazine ANALOG Computing. While at ANALOG, he wrote a number of machine language games printed as type-in programs, including Fill 'er Up (based on Qix), Livewire! (based on Tempest), Retrofire, Planetary Defense (co-written with Charles Bachand), and Fire Bug (co-written with Kyle Peacock). All games were accompanied by the assembly language source code.

Picture of the miniCeline ultralight aircraft by Jean-Daniel Nicoud. This remote-controlled plane weighs only 6 g and is capable of indoor flying. Jean- Daniel Nicoud (born 31 August 1938), is a Swiss computer scientist, noted for inventing of a computer mouse with an optical encoder and the CALM Common Assembly Language for microprocessors. He obtained a degree in physics at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) in 1963.

PAL assembled from paper tape into memory. Paper tape versions of a number of programming languages were available, including DEC's FOCAL interpreter and a 4K FORTRAN compiler and runtime. Toward the end of the PDP-8 era, operating systems such as OS/8 and COS-310 allowed a traditional line mode editor and command-line compiler development system using languages such as PAL-III assembly language, FORTRAN, BASIC, and DIBOL.

Instructions (statements) in assembly language are generally very simple, unlike those in high-level languages. Generally, a mnemonic is a symbolic name for a single executable machine language instruction (an opcode), and there is at least one opcode mnemonic defined for each machine language instruction. Each instruction typically consists of an operation or opcode plus zero or more operands. Most instructions refer to a single value or a pair of values.

The outputs are custom documents, typically compilable source modules. Frame technology can avoid the proliferation of similar but subtly different components, an issue that has plagued software development since the invention of macros and subroutines. Most assembly languages have less powerful procedural macro facilities, for example allowing a block of code to be repeated N times for loop unrolling; but these have a completely different syntax from the actual assembly language.

The original SoftICE for DOS was written in 1987 by NuMega founders Frank Grossman and Jim Moskun. The program, written in 80386 assembly language, played the role of an operating system and ran software in virtual 8086 mode. It sold for $386. SoftICE/W (for Windows) was developed in the 1990s, and was instrumental in the Writing of "Undocumented Windows", by Andrew Schulman, David Maxey and Matt Pietrek.

Real-Time Multiprogramming Operating System (RTMOS) was a 24-bit process control operating system developed in the 1960s by General Electric that supported both real-time computing and multiprogramming. Programming was done in assembly language or Process FORTRAN. The two languages could be used in the same program, allowing programmers to alternate between the two as desired. Multiprogramming operating systems are now considered obsolete, having been replaced by multitasking.

Asmutils is a rewrite of the standard Unix commands in x86 assembly language aimed to have smallest possible size of ELF executables. All standard Unix commands (ls, cat, sh, etc.) executables are less than one kilobyte in size. Asmutils is available for Linux, UnixWare, Solaris, FreeBSD, OpenBSD and AtheOS and is licensed under the GNU GPL version 2. Linux mini distributions based entirely on asmutils are a-Linux and SAMEL Linux.

The initial SNOBOL language was created as a tool to be used by its authors to work with the symbolic manipulation of polynomials. It was written in assembly language for the IBM 7090. It had a simple syntax, only one datatype, the string, no functions, and no declarations and very little error control. However, despite its simplicity and its "personal" nature its use began to spread to other groups.

In computer programming, the block starting symbol (abbreviated to .bss or bss) is the portion of an object file, executable, or assembly language code that contains statically-allocated variables that are declared but have not been assigned a value yet. It is often referred to as the "bss section" or "bss segment". Typically only the length of the bss section, but no data, is stored in the object file.

The Interactive Disassembler (IDA) is a disassembler for computer software which generates assembly language source code from machine-executable code. It supports a variety of executable formats for different processors and operating systems. It also can be used as a debugger for Windows PE, Mac OS X Mach-O, and Linux ELF executables. A decompiler plug-in for programs compiled with a C/ compiler is available at extra cost.

Wetmore's then-spouse, Diana, suggested a "cartoonish" style of game. The idea led to the preppy fad spawned by the 1980 publication of The Official Preppy Handbook. Wetmore wrote the game on an Atari 800 in eight weeks using the Atari Macro Assembler. He was more familiar with Z80 assembly language from programming the TRS-80, so he used macros that gave a Z80 flavor to 6502 code.

Derivative Code or Chameleon Code is source code which has been derived entirely from one or more other machine readable file formats. If Recursive Transcompiling is used in the development process, some code will survive all the way through the pipeline from beginning to end, and then back to the beginning again.Digital Research (1981): XLT86 - 8080 to 8086 Assembly Language Translator - User's Guide. Digital Research Inc, Pacific Grove ().

Programs needed to be written in assembly language, and the programmer needed to have intimate and detailed knowledge of the machine. A lifelong puzzle enthusiast, Nelson sought to understand every detail of the hardware, and earned a reputation as an expert on the features and idiosyncrasies of each new machine. Over time he became the principal person at LLNL in charge of doing acceptance testing of new hardware.

The Metasploit Framework is a development platform for creating security tools and exploits. The framework is used by network security professionals to perform penetration testing, system administrators to verify patch installations, product vendors to perform regression testing, and security researchers worldwide. The framework is written in the Ruby programming language and includes components written in C and assembly language. In October 2009, the Metasploit project was acquired by Rapid7.

The first versions were written in a mix of C and assembly language. In 1999, a first rewrite from scratch was done, fully in C. In 2002, that version was released under a GNU General Public License (GNU GPL). In 2010, it changed to an MIT/X11 license. In 2009, the 64-bit version was released, another rewrite, this time written in generic assembly, which in turn is implemented in PicoLisp.

These tools take the executable output by an optimizing compiler and optimize it even further. Post-pass optimizers usually work on the assembly language or machine code level (in contrast with compilers that optimize intermediate representations of programs). One such example is the Portable C Compiler (pcc) of the 1980s, which had an optional pass that would perform post-optimizations on the generated assembly code.Aho, Sethi, and Ullman, Compilers, p. 736.

It offers limited facilities for garbage collection, relying extensively on runtime support. It offers dynamic memory allocation primitives designed to make it well-suited to running in constant memory on a video game console. GOAL has extensive support for inlined assembly language code using a special `rlet` form, allowing programs to freely mix assembly and higher-level constructs within one function. The GOAL compiler is implemented in Allegro Common Lisp.

Michael Abrash is a software executive, programmer and technical writer specializing in code optimization and 80x86 assembly language, a reputation cemented by his 1990 book Zen of Assembly Language Volume 1: Knowledge and a monthly column in Dr. Dobb's Journal in the early 1990s. A later book, Zen of Graphics Programming, applied these ideas to 2D and 3D graphics prior to the advent of hardware accelerators for the PC. Though not strictly a game programmer, Abrash has worked on the underlying technology for games, such as Quake, for much of his career. Since 2014, he has been the chief scientist of Oculus VR, a subsidiary of Facebook, Inc.. He frequently begins a technical discussion with an anecdote that draws parallels between a real-life experience he has had and the article's subject matter. His prose encourages readers to think outside the box and to approach solving technical problems in an innovative way.

The game was written by John Lyon and was based on the designer's experience playing ancient miniatures. The Shattered Alliance was programmed by John Lyon in BASIC and assembly language. It was based on a new game engine, called RapidFire, designed to make faster and easier to access the wargames published by the studio2. The game was published by Strategic Simulations in 1981 on Apple II and in January 1982 on Atari 8-bit.

Wilson subsequently rewrote BBC BASIC in ARM assembly language. The in-depth knowledge gained from designing the instruction set enabled the code to be very dense, making ARM BBC BASIC an extremely good test for any ARM emulator. The original aim of a principally ARM-based computer was achieved in 1987 with the release of the Acorn Archimedes. In 1992, Acorn once more won the Queen's Award for Technology for the ARM.

In the past, microprocessor design technology evolved from complex instruction set computer (CISC) to reduced instruction set computer (RISC). In the early days of the computer industry, compiler technology did not exist and programming was done in assembly language. To make programming easier, computer architects created complex instructions which were direct representations of high level functions of high level programming languages. Another force that encouraged instruction complexity was the lack of large memory blocks.

The major part of ALGOL W, amounting to approximately 2,700 cards, was written in Wirth's PL360. An interface module for the IBM operating system (OS) in use (OS, DOS, MTS, ORVYL) was written in IBM assembly language, amounting to fewer than 250 cards. > In an OS environment on a 360/67 with spooled input and output files, the > compiler will recompile itself in about 25 seconds. The compiler is > approximately 2700 card images.

C (, as in the letter c) is a general-purpose, procedural computer programming language supporting structured programming, lexical variable scope, and recursion, with a static type system. By design, C provides constructs that map efficiently to typical machine instructions. It has found lasting use in applications previously coded in assembly language. Such applications include operating systems and various application software for computer architectures that range from supercomputers to PLCs and embedded systems.

With a supported language provider, DTrace can retrieve context of the code, including function, source file, and line number location. Further, dynamic memory allocation and garbage collection can be made available if supported by the language. Supported language providers include assembly language, C, C++, Java, Erlang, JavaScript, Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby, shell script, and Tcl. Application providers allow DTrace to follow the operation of applications through system calls and into the kernel.

Cohen continued graduate study at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, where he pursued a doctorate in Structural Design. His doctoral dissertation involved energy minimization using Raleigh-Ritz methods to determine Fourier series coefficients defining shapes of buckling columns made of thin-walled plates. This particular topic enabled Cohen to learn a great deal of assembly language programming and the solution of systems of non-linear equations resulting from the energy minimization process.

Several attempts were made to restart HyperCard development once it returned to Apple. Because of the product's widespread use as a multimedia-authoring tool it was rolled into the QuickTime group. A new effort to allow HyperCard to create QuickTime interactive (QTi) movies started, once again under the direction of Kevin Calhoun. QTi extended QuickTime's core multimedia playback features to provide true interactive facilities and a low-level programming language based on 68000 assembly language.

Zircon is written mostly in C++, with some parts in assembly language. It is composed of a kernel with a small set of user services, drivers, and libraries which are all necessary for the system to boot, communicate with the hardware, and load the user processes. It presents features including handling threads, virtual memory, processes intercommunication, and waiting for changes in the state of objects. It is heavily inspired by Unix kernels, and differs greatly.

82 At Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, she led a team of software developers to build a new control system for the subway of the Bay Area Rapid Transit system. The existing control system software was considered impossible to continue using, making replacement necessary. Working with Steve Mellor, they replaced the original Fortran and assembly language code with new code, going from seventy thousand lines to two thousand. This analysis has since been called "legendary".

Like GM-NAA I/O, it allowed execution of programs written in assembly language. SOS initially ran on the IBM 709 computer and was then ported to its transistorized successor, the IBM 7090. A series of articles describing innovations in the system appears in the April 1959 Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery. In 1962, IBM discontinued support for SOS and announced an entirely new (and incompatible) operating system, IBM 7090/94 IBSYS.

Moreover, the specialized syntax works to emphasize the object-oriented approach. Similarly, functions and looping syntax in C (and other procedural and structured programming languages) could be considered syntactic sugar. Assembly language can support procedural or structured programming via its facilities for modifying register values and branching execution depending on program state. However, languages such as C introduced syntax specific to these coding styles to make procedural and structured programming more convenient.

Languages for programming calculators fall into all of the main groups, i.e. machine code, low-level, mid-level, high-level languages for systems and application programming, scripting, macro, and glue languages, procedural, functional, imperative &. object-oriented programming can be achieved in some cases. Most calculators capable to being connected to a computer can be programmed in assembly language and machine code, although on some calculators this is only possible through using exploits.

ALPAK, written in 1964, originally consisted of a set of subroutines for FORTRAN written in assembly language. These subroutines were themselves rewritten in FORTRAN for ALTRAN. An early version of ALTRAN was developed by M. Douglas McIlroy and W. Stanley Brown in the middle 1960s. However, soon after the completion of their ALTRAN translator, the IBM 7094 computers, on which ALPAK and ALTRAN were reliant, began to be phased out in favor of newer machines.

AV1 is a traditional block-based frequency transform format featuring new techniques. Based on Google's VP9, AV1 incorporates additional techniques that mainly give encoders more coding options to enable better adaptation to different types of input. Processing stages of an AV1 encoder with relevant technologies associated with each stage. The Alliance published a reference implementation written in C and assembly language (`aomenc`, `aomdec`) as free software under the terms of the BSD 2-Clause License.

Therefore, a solution using Maze runner concepts was realized on an expansion board using the INMOS Transputer to boost the processing power. ColorCAM itself was written in the Pascal programming language with only small parts in assembly language. On the CAM side, ColorCAM was optimized for running the milling and drilling machines from LPKF Laser & Electronics AG for the production of PCB prototypes. Support and sales of ColorCAM were discontinued in 1993.

Assembly language uses a mnemonic to represent each low-level machine instruction or opcode, typically also each architectural register, flag, etc. Many operations require one or more operands in order to form a complete instruction. Most assemblers permit named constants, registers, and labels for program and memory locations, and can calculate expressions for operands. Thus, the programmers are freed from tedious repetitive calculations and assembler programs are much more readable than machine code.

Compilers for BASIC 2.0 such as Petspeed 2 (from Commodore), Blitz (from Jason Ranheim), and Turbo Lightning (from Ocean Software) were produced. Most commercial C64 software was written in assembly language, either cross developed on a larger computer, or directly on the C64 using a machine code monitor or an assembler. This maximized speed and minimized memory use. Some games, particularly adventures, used high level scripting languages and sometimes mixed BASIC and machine language.

It ran under the VAX/VMS operating system and produced object files suitable for the VAX/VMS linker. The Macro-32 assembler (and the linker) were bundled with the operating system. In order to port VMS to the Alpha, VAX Macro was implemented for the Alpha architecture. Since the Alpha used a different instruction set than the VAX, Macro-32 was implemented as a compiler, compiling VAX assembly language into Alpha instructions.

Such games were accompanied by the assembly language source code. ANALOG also sold commercial games, two books of type-in software, and access to a custom bulletin-board system. Originally the title as printed on the cover was A.N.A.L.O.G. 400/800 Magazine, but by the eighth issue it changed to A.N.A.L.O.G. Computing. Though the dots remained in the logo, it was simply referred to as ANALOG or ANALOG Computing inside the magazine.

One was that many of the early SIMD instruction sets tended to slow overall performance of the system due to the re-use of existing floating point registers. Other systems, like MMX and 3DNow!, offered support for data types that were not interesting to a wide audience and had expensive context switching instructions to switch between using the FPU and MMX registers. Compilers also often lacked support, requiring programmers to resort to assembly language coding.

Apple Computer had somewhat more success, even though they entered the SIMD market later than the rest. AltiVec offered a rich system and can be programmed using increasingly sophisticated compilers from Motorola, IBM and GNU, therefore assembly language programming is rarely needed. Additionally, many of the systems that would benefit from SIMD were supplied by Apple itself, for example iTunes and QuickTime. However, in 2006, Apple computers moved to Intel x86 processors.

"Once they are distributed... at least the device works." Implying that the alternative would be for the members of his small project to code free firmware themselves in the assembly language of many chipsets, he pleads "don't load us up with more tasks." Despite this he favours chipsets that run without firmware and speaks warmly of Asian designs which he describes as slower to market but more mature. DRM infrastructure with Mesa 3D.

An expansive documentation package included datasheets on all ICs, two assembly language programming manuals, and a 700-page application manual that showed how to design a point-of-sale computer terminal. The 6800 was popular in computer peripherals, test equipment applications and point-of-sale terminals. It also found use in arcade games and pinball machines. The MC6802, introduced in 1977, included 128 bytes of RAM and an internal clock oscillator on chip.

Almost all of the AOS and AOS/VS utilities included in the operating system releases were written in variants of the PL/I programming language. Initially, AOS/VS utilities closely tracked AOS source development. As AOS/VS matured, many DG-supplied utilities were rewritten to take advantage of the 32-bit address space and reduce dependencies on assembly language, often resulting in substantial increases in functionality, performance and reliability compared with their AOS ancestors.

The MIC-1 is a processor architecture invented by Andrew S. Tanenbaum to use as a simple but complete example in his teaching book Structured Computer Organization. It consists of a very simple control unit that runs microcode from a 512-words store. The Micro-Assembly Language (MAL) is engineered to allow simple writing of an IJVM interpreter, and the source code for such an interpreter can be found in the book.

In assembly language programs, this value is often referred to as FA or PA (physical address), again from the mnemonic for the memory location where the device number is stored. ;4 :This parameter, the secondary address, which may range from 0 to 15 inclusive, refers to a specific communication channel established with the device's controller and is passed to the device when it is commanded to "talk" or "listen" on the peripheral bus.

Most modern computers boot entirely automatically by reading a boot program from some non-volatile memory. it is extremely tedious and potentially error-prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs. Instead, each basic instruction can be given a short name that is indicative of its function and easy to remember – a mnemonic such as ADD, SUB, MULT or JUMP. These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer's assembly language.

Machine-dependent assembly languages often provide direct methods for coroutine execution. For example, in MACRO-11, the assembly language of the PDP-11 family of minicomputers, the “classic” coroutine switch is effected by the instruction "JSR PC,@(SP)+", which jumps to the address popped from the stack and pushes the current (i.e that of the next) instruction address onto the stack. On VAXen (in Macro-32) the comparable instruction is "JSB @(SP)+".

After that, it loads the Spin interpreter from its built-in ROM into the dedicated RAM of its first cog, overwriting most of the bootloader. Regardless of how the user program is loaded, execution starts by interpreting initial user bytecode with the Spin interpreter running in the primary cog. After this initial Spin code runs, the application can turn on any unused cog to start a new thread, and/or start assembly language routines.

Programming contests for young children were featured annually, and were endorsed by both the Scholastic Corporation and the Boy Scouts of America. The magazine challenged readers to write complete games, sometimes including scoring, on just one line of BASIC code. Creativity was remarkable and included techniques to allow for a slightly longer line of code than originally envisioned. The magazine featured program listings for the machine, primarily written in BASIC and occasionally Z80 assembly language.

PTX uses an arbitrarily large register set; the output from the compiler is almost pure single-assignment form, with consecutive lines generally referring to consecutive registers. Programs start with declarations of the form .reg .u32 %r<335>; // declare 335 registers %r0, %r1, ..., %r334 of type unsigned 32-bit integer It is a three-argument assembly language, and almost all instructions explicitly list the data type (in terms of sign and width) on which they operate.

Micronet has established two subsidiaries outside Japan. The first is Micronet Software Manila, established in April 1992 in Makati City, Philippines. Much like the main company, Micronet Software Manila focused on game software development, but moved on to the development of computer multimedia and IT contents. 3 of the 5 pioneer members to start the Manila office as game programmers utilizing Motorola 68000 assembly language were Antonio Quing Perez, Ma. Renee Pangan, and Bong Encarnacion.

The Casio PB-1000 was a handheld computer released by Casio in 1987. It featured a touchscreen display which consisted of 16 keys built into the screen, arranged in fixed positions on a four by four matrix. The computer itself included 8Kb of RAM and it was possible to install a 32Kb memory expansion card. The PB-1000 was programmable in both a custom version of the BASIC language and an assembly language.

Logic analyzer A logic analyzer is an electronic instrument that captures and displays multiple signals from a digital system or digital circuit. A logic analyzer may convert the captured data into timing diagrams, protocol decodes, state machine traces, assembly language, or may correlate assembly with source-level software. Logic analyzers have advanced triggering capabilities, and are useful when a user needs to see the timing relationships between many signals in a digital system.

Similar to Human Resource Machine, players are tasked with over 60 programming puzzles, typically involving the movement of numerical data cubes by human workers. For example, a task might ask the player to program the humans to sort the numbers on data cubes in order. The programming language is similar to assembly language, allowing for simple loops, logic, memory storage and calculations. As with its predecessor, the code can be edited in a textual form by copying-and-pasting.

Motorola's designers attempted to make the assembly language orthogonal while the underlying machine language was somewhat less so. Unlike PDP-11, the MC68000 (68k) used separate registers to store data and the addresses of data in memory. The ISA was orthogonal to the extent that addresses could only be used in those registers, but there was no restriction on which of the registers could be used by different instructions. Likewise, the data registers were also orthogonal across instructions.

Rather than attempting to distinguish between four voltages on one wire, digital designers have settled on two voltages per wire, high and low. Computers use two-value Boolean circuits for the above reasons. The most common computer architectures use ordered sequences of Boolean values, called bits, of 32 or 64 values, e.g. 01101000110101100101010101001011. When programming in machine code, assembly language, and certain other programming languages, programmers work with the low-level digital structure of the data registers.

Dennis Ritchie, Doug McIlroy, and Peter G. Neumann also credit Kernighan. The operating system was originally written in assembly language, but in 1973, Version 4 Unix was rewritten in C. Version 4 Unix, however, still had many PDP-11 dependent codes, and was not suitable for porting. The first port to another platform was made five years later (1978) for the Interdata 8/32. Bell Labs produced several versions of Unix that are collectively referred to as "Research Unix".

The 2741 was initially developed and marketed for use with the IBM Administrative Terminal System (ATS/360). ATS is an interactive, multi-user text editing and storage system implemented in the mid-1960s using IBM System/360 assembly language. The 2741's existence encouraged the development of other remote terminal systems for the IBM System/360, particularly systems that could benefit from the high print quality, interchangeable typing elements, and other advantages of its Selectric mechanism.

The operating system was called MCP, for Master Control Program. It shared many architectural features with the MCP of Burroughs' Large Systems stack machines, but was entirely different internally, and was coded in assembly language, not in an ALGOL-derivative. Programs had separate address spaces dynamically relocated by a base register, but otherwise there was no virtual memory; no paging and no segmentation. Larger programs were squeezed into the limited code address space by explicit overlays.

Despite early skepticism, this transition proved successful. By the early 1990s, major changes were occurring in supercomputing system software.Encyclopedia of Parallel Computing by David Padua 2011 pages 426-429 By this time, the growing use of Unix had begun to change the way system software was viewed. The use of a high level language (C) to implement the operating system, and the reliance on standardized interfaces was in contrast to the assembly language oriented approaches of the past.

Some of these software simulators remains to be used as tools for assembly language and Instruction Set Architecture teaching, with some specifically designed using multiple simulation layers and ISA to ISA simulation, with the ability to even design ISAs and simulate them.Almasri, I., Abandah, G., Shhadeh, A., & Shahrour, A. (2011, December). Universal ISA simulator with soft processor FPGA implementation. In Applied Electrical Engineering and Computing Technologies (AEECT), 2011 IEEE Jordan Conference on (pp. 1-6). IEEE.

Lords of Conquest is a strategy video game published in 1986 by Electronic Arts. It is based on the 1982 board game Borderlands by Eon Productions and developed by Eon's software division. It was marketed with the slogan "Better than Risk!" The original version of the game was programmed for the Apple II in Forth and assembly language by Ted Schmeckpeper, in collaboration with the designers of the board game: Bill Eberle, Jack Kittredge, and Peter Olotka.

At the time, the designers believed that was more than they would ever need for a game. The monitor's resolution is 320×256, an expansion from the then-industry standard of 256×256. The staff believed that the wider screen provided a better aspect ratio and would improve the game's presentation. Video games at the time relied on hardware to animate graphics, but the developers decided to use software to handle animation and programmed the game in assembly language.

This is a complete example of a TREE-META program extracted (and untested) from the more complete (declarations, conditionals, and blocks) example in Appendix 6 of the ICL 1900 TREE-META manual. That document also has a definition of TREE-META in TREE-META in Appendix 3. This program is not just a recognizer, but also outputs the assembly language for the input. It demonstrates one of the key features of TREE-META, which is tree pattern matching.

Compiled object code is maintained in a format called OMF (Object Module Format). Unlike in many other operating systems, this is also the format used by the loader. Various compilers are available, as well as utilities, notably the Collector, which links the code in several OMF modules into a single module, for more efficient loading at run-time, and the Module Amender, which allows patching of the instructions in an OMF module to fix bugs, using assembly language syntax.

In 1964, Stein wrote Computer Programming: A Mixed Language Approach with contributor William Munro for Academic Press. It was well reviewed in its time, and in 2017, more than five decades after its publication, it was still in print in its third edition. It was written with the intention to provide instruction in assembly language programming to both professional programmers and highly technical laypersons. Much of the book was originally designed around the CDC 1604 and the Fortran language.

Microsoft made available its Fortran, Cobol and BASIC compilers, as well as its MACRO-80 assembler. All were sold through Radio Shack. Later the simpler, more affordable Series I editor/assembler package from Radio Shack itself, familiar to many Model I hobbyists, was offered for the Model II. Radio Shack also had its own macro assembler product, Assembly Language Development System, or popularly known as ALDS. This product was later reworked and sold for the Model 4.

He later worked at MIT for several years, where he wrote the STOIC language, at Data General, and at Concentric Data Systems.Oral history interview with Jonathan Sachs, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. 1-2-3 was known for its speed and efficiency. The original program was implemented in Intel 8088 assembly language, rather than a higher level language such as C. It was also nearly bug-free, and introduced the letter hierarchical menus still used in Windows applications.

The original version was manufactured and distributed by Milton Bradley and later by Hasbro after it took over Milton Bradley. Much of the assembly language code was written by Charles Kapps, who taught computer science at Temple University and also wrote one of the first books on the theory of computer programming. Simon was launched in 1978 at Studio 54 in New York City and was an immediate success, becoming a pop culture symbol of the 1970s and 1980s.

CICS applications comprise transactions, which can be written in numerous programming languages, including COBOL, PL/I, C, C++, IBM Basic assembly language, REXX, and Java. Each CICS program is initiated using a transaction identifier. CICS screens are usually sent as a construct called a map, a module created with Basic Mapping Support (BMS) assembler macros or third-party tools. CICS screens may contain text that is highlighted, has different colors, and/or blinks depending on the terminal type used.

Certifying compilation is the idea of producing a certificate during compilation of source code, using the information from the high-level programming language semantics. This certificate should be enclosed with the compiled code in order to provide a form of proof to the consumer that the source code was compiled according to a certain set of rules. The certificate can be produced in different ways, e.g. through Proof-carrying code (PCC) or Typed assembly language (TAL).

In addition to releasing a full set of support chips with the 6800 microprocessor, Motorola offered a software and hardware development system. The software development tools were available on remote time-sharing computers or the source code was available so the customer could use an in-house computer system. The software that would run on a microprocessor system was typically written in assembly language. The development system consisted of a text editor, assembler and a simulator.

Most of the execution-time support (undefined variable checking, subscript evaluation, intrinsic functions) was written in assembly language for good performance. In September 1984, the first version was installed at the University of Waterloo for the Department of Computing Services. It was an implementation for IBM 370 computers running the VM/SP CMS operating system. A few months earlier, in May 1984, a project started to implement the WATFOR-77 compiler on the IBM Personal Computer.

A NeXTstation computer Doom was programmed largely in the ANSI C programming language, with a few elements done in assembly language. Development was done on NeXT computers running the NeXTSTEP operating system. The data used by the game engine, including both level designs and graphics files, are all stored in WAD files, short for "Where's All the Data". This allows for any part of the game's design to be easily changed without needing to adjust the engine code.

When a 32-bit version of the CLI became available under AOS/VS II, the same command instead reported "Twice As Much Happens". A modified version of System V.2 Unix called MV/UX hosted under AOS/VS was also available. A modified version of System V Unix called DG/UX was made for the Eclipse MV line and later the 88K and x86 AViiON machines. The AOS and AOS/VS kernels were written entirely in assembly language.

Screenshot of the OpenRCT2 open-source reimplementation, showing the user interface RollerCoaster Tycoon 2 was developed by Chris Sawyer who designed and programmed the game entirely by himself in assembly language. Some parts of the game were based on efforts to develop a new version of Transport Tycoon, which Sawyer had been working on as early as 1996. The game was published by Infogrames and released on October 15, 2002.RollerCoaster Tycoon 2 Patch on atari.

The `CPUID` opcode is `0Fh, A2h` (as two bytes, or `A20Fh` as a single `word`). In assembly language, the `CPUID` instruction takes no parameters as `CPUID` implicitly uses the EAX register to determine the main category of information returned. In Intel's more recent terminology, this is called the CPUID leaf. `CPUID` should be called with `EAX = 0` first, as this will store in the EAX register the highest EAX calling parameter (leaf) that the CPU implements.

Intel hexadecimal object file format, Intel hex format or Intellec Hex is a file format that conveys binary information in ASCII text form. It is commonly used for programming microcontrollers, EPROMs, and other types of programmable logic devices. In a typical application, a compiler or assembler converts a program's source code (such as in C or assembly language) to machine code and outputs it into a HEX file. Common file extensions used for the resulting files are .

The difficult part of coding the optimization routines is done using the high- level language instead of the assembly language of the target. According to the designers of the BCPL language, interpreted code (in the BCPL case) is more compact than machine code; typically by a factor of two to one. Interpreted code however runs about ten times slower than compiled code on the same machine. gives an example translation of a BCPL program into INTCODE for the interpreter.

TPF evolved from the Airlines Control Program (ACP), a free package developed in the mid-1960s by IBM in association with major North American and European airlines. In 1979, IBM introduced TPF as a replacement for ACP -- and as a priced software product. The new name suggests its greater scope and evolution into non-airline related entities. TPF was traditionally an IBM System/370 assembly language environment for performance reasons, and many TPF assembler applications persist.

The VAX instruction set was designed to be powerful and orthogonal. When it was introduced, many programs were written in assembly language, so having a "programmer-friendly" instruction set was important. In time, as more programs were written in higher-level language, the instruction set became less visible, and the only ones much concerned about it were compiler writers. One unusual aspect of the VAX instruction set is the presence of register masks at the start of each subprogram.

Wzonka-Lad was written by Ville Helin in 68020 assembler. The reason why Wzonka-Lad came to be was Virtual Game Boy (VGB), a Game Boy emulator written in C ported to Amiga. It ran so slowly on Amiga hardware that Helin decided to write one faster in assembly language. The emulator requires at least a 68020 processor, provides several options to vary game speed and colours and supports graphics and sound cards (via CyberGraphX and AHI).

WordStar version 3.x used the MS-DOS File control block (FCB) interface, an early data structure for file input/output which was based closely on CP/M's file input/output functions. The provision of the FCB interface was intended to simplify the porting of (assembly language) programs from CP/M to the new MS-DOS. When MS- DOS adopted the Unix-like file interface of file handles, FCBs became a legacy interface supported for backward compatibility.

Robert Abbott (March 2, 1933February 20, 2018) was an American game inventor, sometimes referred to by fans as "The Official Grand Old Man of Card Games". Though early in his life he worked as a computer programmer with the IBM 360 assembly language, he has been designing games since the 1950s.Abbott 1962, p. 53 Two of his more popular creations include the chess variant Baroque chess (also known as Ultima) and Crossings, which later became Epaminondas.

In 1980, Nelson came across a copy of the chess program Cray Blitz written by Robert Hyatt. Using his detailed knowledge of the Cray-1 architecture, Nelson re-wrote a key routine in assembly language and was able to significantly speed up the program. The two began collaborating along with a third team member, Albert Gower, a strong correspondence chess player. In 1983, Cray Blitz won the World Computer Chess Championship, and successfully defended its title in 1986.

The Atari 2600, released in 1977, is a popular platform for Homebrew projects. Games created for the Atari 2600 can be executed using either an emulator or directly when copied onto a blank cartridge making use of either a PROM or EPROM chip. Unlike later systems, the console does not require a modchip. Although there is one high-level compiler available, batari Basic, most development for the Atari 2600 is still done in 6502 assembly language.

While all versions of Turbo Pascal could include inline machine code, starting with version 6 it was possible to integrate assembly language within Pascal source code. Support for the various 8086 memory models was provided by inline assembly, compiler options, and language extensions such as the "absolute" keyword. The Turbo Assembler, TASM, a standard x86 assembler independent of TP, and source- compatible with the widely used Microsoft Macro Assembler MASM, was supplied with the enhanced "Borland Pascal" versions.

That led to Mr. Kahn setting an appointment with an agent for some Eastern European software developers, Robert Stein of Andromeda Software, which was also involved with the game Tetris. That led to an agreement negotiated by Mr. Leyton and Mr. Stein, providing for the development of the original Quattro. Quattro was written in assembly language and Turbo C principally by Adam Bosworth, Lajos Frank, and Chuck Batterman. It was praised mainly for superior graphics on DOS.

There was an optional plotter to draw the results. To speed up the calculations it had a separate floating point unit that interfaced like any other peripheral. It ran an operating system LAP6-PC with support for assembly language and Fortran programming and usually came with end user software for Radiation Treatment Planning (RTP), for use by a radiation therapist or radiation oncologist, and Hospital Patient Records. Software for implant dosimetry was available for the PC12.

The shadow space is used to spill RCX, RDX, R8, and R9, but must be made available to all functions, even those with fewer than four parameters. The registers RAX, RCX, RDX, R8, R9, R10, R11 are considered volatile (caller-saved). The registers RBX, RBP, RDI, RSI, RSP, R12, R13, R14, and R15 are considered nonvolatile (callee-saved). For example, a function taking 5 integer arguments will take the first to fourth in registers, and the fifth will be pushed on top of the shadow space. So when the called function is entered, the stack will be composed of (in ascending order) the return address, followed by the shadow space (32 bytes) followed by the fifth parameter. In x86-64, Visual Studio 2008 stores floating point numbers in XMM6 and XMM7 (as well as XMM8 through XMM15); consequently, for x86-64, user- written assembly language routines must preserve XMM6 and XMM7 (as compared to x86 wherein user-written assembly language routines did not need to preserve XMM6 and XMM7).

An assembler integrated into the TI 89 and related calculators was announced and released in 2014. Machine language programming was often discouraged on early calculator models; however, dedicated platform hackers discovered ways to bypass the built-in interpreters on some models and program the calculator directly in assembly language, a technique that was first discovered and utilized on the TI-85 due to a programming flaw in a mode-switching key. By the time the TI-83 came out, TI and HP had realized the need to address the support needs of homebrew programmers, and started to make assembly language libraries and documentation available for prospective developers. Software, particularly games, could now be nearly as fast and as graphical as their Game Boy counterparts, and TI in particular would later formalize assembly programming into support for packaged applications for future calculators such as the TI-83 Plus and TI-89; HP includes some onboard support for assembler programming on the HP-50g, its current top-of-the-line calculator model.

According to Andrew Balsa, around the time of the discovery of the F00F bug on Intel Pentium, Serguei Shtyliov from Moscow found a flaw in a Cyrix processor while developing an IDE disk driver in assembly language. Alexandr Konosevich, from Omsk, further researched the bug and coauthored an article with Uwe Post in the German technology magazine c't, calling it the "hidden CLI bug" (CLI is the instruction that disables interrupts in the x86 architecture). Balsa, as a member on the Linux-kernel mailing list, confirmed that the following C program (which uses inline x86-specific assembly language) could be compiled and run by an unprivileged user: unsigned char c[4] = {0x36, 0x78, 0x38, 0x36}; int main() { asm ( " movl $c, %ebx " "again: xchgl (%ebx), %eax " " movl %eax, %edx " " jmp again " ); } Execution of this program renders the processor completely useless until it is rebooted, as it enters an infinite loop that cannot be interrupted. This allows any user with access to a Cyrix system with this bug to perform a denial-of-service attack.

The early versions of FRACT386 were written by Bert Tyler, who based it on a Mandelbrot generator for a TI-based processor that used integer math and decided to try programming something similar for his 386 machine.Tyler, Bert and Wegner, Timothy, Fractal Creations, 2nd edition, Waite Group Press, 1993, , p. 461 In February 1989, the program was renamed Fractint. In July 1990, it was ported to the Atari ST with the math routines rewritten in Motorola 68000 assembly language by Howard Chu.

TI produced an Extended BASIC cartridge that greatly enhanced the functionality accessible to TI BASIC users. Sprites could be generated and set up to move automatically with simple one-line commands. Custom "CALL" subprograms, access to memory expansion for larger programs, multiple statement lines (with the statement separator ::), Boolean logic in IF statements, assembly language linkage, as well as the ability to display text at any location on the screen, were all added while largely retaining compatibility with TI BASIC.

A digital signal controller (DSC) is a hybrid of microcontrollers and digital signal processors (DSPs). Like microcontrollers, DSCs have fast interrupt responses, offer control-oriented peripherals like PWMs and watchdog timers, and are usually programmed using the C programming language, although they can be programmed using the device's native assembly language. On the DSP side, they incorporate features found on most DSPs such as single-cycle multiply–accumulate (MAC) units, barrel shifters, and large accumulators. Not all vendors have adopted the term DSC.

TI-BASIC is the built in language for TI-83 series calculators, as well as many other TI graphing calculators. TI-BASIC is a non-structured programming language, meaning it is arranged sequentially, without the use of methods or organized blocks of code. Due to its simplicity and the ubiquity of TI calculators in school curricula, for many students it is their first experience with programming. Below is an example of a hello world program equivalent to the assembly language example.

Screenshot of Dbase III Plus As platforms and operating systems proliferated in the early 1980s, the company found it difficult to port the assembly language-based dBase to target systems. This led to a re-write of the platform in the C programming language, using automated code conversion tools. The resulting code worked, but was essentially undocumented and inhuman in syntax, a problem that would prove to be serious in the future. The resulting dBase III was released in May 1984.

The first commercially available BBS system written for the TI-99/A in 1983 by Dr. Bryan Wilcutt, DC.S, when he was 15 years old. The name Zyolog was a play on words from Zylog who made low end 8-bit chips and was the first processor type used by the author. The software was officially copyrighted in 1985. The Bulletin Board Software was written in a mixture of TI Extended BASIC and TI Assembly Language for the TMS9900 processor.

12-year-old programmer Phillip (P.J.) Holly aired a BBS written in TI Extended Basic around late 1982 or early 1983 in the Northwest Chicago suburbs. His code was given to fellow BBS friends, and eventually used as a starting point for the Chicago TI-User's Group BBS, which later was coded in assembly language using TI's Editor Assembler. Holly wrote his BBS software on his own due to the lack of available BBS software options for the TI-99/4A.

This was due to the similarities between Z80 and 8086 assembly language. Alternative Software released the ZX Spectrum version only due to popular demand, since by 1992 the Spectrum was no longer a commercially viable platform. Dalek Attack was released for the Spectrum in 1993, and was the last licensed Spectrum game. It differed from all the others in its first level; in all the other releases the first level involved the Doctor on a hoverboard going along the sewer.

The line-oriented debugger `DEBUG` is an external command in operating systems such as DOS, OS/2 and Windows (only in 16-bit/32-bit versions). DEBUG can act as an assembler, disassembler, or hex dump program allowing users to interactively examine memory contents (in assembly language, hexadecimal or ASCII), make changes, and selectively execute COM, EXE and other file types. It also has several subcommands which are used to access specific disk sectors, I/O ports and memory addresses.

DEBUG drive:][path] filename [parameters When DEBUG is started without any parameters the DEBUG prompt, a "-" appears. The user can then enter one of several one or two-letter subcommands, including "A" to enter the assembler mode, "D" to perform a hexadecimal dump, "T" to trace and "U" to unassemble (disassemble) a program in memory. DEBUG can also be used as a "DEBUG script" interpreter using the following syntax. `DEBUG < filename` A script file may contain DEBUG subcommands and assembly language instructions.

The design and creation of software is divided into two parts: # The algorithms are coded in a domain specific language called super instruction assembly language or SIAL, pronounced "sail" for easy communication. # The SIAL programs are executed by a MPMD parallel virtual machine called the super instruction processor or SIP. The ACES III program consists of 580,000 lines of SIAL code of which 200,000 lines are comments, and 230,000 lines of C/C++ and Fortran of which 62,000 lines are comments.

Nick Green specified a secure modem based on the Viewdata chip set and the assembly language client software was ported into the modem and bundled with the Commodore 1541 disk drive. After the first year Commodore was bought out and Compunet Teleservices Ltd became an independent company. Compunet culture was covered in the first issue of Commodore Disk User, which shipped software on its cover disk. ADP provided the initial DEC-10 mainframe, as well as the local-access dial-up points.

The site also provides an easily discoverable list of research papers published using the IBM Quantum Experience as an experimentation platform. IBM's quantum processors are made up of superconducting transmon qubits, located in a dilution refrigerator at the IBM Research headquarters at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center. Users interact with a quantum processor through the quantum circuit model of computation, applying quantum gates on the qubits using a GUI called the quantum composer, writing quantum assembly language code or through Qiskit.

Both had experience with the Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-10 minicomputers that they would use. Allen modified the DEC Macro Assembler to produce code for the Intel 8080 and wrote a program to emulate the 8080 so they could test their BASIC without having an Altair computer. Using DEC's BASIC-PLUS language as a guide, Gates determined what features would work with the limited resources of the Altair computer. Gates then started writing the 8080 assembly-language code on yellow legal pads.

Within TIS-100, the player is said to have come across a malfunctioning TIS-100 computer ("Tessellated Intelligence System") and its manual, based on early computers of the 1980s. The computer is presented to the player as twelve separate processing nodes laid out in a four-by-three grid. Each node has a single processor register to store a numerical value as well as a backup register. Nodes also hold their own assembly language program as entered by the user.

Kernel code is usually running in ring 0, whereas user- space code is generally running in ring 3. The use of some security-critical assembly language instructions is restricted to ring 0 code. In order to escalate privilege through the backdoor, the attacker must :Duflot, 2008, p.5 # activate the backdoor by placing the CPU in the desired state ; # inject code and run it in ring 0 ; # get back to ring 3 in order to return the system to a stable state.

Indeed, when code is running in ring 0, system calls do not work : Leaving the system in ring 0 and running a random system call (exit() typically) is likely to crash the system. The backdoors Loïc Duflot presents are simple as they only modify the behavior of three assembly language instructions and have very simple and specific activation conditions, so that they are very unlikely to be accidentally activated. Recent inventions have begun to target these types of processor-based escalation attacks.

MACRO SPITBOL is coded in MINIMAL, an assembly language for an abstract machine. The instruction set is carefully defined to allow some latitude in its implementation, so that hardware operations favorable to string processing can be exploited. An implementation of MINIMAL that was designed for interpretation on microcomputers was done by translating MINIMAL into MICRAL using a translator that was itself implemented in SPITBOL. The MICRAL version of MACRO SPITBOL, together with the MICRAL interpreter ran in under 40K bytes.

The trial judge found that the software burned into Apple's ROMs were both a translation and reproduction of the assembly language source code, thus were protected by s. 3(1) of the Copyright Act. The Federal Court of Appeal dismissed the appeal. Two of the appellate judges held that the object code was a reproduction of the assembly code, while the third held that the object code could be considered either a translation or a reproduction, both protected by copyright.

Although they did not contain any microprocessors, but were built around transistor-transistor logic (TTL), Hewlett-Packard calculators as far back as 1968 had various levels of programmability comparable to microcomputers. The HP 9100B (1968) had rudimentary conditional (if) statements, statement line numbers, jump statements (go to), registers that could be used as variables, and primitive subroutines. The programming language resembled assembly language in many ways. Later models incrementally added more features, including the BASIC programming language (HP 9830A in 1971).

Source-code compatibility (source-compatible) means that a program can run on computers (or operating systems), independently of binary-code compatibility and that the source code is needed for portability. The source code must be compiled before running, unless the computer used has an interpreter for the language at hand. The term is also used for assembly language compatibility, where the source is a human-readable form of machine code that must be converted into numerical (i.e. executable) machine code by an assembler.

Early versions of AutoCAD supported the MicroAngelo system.John Walker, "AutoCAD-80 Development Log" The original MA512 board included 32 kB of RAM for the frame buffer, a Z80 processor operating as a controller and memory refresh driver, and 4 kB of ROM containing one of two optional sets of subroutines.SCION, pg. 7 Users programmed the MicroAngelo in assembly language using the Z80's input/output parallel ports, which sent data over the internal S-100 bus at relatively high speeds.

The PERQ's original p-Code-like instruction set (called Q-Code) was optimized for Pascal (specifically, an extended PERQ Pascal). Q-Code instructions could be executed at a rate of up to 1 million instructions per second.PERQ Publicity: ICL's PERQ Brochure, Chilton Computing, UK. This gave rise to the alternative definition of the PERQ name: Pascal Evaluation Real Quick. In fact it was generally more efficient to use Pascal than to attempt to create "assembly language" programs directly with Q-Code.

The graphics library was used to make a simple script playback that had a command for each graphics library function. It also originally used the assembly language fades from FlashGun for a "FADE" command, but those image fade routines were mode specific (CGA) and difficult to enhance. The routines were rewritten along with the script parts. It stored all the files in a ZIB archive, renaming John Bridges' program ZIB to GLIB and the archives it produced were GL files.

Early PDP-8 systems did not have an operating system, just a front panel with run and halt switches. Software development systems for the PDP-8 series began with the most basic front-panel entry of raw binary machine code (booting entry). In the middle era, various paper tape "operating systems" were developed. Many utility programs became available on paper tape. PAL-8 assembly language source code was often stored on paper tape, read into memory, and saved to paper tape.

The keys to the success of pcc were its portability and improved diagnostic capabilities. The compiler was designed so that only a few of its source files were machine- dependent. It was relatively robust to syntax errors and performed more thorough validity checks than its contemporaries. The first C compiler, written by Dennis Ritchie, used a recursive descent parser, incorporated specific knowledge about the PDP-11, and relied on an optional machine- specific optimizer to improve the assembly language code it generated.

The compiler was written in PSL or a more primitive dialect named System Lisp or SYSLISP as "... an experiment in writing a production-quality Lisp in Lisp itself as much as possible, with only minor amounts of code written by hand in assembly language or other systems languages." so the whole ensemble could bootstrap itself, and improvements to the compiler improved the compiler. Some later releases had a compatibility package for Common Lisp, but this is not sustained in the modern versions.

Each computer architecture has its own machine language. Computers differ in the number and type of operations they support, in the different sizes and numbers of registers, and in the representations of data in storage. While most general-purpose computers are able to carry out essentially the same functionality, the ways they do so differ; the corresponding assembly languages reflect these differences. Multiple sets of mnemonics or assembly- language syntax may exist for a single instruction set, typically instantiated in different assembler programs.

Reports on the EDSAC introduced the term "assembly" for the process of combining fields into an instruction word. SOAP (Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program) was an assembly language for the IBM 650 computer written by Stan Poley in 1955. Assembly languages eliminate much of the error-prone, tedious, and time-consuming first-generation programming needed with the earliest computers, freeing programmers from tedium such as remembering numeric codes and calculating addresses. Assembly languages were once widely used for all sorts of programming.

This was because these systems had severe resource constraints, imposed idiosyncratic memory and display architectures, and provided limited, buggy system services. Perhaps more important was the lack of first-class high-level language compilers suitable for microcomputer use. A psychological factor may have also played a role: the first generation of microcomputer programmers retained a hobbyist, "wires and pliers" attitude. In a more commercial context, the biggest reasons for using assembly language were minimal bloat (size), minimal overhead, greater speed, and reliability.

VAX Macro is the computer assembly language implementing the instruction set for the line of CPUs designed to run the OpenVMS operating system created by Digital Equipment Corporation in 1977. OpenVMS now belongs to Hewlett-Packard. The syntax, directives, macro language, and lexical substitution operators of VAX Macro previously appeared in Macro-11, the assembler for the PDP-11 series of computers. VAX Macro or, as it was also known, Macro-32, supported the VAX processors developed and manufactured by Digital Equipment Corporation.

Null-terminated strings were produced by the `.ASCIZ` directive of the PDP-11 assembly languages and the `ASCIZ` directive of the MACRO-10 macro assembly language for the PDP-10. These predate the development of the C programming language, but other forms of strings were often used. At the time C (and the languages that it was derived from) was developed, memory was extremely limited, so using only one byte of overhead to store the length of a string was attractive.

Microcontrollers were originally programmed only in assembly language, but various high-level programming languages, such as C, Python and JavaScript, are now also in common use to target microcontrollers and embedded systems. Compilers for general purpose languages will typically have some restrictions as well as enhancements to better support the unique characteristics of microcontrollers. Some microcontrollers have environments to aid developing certain types of applications. Microcontroller vendors often make tools freely available to make it easier to adopt their hardware.

Games continue to be programmed on graphing calculators with increasing complexity. A wave of games appeared after the release of the TI-83 Plus/TI-84 Plus series, among TI's first graphing calculators to natively support assembly. TI-BASIC programming also rose in popularity after the release of third-party libraries. Assembly remained the language of choice for these calculators, which run on a Zilog Z80 processor, although some assembly implements have been created to ease the difficulty of learning assembly language.

The last of these provided a significant boost in interest in the programmability of the calculator, as the use of assembly language (as opposed to Texas Instruments' own TI-BASIC) enabled significantly more performance and flexibility with the programs able to be used on the calculator. Carried over from the TI-81 is the TI-82's power source – four AAA batteries and one CR1616 or CR1620 lithium backup battery (to ensure programs are kept when the AAA batteries are being changed).

Recursive ascent was first described by Thomas Penello in his article in 1986. He was not intending to create a hand-editable implementation of an LR parser, but rather a maintainable and efficient parser implemented in assembly language. The technique was later expounded upon by G.H. Roberts in 1988 as well as in an article by Leermakers, Augusteijn, Kruseman Aretz in 1992 in the journal Theoretical Computer Science. An extremely readable description of the technique was written by Morell and Middleton in 2003.

Carl A. Gunter, Semantics of Programming Languages: Structures and Techniques, MIT Press, 1992, , p. 1 More refined paradigms include procedural programming, object-oriented programming, functional programming, and logic programming; some languages are hybrids of paradigms or multi-paradigmatic. An assembly language is not so much a paradigm as a direct model of an underlying machine architecture. By purpose, programming languages might be considered general purpose, system programming languages, scripting languages, domain- specific languages, or concurrent/distributed languages (or a combination of these).

The magazine featured articles, columns, reviews, tutorials, letters from readers, and advertisements. Many articles presented BASIC or assembly language program listings. Readers had to type these programs in by hand, unless they ordered a cassette or diskette containing these programs, through the Rainbow on Tape or Rainbow on Disk service. The BASIC programs were printed in a fixed font with 32 characters per line so that they would show up just as they did on the CoCo's standard 32×16 text screen.

The device embeds a PIC18F6525 microcontroller, a BenQ PC card 802.11b Wi-Fi adapter, an ml2870a Audio-PCM sound generator, an ADPCM converter, two motors to activate the ears, a TLC5922 LED controller, and a small amount of memory. The embedded software handles the TCP/IP stack and Wi-Fi driver. It also implements a virtual machine which is able to execute up to 64 kb of code. A dedicated assembly language exists to program the different features of the device.

Programs with a machine code component sometimes included assembly language listings for users who had assemblers and who were interested in the internal workings of the program. The downside of type-ins was labor. The work required to enter a medium-sized type-in was on the order of hours. If the resulting program turned out not to be to the user's taste, it was quite possible that the user spent more time keying in the program than using it.

In the x86 assembly language, the `JMP` instruction performs an unconditional jump. Such an instruction transfers the flow of execution by changing the instruction pointer register. There are a number of different opcodes that perform a jump; depending on whether the processor is in real mode or protected mode, and an override instruction is used, the instructions may take 16-bit, 32-bit, or segment:offset pointers. There are many different forms of jumps: relative, conditional, absolute and register-indirect jumps.

Therefore, the flow of control is unchanged. The term branch can be used when referring to programs in high level languages as well as the programs written in machine code or assembly language. In high-level programming languages, branches usually take the form of conditional statements of various forms that encapsulate the instruction sequence that will be executed if the conditions are satisfied. Unconditional branch instructions such as GOTO are used to unconditionally "jump" to (begin execution of) a different instruction sequence.

First design ideas of the Abort Guidance System did not include the use of the computer but rather a sequencer without any navigation capability. This would be adequate to put the Lunar Module into lunar orbit where the crew would wait for rescue by the Apollo CSM. Later design included a digital computer to provide some autonomy. The AGS software was written in LEMAP assembly language that uses 27 instructions described above and a set of pseudo-operations used by the assembler.

SPIM is a MIPS processor simulator, designed to run assembly language code for this architecture. The program simulates R2000 and R3000 processors, and was written by James R. Larus while a professor at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. The MIPS machine language is often taught in college-level assembly courses, especially those using the textbook Computer Organization and Design: The Hardware/Software Interface by David A. Patterson and John L. Hennessy (). The name of the simulator is a reversal of the letters "MIPS".

Assemblers on other System/360 operating systems through System/370, System/390, and System z, as well as the UNIVAC Series 90 mainframes made by Sperry Corporation, and the BS2000 Mainframes currently made by Fujitsu, inherited and extended its syntax. The latest derived language is known as the IBM High-Level Assembler (HLASM). Programmers utilizing this family of assemblers also refer to them as ALC, (for Assembly Language Coding), or simply "assembler". BAL is also the mnemonic of the "Branch And Link" instruction.

His first experience with video games was Atari's tennis game Pong at age 10, and an arcade game Crazy Climber two years later led him to want to design games. He taught himself the computer program languages BASIC and assembly language, and designed amateur games. While attending university, he received a job offer from the company Grafika, which he had to turn down as he did not wish to work there. He accepted the next job offer, which was at Konami.

The use of straight assembly language and a high amount of direct screen access gave WordPerfect a significant performance advantage over WordStar, which used strictly DOS API functions for all screen and keyboard access and was often very slow. In addition, WordStar, created for the CP/M operating system in which subdirectories are not supported, was extremely slow in switching to support sub-directories in MS-DOS. In 1983, WordPerfect 3.0 was released for DOS. This was updated to support DOS 2.

Many early systems had no internal facilities for programming, and relied on a separate "host" system for this task. This programming was typically done in assembly language, or sometimes in C or PL/M, and then cross-assembled or cross-compiled on the host. Some single-board microcontrollers support a BASIC language system, allowing programs to be developed on the target hardware. Hosted development allows all the storage and peripherals of a desktop computer to be used, providing a more powerful development environment.

Front view of a Programma 101 showing the printer and programming keys The Programma 101 can calculate the four basic arithmetic functions (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division), plus square root, absolute value, and fractional part. It is equipped with memory registers with features such as clear, transfer, and exchange, plus printing and halt for input. Programming is similar to assembly language, but simpler, as there are fewer options. It directs the exchange between memory registers and calculation registers, and operations in the registers.

Four operated in sync, for redundancy, while the fifth was a backup running software written independently. The Shuttle's guidance, navigation and control software was written in HAL/S, a special- purpose high-level programming language, while much of the operating system and low-level utility software was written in assembly language. AP-101s used by the US Air Force are mostly programmed in JOVIAL, such as the system found on the B-1B Lancer bomber.Jovial to smooth U.S. Air Force shift to Ada.

As Green wrote, "hells bells, [the monitor] is a cheap black and white television set with a bit of conversion for computer use". (The computer could be purchased without the RadioShack monitor.) CPU access to the screen memory causes visible flicker. The bus arbitration logic blocks video display refresh (video RAM reads) during CPU writes to the VRAM, causing a short black line. This has little effect on normal BASIC programs, but fast programs made with assembly language can be affected.

Motorola S-record is a file format, created by Motorola, that conveys binary information as hex values in ASCII text form. This file format may also be known as SRECORD, SREC, S19, S28, S37. It is commonly used for programming flash memory in microcontrollers, EPROMs, EEPROMs, and other types of programmable logic devices. In a typical application, a compiler or assembler converts a program's source code (such as C or assembly language) to machine code and outputs it into a HEX file.

Although this rendered the traditional assembly shell unnecessary on the TI-83 hardware, calculator programmers continued to develop shells to supplement or replace the standard operating system. Since the TI-83, TI has supported assembly-level programming on all subsequent graphing calculators, though similar shell hacks needed to be created for older hardware, such as the TI-82 and the TI-92. Hewlett-Packard also supports assembly language programming, though onboard programming tools mean that a separate shell is not needed.

The negotiation failed and no deal was made; Microware decided to remain independent. In late 1980s, Microware released OS-9000, a more portable version of the operating system. The vast majority of the operating system kernel was rewritten in C leaving a handful of hardware-dependent parts in assembly language. A few "more advanced features" were added such as tree-like kernel module name space. OS-9000 was initially ported to the Motorola 680x0 family CPUs, Intel 80386, and PowerPC.

Finally, he demonstrated processor-dependent assembly-based performance improvements by comparing assembly language optimizations across x86 generations, including how some micro-optimizations disappeared or even made a program slower. In 1997 Abrash's Graphics Programming Black Book, was published. It was a collection of his Dr. Dobb's Journal articles and his work on the Quake graphic subsystem. Abrash stopped writing publicly in the 2000s until maintaining a public blog at Valve, "Ramblings in Valve Time," from April 2012 until January 2014.

HAL/S (High-order Assembly Language/Shuttle) is a real-time aerospace programming language compiler and cross-compiler for avionics applications used by NASA and associated agencies (JPL, etc.). It has been used in many U.S. space projects since 1973 and its most significant use was in the Space Shuttle program (approximately 85% of the Shuttle software is coded in HAL/S). It was designed by Intermetrics in 1972 for NASA and delivered in 1973. HAL/S is written in XPL, a dialect of PL/I.

In addition to being useful for manufacturing "go/no go" testing, scan chains can also be used to "debug" chip designs. In this context, the chip is exercised in normal "functional mode" (for example, a computer or mobile-phone chip might execute assembly language instructions). At any time, the chip clock can be stopped, and the chip re-configured into "test mode". At this point the full internal state can be dumped out, or set to any desired values, by use of the scan chains.

In hacking, a wargame (or war game) is a cyber-security challenge and mind sport in which the competitors must exploit or defend a vulnerability in a system or application, or gain or prevent access to a computer system. A wargame usually involves a capture the flag logic, based on pentesting, semantic URL attacks, knowledge-based authentication, password cracking, reverse engineering of software (often JavaScript, C and assembly language), code injection, SQL injections, cross-site scripting, exploits, IP address spoofing, forensics, and other hacking techniques.

A cross compiler runs in one environment but produces object code for another. Cross compilers are used for embedded development, where the target computer has limited capabilities. An early example of cross compilation was AIMICO, where a FLOW-MATIC program on a UNIVAC II was used to generate assembly language for the IBM 705, which was then assembled on the IBM computer. The ALGOL 68C compiler generated ZCODE output, that could then be either compiled into the local machine code by a ZCODE translator or run interpreted.

In computing, a compiler is a computer program that translates computer code written in one programming language (the source language) into another language (the target language). The name "compiler" is primarily used for programs that translate source code from a high-level programming language to a lower level language (e.g., assembly language, object code, or machine code) to create an executable program.Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools by Alfred V. Aho, Ravi Sethi, Jeffrey D. Ullman - Second Edition, 2007 There are many different types of compilers.

Freeman, along with friend Jim Connelley, started Epyx as Automated Simulations as a vehicle to publish a game they had created together called Starfleet Orion for the Commodore PET home computer. They eventually published dozens of titles for numerous platforms, some very successful. By 1981, however, Freeman had become frustrated with what he called "office politics" and decided to leave the company. His wife, Westfall, joined him, though she cites a desire to learn assembly language programming on the Atari 800 as a motivation.

FB began life in the mid-1980s as ZBasic, which was created by Andrew Gariepy and envisioned as a cross-platform development system. Before long, the cross-platform aspects were dropped in favor of focusing on Macintosh development. ZBasic acquired a devoted following of developers who praised its ease of use and the tight, fast code produced by the compiler (a legendary labor involving extensive use of hand-built 68K assembly language code). In 1992 and as the next major step after ZBasic version 5, Zedcor Inc.

San received his first computer, a TRS-80, at the age of twelve in 1978 from his father, who had a career in exporting the belongings of immigrants at the time. San first became interested in video game development at a young age after playing a Multi-user dungeon (MUD) in the 1970s. Within a year he taught himself assembly language for several microprocessors. San founded Argonaut Software as a teenager in high school at JFS as a way to get software consulting jobs with large companies.

Butterfield also wrote about non-Commodore computers, such as the Atari 8-bit version of Microsoft BASIC. An early advocate of free and source-available software, Butterfield authored a quarter of the about 80 programs which began the TPUG software library. Much of his software appeared as type-in programs in the magazines for which he was a columnist or associate editor. Among the best-known were SuperMon and TinyMon, two machine language monitors that many assembly language programmers used to debug and test code.

Although the 65C02 can mostly be thought of as a low-power 6502, it also fixes several bugs found in the original and adds new instructions, addressing modes and features that can assist the programmer in writing smaller and faster-executing programs. It is estimated that the average 6502 assembly language program can be made 10 to 15 percent smaller on the 65C02 and see a similar improvement in performance, largely through avoided memory accesses, as well as use of fewer instructions to accomplish a given task.

Impulse Tracker was authored by Jeffrey "Pulse" Lim for the DOS/x86-PC platform. Impulse Tracker was coded in Assembly language, and the GUI was heavily influenced by that of Scream Tracker 3. The first version was released in 1995 and included example music, provided by Jeffrey Lim and Chris Jarvis. The software was distributed as freeware, though extra features, such as support for stereo WAV output and a personalized version of the driver for co-editing songs over IPX networks, were provided for a fee.

PL/S, short for Programming Language/Systems, is a "machine-oriented" programming language based on PL/I. It was developed by IBM in the late 1960s, under the name Basic Systems Language (BSL), as a replacement for assembly language on internal software projects; it included support for inline assembly and explicit control over register usage. Early projects using PL/S were the batch utility, IEHMOVE, and the Time Sharing Option of MVT, TSO. By the 1970s, IBM was rewriting its flagship operating system in PL/S.

These speeds are rarely seen in practice other than by handcrafted assembly language. The ECL gate array ICs contain 168 logic gates each, with the clock tree networks being tuned by hand-crafted coax length adjustment. The instruction set would be considered V-CISC (very complex instruction set) among modern processors. Many specialized operations facilitate hardware searches, matrix mathematics, and special instructions that enable decryption. The original Cyber 205 was renamed to Cyber 205 Series 400 in 1983 when the Cyber 205 Series 600 was introduced.

CBterm/C64, commonly referred to as CBterm, is a terminal emulator for the Commodore 64, authored by Christopher "Chrisdos" Dunn. CBterm bears a copyright date of 1985; version 5.0 of the software was released in early 1987 and is coded entirely in assembly language. It features 40- and 80-column displays, XMODEM file transfers, ASCII/PETSCII conversion, direct display of RLE graphics, and support for a variety of autodialling modems. Support for the Punter protocol and VIDTEX and VT52 terminal emulation is possible by means of overlays.

Fusion was created by Bullfrog Productions, a development studio founded by game designer Peter Molyneux. It was the company's first original product and second game overall, after a port of the shoot 'em up Druid II: Enlightenment. As with Druid II and the later Populous, artist Glenn Corpes created most of the graphics and animation for Fusion, while Molyneux handled the majority of its programming and design. The game was coded in assembly language, and the Atari ST version implemented HiSoft Systems' Devpac II assembler.

Though Tuck felt that Computer Space was a poor imitation of Spacewar! and his Galaxy Game a superior adaptation, many players believed both arcade games to be upgraded variants of Spacewar!. Byte magazine published an assembly language version of Spacewar! in 1977 that ran on the Altair 8800 and other Intel 8080-based microcomputers using an oscilloscope as the graphical display and a lookup table to approximate the calculations for orbits, as well as a three- dimensional variant in 1979 written in Tiny BASIC.

In 1999, Liedtke took over the Systems Architecture Group at the University of Karlsruhe, where he continued the research into microkernel systems. As a proof of concept that a high performance microkernel could also be constructed in a higher level language, the group developed L4Ka::Hazelnut, a C++ version of the kernel that ran on IA-32- and ARM-based machines. The effort was a success — performance was still acceptable — and with its release the pure assembly language versions of the kernels were effectively discontinued.

Turbo Pascal became hugely popular, thanks to an aggressive pricing strategy, having one of the first full-screen IDEs, and very fast turnaround time (just seconds to compile, link, and run). It was written and highly optimized entirely in assembly language, making it smaller and faster than much of the competition. In 1986, Anders ported Turbo Pascal to the Macintosh and incorporated Apple's Object Pascal extensions into Turbo Pascal. These extensions were then added back into the PC version of Turbo Pascal for version 5.5.

In the x86 computer architecture, `HLT` (halt) is an assembly language instruction which halts the central processing unit (CPU) until the next external interrupt is fired. Interrupts are signals sent by hardware devices to the CPU alerting it that an event occurred to which it should react. For example, hardware timers send interrupts to the CPU at regular intervals. The `HLT` instruction is executed by the operating system when there is no immediate work to be done, and the system enters its idle state.

Lisp was the original language to make use of an `eval` function in 1958. In fact, definition of the `eval` function led to the first implementation of the language interpreter.John McCarthy, "History of Lisp - The Implementation of Lisp" Before the `eval` function was defined, Lisp functions were manually compiled to assembly language statements. However, once the `eval` function had been manually compiled it was then used as part of a simple read-eval-print loop which formed the basis of the first Lisp interpreter.

Assembly languages also have execution models, the same as any other language. Such an execution model is implemented by a CPU micro-architecture. For example, both a 5 stage in-order pipeline and a large out of order CPU implement the same assembly language execution model. The execution model is the definition of the behavior, so all implementations, whether in-order or out-of-order or interpreted or JIT'd etc.. must all give the exact same result, and that result is defined by the execution model.

He was able to conserve precious ROM space by writing routines in assembly language code optimized with "hacks," or clever programming tricks. In addition to the ROM, he also coded the kernel, the Macintosh Toolbox, and some of the desktop accessories (DAs). The icons of the operating system, which represent folders and application software, were designed by Susan Kare, who later designed the icons for Microsoft Windows 3.0. Bruce Horn and Steve Capps wrote the Macintosh Finder, as well as a number of Macintosh system utilities.

This is the full 8086/8088 instruction set of Intel. Most if not all of these instructions are available in 32-bit mode; they just operate on 32-bit registers (eax, ebx, etc.) and values instead of their 16-bit (ax, bx, etc.) counterparts. See also x86 assembly language for a quick tutorial for this processor family. The updated instruction set is also grouped according to architecture (i386, i486, i686) and more generally is referred to as x86 32 and x86 64 (also known as AMD64).

Christopher Crim, in his final year of high school in Bishop, California in 1984, was already an experienced programmer, having designed and sold a customer database system written in BASIC to a local newspaper for $100. Crim was a big fan of Ultima II and Ultima III, and decided to create a similar style of game for the Apple II using 6502 assembly language. His high-school friend Kevin Christiansen built the graphic routines. The result was a top- down fantasy game called Wrath of Denethenor.

Enthusiasts analyzed memory backups and discovered that entries in the calculator's CUSTOM menu pointed at specific memory locations. With this knowledge, a hack was devised where a special string could be inserted into the backup at the proper location to allow the calculator to execute assembly language programs. These programs could run much faster than their BASIC counterparts and be much more efficient in terms of memory usage. This development made the TI-85 the first TI graphing calculator that could execute assembly programs.

During the development cycle for QuickTime 3.0, part of the engineering team was working on a more advanced version of QuickTime to be known as QuickTime interactive or QTi. Although similar in concept to the wired movies feature released as part of QuickTime 3.0, QuickTime interactive was much more ambitious. It allowed any QuickTime movie to be a fully interactive and programmable container for media. A special track type was added that contained an interpreter for a custom programming language based on 68000 assembly language.

One feature of PRIMOS was that it, like UNIX, was largely written in a high level language (with callable assembly language library functions available). At first, this language was FORTRAN IV, which was an odd choice from a pure computer science standpoint: no pointers, no if-then-else, no native string type, etc.mentions that the Burroughs MCP operating system was written in ALGOL. FORTRAN was, however, the language most known to engineers, and engineers were a big market for Prime in their early years.

They decided on using the office environment as it made it easy to create real-life analogs for assembly language concepts that players could grasp, and making it easier for the player to build up the list of instructions. The game was fleshed out by developing the on-screen dialog of the supervisor explaining the task in language that was clear to understand but still has "a little bit of sassiness" to it, and that such language was used consistently across the whole game.

Davis with his parents, around 1994 Terrence Andrew Davis was born in West Allis, Wisconsin, later moving to Washington, Michigan, California and Arizona. He was the seventh of eight children, and his father was an industrial engineer. As a child, Davis used an Apple II at his elementary school, and as a teenager, learned assembly language on a Commodore 64. He earned a master's degree in electrical engineering from Arizona State University in 1994 and worked for several years at Ticketmaster as a programmer for VAX machines.

In 1983, former IBM sales executive Joe MacMillan joins Cardiff Electric, a Dallas-based mainframe software company. There, he enlists the help of computer engineer Gordon Clark to reverse engineer an IBM PC and reconstruct the assembly language code of its BIOS. Company owner Nathan Cardiff and vice president John Bosworth confront the two when the company is sued by IBM for copyright infringement. After Joe reveals that he told IBM about the project, Cardiff Electric is forced to legitimize it and enter the personal computing business.

Crt0 generally takes the form of an object file called , often written in assembly language, which is automatically included by the linker into every executable file it builds. contains the most basic parts of the runtime library. As such, the exact work it performs depends on the program's compiler, operating system and C standard library implementation. Beside the initialization work required by the environment and toolchain, can perform additional operations defined by the programmer, such as executing C++ global constructors and C functions carrying GCC's attribute.

Sibelius running on the Iyonix The software provides full 26-bit emulation for applications written in C and ARM assembly language. It employs an XScale- optimised ARM code interpreter, supports SWI emulation from to 5, flag preservation and creation of dynamic areas in low memory. Support for running A310Emu is included, allowing users to further emulate earlier versions of the OS, going back to Arthur. , due to the memory remapping employed, native 32-bit applications are restricted to a maximum size of 28Mb while Aemulor is running.

On an Intel Core 2 Quad (Q6600) CPU data encryption speed amounts to 104 MB/s per core. Crypto-algorithms for the x86 version are implemented in assembly language, the implementation having a maximum number of optimizations for the Intel Core line of processors, however it performs sufficiently fast on any other processor as well. Almost all possible enhancements to improve the performance have been applied such as the AES algorithm code is being dynamically generated with optimization made for the usage of a particular key.

RT-11 was written in assembly language. Heavy use of the conditional assembly and macro programming features of the MACRO-11 assembler allowed a significant degree of configurability and allowed programmers to specify high-level instructions otherwise unprovided for in machine code. RT-11 distributions included the source code of the operating system and its device drivers with all the comments removed and a program named "SYSGEN" which would build the operating system and drivers according to a user-specified configuration. Developer's documentation included a kernel listing that included comments.

Large amounts of free, user-contributed software for RT-11 were available from the Digital Equipment Computer Users Society (DECUS) including an implementation of C. Although the tools to develop and debug assembly-language programs were provided, other languages including C, Fortran, Pascal, and several versions of BASIC were available from DEC as "layered products" at extra cost. Versions of these and other programming languages were also available from other, third-party, sources. It is even possible to network RT-11 machines using DECNET, the Internet and protocols developed by other, third-party sources.

Shenzhen I/O is a puzzle video game set in the near future in which players assume the role of an electronics engineer who has emigrated to Shenzhen, China to work for fictional technology company Shenzhen Longteng Electronics. The player is tasked with creating products for clients, which involves constructing circuits and then writing code to run them. The programming language used in the game is similar to assembly language and the circuit elements resemble simplified versions of real-world electronics. The game allows players to create their own challenges by writing Lua scripts.

Model 204 (M204) is a database management system for IBM and compatible mainframe computers developed and commercialized by Computer Corporation of America. It was announced in 1965, and first deployed in 1972. It incorporates a programming language and an environment for application development. Implemented in assembly language for IBM System/360 and its successors, M204 can deal with very large databases"with Model 204 you get excellent performance, even with large databases and ... of America's largest companies— for financial applications, inventory control." and transaction loads of 1000 TPS.

Katz had a special flair for optimizing code: besides writing critical code in assembly language, he would write C code to perform the same task in several different ways and then examine the compiler output to see which produced the most efficient assembly code. He first publicly released only PKXARC, an extraction program, as freeware. Its much greater speed caused it to spread very quickly throughout the BBS community. Strong positive feedback and encouragement prompted Katz to release his compression program, PKARC, and eventually to make his software shareware.

This philosophy was later published as the GNU Manifesto in March 1985. Richard Stallman's experience with the Incompatible Timesharing System (ITS), an early operating system written in assembly language that became obsolete due to discontinuation of PDP-10, the computer architecture for which ITS was written, led to a decision that a portable system was necessary. It was thus decided that the development would be started using C and Lisp as system programming languages, and that GNU would be compatible with Unix. At the time, Unix was already a popular proprietary operating system.

Platinum River Raid cartridge, awarded June 27, 1983, for sales of 1,000,000 units Shaw left Atari in 1980 to work for Tandem Computers as an assembly language programmer, then joining Activision in 1982. Her first game was River Raid (1982) for the Atari 2600, which was inspired by the 1981 arcade game Scramble. The game was a major hit for Activision and personally lucrative for Shaw. Shaw also wrote Happy Trails (1983) for the Intellivision and ported River Raid to the Atari 8-bit family and Atari 5200.

All components of the system other than the Nucleus are written in managed C# and compiled by Bartok (originally developed for the Singularity project) into typed assembly language, which is verified by a TAL checker. The Nucleus implements a memory allocator and garbage collection, support for stack switching, and managing interrupt handlers. It is written in BoogiePL, which serves as input to MSR's Boogie verifier, which proves the Nucleus correct using the Z3 SMT solver. The Nucleus relies on the Kernel to implement threads, scheduling, synchronization, and to provide most interrupt handlers.

The kernel and device drivers were implemented in assembly language. One notable feature of TRIPOS/BCPL was its cultural use of shared libraries, untypical at the time, resulting in small and therefore fast loading utilities. For example, many of the standard system utilities were well below 0.5 Kbytes in size, compared to a typical minimum of about 20 Kbytes for functionally equivalent code on a modern Unix or Linux. TRIPOS was ported to a number of machines, including the Data General Nova 2, the Computer Automation LSI4, Motorola 68000 and Intel 8086- based hardware.

ARGUS was an Assembly Language devised in the 1960s by Honeywell for their Honeywell 800 and 1800 computers. The name ARGUS was an acronym standing for Automatic Routine Generating and Updating System.Company Sales Manual for the Honeywell 1800 As with other Assembly Languages, each line of ARGUS was copied on to one card and related to one word in memory, except that one ARGUS command, RESERVE, could reserve any specified number of words in the position specified. The RESERVE command was also exceptional in not prescribing the initial data in the reserved words.

Cross-architecture ports of HotSpot (OpenJDK's Virtual Machine) are difficult, because the code contains much assembly language, in addition to the C++ core. The IcedTea project has developed a generic port of the HotSpot interpreter called zero-assembler Hotspot (or zero), with almost no assembly code. This port is intended to allow the interpreter part of HotSpot to be very easily adapted to any Linux processor architecture. The code of zero- assembler Hotspot was used for all the non-x86 ports of HotSpot (PPC, IA-64, S390 and ARM) from version 1.6 of IcedTea7.

Software pipelining has been known to assembly language programmers of machines with instruction-level parallelism since such architectures existed. Effective compiler generation of such code dates to the invention of modulo scheduling by Rau and Glaeser.B.R. Rau and C.D. Glaeser, "Some scheduling techniques and an easily schedulable horizontal architecture for high performance scientific computing", In Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Workshop on Microprogramming (MICRO-14), December 1981, pages 183-198 Lam showed that special hardware is unnecessary for effective modulo scheduling. Her technique, modulo variable expansion is widely used in practice.

IBM Assembly Language Processor (ALP) is an assembler written by IBM for 32-bit OS/2 Warp (OS/2 3.0), which was released in 1994. ALP accepts source programs compatible with Microsoft Macro Assembler (MASM) version 5.1, which was originally used to build many of the device drivers included with OS/2. For OS/2 versions 3 and 4 ALP was distributed, along with other tools and documentation, as part of the Device Driver Kit (DDK). The DDK was withdrawn in 2004 as part of IBM's discontinuance of OS/2.

SPITFIRE was written in Turbo Pascal with Assembly Language routines. It was released in 1987 under the Shareware concept and had a moderate sized fanbase, only outnumbered by products such as RemoteAccess, TriBBS, PCBoard, Major BBS, and Wildcat! BBS. It was possible to run multiple "nodes" of SPITFIRE under Microsoft Windows and OS/2; although, most SysOps preferred to use Quarterdeck's DESQview for this purpose. SPITFIRE interfaced with message relaying systems such as FidoNet through 3rd party utilities such as SHILOH, a QWK networking interfacing program, and BCSUTI, a Postlink-style networking interface.

Most demos were written in 68000 assembly language, although a few were written in C and other languages. To utilize full hardware performance, Amiga demos were optimized and written entirely for one purpose in assembly (avoiding generic and portable code). Additional performance was achieved by utilizing several co-processors in parallel with the 68000. These co-processors include, Copper (a co-processor for synchronizing custom chipset writes to video display sync) and Blitter (a chip capable of quickly moving blocks of graphical data from one position on the screen to another).

For the most part, the only cards that claimed PS 1.1 functionality were by NVIDIA, and that is because they were built for it natively. When the Radeon 8500 was released, Microsoft released an update to Direct3D that included Pixel Shader 1.4, which was nothing more than a pseudo- assembly language version of the ATI-specific OpenGL extensions. The only cards that claimed PS 1.4 support were ATI cards because they were designed with the precise hardware needed to make that functionality happen. This situation existed only for a short time under both APIs.

CP-6 was modeled on Xerox's CP-V. The code was completely rewritten in a new high-level language, PL-6, designed and built expressly for that purpose, rather than in assembly language as CP-V had been, because of increasing complexities of the new virtual addressing hardware (such as that in Honeywell’s L66 and DPS 8 line). During the rewrite existing weaknesses were addressed and many new features added. Like CP-V, CP-6 had five access modes, which operated concurrently: batch processing, remote batch, timesharing, transaction processing, and real-time processing.

Specialized molecular dynamics programs, referred to as "FahCores" and often abbreviated "cores", perform the calculations on the work unit as a background process. A large majority of Folding@home's cores are based on GROMACS, one of the fastest and most popular molecular dynamics software packages, which largely consists of manually optimized assembly language code and hardware optimizations. Although GROMACS is open-source software and there is a cooperative effort between the Pande lab and GROMACS developers, Folding@home uses a closed-source license to help ensure data validity. Less active cores include ProtoMol and SHARPEN.

While still in high school, Benioff sold his first application, How to Juggle, for $75. At 15 years old, he founded Liberty Software, creating and selling games such as Flapper for the Atari 8-bit.Salesforce.com Developers Conference keynote, May 21, 2007 Epyx published his King Arthur's Heir, The Nightmare, Escape from Vulcan's Isle, and Crypt of the Undead, and by 16, Benioff was earning royalties of $1,500 a month, enough to pay for college. While at USC, Benioff had internships as an assembly language programmer at the Macintosh division of Apple Computer.

Comanche is a series of simulation games published by NovaLogic, later THQ Nordic after their acquisition. The goal of each of these games is to fly military missions in a RAH-66 Comanche attack helicopter, which was in development and prototyping at the time of release. Comanche was the first commercial flight simulation based on voxel technology via the company's proprietary Voxel Space engine (written entirely in assembly language). This rendering technique allowed for much more detailed and realistic terrain compared to simulations based on vector graphics at that time.

However, he had completed the assembly- language puzzle aspect, and decided to go ahead and refine only that portion as a full game. To finish off the game, he worked with Keith Holman to write the language's manual inspired by similar computer manuals of the time, and with Matthew Burns to craft a simple story around the game. They used concepts from a Mondo 2000 infographic based on cybertech fashions to write the tongue- in-cheek narrative for the game and manual. TIS-100 was released into Steam Early Access on June 1, 2015.

In 1982 MSC acquired rights to PCPaint from Microtex Industries, the first mouse- driven image manipulation program for the IBM PC, written in assembly language by Doug Wolfgram. Mouse Systems wanted the software re-developed to look more like Apple's MacPaint so Wolfgram brought in co-developer John Bridges and together they re-wrote the program in C with an updated user interface. Millions of copies were shipped, primarily bundled with all their mice until the early 1990s. , producer of the Genius brand of mice, acquired Mouse Systems in 1990.

Anyone could purchase a license, but the terms were very restrictive; licensees only received the source code, on an as-is basis. The licenses also included the machine-dependent parts of the kernel, written in PDP-11 assembly language. Copies of the Lions' Commentary on UNIX 6th Edition, with Source Code circulated widely, which led to considerable use of Unix as an educational example. The first meeting of Unix users took place in New York in 1974, attracting a few dozen people; this would later grow into the USENIX organization.

As opposed to the traditional multi-core processor architecture each individual cell in the microprocessor can communicate with each other, without the need to store intermediate results in memory registers. This removes the concept of assembly language instructions with sequential dependence, in favor of realizing a high level programming language directly on the computer hardware. The smallest indivisible unit is a set of instructions described in the triadic language. Each triad can describe an operation between references to other triads, rather than references to the current contents in memory registers.

Some software will only run on the DCR, due to dependencies on the computer's enhanced hardware features and revised ROMs. Despite the DCR's improved RGB video capabilities, Commodore did not enhance BASIC 7.0 with the ability to manipulate RGB graphics. Driving the VDC in graphics mode continues to require the use of calls to screen-editor ROM primitives or their assembly language equivalents, or by using third-party BASIC language extensions, such as Free Spirit Software's "BASIC 8", which adds high-resolution VDC graphics commands to BASIC 7.0.

A separate 32-or-64 bit family of floating-point types is supported. In addition to the bit-vector type, C-- also provides a Boolean type , which can be computed by expressions and used for control flow but cannot be stored in a register or in memory. As in an assembly language, any higher type discipline, such as distinctions between signed, unsigned, float, and pointer, is imposed by the C-- operators or other syntactic constructs in the language. C-- version 2 removes the distinction between bit-vector and floating-point types.

Per other games of the time, the Acorn Electron implementation required that part of the screen memory be used as working space. Colossus Chess featured time-controlled play with game clocks, an opening book with 3,000 positions, and problem-solving mode that could solve normal mates, selfmates and helpmates. (product manual) Pondering on opponent's time and a three-dimensional chessboard were introduced in Colossus Chess 4.0. All releases were written in the assembly language of the appropriate CPU; the ZX Spectrum version could examine an average of 170 positions per second.

DynamoRIO's API abstracts away the details of the virtualization process and focuses on monitoring or modifying the dynamic code stream of the program. A tool can insert trampolines into the program that invoke tool actions at specific program points. A tool can also insert instrumentation at the assembly language level, which provides fine-grained control over tool actions and tool performance. DynamoRIO supports adaptive optimization and adaptive instrumentation by allowing a tool to remove or modify its instrumentation at any point throughout the execution of the target program.

V810 adopts microprogram operation method for some instructions; floating-point arithmetic and bit string operations, while V850 is a hundred percent hardwired control method. As the result, for example, the first V850 does not have floating-point arithmetic and bit manipulation instruction sets; including the "find first one/zero" (search 1/0; SCH1x/SCH0x), except for "set/clr/negate a bit" (SET1/CLR1/NOT1). Those extended instruction sets are revived in V850E2x extensions. Though V800 Series adopts RISC instruction set architecture, their assembly language is hand-coding friendly.

He wrote both games in 6502 assembly language for the Apple II, though that system was in decline through the late 1980s and little new software was released by 1989. Initially, Prince of Persia sold poorly; however, as it was ported to other systems, sales increased. Eventually, it was adapted for nearly every computer and console platform. Following the completion of Prince of Persia, Mechner took several years off from the gaming industry, during which he attended film school, wrote an unproduced screenplay, and traveled Europe for two years.

Publications later released book/disk combinations that contained the complete commented source code (as well as the machine language in MLX format) for each platform. A version of SpeedScript for MS-DOS was created in 1988 by Randy Thompson and published in book form by Compute! Books. This version was written in Turbo Pascal with portions written in assembly language, and added incremental new features to the word processor such as additional printer commands, full cursor-control (to take advantage of the PC's Home, End, PgUp, and PgDn keys), and a native 80-column mode.

Douglas E. Smith (28 October 1960 – 7 September 2014) was a video game designer best known as the author of the 8-bit game Lode Runner (1983) considered a seminal work of the 1980s. Smith, of Renton, Washington, wrote his most famous game while an architecture student at the University of Washington. He wrote the core game over the course of a single weekend in 6502 assembly language on an Apple II+. He borrowed money to purchase a color monitor and joystick and continued to improve the game.

Color Dark Castle is the first computer game in the Dark Castle series developed after the rights were sold from Silicon Beach Software to Delta Tao in 1994. This game is essentially a remake of the original Dark Castle, in color. Delta Tao reported that they had to redo all the code from scratch (the original Dark Castle was written in assembly language); also, they added new rooms, a new difficulty, and an alleged "Secret Level". Since this is a remake, the sequel to it would be Beyond Dark Castle.

Wheeler was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1981, and received a Computer Pioneer Award in 1985 for his contributions to assembly language programming. In 1994 he was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery. In 2003, he was named a Computer History Museum Fellow Award recipient "for his invention of the closed subroutine, and for his architectural contributions to ILLIAC, the Cambridge Ring, and computer testing." The Computer Laboratory at the University of Cambridge annually holds the "Wheeler Lecture", a series of distinguished lectures named after him.

A NeXTstation computer Doom was programmed largely in the ANSI C language, with a few elements in assembly language, on NeXT computers running the NeXTSTEP operating system. The data, including level designs and graphics files, is stored in WAD files, short for "Where's All the Data". This allows for any part of the design to be changed without needing to adjust the engine code. Carmack had been impressed by the modifications made by fans of Wolfenstein 3D, and wanted to support that with an easily swappable file structure, and released the map editor online.

Programming in assembly language requires the programmer to keep track of the representation of numbers. Where the processor does not support a required mathematical operation, the programmer must work out a suitable algorithm and instruction sequence to carry out the operation; on some microprocessors, even integer multiplication must be done in software. High- level programming languages such as LISP and Python offer an abstract number that may be an expanded type such as rational, bignum, or complex. Mathematical operations are carried out by library routines provided by the implementation of the language.

The technical complexity of King's Quest made it a burden to write in assembly language, so the programmers created a game engine to simplify development. The engine comprised a bespoke programming language called the Game Adaptation Language, a compiler, and a bytecode interpreter (the Adventure Game Interpreter). The Game Adaptation Language was a high- level programming language that resembled C. This was compiled into bytecode, which was executed by the interpreter. Like Sierra's earlier adventure titles, such as Wizard and the Princess (1980), AGI games used vector graphics.

As the 2600 uses the 6507, a variant of the MOS Technology 6502 chip, as its CPU, most homebrews released are written in 6502 assembly language. However, in 2007, developer Fred X. Quimby ("batari" on Atari fandom forums) released a compiler, Batari Basic which allows developers to create 2600 games in BASIC, a high-level programming language. Game designer and Georgia Institute of Technology associate professor Ian Bogost has used Batari Basic in his classes to teach students video game concepts and history. An integrated development environment (IDE), Visual Batari Basic, is also available.

In contrast, Johnson's pccm was based on a yacc-generated parser and used a more general target machine model. Both compilers produced target-specific assembly language code which they then assembled to produce linkable object modules. Later versions of PCC, known within Bell Labs as "QCC" and "RCC," supported other target architecture models. The language that PCC implemented was an extended version of K&R; C that Bjarne Stroustrup has called "Classic C", incorporating the `void` return type (for functions that don't return any value), enumerations and structure assignment.

These initial subsystems were coded in assembly language on the GECOS system and assembled, then the output physically put on punched tapes to be carried over and inserted into the PDP-7. Thompson then wrote an assembler for the PDP-7 to avoid this laborious process. The game ran very slowly on the new machine, causing Thompson to branch out from there to design his own file system based on some ideas by Dennis Ritchie and Rudd Canaday, rooted in their experience with the Multics file system, with which he then ran Space Travel.

Business Application Language (BAL) refers to one of many offshoots of the BASIC language and should not be confused with IBM's well-established Basic assembly language. Business Application Language was originally defined by Honeywell in 1973 and the major diffusion was in their system '80-'90 in Europe with the work of French firm Prologue S.A. that used BAL for programming on their proprietary Operative System (Prologue). In 1986 the language was ported to the Unix platform by GuyPes. The first development environment, named Balix, are distributed starting in 1988 in Italy and France.

Coral 66 is a general-purpose programming language based on ALGOL 60, with some features from Coral 64, JOVIAL, and Fortran. It includes structured record types (as in Pascal) and supports the packing of data into limited storage (also as in Pascal). Like Edinburgh IMP it allows inline (embedded) assembly language, and also offers good runtime checking and diagnostics. It is designed for real-time computing and embedded system applications, and for use on computers with limited processing power, including those limited to fixed-point arithmetic and those without support for dynamic storage allocation.

Like most computers from the late 1970s and 1980s, the Commodore 64 came with a version of the BASIC programming language. It was used for both writing software and for performing the duties of an operating system such as loading software and formatting disks. The onboard BASIC programming language offered no easy way to tap the machine's advanced graphics and sound capabilities. Accessing these associated memory addresses to make use of the advanced features required using the PEEK and POKE commands, third-party BASIC extensions, such as Simons' BASIC, or to program in assembly language.

Microcode simplified the job by allowing much of the processor's behaviour and programming model to be defined via microprogram routines rather than by dedicated circuitry. Even late in the design process, microcode could easily be changed, whereas hard-wired CPU designs were very cumbersome to change. Thus, this greatly facilitated CPU design. From the 1940s to the late 1970s, a large portion of programming was done in assembly language; higher-level instructions mean greater programmer productivity, so an important advantage of microcode was the relative ease by which powerful machine instructions can be defined.

In the 1970s, analysis of high-level languages indicated some complex machine language implementations and it was determined that new instructions could improve performance. Some instructions were added that were never intended to be used in assembly language but fit well with compiled high-level languages. Compilers were updated to take advantage of these instructions. The benefits of semantically rich instructions with compact encodings can be seen in modern processors as well, particularly in the high-performance segment where caches are a central component (as opposed to most embedded systems).

During the 1960s, Ritchie and Ken Thompson worked on the Multics operating system at Bell Labs. Thompson then found an old PDP-7 machine and developed his own application programs and operating system from scratch, aided by Ritchie and others. In 1970, Brian Kernighan suggested the name "Unix", a pun on the name "Multics". To supplement assembly language with a system-level programming language, Thompson created B. Later, B was replaced by C, created by Ritchie, who continued to contribute to the development of Unix and C for many years.

The Sharp PC-1600 was a pocket computer introduced by Sharp in 1986 as a successor to the PC-1500. The PC-1600 provided compatibility with its predecessor through the use of a slave CPU that could run assembly language programs targeting the older machine. It could also switch into a compatibility mode so that programs written for the single line display of the PC-1500 could work with the four line display of the PC-1600. PC-1500 peripherals such as the CE-150 cassette interface were also supported.

Nigel Horspool is British by birth, but is now a citizen of Canada. After a public school education at Monmouth School, he studied at Pembroke College, Cambridge where he received a BA in Natural Science, but specializing in Theoretical Physics, in 1969. After two years employment as an assembly language programmer on a partially successful air traffic control system project, he went to the University of Toronto for an MSc followed by a PhD in computer science. This was followed by seven years as an assistant professor and then an associate professor at McGill University.

As SNOBOL3 became more popular the authors received more and more requests for extensions to the language. They also began to receive complaints about incompatibility and bugs in versions that they hadn't written. To address this and to take advantage of the new computers being introduced in the late 1960s, the decision was taken to develop SNOBOL4 with many extra datatypes and features but based on a virtual machine to allow improved portability across computers.See Chapter 1 of The Macro Implementation of SNOBOL4 The SNOBOL4 language translator was still written in assembly language.

The game was to be called White Knuckle for the majority of the game's development. However, to follow the tradition of the Tycoon titles, the game was renamed accordingly. The game was developed in a small village near Dunblane over the course of two years. Sawyer wrote 99% of the code for RollerCoaster Tycoon in x86 assembly language, with the remaining one percent written in C.Frequently Asked Questions: about Chris Sawyer & Game Development The graphics were designed by artist Simon Foster using several 3D modeling, rendering, and paint programs.

In the early years the DCP did have an assembler (Dacoma), an application program called DCPProgen written in B6500 ALGOL. Later the NDL (Network Definition Language) compiler generated the DCP code and NDF (network definition file). There was one ALGOL function for each kind of DCP instruction, and if you called that function then the corresponding DCP instruction bits would be emitted to the output. A DCP program was an ALGOL program comprising nothing but a long list of calls on these functions, one for each assembly language statement.

PC Magazine wrote that CP/M-86 "in several ways seems better fitted to the PC" than DOS; however, for those who did not plan to program in assembly language, because it cost six times more "CP/M seems a less compelling purchase". It stated that CP/M-86 was strong in areas where DOS was weak, and vice versa, and that the level of application support for each operating system would be most important, although CP/M-86's lack of a run- time version for applications was a weakness.

The concepts of file- and core- residency were also made obsolete, due to a z/TPF design point which sought to have all programs resident in memory at all times. Since z/TPF had to maintain a call stack for high-level language programs, which gave HLL programs the ability to benefit from stack-based memory allocation, it was deemed beneficial to extend the call stack to assembly language programs on an optional basis, which can ease memory pressure and ease recursive programming. All z/TPF executable programs are now packaged as ELF shared objects.

In x86 assembly language the mode is entered when AL is 13h, AH is 0 and BIOS INT 10h is executed. However, the "h" is sometimes dropped for languages that don't support that method of notation; for example, it is known as screen mode 13 in QuickBasic and its spinoffs. QuickBASIC has its own screen mode numbering scheme, and many QuickBASIC screen modes have numbers which differ from the BIOS modes on which they are based.A major example is QuickBASIC screen mode 0, which covers all of the BIOS text modes 00h..03h.

The standard does not take into account important > embedded systems issues such as read only memory and embedded assembly > language. For this reason, practical compilers intended for embedded systems > do not completely comply with the standard, but use it as a guide. As an example of an addition, Dynamic C has a chaining mechanism to chain fragments of code from different subroutines to an arbitrary number of chains. This extension permits the use of not only initialized variables, but any arbitrary code to execute before a program starts execution in the main function.

The Motorola 68000 family had the 68881/68882 coprocessors which provided similar floating-point speed acceleration as for the Intel processors. Computers using the 68000 family but not equipped with the hardware floating point processor could trap and emulate the floating-point instructions in software, which, although slower, allowed one binary version of the program to be distributed for both cases. The 68451 memory-management coprocessor was designed to work with the 68020 processor.William Ford, William R. Topp Assembly language and systems programming for the M68000 family Jones & Bartlett Learning, 1992 page 892 and ff.

Symbolic debuggers have existed since the mainframe era, almost since the first introduction of suitable computer displays on which to display the symbolic debugging information (and even earlier with symbolic dumps on paper). They were not restricted to high level compiled languages and were available also for Assembly language programs. For the IBM/360, these produced object code (on request) that included "SYM cards". These were usually ignored by the program loader but were useful to a symbolic debugger as they were kept on the same program library as the executable logic code.

In computer engineering and low-level programming (such as assembly language), an offset usually denotes the number of address locations added to a base address in order to get to a specific absolute address. In this (original) meaning of offset, only the basic address unit, usually the 8-bit byte, is used to specify the offset's size. In this context an offset is sometimes called a relative address. In IBM System/360 instructions, a 12-bit offset embedded within certain instructions provided a range of between 0 and 4096 bytes.

The data switches provided input to the CPU for various functions, and could also be read by a running program using the READS assembly language instruction. To reduce panel clutter and save money, the function switches were implemented as two-way momentary switches. When a function switch lever was lifted, it triggered the function whose name was printed above the switch on the panel; when the lever was pressed down, it activated the function whose name appeared below the switch. The switch lever returned to a neutral position when released.

According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional proprietary means, it would have cost about $ ( US dollars) to develop in the United States. Most of the source code (71%) was written in the C programming language, but many other languages were used, including C++, Lisp, assembly language, Perl, Python, Fortran, and various shell scripting languages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.

The flight and ground- testing software also required research. In 1983 the Buran developers estimated that the software development would require several thousand programmers if done with their existing methodology (in assembly language), and they appealed to Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics for assistance. It was decided to develop a new high-level "problem-oriented" programming language. Researchers at Keldysh developed two languages: PROL2 (used for real-time programming of onboard systems) and DIPOL (used for the ground-based test systems), as well as the development and debugging environment SAPO PROLOGUE.

This difference is what distinguishes an API-invoked execution model, such as Pthreads, from a usual software library. Both Pthreads calls and software library calls are invoked via an API, but Pthreads behavior cannot be understood in terms of the language of the call. Rather, Pthreads calls bring into play an outside execution model, which is implemented by the Pthreads runtime system (this runtime system is often the OS kernel). As an extreme example, the physical CPU itself can be viewed as an implementation of the runtime system of a specific assembly language.

Another notable "feature" of the 71B was that HP sold to the public a series of documents (IDS: Internal Design Specification) containing the nearly complete internal engineering details of the unit. A series of four IDSes were published about the software contained in the 71B's ROM; this included the complete source code (in assembly language) for the entire contents of ROM, and extensive additional design documentation of the ROM software. Other IDSes were released covering the 71B's hardware, the Forth/Assembler add-in ROM, and the add-in HP-IL controller.

Several compilers are available for the Nintendo Entertainment System, but like the Atari 2600, most development directly applies assembly language. One impediment to NES Homebrew development is the relative difficulty involved with producing physical cartridges, although third-party flash carts do exist, making Homebrew possible on original NES hardware. Several varieties of custom processors are used within NES cartridges to expand system capabilities; most are difficult to replicate except by scavenging old cartridges. The hardware lockout mechanism of the NES further complicates the construction of usable physical cartridges.

Zork was ported, under the filename DUNGEN ("dungeon"), to FORTRAN by a programmer working at DEC in 1978. In 1978 Roy Trubshaw, a student at the University of Essex in the UK, started working on a multi-user adventure game in the MACRO-10 assembly language for a DEC PDP-10. He named the game MUD (Multi-User Dungeon), in tribute to the Dungeon variant of Zork, which Trubshaw had greatly enjoyed playing. Trubshaw converted MUD to BCPL (the predecessor of C), before handing over development to Richard Bartle, a fellow student at the University of Essex, in 1980.

Robert McLachlan was born in Christchurch, New Zealand in 1964, and studied mathematics at the University of Canterbury, graduating with a BSc (Hons) First Class in 1984. One formative experience was in his last year of high school, where he had free rein to experiment with assembly language programming on the school PDP-11/10. McLachlan went on to graduate work in numerical analysis in 1986. He received a PhD from Caltech (the California Institute of Technology) in 1990, supervised by Herbert Keller in computational fluid dynamics, with a thesis titled "Separated Viscous Flows via Multigrid".

The Butterfly can be freely reprogrammed using the same toolchains as for many other AVR controllers, for example using the Atmel AVR assembly language or the free integrated development environment (IDE) Atmel Studio for programming in C. A pre- installed bootloader allows the board to be re-programmed with a standard RS-232 serial port, requiring no special hardware. The board also has ISP and JTAG ports for in-circuit programming and debugging. All of these interfaces are implemented only as open soldering points, so the addition of some hardware is necessary to make them usable.

An embedded-application binary interface (EABI) specifies standard conventions for file formats, data types, register usage, stack frame organization, and function parameter passing of an embedded software program, for use with an embedded operating system. Compilers that support the EABI create object code that is compatible with code generated by other such compilers, allowing developers to link libraries generated with one compiler with object code generated with another compiler. Developers writing their own assembly language code may also interface with assembly generated by a compliant compiler. EABIs are designed to optimize for performance within the limited resources of an embedded system.

This was followed by the Intel 8080, and then the hugely successful Intel x86 family. One of the first teams to build a complete system around the 8008 was Bill Pentz' team at California State University, Sacramento. The Sac State 8008 was possibly the first true microcomputer, with a disk operating system built with IBM Basic assembly language in PROM, all driving a color display, hard drive, keyboard, modem, audio/paper tape reader and printer. The project started in the spring of 1972, and with key help from Tektronix the system was fully functional a year later.

The operating system and its programmes were written in Intel 8086 assembly language and C. When the operating system started, it opened the pre-installed programmes in advance so that the system could switch between them quickly. To enable users to write and run their own programmes, EPOC featured an updated version of the Organiser Programming Language (OPL), which was first published with the Psion Organiser. OPL was a simple interpreted language not unlike BASIC. In 1989, Psion released the first 16-bit computers to be equipped with the new operating system: the MC200, MC400, and MC600 notebooks.

Z80 assembly language can be programmed on the computer and sent to the calculator via USB port, written by hand directly into the program editor (using the hexadecimal equivalents to the op-codes) or compiled using third party compiler programs. Programs written in assembly are much faster and more efficient than those using TI-BASIC, as it is the processor's native language, and does not have to be interpreted. An example program that displays "Hello World!" on the screen is given. Note that b_call() is not an instruction, but a macro (syntactic sugar) for calling an OS routine. .

Within microprocessors and other logic devices, collections of bit fields called "flags" are commonly used to control or to indicate the intermediate state or outcome of particular operations. Microprocessors typically have a status register that is composed of such flags, used to indicate various post- operation conditions, for example an arithmetic overflow. The flags can be read and used to decide subsequent operations, such as in processing conditional jump instructions. For example, a JE ... (Jump if Equal) instruction in the x86 assembly language will result in a jump if the Z (zero) flag was set by some previous operation.

JOSS was implemented almost entirely by J. Clifford Shaw, a mathematician who worked in Rand's growing computation division. It was written in a symbolic assembly language called EasyFox (E and F in the US military's phonetic alphabet of that time), also developed by Shaw. The JOSS system was brought up formally for the first time in May 1963, supporting five consoles, one in the machine room and another four in offices around the building. The early consoles were based in the IBM Model 868 Transmitting Typewriter, as the Selectric had not yet been introduced to market when development began.

Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie, principal developers of Research Unix Photo from USENIX 1984, including Dennis Ritchie (center) Plan 9 from Bell Labs extends Unix design principles and was developed as a successor to Unix. The Unix system had a significant impact on other operating systems. It achieved its reputation by its interactivity, by providing the software at a nominal fee for educational use, by running on inexpensive hardware, and by being easy to adapt and move to different machines. Unix was originally written in assembly language, but was soon rewritten in C, a high-level programming language.

Transaction Interface Package (TIP), a transaction-processing environment, allowed programs to be written in COBOL whereas similar programs on competing systems were written in assembly language. On later systems, EXEC 8 was renamed OS 1100 and OS 2200, with modern descendants maintaining backwards compatibility. Some more exotic operating systems ran on the 1108—one of which was RTOS, a more bare-bones system designed to take better advantage of the hardware. The affordable System 80 series of small mainframes ran the OS/3 operating system which originated on the Univac 90/30 (and later 90/25, and 90/40).

Villani had already been working on a DOS- like operating system for use in embedded systems for some while before the advent of FreeDOS. His efforts started when he developed an MS-DOS 3.1-compatible interface emulator to write device drivers in the C high-level language instead of in assembly language, as was the usual approach at that time. This interface emulator grew into a minimal operating system named XDOS around 1988. He added an IPL to set up a boot environment before loading the actual operating system and developed an MS-DOS-compatible frontend API to applications.

Best-selling novelist and director Michael Crichton was a computer hobbyist who taught himself the programming language BASIC. In the early 1980s he, programmer Stephen Warady, and artist David Durand began developing an Apple II graphic adventure game based on Crichton's novel Congo; he sometimes programmed game sequences which Warady converted into much faster assembly language. They worked on the project for 18 months and, before Crichton found a publisher, Spinnaker Software approached him about adapting his novels for its Telarium division's new "bookware" games. The author revealed the game, amazing Spinnaker, and signed a contract in late 1983.

While assembly language libraries are not new, a language that includes a large standardized library makes programmers far more likely to use such library code rather than simply writing their own library functions. HLA supports all the same low-level machine instructions as other x86 assemblers. Further, HLA's high-level control structures are based on the ones found in MASM and TASM, which HLL-like features predated the arrival of HLA by several years. In HLA, low-level assembly code can be written as easily as with any other assembler by simply ignoring the HLL-control constructs.

Its purpose was to produce simple ad hoc reports similar to those created with a plugboard on a punched card tabulator, bypassing the necessity to write an assembly language program in PLAN. It required only a few cards to specify the input and output formats, headings, sequencing and totalling. LITA could not be described as a programming language as it only required run-time parameters indicating field types and locations in records and no compilation. In those days there was no concern by Morgan's regarding ownership or copyright when Barnard left to further develop the software as Filetab.

On the November 2007 SSDF ratings list, Crafty was 34th with an estimated Elo rating of 2608. Crafty uses the Chess Engine Communication Protocol and can run under the popular chess interfaces XBoard and Winboard Crafty is written in ANSI C with assembly language routines available on some CPUs, and is very portable. The source code is available, but the software is for "personal use" only and redistribution is only allowed under certain conditions. Crafty pioneered the use of rotated bitboard data structures to represent the chess board, and was one of the first chess programs to support multiple processors.

These properties make the x87 stack usable as seven freely addressable registers plus a dedicated accumulator (or as seven independent accumulators). This is especially applicable on superscalar x86 processors (such as the Pentium of 1993 and later), where these exchange instructions (codes D9C8..D9CFh) are optimized down to a zero clock penalty by using one of the integer paths for FXCH ST(x) in parallel with the FPU instruction. Despite being natural and convenient for human assembly language programmers, some compiler writers have found it complicated to construct automatic code generators that schedule x87 code effectively.

Cheswick's early career included contracting in Bethlehem, PA between 1975 and 1977. He was a Programmer for American Newspaper Publishers Association / Research Institute in Easton, PA between 1976 and 1977 and a Systems Programmer for Computer Sciences Corporation in Warminster, PA between 1977 and 1978. Following this, Cheswick joined Systems and Computer Technology Corporation where he served as a Systems Programmer and Consultant between 1978 and 1987. Much of Cheswick's early career was related to his expertise with Control Data Corporation (CDC) mainframes, their operating systems such as SCOPE and NOS, and the related COMPASS assembly language.

In IBM System/360 through present day z/Architecture, an address constant or "adcon" is an assembly language data type which contains the address of a location in computer memory. An address constant can be one, two, three or four bytes long, although an adcon of less than four bytes is conventionally used to hold an expression for a small integer such as a length, a relative address, or an index value, and does not represent an address at all. Address constants are defined using an assembler language "DC" statement. Other computer systems have similar facilities, although different names may be used.

Thompson's account may explain the belief that grep was written overnight. (35 mins) Thompson wrote the first version in PDP-11 assembly language to help Lee E. McMahon analyze the text of the Federalist Papers to determine authorship of the individual papers.Computerphile, Where GREP Came From, interview with Brian Kernighan The ed text editor (also authored by Thompson) had regular expression support but could not be used on such a large amount of text, so Thompson excerpted that code into a standalone tool. He chose the name because in ed, the command g/re/p would print all lines matching a specified pattern.

C-- is a "portable assembly language", designed to ease the task of implementing a compiler which produces high quality machine code. This is done by having the compiler generate C-- code, delegating the harder work of low-level code generation and optimisation to a C-- compiler. Work on C-- began in the late 1990s. Since writing a custom code generator is a challenge in itself, and the compiler back ends available to researchers at that time were complex and poorly documented, several projects had written compilers which generated C code (for instance, the original Modula-3 compiler).

This is a list of assemblers: computer programs that translate assembly language source code into binary programs. Some assemblers are components of a compiler system for a high level language and may have limited or no usable functionality outside of the compiler system. Some assemblers are hosted on the target processor and operating system, while other assemblers (cross- assemblers) may run under an unrelated operating system or processor. For example, assemblers for embedded systems are not usually hosted on the target system since it would not have the storage and terminal I/O to permit entry of a program from a keyboard.

Other dialects such as Denver Tiny BASIC (DTB) and Palo Alto Tiny BASIC were direct interpreters. Some programmers, such as Fred Greeb with DTB, treated the IL (Interpretive Language) program as pseudocode for the algorithm to implement in assembly language; Denver Tiny BASIC did not use a virtual machine, but it did closely follow the IL program. This is a representative excerpt from the 120-line IL program: S1: TST S3,'GO' ;GOTO OR GOSUB? TST S2,'TO' ;YES...TO, OR...SUB CALL EXPR ;GET LABEL DONE ;ERROR IF CR NOT NEXT XFER ;SET UP AND JUMP S3: TST S8,'PRINT' ;PRINT.

A stand-alone program, also known as a freestanding program, is a computer program that does not load any external module, library function or program and that is designed to boot with the bootstrap procedure of the target processor – it runs on bare metal. In early computers like the ENIAC without the concept of an operating system, standalone programs were the only way to run a computer. Standalone programs are usually written in or compiled to the assembly language for the specific hardware. Later standalone programs typically were provided for utility functions such as disk formatting.

There are several main ways to express a data value that doesn't change during program execution that are consistent across a wide variety of programming languages. One very basic way is by simply writing a literal number, character, or string into the program code, which is straightforward in C, C++, and similar languages. In assembly language, literal numbers and characters are done using the "immediate mode" instructions available on most microprocessors. The name "immediate" comes from the values being available immediately from the instruction stream, as opposed to loading them indirectly by looking up a memory address.

Printed circuit board routing provided by FreeRouting.net. Software is developed in Z80/8085 assembly language using the MS-DOS Telemark Cross Assembler program (TASM), as well as the open source Small Device C Compiler. A major design goal is to use freely available tools to the maximum extent possible. The printed circuit board design is supplemented using component libraries available at KiCad Libraries, specifically the Zilog Z80 CPU and Intel 8255 PPI chips. The design philosophy encourages low cost development and assembly by hobbyist amateurs using common tools such as 25 watt soldering iron, multimeter, logic probe (optional), and common hand tools.

Tools which allow for programming the calculators in C/C++ and possibly Fortran and assembly language are used on the computer side, such as HPGCC, TIGCC and others. Flash memory is another means of conveyance of information to and from the calculator. The on-board BASIC variants in TI graphing calculators and the languages available on HP-48 type calculators can be used for rapid prototyping by developers, professors, and students, often when a computer is not close at hand. Most graphing calculators have on-board spreadsheets which usually integrate with Microsoft Excel on the computer side.

Most American upper-level middle school algebra courses generally tend to use the TI-83 or TI-84 families instead of the TI-73 or TI-73 Explorer, while most basic middle school math courses generally do not use graphing calculators, instead opting for scientific calculators such as the TI-30 or TI-34 families. Originally the TI-73 could only run programs written in TI-BASIC, although that has changed in recent years. In 2005 an assembly shell called Mallard was released for the TI-73. Mallard allows the user to run programs written in assembly language.

L4 is a family of second-generation microkernels, generally used to implement Unix-like operating systems, but also used in a variety of other systems. L4, like its predecessor L3 microkernel, was created by German computer scientist Jochen Liedtke as a response to the poor performance of earlier microkernel- based operating systems. Liedtke felt that a system designed from the start for high performance, rather than other goals, could produce a microkernel of practical use. His original implementation in hand-coded Intel i386-specific assembly language code in 1993 sparked intense interest in the computer industry.

Today, PSL is mainly developed by and available from Konrad-Zuse-Zentrum für Informationstechnik Berlin (ZIB). Its main modern use is as the underlying language for implementations of Reduce. Like most older Lisps, in the first step, PSL compiles Lisp code to LAP code, which is another cross-platform language. However, where older lisps mostly compiled LAP directly to assembly language or some architecture dependent intermediate, PSL compiles the LAP to C code, which would run in a virtual machine language; so programs written in it are as portable as C in principle, which is very portable.

In 1978 Martin Marietta programmer Wayne Ratliff wrote Vulcan, a database application, to help him make picks for football pools. Written in Intel 8080 assembly language, it ran on the CP/M operating system and was modeled on JPLDIS, a Univac 1108 program used at JPL and written by fellow programmer Jeb Long. Ashton-Tate was launched as a result of George Tate and Hal Lashlee having discovered Vulcan from Ratliff in 1981 and licensing it (there was never any Ashton). The original agreement was written on one page, and called for simple, generous royalty payments to Ratliff.

Bill Stewart, (né William C. Stewart) (1950 in Memphis, TN - August 2009), founded Stewart Software Company, Memphis, TN in 1984 and marketed Z80 Assembly Language programs, notably TOOLKIT and the ONLINE 80 Bulletin Board System, for Radio Shack TRS-80 Computers running TRSDOS. Later that company became Stewart Computer & Supply, Inc. Switching to 8088 Assembly under IBM PC DOS and MS-DOS many programs in shareware and commercial distribution were released. His Shareware FREE.COM was cited as a top 10 PC utility in PC Magazine,"The Utilities That DOS Forgot", Paul Somerson, PC Magazine, Feb 24, 1987 v6 n4 p176(2). Elec. Coll.

Thereby, the previously loaded DOS environment including all its device drivers became part of the system domain under the multitasker. Unless specific protected mode virtual device drivers were loaded, hardware access got tunneled through this 16-bit sub-system by default. For maximum speed at minimum resource footprint, the DR DOS BIOS, BDOS kernel, device drivers, memory managers and the multitasker were written in pure x86 assembly language. Apple's port of System 7.1 would run on top of this high-performance yet light-weight hybrid 32-bit/16-bit protected mode multitasking environment as a graphical system and shell in user space.

A complete system could be constructed for under with the purchase of the kit for only , and then adding a power supply, a used terminal and a cassette tape drive. Many books were available demonstrating small assembly language programs for the KIM, including The First Book of KIM by Jim Butterfield et al. One demo program converted the KIM into a music box by toggling a software-controllable output bit connected to a small loudspeaker. Canadian programmer Peter R. Jennings produced what was probably the first game for microcomputers to be sold commercially, Microchess, originally for the KIM-1.

For historical reasons, some organizations use the term systems programmer to describe a job function which would be more accurately termed systems administrator. This is particularly true in organizations whose computer resources have historically been dominated by mainframes, although the term is even used to describe job functions which do not involve mainframes. This usage arose because administration of IBM mainframes often involved the writing of custom assembler code (IBM's Basic Assembly Language (BAL)), which integrated with the operating system such as OS/MVS, DOS/VSE or VM/CMS. Indeed, some IBM software products had substantial code contributions from customer programming staff.

The Individual Master File (IMF) is the system currently used by the United States Internal Revenue Service (IRS) to store and process tax submissions and used as the main data input to process the IRS's transactions. It is a running record of all of a person's individual tax events including refunds, payments, penalties and tax payer status. It is a batch-driven application that uses VSAM files. Written in assembly language and COBOL, the IMF was originally created by IBM for the IRS in the 1960s to run with an IBM System/360 and associated tape storage system.

The IMF system began operation in the 1960s and is still used today, and is considered well overdue for modernization. Portions of the system are programmed in COBOL and others directly in assembly language. In a 2018 report to Congress, the Government Accountability Office identified the IMF and other IT systems at the IRS as "facing significant risks due to their reliance on legacy programming languages, outdated hardware, and a shortage of human resources with critical skills". The IMF and other legacy systems have been named as obstacles that prevent the IRS from acting quickly in exigent circumstances.

With increasing exposure to computing, however, his focus began to shift. As he recalled: When Dijkstra married Maria (Ria) C. Debets in 1957, he was required as a part of the marriage rites to state his profession. He stated that he was a programmer, which was unacceptable to the authorities, there being no such profession then in The Netherlands. In 1959, he received his PhD from the University of Amsterdam for a thesis entitled 'Communication with an Automatic Computer', devoted to a description of the assembly language designed for the first commercial computer developed in the Netherlands, the X1.

Other popular BBS's were Maximus and Opus, with some associated applications such as BinkleyTerm being based on characters from the Berkley Breathed cartoon strip of Bloom County. Though most BBS software had been written in BASIC or Pascal (with some low-level routines written in assembly language), the C language was starting to gain popularity. By 1995, many of the DOS-based BBSes had begun switching to modern multitasking operating systems, such as OS/2, Windows 95, and Linux. One of the first graphics based BBS applications was Excalibur BBS with a low bandwidth applications that required its own client for efficiency.

The Micro-Professor MPF-I, introduced in 1981 by Multitech (which, in 1987, changed its name to Acer), was the first branded computer product from Multitech and probably one of the world's longest selling computers. The MPF-I, specifically designed to teach the fundamentals of machine code and assembly language, is a simple and easy to use training system for the Zilog Z80 microprocessor. The MPF-I does not look like a typical Microcomputer. It is enclosed in a vacuum formed plastic book case often used to store a copy of a language textbook, two audio cassettes, and a training manual.

Although it was possible to obtain compilers for Locomotive BASIC, C and Pascal, the majority of the CPC's software was written in native Z80 assembly language. Popular assemblers were Hisoft's Devpac, Arnor's Maxam, and (in France) DAMS. Disk- based CPC (not Plus) systems shipped with an interpreter for the educational language LOGO, booted from CP/M 2.2 but largely CPC-specific with much code resident in the AMSDOS ROM; 6128 machines also include a CP/M 3.1, non-ROM version. A C compiler was also written and made available for the European market through Tandy Europe, by Micro Business products.

Vala is an object-oriented programming language with a self-hosting compiler that generates C code and uses the GObject system. Vala is syntactically similar to C# and includes notable features such as anonymous functions, signals, properties, generics, assisted memory management, exception handling, type inference, and foreach statements. Its developers, Jürg Billeter and Raffaele Sandrini, wanted to bring these features to the plain C runtime with little overhead and no special runtime support by targeting the GObject object system. Rather than compiling directly to machine code or assembly language, it compiles to a lower-level intermediate language.

Information Processing Language (IPL) is a programming language created by Allen Newell, Cliff Shaw, and Herbert A. Simon at RAND Corporation and the Carnegie Institute of Technology about 1956. Newell had the job of language specifier-application programmer, Shaw was the system programmer, and Simon had the job of application programmer-user. The code includes features intended to help with programs that perform simple problem solving actions such as lists, dynamic memory allocation, data types, recursion, functions as arguments, generators, and cooperative multitasking. IPL invented the concept of list processing, albeit in an assembly-language style.

The earliest, and still the canonical example of an esoteric language was INTERCAL,Matthew Fuller, Software Studies, MIT Press, 2008 designed in 1972 by Don Woods and James M. Lyon, with the stated intention of being unlike any other programming language the authors were familiar with. It parodied elements of established programming languages of the day, such as Fortran, COBOL, and assembly language. For many years INTERCAL was represented only by paper copies of the INTERCAL manual. The language's revival in 1990 as an implementation in C under Unix stimulated a wave of interest in the intentional design of esoteric computer languages.

All four of these computers ran versions of Rocky Mountain BASIC. These computers were often used as controllers for HP automatic test equipment, connected via the HP Instrument Bus, (HP-IB). HP wanted to provide a programming language that would be friendly to the engineers and scientists who used such test equipment. The BASIC programming language was chosen, as it was already intended to be easy for novices; knowledgeable users could also program them in assembly language or a version of Pascal. Early implementations of RMB software on the HP 9000 platform were called "HP BASIC/WS".

Color BASIC is the implementation of Microsoft BASIC that is included in the ROM of the Tandy/Radio Shack TRS-80 Color Computers manufactured between 1980 and 1991. BASIC (Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) is a high level language with simple syntax that makes it easy for novices to write simple programs. Color BASIC is interpreted, that is, decoded as it is run. Interpreted BASIC is simple to edit and debug but execution is significantly slower than for programs written in assembly language or typical compiled languages of the time (like Pascal, compiled BASIC or C).

In assembly language programs, this value is often referred to as SA (secondary address). ;COMMAND STRING :The `"0:ADDRESSBOOK,S,W"` parameter is officially referred to in Commodore documentation as the command string and is interpreted by the controller of the device being accessed. In the case of a disk drive unit, the formal command string structure consists of the drive mechanism number (`0:`, not to be confused with the device number), filename (`ADDRESSBOOK`), file type (`S`, sequential in this example) and access mode (`W`, opened for writing in this example). In practice, some of these parameters may be omitted.

Texas Instruments provides various hardware experimenter boards that support large (approximately two centimeters square) and small (approximately one millimeter square) MSP430 chips. TI also provides software development tools, both directly, and in conjunction with partners (see the full list of compilers, assemblers, and IDEs). One such toolchain is the IAR C/C++ compiler and Integrated development environment, or IDE. A Kickstart edition can be downloaded for free from TI or IAR; it is limited to 8 KB of C/C++ code in the compiler and debugger (assembly language programs of any size can be developed and debugged with this free toolchain).

STS was originally written in Pascal with assembly language "hooks" for driving the hardware. The earliest versions were functional on IBM PC-XT-type computers, while later versions required the more robust IBM PC-AT platform with the 80286 processor. Connection speed evolved over the life of the software; Version 2.0 of the software supported up to 28.8k directly. V1.5 and later also had a far superior network linking mode to that of Diversi-Dial that supported encrypted data communications and would use IRC as a "hub" to link multiple systems without tying up more than one phone line per station.

According to Ken Thompson, McIlroy wrote TMG in TMG on a piece of paper and "decided to give his piece of paper his piece of paper," hand-compiling assembly language that he entered and assembled on Thompson's Unix system running on PDP-7. Thompson used TMG in 1970 as a tool to offer Fortran, but due to memory limitations of PDP-7 ended up creating the B programming language which was much influenced by BCPL. Recursive descent algorithm of TMG was studied formally by Alexander Birman and Jeffrey Ullman. Formal description of the algorithms was named TMG recognition scheme (or simply TS).

In 1978 Roy Trubshaw, a student at Essex University in the UK, started working on a multi-user adventure game in the MACRO-10 assembly language for a DEC PDP-10. He named the game MUD (Multi-User Dungeon), in tribute to the Dungeon variant of Zork, which Trubshaw had greatly enjoyed playing. Trubshaw converted MUD to BCPL (the predecessor of C), before handing over development to Richard Bartle, a fellow student at Essex University, in 1980. MUD, better known as Essex MUD and MUD1 in later years, ran on the Essex University network until late 1987.

LLVM can provide the middle layers of a complete compiler system, taking intermediate representation (IR) code from a compiler and emitting an optimized IR. This new IR can then be converted and linked into machine- dependent assembly language code for a target platform. LLVM can accept the IR from the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) toolchain, allowing it to be used with a wide array of extant compilers written for that project. LLVM can also generate relocatable machine code at compile-time or link-time or even binary machine code at run-time. LLVM supports a language-independent instruction set and type system.

Linus Torvalds, principal author of the Linux kernel The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969, at AT&T;'s Bell Labs, in the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna. First released in 1971, Unix was written entirely in assembly language, as was common practice at the time. In 1973 in a key, pioneering approach, it was rewritten in the C programming language by Dennis Ritchie (with the exception of some hardware and I/O routines). The availability of a high-level language implementation of Unix made its porting to different computer platforms easier.

When translating a high-level programming language to assembly language the minimum number of registers required to evaluate an expression tree is exactly its Strahler number. In this context, the Strahler number may also be called the register number.; . For expression trees that require more registers than are available, the Sethi–Ullman algorithm may be used to translate an expression tree into a sequence of machine instructions that uses the registers as efficiently as possible, minimizing the number of times intermediate values are spilled from registers to main memory and the total number of instructions in the resulting compiled code.

Software distributed in this way was in general simpler and slower than its assembly language counterparts. Magazines printed long lists of checksummed hexadecimal digits with machine code games or tools. Another software distribution method was to broadcast the audio stream from the cassette on another medium and have users record it onto an audio cassette themselves. In radio or television shows in many European countries, the host would describe a program, instruct the audience to connect a cassette tape recorder to the radio or TV and then broadcast the program over the airwaves in audio format.

Input was composed of 52 weekly editions which introduced several parallel themes (such as computer graphics, word processing, CAD, games etc.) in each edition. These themes then were slowly developed with each new edition into BASIC and assembly language programs. The resulting programs were intended to run on a selection of the most popular home computers in the UK at the time: the Sinclair ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, BBC Micro, Acorn Electron and Dragon 32. A subset of the programs were also suitable for the Sinclair ZX81, Commodore VIC-20 and Tandy TRS-80 Color Computer.

The first paper was presented to the Univac Users Group in Dallas, TX (Feb. 1973) and the second paper was presented to the National Science Foundation conference on Data Storage and Retrieval Methods at the University of Missouri in Columbia, Missouri (July 1973). Hatfield left JPL in 1974 and the JPLDIS project was assigned to Jeb Long, another programmer at JPL, who added many advanced features plus a programming language. In 1978, while at JPL, Wayne Ratliff wrote a database program in assembly language for CP/M based microcomputers to help him win the football pool at the office.

Written in Intel 8080 assembly language, it ran on the CP/M operating system and was modeled on JPLDIS. After selling Vulcan by himself from 1979 to 1980, he licensed the software, renamed dBASE, to Ashton-Tate. In 1982 Ratliff left JPL and joined Ashton-Tate as vice president of new technology. (He never used the software for its original purpose; in 1984 Ratliff confessed that dBASE had made him so busy that "I've only had time to watch two or three football games".) Ratliff was the project manager for dBASE III, as well as designer and lead programmer.

Little Computer 3, or LC-3, is a type of computer educational programming language, an assembly language, which is a type of low-level programming language. It features a relatively simple instruction set, but can be used to write moderately complex assembly programs, and is a theoretically viable target for a C compiler. The language is less complex than x86 assembly but has many features similar to those in more complex languages. These features make it useful for beginning instruction, so it is most often used to teach fundamentals of programming and computer architecture to computer science and computer engineering students.

The number sign or hash symbol "#" is often used in information technology to highlight a special meaning. (The symbol is also called an "octothorpe" or "pound sign" in the US, and "hash" in the UK) In 1970, for example, the number sign was used to denote immediate address mode in the assembly language of the PDP-11 when placed next to a symbol or a number. In 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie used # in the C programming language to indicate special keywords that the C preprocessor had to process first. In the 1986 SGML standard, ISO 8879:1986 (q.

Hard disks, in the IBM Dolphin line of sealed cartridges, were available but expensive and were generally used as file systems storing data and executable programs (thereby eliminating the need to rely on the paper tape reader for system boot-up). Most work was done in a macro assembly language, with a fairly powerful macro language facility allowing great flexibility in code configuration and generation. Static variable binding, like Fortran, was the norm and the use of arbitrary subroutine call patterns was rare. The machines were usually deployed for very fixed jobs with a rigidly planned set of software.

Later, Phil Katz developed his own shareware utilities, PKARC and PKXARC, to create archive files and extract their contents. These files worked with the archive file format used by ARC and were significantly faster than ARC on the IBM-PC platform due to selective assembly-language coding. Unlike SEA, which combined archive creation and archive file extraction in a single program, Katz divided these functions between two separate utilities, reducing the amount of memory needed to run them. PKARC also allowed the creation of self- extracting archives, which could unpack themselves without requiring an external file extraction utility.

NELIAC was the brainchild of Harry Huskey, then chairperson of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) and a well known computer scientist, and supported by Maury Halstead, the head of the computing center at NEL. The earliest version was implemented on the prototype AN/USQ-17 computer (called the Countess, after Countess Ada Lovelace) at the laboratory. It was the world's first self-compiling compiler, a trait called bootstrapping. This means that the compiler was first coded in simplified form in assembly language "the bootstrap", and then rewritten in its own language, compiled by this "bootstrap" compiler, and recompiled by itself, making the "bootstrap" obsolete.

So, to optimize the chip's performance for what they believed to be the most likely application of the CPU, the integer execution resources received most of the transistor budget. This would later prove to be a strategic mistake, as the popularity of the P5 Pentium caused many software developers to hand-optimize code in assembly language, to take advantage of the P5 Pentium's tightly pipelined and lower latency FPU. For example, the highly anticipated first person shooter Quake used highly optimized assembly code designed almost entirely around the P5 Pentium's FPU. As a result, the P5 Pentium significantly outperformed other CPUs in the game.

After previewing 1-2-3 on the IBM PC in 1982, BYTE called it "modestly revolutionary" for elegantly combining spreadsheet, database, and graphing functions. It praised the application's speed and ease of use, stating that with the built-in help screens and tutorial "1-2-3 is one of the few pieces of software that can literally be used by anybody. You can buy 1-2-3 and [an IBM PC] and be running the two together the same day". PC Magazine in 1983 called 1-2-3 "a powerful and impressive program ... as a spreadsheet, it's excellent", and attributed its very fast performance to being written in assembly language.

The subsequent 40-pin NMOS Intel 8080 expanded upon the 8008 registers and instruction set and implemented a more efficient external bus interface (using the 22 additional pins). Despite a close architectural relationship, the 8080 was not made binary compatible with the 8008, so an 8008 program would not run on an 8080. However, as two different assembly syntaxes were used by Intel at the time, the 8080 could be used in an 8008 assembly-language backward-compatible fashion.See the Z80 article for a description. The Intel 8085 was an electrically modernized version of the 8080 that used depletion-mode transistors and also added two new instructions.

The women who worked as programmers prepped the ENIAC for its first public reveal, wiring the patch panels together for the demonstrations. Kathleen Booth developed Assembly Language in 1950 to make it easier to program the computers she worked on at Birkbeck College. Grace Hopper and UNIVAC Grace Hopper worked as one of the first programmers of the Harvard Mark I. She later created a 500 page manual for the computer. Hopper is often falsely credited with coining the terms "bug" and "debugging," when she found a moth in the Mark II, causing a malfunction; however, the term was in fact already in use when she found the moth.

A transformation language is a computer language designed to transform some input text in a certain formal language into a modified output text that meets some specific goal. Program transformation systems such as Stratego/XT, TXL, Tom, DMS, and ASF+SDF all have transformation languages as a major component. The transformation languages for these systems are driven by declarative descriptions of the structure of the input text (typically a grammar), allowing them to be applied to wide variety of formal languages and documents. Macro languages are a kind of transformation languages to transform a meta language into specific higher programming language like Java, C++, Fortran or into lower-level Assembly language.

A set of statements is in turn generally structured as a block, which in addition to grouping, also defines a lexical scope. Interrupts and signals are low-level mechanisms that can alter the flow of control in a way similar to a subroutine, but usually occur as a response to some external stimulus or event (that can occur asynchronously), rather than execution of an in-line control flow statement. At the level of machine language or assembly language, control flow instructions usually work by altering the program counter. For some central processing units (CPUs), the only control flow instructions available are conditional or unconditional branch instructions, also termed jumps.

In contrast to HLLs like Pascal and C(++), HLA doesn't require inline asm statements. In HLA, HLL-like features appear to provide a learning aid for beginning assembly programmers by smoothing the learning curve, with the assumption that they will discontinue the use of those statements once they master the low-level instruction set. In practice, many experienced programmers continue to use HLL-like statements in HLA, MASM, and TASM, long after mastering the low-level instruction set, but this is usually done to improve readability. It is also possible to write high-level programs using HLA, avoiding much of the tedium of low-level assembly language programming.

LUnix, short for "Little Unix","About LUnix" , retrieved on 2010-08-27 is a Unix-like multi-tasking operating system designed to run natively on the Commodore 64 and Commodore 128"LUnix Sourceforge Homepage", Retrieved on 2010-08-28 home computer systems. It supports TCP/IP networking (SLIP or PPP using an RS232 interface). Unlike most Unix-like systems, LUnix is written in 6502 assembly language instead of C. The first version of LUnix was released in 1993, the current version 0.21 dates from 2004. Amongst others, it supports preemptive multitasking, Unix pipes, a variety of protocols like TCP/IP, SLIP, PPP and RS232, dynamic memory management and virtual consoles.

WebAssembly (often shortened to Wasm, or just WA) is an open standard that defines a portable binary-code format for executable programs, and a corresponding textual assembly language, as well as interfaces for facilitating interactions between such programs and their host environment. The main goal of WebAssembly is to enable high-performance applications on web pages, but the format is designed to be executed and integrated in other environments as well, including standalone ones. WebAssembly (i.e. WebAssembly Core Specification and WebAssembly JavaScript Interface) became a World Wide Web Consortium recommendation on 5 December 2019 and, alongside HTML, CSS, and JavaScript, is the fourth language to run natively in browsers.

When graphics cards added support for pixel shaders (known on OpenGL as "fragment shaders"), Direct3D provided one "Pixel Shader 1.1" (PS1.1) standard with which the GeForce 3 and up, and Radeon 8500 and up, advertised compatibility. Under OpenGL the same functions were accessed through a variety of custom extensions. In theory, the Microsoft approach allows one code path to support both brands of card, whereas under OpenGL, programmers must write two separate systems. In reality, though, because of the limits on pixel processing of those early cards, Pixel Shader 1.1 was nothing more than a pseudo-assembly language version of the NVIDIA- specific OpenGL extensions.

A microarchitecture organized around a single bus The ISA is roughly the same as the programming model of a processor as seen by an assembly language programmer or compiler writer. The ISA includes the execution model, processor registers, address and data formats among other things. The microarchitecture includes the constituent parts of the processor and how these interconnect and interoperate to implement the ISA. The microarchitecture of a machine is usually represented as (more or less detailed) diagrams that describe the interconnections of the various microarchitectural elements of the machine, which may be anything from single gates and registers, to complete arithmetic logic units (ALUs) and even larger elements.

Philips TriMedia TM-1100 die TriMedia is a family of very long instruction word media processors from NXP Semiconductors (formerly Philips Semiconductors). TriMedia is a Harvard architecture CPU that features many DSP and SIMD operations to efficiently process audio and video data streams. For TriMedia processor optimal performance can be achieved by only programming in C/C++ as opposed to most other VLIW/DSP processors which require assembly language programming to achieve optimal performance. High-level programmability of TriMedia relies on the large uniform register file and the orthogonal instruction set, in which RISC-like operations can be scheduled independently of each other in the VLIW issue slots.

Object language in this context is synonymous with target language. The object language of a translation most often is a machine language, but can be some other kind of language, such as assembly language. Because the object language of compilation has usually been machine language, the term object file has come to mean a file containing machine instructions, and sometimes the translated program itself is simply called an object. Object language should also not be confused with object-oriented language, which is a type of computer programming language which changes the programmer's environment into convenient objects which can be used in something similar to a drag-and-drop fashion.

In 1961, the MCP was the first OS written exclusively in a high-level language (HLL). The Burroughs Large System (B5000 and successors) were unique in that they were designed with the expectation that all software, including system software, would be written in an HLL rather than in assembly language, which was a unique and innovative approach in 1961. Unlike IBM, which faced hardware competition after the departure of Gene Amdahl, Burroughs software was designed to run only on proprietary hardware. For this reason, Burroughs was free to distribute the source code of all software it sold, including the MCP, which was designed with this openness in mind.

Gini created POINTY, a system that introduced the use of an interpreted language into robot programming and was one of the very early user interfaces designed for robot program development. The major innovation in POINTY was to develop an interpreter for the programming language AL, which was the language used to program the Stanford manipulators. POINTY allowed programmers to develop and test programs interactively, as opposed to have to compile and debug them using assembly language on the real time robot controller. It also allowed users to specify positions of objects in the robot space by pointing to them, from which the name POINTY.

The `bs` man page, ostensibly the programming language's only specification, characterizes it as follows: A `bs` program is compiled and executed differently from programs written in the other principal Unix programming languages of the time: C, FORTRAN, and assembly language, whose respective commands compile program source code to executable assembler output (a.out). Instead, a `bs` program is, first, converted by the `bs` command to an internal reverse Polish (RPN) intermediate representation and then executed by the command's internal virtual stack machine.Personal conversation with Dick Haight, 12 September 2019. The `bs` language, thus, is a hybrid interpreter and compiler and a divergence in Unix programming from Ancient Unix.

The Common Intermediate Language is object-oriented and stack-based, which means that instruction parameters and results are kept on a single stack instead of in several registers or other memory locations, as in most programming languages. Code that adds two numbers in x86 assembly language, where eax and edx specify two different general-purpose registers: add eax, edx Could in an intermediate language (IL) look like this, where 0 is eax and 1 is edx: ldloc.0 // push local variable 0 onto stack ldloc.1 // push local variable 1 onto stack add // pop and add the top two stack items then push the result onto the stack stloc.

A scene containing several different 2D HLSL shaders. Distortion of the statue is achieved purely physically, while the texture of the rectangular frame beside it is based on color intensity. The square in the background has been transformed and rotated. The partial transparency and reflection of the water in the foreground are added by a shader applied finally to the entire scene. The High-Level Shader Language or High-Level Shading Language (HLSL) is a proprietary shading language developed by Microsoft for the Direct3D 9 API to augment the shader assembly language, and went on to become the required shading language for the unified shader model of Direct3D 10 and higher.

C# Open Source Managed Operating System (Cosmos) is a toolkit for building operating systems, written mostly in the programming language C# and small amounts of a high level assembly language named X#. Cosmos is a backronym,Cosmos website: project repository at GitHub in that the acronym was chosen before the meaning. It is open-source software released under a BSD license. It is referred to as OS Legos Cosmos encompasses an AOT compiler named IL2CPU to translate Common Intermediate Language (CIL) into native instructions. Cosmos compiles user-made programs and associated libraries using IL2CPU to create a bootable native executable that can be run with no support.

And it would similarly take several years of further progress in Moore's Law, before improved chip manufacturing could fit all this into a few dense chips. Meanwhile, Intel urgently needed a simpler interim product to meet the immediate competition from Motorola, Zilog, and National Semiconductor. So Intel began a rushed project to design the 8086 as a low-risk incremental evolution from the 8080, using a separate design team. The mass-market 8086 shipped in 1978. The 8086 was designed to be backward-compatible with the 8080 in the sense that 8080 assembly language could be mapped on to the 8086 architecture using a special assembler.

The primary language used for developing both the VME operating system itself and other system software such as compilers and transaction processing monitors is S3. This is a high level language based in many ways on Algol 68, but with data types and low-level functions and operators aligned closely with the architecture of the 2900 series. An assembly language SFL (System Function Language) is also available. This was used for the development of VME/K, whose designers were not confident that a high-level language could give adequate performance, and also for the IDMS database system on account of its origins as a third-party product.

In 1966 MIT student Richard Greenblatt wrote the chess program Mac Hack VI using MIDAS macro assembly language on a Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-6 computer with 16K of memory. Mac Hack VI evaluated 10 positions per second. In 1967, several MIT students and professors (organized by Seymour Papert) challenged Dr. Hubert Dreyfus to play a game of chess against Mac Hack VI. Dreyfus, a professor of philosophy at MIT, wrote the book What Computers Can’t Do, questioning the computer's ability to serve as a model for the human brain. He also asserted that no computer program could defeat even a 10-year-old child at chess.

Bradley is the author of Assembly Language Programming for the IBM Personal Computer (Simon & Schuster, , January 1984), also released in French as Assembleur sur IBM PC (Dunod, ), Russian ("Radio" Publishing House, Moscow), and Bulgarian ("Technica" Publishing house, 1989). Bradley holds seven U.S. patents. Bradley has been adjunct professor of electrical and computer engineering at Florida Atlantic University and at North Carolina State University. Much of Bradley's career has been at IBM. Bradley received a B.E.E. degree in 1971 from the University of Dayton, (Ohio). He went on to Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana, where he completed an M.S. degree in 1972 and Ph.D. in 1975, both in electrical engineering.

After first attempting to write the graphical routines in C, he turned to assembly language. He wrote a polygon routine for the Motorola 68000 on an Atari ST to test his theory, with much success. Later, he found that he could run the code on the Amiga platform and achieve a frame rate of about 20 frames per second, later recognizing this as "a major turning point in the creation of the game" and the point where he knew the polygon approach would work. He was able to take advantage of the Amiga's genlock capabilities to create rotoscoped animations with the polygons, using video recordings of himself performing various actions.

After some experience using L3, Liedtke came to the conclusion that several other Mach concepts were also misplaced. By simplifying the microkernel concepts even further he developed the first L4 kernel which was primarily designed with high performance in mind. In order to wring out every bit of performance the entire kernel was written in assembly language, and its IPC was 20 times faster than Mach's. Such dramatic performance increases are a rare event in operating systems, and Liedtke's work triggered new L4 implementations and work on L4-based systems at a number of universities and research institutes, including IBM, where Liedtke started to work in 1996, TU Dresden and UNSW.

A-natural was built as the object language of a C compiler, rather than for hand-coding, but its logical syntax won some fans. There has been little apparent demand for more sophisticated assemblers since the decline of large-scale assembly language development. In spite of that, they are still being developed and applied in cases where resource constraints or peculiarities in the target system's architecture prevent the effective use of higher-level languages. Assemblers with a strong macro engine allow structured programming via macros, such as the switch macro provided with the Masm32 package (this code is a complete program): include \masm32\include\masm32rt.

Assembly languages were not available at the time when the stored-program computer was introduced. Kathleen Booth "is credited with inventing assembly language" based on theoretical work she began in 1947, while working on the ARC2 at Birkbeck, University of London following consultation by Andrew Booth (later her husband) with mathematician John von Neumann and physicist Herman Goldstine at the Institute for Advanced Study. In late 1948, the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) had an assembler (named "initial orders") integrated into its bootstrap program. It used one-letter mnemonics developed by David Wheeler, who is credited by the IEEE Computer Society as the creator of the first "assembler".

As a result, Sega Technical Institute staff decided to change the game's programming language from assembly to C; an unusual choice for Genesis games at the time. In retrospect, Morawiec admitted that the choice to move away from traditional assembly language caused frame rate and optimization issues, but greatly accelerated the development process. In the space of 61 days between mid-June and August 1993, the project evolved from a roughly playable build with no collision detection systems or character animations to a completed game. Immediately before the game was due to ship, the team was informed that Sega did not own the rights to the Sonic the Hedgehog theme tune.

PL/I was first implemented by IBM, at its Hursley Laboratories in the United Kingdom, as part of the development of System/360. The first production PL/I compiler was the PL/I F compiler for the OS/360 Operating System, built by John Nash's team at Hursley in the UK: the runtime library team was managed by I.M. (Nobby) Clarke. The PL/I F compiler was written entirely in System/360 assembly language. Release 1 shipped in 1966. OS/360 is a real-memory environment and the compiler was designed for systems with as little as 64 kilobytes of real storage – F being 64 kB in S/360 parlance.

Typically micro- controller programs must fit in the available on-chip memory, since it would be costly to provide a system with external, expandable memory. Compilers and assemblers are used to convert both high-level and assembly language codes into a compact machine code for storage in the micro-controller's memory. Depending on the device, the program memory may be permanent, read-only memory that can only be programmed at the factory, or it may be field-alterable flash or erasable read-only memory. Manufacturers have often produced special versions of their micro-controllers in order to help the hardware and software development of the target system.

Mark Pierce was based in San Francisco with his own company MacroMind, while Jon Gay and the rest of the Silicon Beach team were in San Diego; so after an initial launch meeting, most of the collaboration between Pierce and Gay was handled remotely. Pierce designed the animations in MacroMind's "VideoWorks" (the direct ancestor of Adobe Director) and then mailed the files on floppies to Gay, who then coded the game in 68000 Assembly Language on an Apple Lisa (a few parts like the high-score system were written in Pascal). The digitized sound was created by Eric Zocher who worked with voice actor Dick Noel.

QDOS is the multitasking operating system found on the Sinclair QL personal computer and its clones. It was designed by Tony Tebby whilst working at Sinclair Research, as an in-house alternative to 68K/OS, which was later cancelled by Sinclair, but released by original authors GST Computer Systems. Its name is not regarded as an acronym and sometimes written as Qdos in official literature (see also the identically-pronounced word kudos). QDOS was implemented in Motorola 68000 assembly language, and on the QL, resided in 48 KiB of ROM, consisting of either three 16 KiB EPROM chips or one 32 KiB and one 16 KiB ROM chip.

While many designs achieved the aim of higher throughput at lower cost and also allowed high-level language constructs to be expressed by fewer instructions, it was observed that this was not always the case. For instance, low-end versions of complex architectures (i.e. using less hardware) could lead to situations where it was possible to improve performance by not using a complex instruction (such as a procedure call or enter instruction), but instead using a sequence of simpler instructions. One reason for this was that architects (microcode writers) sometimes "over-designed" assembly language instructions, including features which could not be implemented efficiently on the basic hardware available.

Two nested zero-overhead loops and four circular buffer DAGs (data address generators) are designed to assist in writing efficient code requiring fewer instructions. Other applications use the RISC features, which include memory protection, different operating modes (user, kernel), single- cycle opcodes, data and instruction caches, and instructions for bit test, byte, word, or integer accesses and a variety of on-chip peripherals. The ISA is designed for a high level of expressiveness, allowing the assembly programmer (or compiler) to optimize an algorithm for the hardware features present. The standard Blackfin assembly language is written using an algebraic syntax: instead of prefix commands used in many other assembly languages.

The TI-89 is directly programmable in a language called TI- BASIC, TI's derivative of BASIC for calculators. With the use of a PC, it is also possible to develop more complex programs in Motorola 68000 assembly language or C, translate them to machine language, and copy them to the calculator. Two software development kits for C programming are available; one is TI Flash Studio, the official TI SDK, and the other is TIGCC, a third-party SDK based on GCC. In addition, there is a third party flash application called GTC that allows the writing and compilation of c programs directly on the calculator.

Shape tables are a feature of the Apple II ROMs which allows for manipulation of small images encoded as a series of vectors. An image (or shape) can be drawn in the high-resolution graphics mode—with scaling and rotation—via software routines in the ROM. Shape tables were supported via Applesoft BASIC and from machine code in the "Programmer's Aid" package that was bundled with the original Integer BASIC ROMs for that computer. Applesoft's high-resolution graphics routines were not optimized for speed, so shape tables were not typically used for performance-critical software such as games, which were typically written in assembly language and used pre-shifted bitmap shapes.

Telegard is an early bulletin board system (BBS) software program written for IBM PC-compatible computers running MS-DOS and OS/2. Telegard was written in Pascal with routines written in C++ and assembly language, based on a copy of the WWIV source code. Telegard has several features that make it attractive to BBS sysops, such as being free, having remote administration facilities built into the main program, and the ability to handle CD-ROMs internally. Telegard is still viable today as it can accept telnet connections by using a virtual modem/FOSSIL set up such as NetSerial, a virtual modem driver, and NetFoss, a freeware FOSSIL driver, both for Windows.

Interpreted languages are translated into machine code on the fly, while running, by another program called an interpreter. High level languages are less related to the workings of the target computer than assembly language, and more related to the language and structure of the problem(s) to be solved by the final program. It is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles.

Delphi uses a strongly typed high-level programming language, intended to be easy to use and originally based on the earlier Object Pascal language. Pascal was originally developed as a general- purpose language "suitable for expressing the fundamental constructs known at the time in a concise and logical way", and "its implementation was to be efficient and competitive with existing FORTRAN compilers" but without low- level programming facilities or access to hardware. Turbo Pascal and its descendants, including Delphi, support access to hardware and low-level programming, with the facility to incorporate code written in assembly language and other languages. Delphi's object orientation features only class- and interface-based polymorphism.

BASIC's roots go back to Dartmouth College."BASIC at Dartmouth" BASIC (Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was developed in the 1960s as a method to overcome the difficulties of using ASSEMBLY language written for processor-specific and/or brand name specific mainframes and hardware. Programming was hardware dependent by design more so for marketing reasons than to preserve the logical composition of programming that should transcend hardware. (Microsoft's claim to fame with its operating system was to free consumers from hardware-specific devices by encapsulating those tasks within its operating system.) Code became "portable" due to the compiler, and in fact, both Visual Basic .

Human Resource Machine is a visual programming-based puzzle video game developed by Tomorrow Corporation. The game was released for Microsoft Windows, OS X and Wii U in October 2015, being additionally released for Linux in March 2016, for iOS in June 2016, for Android in December 2016 and for the Nintendo Switch in March 2017. Human Resource Machine uses the concept of a corporate office worker assigned to perform tasks that involve moving objects between an inbox, an outbox, and to and from storage areas as a metaphor for assembly language concepts. The player works through some forty puzzles in constructing a program to complete a specific task.

This has been influential, and virtual machines in this sense have been often generally called p-code machines. In addition to being an intermediate language, Pascal p-code was also executed directly by an interpreter implementing the virtual machine, notably in UCSD Pascal (1978); this influenced later interpreters, notably the Java virtual machine (JVM). Another early example was SNOBOL4 (1967), which was written in the SNOBOL Implementation Language (SIL), an assembly language for a virtual machine, which was then targeted to physical machines by transpiling to their native assembler via a macro assembler. Macros have since fallen out of favor, however, so this approach has been less influential.

Halt and Catch Fire is an American period drama television series created by Christopher Cantwell and Christopher C. Rogers, that aired on AMC from June 1, 2014, to October 14, 2017. The series depicts a fictionalized insider's view of the personal computer revolution of the 1980s and later the growth of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s. The series' first two seasons are set in the Silicon Prairie of Dallas–Fort Worth, while the third and fourth seasons are set in Silicon Valley. The show's title refers to computer assembly language instruction HCF, whose execution would cause the computer's central processing unit to stop working (and facetiously catch fire).

Seymour I. Rubinstein was an employee of early microcomputer company IMSAI, where he negotiated software contracts with Digital Research and Microsoft. After leaving IMSAI, Rubinstein planned to start his own software company that would sell through the new network of retail computer stores. He founded MicroPro International Corporation in September 1978 and hired John Robbins Barnaby as programmer, who wrote a word processor, WordMaster, and a sorting program, SuperSort, in Intel 8080 assembly language. After Rubinstein obtained a report that discussed the abilities of contemporary standalone word processors from IBM, Xerox, and Wang Laboratories, Barnaby enhanced WordMaster with similar features and support for the CP/M operating system.

A single-board computer with a hex keypad and 7-segment display When the single-board controller formed the entire development environment (typically in education), the board might also have included a simple hexadecimal keypad, calculator-style LED display, and a "monitor" program set permanently in ROM. This monitor allowed machine code programs to be entered directly through the keyboard and held in RAM. These programs were in machine code, not even in assembly language, and were often assembled by hand on paper before being inputted. It is arguable as to which process was more time-consuming and error prone: assembling by hand, or keying byte-by- byte.

The 9020As and 9020Ds were in service in North America until 1989 when they were finally replaced by IBM 3083 BX1 mainframes as part of the FAA's HOST Computer System (HCS) upgrade. The 3083s in turn were replaced with IBM 9672 RA4 parallel processing servers during the FAA's Host and Oceanic Computer System Replacement (HOCSR) completed in 1999. One reason for the 1999 upgrade was concern, probably unfounded, that the IBM 3083's microcode would not operate properly in the year 2000. At least during the first phase of the upgrade, the 9672s were running the FAA's original assembly language code in System/360 emulation mode.

Data structures containing such different sized words refer to them as WORD (16 bits/2 bytes), DWORD (32 bits/4 bytes) and QWORD (64 bits/8 bytes) respectively. A similar phenomenon has developed in Intel's x86 assembly language – because of the support for various sizes (and backward compatibility) in the instruction set, some instruction mnemonics carry "d" or "q" identifiers denoting "double-", "quad-" or "double-quad-", which are in terms of the architecture's original 16-bit word size. In general, new processors must use the same data word lengths and virtual address widths as an older processor to have binary compatibility with that older processor.

Apple claimed that the IIGS was 95% compatible with contemporary Apple II software. One reviewer, for example, successfully ran demo programs that came on cassette with his 1977 Apple II. The IIGS can run all of Apple's earlier Apple II operating systems: Apple DOS, ProDOS 8, and Apple Pascal. It is also compatible with nearly all 8-bit software running on those systems. Like the Apple II+, IIe, and IIc, the IIGS also includes Applesoft BASIC and a machine-language monitor (which can be used for very simple assembly language programming) in ROM, so they can be used even with no operating system loaded from disk.

Ispell suggesting words in Esperanto Ispell is a spelling checker for Unix that supports most Western languages. It offers several interfaces, including a programmatic interface for use by editors such as emacs. Unlike GNU Aspell, ispell will only suggest corrections that are based on a Damerau–Levenshtein distance of 1; it will not attempt to guess more distant corrections based on English pronunciation rules. Ispell has a very long history that can be traced back to a program that was originally written in 1971 in PDP-10 Assembly language by R. E. Gorin, and later ported to the C programming language and expanded by many others.

In 1978, a book titled Superwumpus, by Jack Emmerichs, was published containing source code for both BASIC and assembly language versions of his unrelated version of Hunt the Wumpus. In addition to the original BASIC games, versions of Hunt the Wumpus have been created for numerous other systems. Yob had seen or heard of versions in several languages, such as IBM RPG and Fortran, by 1975. A version in C, written in November 1973 by Ken Thompson, creator of the Unix operating system, was released in 1974; a later C version can still be found in the bsdgames package on modern BSD and Linux operating systems.

Much of the development efforts concentrated on increasing the emulator's portability, by rewriting assembly code in C and C++, including a new GUI using Qt. ZSNES is notable in that it was among the first to emulate most SNES enhancement chips at some level. Until version 1.50, ZSNES featured netplay via TCP/IP or UDP. Because ZSNES is largely written in low-level assembly language for x86 processors, the idea of porting ZSNES to devices using RISC architectures such as ARM is highly unfeasible. Commercial gaming consoles did not typically use x86 processors (with the original Xbox being the most well-known exception) prior to the eighth generation, with the 2013 releases of the Xbox One and PlayStation 4.

Mainframe computers are computers used primarily by businesses and academic institutions for large-scale processes. Before personal computers, first termed microcomputers, became widely available to the general public in the 1970s, the computing industry was composed of mainframe computers and the relatively smaller and cheaper minicomputer variant. During the mid to late 1960s, many early video games were programmed on these computers. Developed prior to the rise of the commercial video game industry in the early 1970s, these early mainframe games were generally written by students or employees at large corporations in a machine or assembly language that could only be understood by the specific machine or computer type they were developed on.

The TMS320 series can be programmed using C, C++, and/or assembly language. Most work on the TMS320 processors is done using Texas Instruments proprietary toolchain and their integrated development environment Code Composer Studio, which includes a mini operating system called DSP/BIOS. Additionally, a department at the Chemnitz University of Technology has developed preliminary support for the TMS320C6x series in the GNU Compiler Collection.Jan Parthey and Robert Baumgartl, Porting GCC to the TMS320-C6000 DSP Architecture, Appeared in the Proceedings of GSPx’04, Santa Clara, September 2004, In November 2007 TI released part of its toolchain as freeware for non-commercial users, offering the bare compiler, assembler, optimizer and linker under a proprietary license.

The EM intermediate language is a family of intermediate languages created to facilitate the production of portable compilers. The language's specifications were created by Andrew Tanenbaum, Hans van Staveren, Ed G. Keizer, Johan W. Stevenson and they were implemented in the Amsterdam Compiler Kit (ACK). Unlike the GNU Compiler Collection's (GCC) intermediate language, EM is a real programming language and could be implemented in hardware; a number of the language front-ends have libraries implemented in EM assembly language. EM is a relatively high-level stack-based machine, and one of the tools supplied with ACK is an interpreter able to execute EM binaries directly, with a high degree of safety checking.

The FS project was finally terminated when IBM realized that customer acceptance would be much more limited than originally predicted because there was no reasonable application migration path for 360 architecture customers. In order to leave maximum freedom to design a truly revolutionary system, ease of application migration was not one of the primary design goals for the FS project, but was to be addressed by software migration aids taking the new architecture as a given. In the end, it appeared that the cost of migrating the mass of user investments in COBOL and assembly language based applications to FS was in many cases likely to be greater than the cost of acquiring a new system.

VME was originally written almost entirely in S3, a specially-designed system programming language based on Algol 68R (however, VME/K was written primarily in the SFL assembly language). Although a high-level language is used, the operating system is not designed to be independent of the underlying hardware architecture: on the contrary, the software and hardware architecture are closely integrated. From the early 1990s onwards, some entirely new VME subsystems were written partly or wholly in the C programming language. From its earliest days, VME was developed with the aid of a software engineering repository system known as CADES, originally designed and managed by David Pearson (computer scientist) and built for the purpose using an underlying IDMS database.

If different data formats are being exchanged, the interface must be able to convert serial data to parallel form and vice versa. Because it would be a waste for a processor to be idle while it waits for data from an input device there must be provision for generating interrupts and the corresponding type numbers for further processing by the processor if required. A computer that uses memory-mapped I/O accesses hardware by reading and writing to specific memory locations, using the same assembly language instructions that computer would normally use to access memory. An alternative method is via instruction-based I/O which requires that a CPU have specialized instructions for I/O.

The KC 85 could be programmed in assembly language and BASIC (the KC 85/2 had to load BASIC from tape), but it was possible to use various modules (sold by VEB Mikroelektronik Mühlhausen) or load software from tape, thus allowing programming in Forth and Pascal. The operating system was CAOS ("Cassette Aided Operating System"). It was a simple monitor where one could run different "system services" like LOAD (load a program), JUMP (into extension module ROM), MODIFY (memory cells) or BASIC (if it had been built into the ROM or had been loaded from tape). New commands could be added to the menu by magic numbers (standard: `7F 7F 'commandname' 01`) anywhere in the memory space.

Direct conversions, also referred to as "straight conversions", are conversions in which the source code of the original game is used with relatively few modifications. Direct conversions were fairly rare until the second half of the 1990s. In the case of arcade conversions, this was because arcade systems were usually much more advanced than their contemporary home-based systems, which thus could not accurately recreate the speed, graphics, audio, and in some cases even the gameplay algorithms of arcade games. In the case of personal computer conversions, most games pre-1995 were produced in assembly language, and source-based conversions could not be reproduced on systems with other processors, rendering the original source code useless.

The two collaborated cross country via the BBS, Wolfram in California and Bridges in New York. Apple was by this time hard at work on their new computer, Macintosh, and Mouse Systems wanted the new paint program to capture the look and feel of MacPaint. Wolfgram contacted Bridges and the two agreed to develop the commercial version of PCPaint, as it was to be called by Mouse Systems. John Bridges and Doug Wolfgram started reworking Mouse Draw into what became the world's first commercial GUI painting program for the PC. The program was completely re-written using Bridge's graphics library and the top level elements were written in C rather than Assembly language.

He became known for programming the game code in assembly language, directly from his head, rather than taking down notes. His games were able to replicate the fast performance, scrolling, animations and colorful graphics of arcade games (which had powerful arcade system boards) on the Apple II, a feat previously thought not achievable on the system. He did so by developing advanced programming techniques, most notably page flipping, which eliminated the flickering that was common on early home computers. He used page flipping to improve the performance and double the display resolution, and further experimented with it, believing that page flipping would resolve the quality issues facing home computers at the time.

The file number may be in the range of 1 to 254 inclusive, is assigned by the programmer and must be unique if more than one file is simultaneously opened. Once the file has been opened all program input and output procedures use the file number. In assembly language programs, this value is often referred to as LA (logical address), the abbreviation coming from the mnemonic that refers to the memory location where the file number is stored. File numbers greater than 127 cause the system to write an extra line feed after each carriage return (useful for double spacing a document, as an example.) ;8 :This parameter, the device number, identifies a specific peripheral attached to the computer.

J. Halcombe "Hal" Laning Jr. (February 14, 1920 in Kansas City, Missouri1953: Information from Answers.com - May 29, 2012) was a Massachusetts Institute of Technology computer pioneer who in 1952 invented an algebraic compiler called George (also known as the Laning and Zierler system after the authors of the published paper) that ran on the MIT Whirlwind, the first real-time computer.NASA - The Flight of STS-1: Computer Laning designed George to be an easier-to-use alternative to assembly language for entering mathematical equations into a computer. He later became a key contributor to the 1960s race to the moon, with pioneering work on space-based guidance systems for the Apollo moon missions.

He programmed "the core" of the game's engine in a month; he added a few features to the Wolfenstein 3D engine from Catacomb 3-D, including support for doors and decorative non-wall objects, but primarily focused on making the game run smoother and faster with higher- resolution graphics. The game was programmed in ANSI C and assembly language. The graphics for the game were planned to be in 16 color EGA, but were changed to 256 color VGA four months before release. Romero in turn worked on building a game with the engine, removing elements of the initial design, like looting enemy bodies, that he felt interrupted the flow of fast gameplay.

3D Pinball for Windows – Space Cadet is a version of the Space Cadet table bundled with Microsoft Windows. It was originally packaged with Microsoft Plus! 95 and later included in Windows NT 4.0, Windows 2000, Windows ME, and Windows XP. This version of Pinball, developed by David Plummer at Microsoft, was a port of the game using the original art and sound, developed in C for cross-platform support because Windows NT supported RISC processors and prior versions of the game contained x86 assembly language and 16-bit logic. The Windows 98 installation CD has instructions on installing Pinball 3D on this version of Windows which are partly wrong; Microsoft later issued an updated support article.

The result is an indefinite postponement until the thread holding the lock can finish and release it. This is especially true on a single-processor system, where each waiting thread of the same priority is likely to waste its quantum (allocated time where a thread can run) spinning until the thread that holds the lock is finally finished. Implementing spin locks correctly offers challenges because programmers must take into account the possibility of simultaneous access to the lock, which could cause race conditions. Generally, such an implementation is possible only with special assembly-language instructions, such as atomic test-and-set operations and cannot be easily implemented in programming languages not supporting truly atomic operations.

Cutler set three main goals for Windows NT. The first goal was portability: in contrast to previous operating systems, which were strongly tied to one architecture, Windows NT should be able to operate on multiple architectures. To meet this goal, most of the operating systems, including the operating system core, had to be written in the C programming language. During the planning phase it was clear that this would cause Windows NT to have higher memory consumption than all previous operating systems. Besides the graphics system and parts of the networking system, which were written in C++, only parts of the operating systems which required direct hardware access and performance critical functions were written in assembly language.

An IBM 704 mainframe computer In late 1953, John W. Backus submitted a proposal to his superiors at IBM to develop a more practical alternative to assembly language for programming their IBM 704 mainframe computer. Backus' historic FORTRAN team consisted of programmers Richard Goldberg, Sheldon F. Best, Harlan Herrick, Peter Sheridan, Roy Nutt, Robert Nelson, Irving Ziller, Harold Stern, Lois Haibt, and David Sayre. Its concepts included easier entry of equations into a computer, an idea developed by J. Halcombe Laning and demonstrated in the Laning and Zierler system of 1952.Mindell, David, Digital Apollo, MIT Press, Cambridge MA, 2008, p.99 Some of these programmers were chess players and were chosen to work at IBM with the thought being that they had logical minds.

Any bit may be toggled by XORing it with 1. For example, given the bit pattern 0010 (decimal 2) the second and fourth bits may be toggled by a bitwise XOR with a bit pattern containing 1 in the second and fourth positions: 0010 (decimal 2) XOR 1010 (decimal 10) = 1000 (decimal 8) This technique may be used to manipulate bit patterns representing sets of Boolean states. Assembly language programmers and optimizing compilers sometimes use XOR as a short-cut to setting the value of a register to zero. Performing XOR on a value against itself always yields zero, and on many architectures this operation requires fewer clock cycles and memory than loading a zero value and saving it to the register.

Since 1980, the address wrap was internally used by 86-DOS and MS-DOS to implement the CP/M-style CALL 5 entry point in the Program Segment Prefix (PSP) (which partially resembles CP/M's zero page). This was, in particular, utilized by programs machine- translated from CP/M-80 through assembly language translators like Seattle Computer Products' TRANS86. The CALL 5 handler this entry point refers to resides at physical address 0x000000C0 (overlapping the entry for INT 30h and the first byte of INT 31h in the real mode interrupt vector table). However, by the design of CP/M-80, the 8080/Z80 16-bit target address stored at offset 6 in the zero page could deliberately also be interpreted as segment memory size.

Software for early computers was primarily written in assembly language. It is usually more productive for a programmer to use a high-level language, and programs written in a high-level language can be reused on different kinds of computers. Even so, it took a while for compilers to become established, because they generated code that did not perform as well as hand-written assembler, they were daunting development projects in their own right, and the very limited memory capacity of early computers created many technical problems for practical compiler implementations. The first practical compiler was written by Corrado Böhm, in 1951, for his PhD thesis. The first implemented compiler was written by Grace Hopper, who also coined the term "compiler",Maurice V. Wilkes. 1968.

The Navy Electronics Laboratory International ALGOL Compiler or NELIAC was a dialect and compiler implementation of the ALGOL 58 programming language developed by the Naval Electronics Laboratory in 1958. NELIAC was the brainchild of Harry Huskey — then Chairman of the ACM and a well known computer scientist (and later academic supervisor of Niklaus Wirth), and supported by Maury Halstead, the head of the computational center at NEL. The earliest version was implemented on the prototype USQ-17 computer (called the Countess) at the laboratory. It was the world's first self-compiling compiler - the compiler was first coded in simplified form in assembly language (the bootstrap), then re-written in its own language and compiled by the bootstrap, and finally re-compiled by itself, making the bootstrap obsolete.

The examples below have been chosen partly to illustrate potential performance gains that may not only compensate significantly for the additional tier of abstraction, but also improve upon - what otherwise might have been - less efficient, less maintainable and lengthier code. Although the examples given are for a 'low level' assembly language and for the C language, it can be seen, in both cases, that very few lines of code are required to implement the control table approach and yet can achieve very significant constant time performance improvements, reduce repetitive source coding and aid clarity, as compared with verbose conventional program language constructs. See also the quotations by Donald Knuth, concerning tables and the efficiency of multiway branching in this article.

An expensive (£49 in the UK in 1977) Hobby Module was available which gave 6.5 kb of user-programmable memory and had a 5 pin DIN socket to allow software to be saved to a cassette tape player. This converted the unit into a halfway house between a home computer and an ordinary gaming console. The user had to be familiar with programming in Signetics 2650 assembly language and the unconventional ways and register architecture of the Signetics 2650 processor. For example, on many other processors an opcode 0 indicates "no operation" whereas on the 2650 it instructs the processor to Branch To Address In Immediate Register B. This was a source of many software debugging hassles for budding home programmers.

The little-endian system has the property that the same value can be read from memory at different lengths without using different addresses (even when alignment restrictions are imposed). For example, a 32-bit memory location with content can be read at the same address as either 8-bit (value = 4A), 16-bit (004A), 24-bit (00004A), or 32-bit (0000004A), all of which retain the same numeric value. Although this little-endian property is rarely used directly by high-level programmers, it is often employed by code optimizers as well as by assembly language programmers. In more concrete terms, such optimizations are the equivalent of the following C code returning true on most little-endian systems: union { uint8_t u8; uint16_t u16; uint32_t u32; uint64_t u64; } u = { .

Kathleen Booth worked at Birkbeck College, 1946–62.. She travelled to the United States as Andrew Booth's research assistant in 1947, visiting with John von Neumann at Princeton. Upon returning to the UK, she co-authored "General Considerations in the Design of an All Purpose Electronic Digital Computer," describing modifications to the original ARC redesign to the ARC2 using a von Neumann architecture. Part of her contribution was the ARC assembly language.. She also built and maintained ARC components.. Kathleen and Andrew Booth's team at Birkbeck were considered the smallest of the early British computer groups. From 1947 to 1953, they produced three machines: ARC (Automatic Relay Computer), SEC (Simple Electronic Computer), and APE(X)C (All-purpose Electronic (Rayon) Computer).

As an example, the m-expression `car[cons[A,B ` is equivalent to the s-expression ``. S-expressions proved popular, however, and the many attempts to implement m-expressions failed to catch on. The first implementation of Lisp was on an IBM 704 by Steve Russell, who read McCarthy's paper and coded the eval function he described in machine code. The familiar (but puzzling to newcomers) names CAR and CDR used in Lisp to describe the head element of a list and its tail, evolved from two IBM 704 assembly language commands: Contents of Address Register and Contents of Decrement Register, each of which returned the contents of a 15-bit register corresponding to segments of a 36-bit IBM 704 instruction word.

Next the application is run, showing the Cosmos Builder Window, which presents the developer with options which determine exactly how the project is compiled. These options include how to boot the project - via emulators such as Quick Emulator (QEMU), Virtual PC, and VMWare, writing to a disk image (ISO) file that can later be written to a CD-ROM, or via Preboot Execution Environment (PXE) network booting - as well as debug options using Cosmos' built-in debugger, and other options. When the user has chosen their desired options, they press the Build button. This invokes the IL2CPU compiler which systematically scans through all of the applications CIL code (excluding the Cosmos compiler code), converting it into assembly language for the selected processor architecture.

The most common assembly and machine languages are for TMS9900, SH-3, Zilog Z80, and various Motorola chips (e.g. a modified 68000) which serve as the main processors of the machines although many (not all) are modified to some extent from their use elsewhere. Some manufacturers do not document and even mildly discourage the assembly language programming of their machines because they must be programmed in this way by putting together the program on the PC and then forcing it into the calculator by various improvised methods. Other on-board programming languages include purpose-made languages, variants of Eiffel, Forth, and Lisp, and Command Script facilities which are similar in function to batch/shell programming and other glue languages on computers but generally not as full featured.

This measure is no longer in widespread use because different computer languages require different numbers of lines to achieve the same result (occasionally the measure "assembly equivalent lines of code" is used, with appropriate conversion factors from the language actually used to assembly language). Error rates in programming are also measured in "Errors per K-LOC", which is called the defect density. NASA's SATC is one of the few organisations to claim zero defects in a large (>500K-LOC) project, for the space shuttle software. An alternative measurement was defined by Pegasus Mail author David Harris: the "WaP" is equivalent to 71,500 lines of program code, because that number of lines is the length of one edition of Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace.

Because of the limited capacity of even large processors of that era every CICS installation was required to assemble the source code for all of the CICS system modules after completing a process similar to system generation (sysgen), called CICSGEN, to establish values for conditional assembly language statements. This process allowed each customer to exclude support from CICS itself for any feature they did not intend to use, such as device support for terminal types not in use. CICS owes its early popularity to its relatively efficient implementation when hardware was very expensive, its multi-threaded processing architecture, its relative simplicity for developing terminal-based real-time transaction applications, and many open-source customer contributions, including both debugging and feature enhancement.

The game was developed to meet three precepts Russell, Graetz, and Wiitanen had developed for creating a program that functioned equally well as an entertainment experience for the players and as a demonstration for spectators: to use as much of the computer's resources as possible, to be consistently interesting and therefore have every run be different, and to be entertaining and therefore a game. It took Russell, with assistance from the other programmers—including Bob Saunders and Steve Piner (but not Wiitanen, who had been called up by the United States Army Reserve)—about 200 total hours to write the first version of Spacewar!, or around six weeks to develop the basic game. It was written in the PDP-1's assembly language.

This system was used with a BBC Micro and a PC compatible version was also planned. Advertising was aimed at those with technical expertise, rather than consumers and the education market, with a number of technical specifications listed in the main text of the adverts. Wilson subsequently coded BBC Basic in ARM assembly language, and the in-depth knowledge obtained from designing the instruction set allowed the code to be very dense, making ARM BBC Basic an extremely good test for any ARM emulator. Such was the secrecy surrounding the ARM CPU project that when Olivetti were negotiating to take a controlling share of Acorn in 1985, they were not told about the development team until after the negotiations had been finalised.

However, limited program address space and lack of easy program storage made calculator gaming a rarity even as programmables became cheap and relatively easy to obtain. It was not until the early 1990s when graphing calculators became more powerful and cheap enough to be common among high school students for use in mathematics. The new graphing calculators, with their ability to transfer files to one another and from a computer for backup, could double as game consoles. Calculators such as HP-48 and TI-82 could be programmed in proprietary programming languages such as RPL programming language or TI-BASIC directly on the calculator; programs could also be written in assembly language or (less often) C on a desktop computer and transferred to the calculator.

Nonetheless the 8008 was to have a seminal importance. It was the basis of Intel's line of 8-bit CPUs, which was followed by their assembly language compatible 16-bit CPUs — the first members of the x86 family, as the instruction set was later to be known. Already successful and widely used, the x86 architecture's further rise after the success in 1981 of the original IBM Personal Computer with an Intel 8088 CPU means that most desktop, laptop and server computers in use have a CPU instruction set directly based on the work of CTC's engineers. The instruction set of the highly successful Zilog Z80 microprocessor can also be traced back to the Datapoint 2200 as the Z80 was backwards-compatible with the Intel 8080.

Application software is generally written for use on a specific operating system, and sometimes even for specific hardware. When porting the application to run on another OS, the functionality required by that application may be implemented differently by that OS (the names of functions, meaning of arguments, etc.) requiring the application to be adapted, changed, or otherwise maintained. Unix was the first operating system not written in assembly language, making it very portable to systems different from its native PDP-11. This cost in supporting operating systems diversity can be avoided by instead writing applications against software platforms such as Java or Qt. These abstractions have already borne the cost of adaptation to specific operating systems and their system libraries.

In computer programming languages, the definitions of operator and operand are almost the same as in mathematics. In computing, an operand is the part of a computer instruction which specifies what data is to be manipulated or operated on, while at the same time representing the data itself. A computer instruction describes an operation such as add or multiply X, while the operand (or operands, as there can be more than one) specify on which X to operate as well as the value of X. Additionally, in assembly language, an operand is a value (an argument) on which the instruction, named by mnemonic, operates. The operand may be a processor register, a memory address, a literal constant, or a label.

Following the success of Cirrus in the disk drive market, this was the real basis for venture capitalists' interest in Stac. As part of the application engineering to adapt its data compression chips for use in disk drives, the company implemented a DOS driver that transparently compressed data written to a PC hard disk and decompressed the data transparently upon subsequent hard disk reads. In doing so they discovered that given the relative speed difference between the PC processor and the disk drive access times, it was possible to perform the data compression in software, obviating the need for a data compression chip in every disk drive, as they were planning to produce. This DOS driver was written in x86 assembly language under contract by Paul Houle.

A translator or programming language processor is a generic term that can refer to anything that converts code from one computer language into another. A program written in high-level language is called source program.These include translations between high-level and human-readable computer languages such as C++ and Java, intermediate-level languages such as Java bytecode, low- level languages such as the assembly language and machine code, and between similar levels of language on different computing platforms, as well as from any of the above to another. The term is also used for translators between software implementations and hardware implementations (ASICs microchips) of the same program, and from software descriptions of a microchip to the logic gates needed to build it.

Atari games had previously been programmed in assembly language. The C language was easier to program, but was less efficient, so the game operates at the slower speed of instead of the normal frequency of arcade games at the time. Cerny decided to use a trackball system (marketed by Atari as Trak-Ball) to give the game a unique control system, and he chose a motorized trackball for faster spinning and braking when the in-game ball traveled downhill and uphill, respectively. As it was building the prototypes, Atari's design department informed Cerny that the motorized trackball's design had an inherent flaw—one of the four supports had poor contact with the ball—and the use of a regular trackball was more feasible.

At TPF 4.1, truly and fully linked load modules were introduced to TPF. These were compiled with the z/OS C/C++ compiler using TPF-specific header files and linked with IEWL, resulting in a z/OS-conformant load module, which in no manner could be considered a traditional TPF segment. The TPF loader was extended to read the z/OS-unique load module file format, then lay out file-resident load modules' sections into memory; meanwhile, assembly language programs remained confined to TPF's segment model, creating an obvious disparity between applications written in assembler and those written in higher level languages (HLL). At z/TPF 1.1, all source language types were conceptually unified and fully link-edited to conform to the ELF specification.

In the C programming language, Duff's device is a way of manually implementing loop unrolling by interleaving two syntactic constructs of C: the - loop and a switch statement. Its discovery is credited to Tom Duff in November 1983, when Duff was working for Lucasfilm and used it to speed up a real-time animation program. Loop unrolling attempts to reduce the overhead of conditional branching needed to check whether a loop is done, by executing a batch of loop bodies per iteration. To handle cases where the number of iterations is not divisible by the unrolled-loop increments, a common technique among assembly language programmers is to jump directly into the middle of the unrolled loop body to handle the remainder.

WordPerfect 1.0 represented a significant departure from the previous Wang standard for word processing. The first version of WordPerfect for the IBM PC was released the day after Thanksgiving in 1982. It was sold as WordPerfect 2.20, continuing the version numbering from the Data General program. Over the next several months, three more minor releases arrived, mainly to correct bugs. The developers had hoped to program WordPerfect in C, but at this early stage there were no C compilers available for the IBM PC and they had to program it in x86 assembly language. All versions of WordPerfect up to 5.0 were written in x86, and C was only adopted with WP 5.1 when it became necessary to convert it to non-IBM compatible computers.

This language was essentially a set of macros that expanded out user source code into a series of assembly language instructions, which were then compiled using the existing SAL assembler, Symbolic Assembly Program. For instance, the formula `A + B = C` would add the values in memory locations A and B and put the result in C. To do this, the DARSIMCO compiler would write out the following three instructions: LDA A FAD B STO C The language included similar expansions for subtraction, multiplication, division, and simple looping. The language was implemented on the IBM 704 at MIT's New England Regional Computer Center. Programmed using punch cards, the system had a two-week turnaround because Kemeny had to take the cards in via train from Dartmouth.

The first version of Hourglass was written by Yehuda Simmons and later Daniel James for Avalon: The Legend Lives which debuted in 1989 at the last of the London MUD mega Meets aptly named Adventure '89 and initially hosted on the IOWA system. Initially written in ARM assembly language on the Acorn Archimedes 440, in 1994 it made the leap from the venerable Archimedes to Debian Linux on the PC and later Red Hat where, other than shifting to Ubuntu, it has remained ever since. An early version of Hourglass was also ported to the PC, named Vortex, by Ben Maizels in 1992. Although written specifically for Avalon: The Legend Lives, it went on to spawn a number of games, including Avalon: The First Age, which ran from 1999 to 2014.

The 8-bit Intel 8080 (as well as the 8085 and 8051) microprocessor was basically a slightly extended accumulator-based design and therefore not orthogonal. An assembly-language programmer or compiler writer had to be mindful of which operations were possible on each register: Most 8-bit operations could be performed only on the 8-bit accumulator (the A-register), while 16-bit operations could be performed only on the 16-bit pointer/accumulator (the HL- register pair), whereas simple operations, such as increment, were possible on all seven 8-bit registers. This was largely due to a desire to keep all opcodes one byte long. The binary-compatible Z80 later added prefix-codes to escape from this 1-byte limit and allow for a more powerful instruction set.

David Silver was a student at MIT in the early 1970s, who was the primary developer of the Silver Arm, an improved robotic arm which was used for experimenting in mechanisms for fine motor control using motions similar to human hand and finger movements. While still a high school student, prior to enrolling at MIT, Silver had frequented the Project MAC offices, and was taught to program in PDP-6 assembly language by some of the early hackers, who picked him up as a 'mascot' of their group. According to Steven Levy's book Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, his presence at the lab, and his being allowed to work on independent robotics projects, became a source of friction between the nascent Hacker group and the project's administrators.

Each level provides 2 or 3 secret power-ups, which can be activated by simultaneously firing and ducking in the right places; generally in less frequented positions, which can be used to quickly finish the level. Among the power-ups available are superscrolls, item upgrade (free heart/heart to scroll/scroll to superscroll), 2 minutes extra time, and a "smart bomb" which will destroy all enemies on and just outside the boundaries of the screen. At the end of level seven, the letters that Flimbo has collected are revealed to be assembly language instructions, and are programmed into Dandruff's computer to free Pearly. When the game is completed, it restarts from the beginning with the time count, money, lives, hearts (if any) and score that the player had at the end of the game.

The sprites and backgrounds were drawn by Disney animators themselves at Walt Disney Feature Animation, and the music was adapted from songs and orchestrations in the soundtrack. In a "Devs Play" session with Double Fine, game designer Louis Castle revealed that two of the game's levels, Hakuna Matata and Be Prepared, were adapted from scenes that were scrapped from the final movie. An Amiga 1200 version of the game was developed with assembly language in two months by Dave Semmons, who was willing to take on the conversion if he received the Genesis source code. He assumed the game to be programmed in 68000 assembly, since the Amiga and Genesis shared the same CPU family developed by Motorola, but turned out to be written in C, a language he was unfamiliar with.

The transition was tricky: assembly language programmers, including IBM's own operating systems architects and developers, had been using the spare byte at the top of addresses for flags for almost twenty years.Indeed, in a variable length parameter list of addresses, the last address entry traditionally had its most significant bit set to 1, whereas the other address entries were required to have their most significant bit set to 0. IBM chose to provide two forms of addressing to minimize the pain: if the most significant bit (bit 0) of a 32-bit address was on, the next 31 bits were interpreted as the virtual address. If the most significant bit was off, then only the lower 24 bits were treated as the virtual address (just as with pre-XA systems).

The site was reported by the BBC as having received more than 10,000 hits 10 days after its launch. The German edition of Engadget was noted for its web site's HTML code being used in Duane Clark's 2011 TV series XIII, while it was noted elsewhere that movie code is frequently taken from web sites, including Wikipedia and a Canadian bank. It was noted that instead of using "random code" (which is often the case) sometimes more appropriate code is used. Some cited examples are James Cameron's 1984 film The Terminator (using assembly language for the 1975 MOS 6502 microprocessor), Eric Kripke's 2012 TV series Revolution (using code from Jordan Mechner's 1989 video game Prince of Persia) and David Fincher's 2011 film The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (using MySQL).

Furthermore, programming with segments tend to become complicated; special far and near keywords or memory models had to be used (with care), not only in assembly language but also in high level languages such as Pascal, compiled BASIC, Fortran, C, etc. The 80386 and its successors fully support the 16-bit segments of the 80286 but also segments for 32-bit address offsets (using the new 32-bit width of the main registers). If the base address of all 32-bit segments is set to 0, and segment registers are not used explicitly, the segmentation can be forgotten and the processor appears as having a simple linear 32-bit address space. Operating systems like Windows or OS/2 provide the possibility to run 16-bit (segmented) programs as well as 32-bit programs.

By performing statistical analysis on the succession of results thus obtained, SpinRite is, according to its maker, often able to "reconstruct" data from damaged sectors, and even in those cases in which complete reconstruction proves impossible, SpinRite is able to extract all intact bits from a partially damaged sector, and to copy them to a new block, thereby minimizing the amount of data lost. Some claims by SpinRite's author have proved controversial. The ability to "refresh" aging drives has been met with particular skepticism while the "recovery" of sectors marked as "damaged" is considered by some to be undesirable and counter- productive. (Criticism in 2000 of SpinRite's stated operating principles) SpinRite is written in x86 assembly language, and runs on any PC-compatible computer, regardless of the operating system installed.

Turbo Debugger (TD) is a machine-level debugger for DOS executables, intended mainly for debugging Borland Turbo Pascal, and later Turbo C programs, sold by Borland. It is a full-screen debugger displaying both Turbo Pascal or Turbo C source and corresponding assembly-language instructions, with powerful capabilities for setting breakpoints, watching the execution of instructions, monitoring machine registers, etc. Turbo Debugger can be used for programs not generated by Borland compilers, but without showing source statements; it is by no means the only debugger available for non-Borland executables, and not a significant general-purpose debugger. Although Borland's Turbo Pascal has useful single-stepping and conditional breakpoint facilities, the need for a more powerful debugger became apparent when Turbo Pascal started to be used for serious development.

It stood somewhere between the native assembly language SSK (Sistema Simvolicheskogo Kodirovaniya, or "System of symbolic coding") and higher-level languages, like FORTRAN. The word size was 31 bits for Minsk-1 and 37 bits for the other models. At one point Minsk-222 (an upgraded prototype based on the most popular model, Minsk-22) and Minsk-32 were considered as a potential base for a future unified line of mutually compatible mainframes — that would later become the ES EVM line, but despite being popular among users, good match between their tech and Soviet tech base and familiarity to both programmers and technicians lost to the proposal to copy the IBM/360 line of mainframes — the possibility to just copy all the software existing for it was deemed more important.

In computing, hand coding means editing the underlying representation of a document or a computer program, when tools that allow working on a higher level representation also exist. Typically this means editing the source code, or the textual representation of a document or program, instead of using a WYSIWYG editor that always displays an approximation of the final product. It may also mean translating the whole or parts of the source code into machine language manually instead of using a compiler or an automatic translator. Most commonly, it refers to directly writing HTML documents for the web (rather than in a specialized editor), or to writing a program or portion of a program in assembly language (more rarely raw machine code) rather than in a higher level language.

Will Harvey's Music Construction Set (MCS) is a music composition notation program designed by Will Harvey for the Apple II and published by Electronic Arts in 1984. Harvey wrote the original Apple II version in assembly language when he was 15 and in high school. MCS was conceived as a tool to add music to his first and only published software, an abstract shooter called Lancaster for the Apple II. Music Construction Set was ported to the Atari 8-bit family, Commodore 64, IBM PC (as a booter), and the Atari ST. Two years later, in 1986, Will Harvey released a port for the 16-bit Apple IIGS, utilizing its advanced sound. Also that year, a redesigned version for the Amiga and Macintosh was released as Deluxe Music Construction Set.

The UNIX Programmer's Manual was published on 3 November 1971; commands were documented in the "man page" format that is still used, offering terse reference information about usage as well as bugs in the software, and listing the authors of programs to channel questions to them. After other Bell Labs departments purchased DEC PDP-11s, they also chose to run Unix instead of DEC's own operating system. By Version 4 it was widely used within the laboratory and a Unix Support Group was formed, helping the operating system survive by formalizing its distribution. In 1973, Version 4 Unix was rewritten in the higher-level language C, contrary to the general notion at the time that an operating system's complexity and sophistication required it to be written in assembly language.

While PL360 is at the semantic level of assembly language, another kind of system programming language operates at a higher semantic level, but has specific extensions designed to make the language suitable for system programming. An early example of this kind of language is LRLTRAN, which extended Fortran with features for character and bit manipulation, pointers, and directly addressed jump tables. Subsequently, languages such as C were developed, where the combination of features was sufficient to write system software, and a compiler could be developed that generated efficient object programs on modest hardware. Such a language generally omits features that cannot be implemented efficiently, and adds a small number of machine-dependent features needed to access specific hardware abilities; inline assembly code, such as C's `asm` statement, is often used for this purpose.

This left a bad taste for Unix-like systems at the National Laboratories and with the manufacturer, Cray Research, Inc., of the hardware who went on to develop their own batch oriented operating system, COS (Cray Operating System) and their own vectorizing Fortran compiler named "CFT" (Cray ForTran) both written in the Cray Assembly Language (CAL). CTSS had the misfortune to have certain constants, structures, and lacking certain networking facilities (TCP/IP) which were optimized to be Cray-1 architecture-dependent without extensive rework when larger memory supercomputers like the Cray-2 and the Cray Y-MP came into use. CTSS has its final breaths running on Cray instruction-set- compatible hardware developed by Scientific Computer Systems (SCS-40 and SCS-30) and Supertek S-1, but this did not save the software.

For Paterson, this was mostly a translation process. He had already written a Z80-to-8086 assembly language translation program (TRANS.COM). In this case, he was manually translating in the other direction. Because MS-DOS 1.x was modelled after CP/M's API and was able to run CP/M applications that had been source-level translated to 8086, that would mean, MSX-DOS would be able to run CP/M programs directly. For this project, Paterson also wrote a Z80 emulator that ran under MS-DOS, which would allow him to do the entire development project under MS-DOS. The MSX-DOS he was writing had an I/O System layer, that interfaced directly to the I/O System layer of the MS-DOS machine, that was running the emulation.

Software Cartridge with Box and Manual The code was written in F-8 Assembly language, and then run through a translator/assembler on a Hewlett-Packard minicomputer to produce binary machine code. The resident 1K ROM contained basic start-up and operating code, images of letters and numbers, and four user-accessible programs – text, clock, alarm, and color.Shapero Umtech developed and marketed fourteen software programs, six in the Education Series, six in the Entertainment Series, and two in the Money Management Category. The company developed but never offered for sale a cartridge with 1k of onboard RAM that made the computer programmable in a variation of the APL language, and an educational program called Old Regime that allowed users to simulate being a wealthy landowner in seventeenth century France.

In addition to its widespread use in schools, officies and industrial applications, the initially also grasped a majority share of the rising personal computer market in Sweden, partly thanks to its office software in Swedish. The computer was robust and well engineered, mechanically and electrically, and its BASIC was fast enough that it could be used to write arcade games, without resorting to assembly language. However, despite such technical virtues, it couldn't defend the home market against the dedicated gaming computers with color and sound that appeared in the early 1980s, neither against the cheap ultra simplistic home computers of the same era,With the VIC 20 and the ZX81 being typical examples, respectively. even though a new low cost version was released that could use an ordinary TV instead of the dedicated monitor.

Despite Microsoft's previous efforts to make ActiveX cross-platform, most ActiveX controls will not work on all platforms, so using ActiveX controls to implement essential functionality of a web page restricts its usefulness. South Korea has started to remove this technology from their public websites in order to make their web site accessible to more platforms. While Microsoft made significant effort to push the cross-platform aspect of ActiveX by way of publishing the API, ultimately the cross-platform effort failed due to the ActiveX controls being written in C or C++ and being compiled in Intel x86 Assembly language, making them executable only on Windows machines where they can call the standard Win32 APIs. Microsoft dropped ActiveX support from the Windows Store edition of Internet Explorer 10 in Windows 8.

Like most of the other examples of integrated software for home computers, Jane's components were criticized for being slow and limitedJane review in Run magazineJane review in Info magazine It was not a success in the marketplace but represented an early example of a graphical interface on an 8-bit computer. Arktronics was a software development company in Ann Arbor, Michigan, founded by Howard Marks and Bobby Kotick. Jane was originally intended to be a package not only for the Apple and Commodore lines, but also for the Atari 8-bit family and others. This transportability was engineered by a combination of higher level systems written in the C language and machine specific drivers written in the assembly language for each machine (6502 Assembly for the Apple II and Commodore 64).

Beta and initial production releases of Valdocs' application modules were written in the Forth programming language while its system-oriented modules (such as E-Mail and disk utilities) were written in Z-80 Assembly Language. Later releases of Valdocs' applications were written in the C programming language with some modules written in compiled RSI Basic. Valdocs specific keyboard on an Epson QX-16 The initial release of Valdocs included WYSIWYG word processor and spreadsheet applications (with onscreen fonts, an UNDO key, keyboard macros and multiple screen formats), a cardfile database, an E-Mail/communications module, and a desktop manager with an address book, mailing list manager, notepad, spell checker, ValDraw & ValPaint, calculator and more. The E-Mail program worked in the background allowing mail to be sent by modem to another computer.

In computer science, bootstrapping is the technique for producing a self- compiling compiler — that is, compiler (or assembler) written in the source programming language that it intends to compile. An initial core version of the compiler (the bootstrap compiler) is generated in a different language (which could be assembly language); successive expanded versions of the compiler are developed using this minimal subset of the language. The problem of compiling a self-compiling compiler has been called the chicken-or-egg problem in compiler design, and bootstrapping is a solution to this problem. Many compilers for many programming languages are bootstrapped, including compilers for BASIC, ALGOL, C, C#, D, Pascal, PL/I, Factor, Haskell, Modula-2, Oberon, OCaml, Common Lisp, Scheme, Go, Java, Elixir, Rust, Python, Scala, Nim, Eiffel, and more.

For input, the system simply reads pushbuttons connected to its input pins. Programming is done in assembly language or in a custom written XGS Basic, on a PC and then transferred to the console. The Pico comes in several different kit forms: the 1.0 kit which comes with a breadboard, a CD with assembly instructions and selected chapters of the same ebook as the Micro Edition and the same extras, the SX28, and the discrete components of the system; and the 2.0 kit, which consists of the 1.0 kit and a PCB (which is also available as an add-on separately); and the Game Console Starter Kit, which includes the 2.0 kit, a hard copy of "The Black Art of Video Game Console Design", and a soldering iron and solder.

In late 1985, Norton hired a business manager to take care of the day-to-day operations.Investigating The Lost Files Of Peter Norton, PC Pioneer, Computers & Electronics, May 1992 In 1985, Norton Computing produced the Norton Editor, a programmer's text editor created by Stanley Reifel, and Norton Guides, a TSR program which showed reference information for assembly language and other IBM PC internals, but could also display other reference information compiled into the appropriate file format. Norton Commander, a file managing tool for DOS, was introduced in 1986. In September 1983, Norton started work on The Peter Norton Programmer's Guide to the IBM PC. The book was a popular and comprehensive guide to low- level programming on the original PC platform (covering BIOS and MS-DOS system calls in great detail).

In systems such as the HP 2100, the JSB instruction would perform a similar task, except that the return address was stored in the memory location that was the target of the branch. Execution of the procedure would actually begin at the next memory location. In the HP 2100 assembly language, one would write, for example ... JSB MYSUB (Calls subroutine MYSUB.) BB ... (Will return here after MYSUB is done.) to call a subroutine called MYSUB from the main program. The subroutine would be coded as MYSUB NOP (Storage for MYSUB's return address.) AA ... (Start of MYSUB's body.) ... JMP MYSUB,I (Returns to the calling program.) The JSB instruction placed the address of the NEXT instruction (namely, BB) into the location specified as its operand (namely, MYSUB), and then branched to the NEXT location after that (namely, AA = MYSUB + 1).

Context MBA was the first integrated software application for personal computers, providing five functions in one program: spreadsheet, database, charting, word processing, and communication software. It was first released in 1981 by Context Management Systems for the Apple III computer, but was later ported to the Hewlett Packard 9000 / 200 series computers running Rocky Mountain BASIC and IBM PC platform as well. Since the program was written in UCSD Pascal, it was easy to port to different platforms, but did so at the expense of performance, which was critical at the time of its release, given the limited amount of memory, processing power, and disk I/O available on a desktop computer. It was soon overtaken by Lotus 1-2-3, a more limited integrated software package, but one written in assembly language, yielding much better performance.

In 1994, Phase I was successfully demonstrated; however it involved several hundred processors and filled the back of a truck. Moore’s Law provides a doubling in speed every eighteen months, and since it had taken three years to build the system and write all of the software, two doublings had taken place. This seemed to indicate that the number of processors could be reduced by a factor of four. However, SpeakEasy could not take advantage of these newer faster processors, and the reason was the software. The software was tied to ’C40 assembly language, plus all of the specialized glue code to get four C40s to work together with the code for the particular chosen FPGA. The observation was that it had taken three years to write software for a platform that Moore’s Law made obsolete in eighteen months.

Mid-level languages "have much of the syntax and facilities of a higher level language, but also provide direct access in the language (as well as providing assembly language) to machine features." The earliest of these was ESPOL on Burroughs mainframes in about 1960, followed by Niklaus Wirth's PL360 (first written on a Burroughs system as a cross compiler), which had the general syntax of ALGOL 60 but which statements directly manipulated CPU registers and memory. Other languages in this category include MOL-360 and PL/S. As an example, a typical PL360 statement is `R9 := R8 and R7 shll 8 or R6`, signifying that registers 8 and 7 should be and'ed together, the result shifted left 8 bits, the result of that or'ed with the contents of register 6, and the final result placed into register 9.

STAOPS also produced another communication processor (CP), used in networks hosted by IBM mainframes. This M1000 CP, later renamed C1000, came from an acquisition of Marshall MDM Communications. A three-board set was added to the Cyber 18 to create the 2550. The Cyber 18 was generally programmed in Pascal and assembly language; FORTRAN, BASIC, and RPG II were also available. Operating systems included RTOS (Real-Time Operating System), MSOS 5 (Mass Storage Operating System), and TIMESHARE 3 (time-sharing system). "Cyber 18-17" was just a new name for the System 17, based on the 1784 processor. Other Cyber 18s (Cyber 18-05, 18-10, 18-20, and 18-30) had microprogrammable processors with up to 128K words of memory, four additional general registers, and an enhanced instruction set. The Cyber 18-30 had dual processors.

The TI-82 is powered by the same processor that powered its cousin, the TI-85, a 6 MHz Zilog Z80 microprocessor. This was an improvement over the TI-81's 2 MHz Z80 processor. In addition, the available RAM was increased more than tenfold – from 2400 bytes to 28734 bytes (slightly more than the TI-85). Some of the more notable improvements of the TI-82 over the TI-81 include the following: the addition of a link port to enable programs and other data to be transferred between two calculators or between a calculator and a computer; the addition of two new graphing types – polar and sequence, the addition of a new type of data – the list, the expansion of the size limit of matrices to 50x50, and the (unintentional) addition of the ability to program the calculator in assembly language.

This article will use the term "module" to refer to any name or equivalent symbol, which is used to provide an identifier for a piece of code or data external to the scope to which it is referenced. A module may refer to a subroutine, a function, Fortran Common or Block Data, an object or class, a method or property of an object or class, or any other named routine or identifier external to that particular scope referencing the external name. The terms "assembler" for a program that converts assembly language to machine code, as well as as the process of using one, and as the process of using a "compiler," which does the same thing for high-level languages, should, for the purposes of this article. be considered interchangeable; thus where "compile" and "compiler" are used, substitute "assemble" and "assembler" as needed.

Since the benefits of loop unrolling are frequently dependent on the size of an array--which may often not be known until run time--JIT compilers (for example) can determine whether to invoke a "standard" loop sequence or instead generate a (relatively short) sequence of individual instructions for each element. This flexibility is one of the advantages of just-in-time techniques versus static or manual optimization in the context of loop unrolling. In this situation, it is often with relatively small values of n where the savings are still useful--requiring quite small (if any) overall increase in program size (that might be included just once, as part of a standard library). Assembly language programmers (including optimizing compiler writers) are also able to benefit from the technique of dynamic loop unrolling, using a method similar to that used for efficient branch tables.

On the other hand, a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions. The following example is written in the MIPS assembly language: begin: addi $8, $0, 0 # initialize sum to 0 addi $9, $0, 1 # set first number to add = 1 loop: slti $10, $9, 1000 # check if the number is less than 1000 beq $10, $0, finish # if odd number is greater than n then exit add $8, $8, $9 # update sum addi $9, $9, 1 # get next number j loop # repeat the summing process finish: add $2, $8, $0 # put sum in output register Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in a fraction of a second.

Research extends back to 1957, including spelling checkers for bitmap images of cursive writing and special applications to find records in databases in spite of incorrect entries. In 1961, Les Earnest, who headed the research on this budding technology, saw it necessary to include the first spell checker that accessed a list of 10,000 acceptable words. Ralph Gorin, a graduate student under Earnest at the time, created the first true spelling checker program written as an applications program (rather than research) for general English text: Spell for the DEC PDP-10 at Stanford University's Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, in February 1971. Gorin wrote SPELL in assembly language, for faster action; he made the first spelling corrector by searching the word list for plausible correct spellings that differ by a single letter or adjacent letter transpositions and presenting them to the user.

In 1965, when James G. Mitchell, then an undergraduate student at Waterloo, wrote an academic paper on how to write a teaching compiler for Fortran, that could compile, link, and execute a typical undergraduate's program in a single pass, Graham arranged for Mitchell and a small team, under his supervision, to write that compiler. The compiler was eventually known as WATFOR, and was eventually to be used by students at 420 Colleges and Universities around the world. WATFOR was followed by similar teaching compilers, like WATBOL, for teaching COBOL, and WATIAC for teaching the principles of assembly language programming. Graham is credited with convincing leading computer manufacturers that it was in their interests to donate equipment to the University, because Waterloo students would then write valuable software for those computers that would make the manufacturers` products more valuable.

A number of important commercial CP/M products were written in the BDS C subset (no long integer, no floating-point arithmetic) of the C language, including PeachText from PeachTree Software, MINCE and Scribble from Mark of the Unicorn, and most of the software in the Perfect Software suite including Perfect Writer, PerfectCalc, PerfectSpeller and PerfectFiler (which suite was bundled with the Kaypro). Weak points of BDS C were that the floating point math routines and the file access functions were incompatible with the Unix C compiler's and its relocatable object files were not compatible with the Microsoft assembler, making it more difficult to integrate C code with assembly language. BDS C was bundled with a subset of the Unix system written in about 1980, called MARC (Machine Assisted Resource Coordinator). This effort in some ways resembled GNU, though MARC was to be able to run CP/M software through emulation.

Widely circulated on Usenet in its day, and well-known in the computer software industry, the article compares and contrasts real programmers, who use punch cards and write programs in FORTRAN or assembly language, with modern-day "quiche eaters" who use programming languages such as Pascal which support structured programming and impose restrictions meant to prevent or minimize common bugs due to inadvertent programming logic errors. Also mentioned are feats such as the inventor of the Cray-1 supercomputer toggling inToggling in refers to setting an array of toggle switches or rocker switches which supplement program memory the first operating system for the CDC 7600 through the front panel without notes when it was first powered on. The next year Ed Nather’s The Story of Mel, also known as The realest programmer of all, extended the theme. Immortalized in the piece is Mel Kaye of the Royal McBee Computer Corporation.

Other than the operating system itself, all system software was coded in BPL (Burroughs Programming Language), a systems programming language derived from ALGOL and Large System's ESPOL systems language. The initial COBOL compiler supported the ANSI 68 specification and supported the `ENTER SYMBOLIC` syntax to allow inline assembly language coding, but lacked support for RELATIVE and INDEXED file support; these were later added into the ANSI 74 version of the compiler, which was released in 1982. MCP allowed programs to communicate with each other via core-to-core transmissions (`CRCR`) or by using storage queues (`STOQ`), implemented as system calls using the `BCT` instruction and exposed to the languages (COBOL `FILL FROM/INTO`). This was unheard of except on the very largest IBM S/360 systems of the time, and even then it was a major operational headache to manage the interactions of the multiple program streams.

A year later, he improved and extended the game, giving it the title Transport Tycoon Deluxe. The title sold well, and Sawyer immediately sought to create a sequel. While working on the basic game engine for this sequel, Sawyer had used some of the revenue from Transport Tycoon to travel across Europe and the United States and developed an interest in roller coasters, and changed the project into what would become RollerCoaster Tycoon, originally called White Knuckle before release."10 things you (probably) never knew about Chris Sawyer's Tycoon games..." from Chris Sawyer Software Development website Sawyer coded 99% of RollerCoaster Tycoon in x86 assembly language, using only the services of freelance artist Simon Foster and music composer Allister Brimble as needed.Chris Sawyer Software Development Frequently Asked Questions After creating RollerCoaster Tycoon, he resumed work on the sequel for Transport Tycoon, but again postponed it to create RollerCoaster Tycoon 2.

In 1961, Les Earnest, who headed the research on this budding technology, saw it necessary to include the first spell checker that accessed a list of 10,000 acceptable words. Ralph Gorin, a graduate student under Earnest at the time, created the first true spelling checker program written as an applications program (rather than research) for general English text: SPELL for the DEC PDP-10 at Stanford University's Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, in February 1971. Gorin wrote SPELL in assembly language, for faster action; he made the first spelling corrector by searching the word list for plausible correct spellings that differ by a single letter or adjacent letter transpositions and presenting them to the user. Gorin made SPELL publicly accessible, as was done with most SAIL (Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory) programs, and it soon spread around the world via the new ARPAnet, about ten years before personal computers came into general use.

In May 2016, IBM launched the IBM Quantum Experience, with a five qubit quantum processor and matching simulator connected in a star shaped pattern, which users could only interact with through the quantum composer, with a limited set of two-qubit interactions, and a user guide that assumed background in linear algebra. In July 2016, IBM launched the IBM Quantum Experience community forum. In January 2017, IBM made a number of additions to the IBM Quantum Experience, including increasing the set of two-qubit interactions available on the five qubit quantum processor, expanding the simulator to custom topologies up to twenty qubits, and allowing users to interact with the device and simulator using quantum assembly language code. In March 2017, IBM released Qiskit to enable users to more easily write code and run experiments on the quantum processor and simulator, as well as introduced a user guide for beginners.

According to Nicely, his contact person at Intel later admitted that Intel had been aware of the problem since May 1994, when the flaw was discovered by Tom Kraljevic, a Purdue University co-op student working for Intel in Hillsboro, Oregon, during testing of the FPU for its new P6 core, first used in the Pentium Pro. On October 30, 1994, Nicely sent an email describing the error he had discovered in the Pentium floating point unit to various contacts, requesting reports of testing for the flaw on 486-DX4s, Pentiums and Pentium clones. This flaw in the Pentium FPU was quickly verified by other people around the Internet, and became known as the Pentium FDIV bug (FDIV is the x86 assembly language mnemonic for floating-point division). One example was found where the division result returned by the Pentium was off by about 61 parts per million.

With regard to audio, Epic employed the Galaxy Sound System, a software programmed in assembly language that integrated both EAX and Aureal technologies, and allowed the use of tracker music, which gave level designers flexibility in how the soundtrack was played at a specific point. Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone for PC was developed with the Unreal Tournament version of the engine using assets from the 2001 film. Unreal was noted for its graphical innovations, but Sweeney recognized in an interview with Eurogamer that many aspects of the game were unpolished, citing complaints about its high system requirements and online gameplay issues. Epic addressed these points during the development of Unreal Tournament by incorporating several enhancements in the engine intended to optimize performance on low-end machines and improve the networking code, while refining the artificial intelligence for bots to display coordination in team-based environments.

Thanks to the universal file specification subsequently developed by Brooks with version 1.5, Sound Designer files could be transferred via MIDI between sampling keyboards of different manufacturers. This universal file specification, along with the printed source code to a 68000 assembly language interrupt driven MIDI driver, were distributed through Macintosh MIDI interface manufacturer Assimilation, which manufactured the first MIDI interface for the Mac in 1985. Starting from the same year, a dial-up service provided by Beaverton Digital Systems, called MacMusic, allowed Sound Designer users to download and install the entire Emulator II sound library to other less expensive samplers: sample libraries could be shared across different manufacturers platforms without copyright infringement. MacMusic contributed to Sound Designer success by leveraging both the universal file format and by developing the first online sample file download site in the world, many years before the World Wide Web use soared.

In Human Resource Machine, the player must create a program (on the right side) to direct boxes from the inbox (on left) to the outbox (on right). The player uses simple commands to create a list of instructions to perform the given task. Such commands include picking up the first item at the inbox, placing the item the avatar is currently carrying at the outbox, copying the carried item to a marked square, performing addition or subtraction of the carried item with the item at the marked square, and making decisions based on the value of the carried item such as if it is zero or negative. As such, these mimic the elements of assembly language: the simple instructions equivalent to opcodes, the ability of the avatar to hold an item mirroring a processor register, and the spaces on the office floor representing main memory.

The GCC development suite is available for several models of Casio, HP, and TI calculators, meaning that C, C++, Fortran 77, and inline assembly language can be used to develop a program on the computer side and then upload it to the calculator. Projects in development by third parties include on-board and/or computer-side converters, interpreters, code generators, macro assemblers, or compilers for Fortran, other Basic variants, awk, C, Cobol, Rexx, Perl, Python, Tcl, Pascal Delphi, and operating system shells like DOS/Win95 batch, OS/2 batch, WinNT/2000 shell, Unix shells, and DCL. Many TI, Casio, Sharp and HP models have Lua interpreters which are part of the default configuration or can be optionally added. Some calculators run a subset of Fortran 77 called Mini-Fortran; the compiler is on the calculator so connecting to a PC to put programs onto the machine is not needed.

Joergen quickly found out difficulties developing for the system's multi-chip architecture but wanted to "make the best use of what the Jaguar had to offer". Protector was developed in assembly language and all the game logic was conducted by the system's Motorola 68000, with the macro assembler, linker, and debugging system tools being provided by BrainStorm. Objects were kept at a small size in order to avoid memory issues with the Object Processor on the system and makes minimal use of parallax scrolling, among other features. The team prioritized in getting the game running at 60 frames per second, while also keeping the number of active on-screen objects low by having one enemy wave active before another one is released but enemy AI was increased to compensate the low number of sprites as a result, while most of the game's graphics and sound effects were sampled from multiple sources and games such as Beach Head II: The Dictator Strikes Back.

In the past, trainers were often coded in assembly language or any of the high level language available at the time. Today, trainers can also be made with automated trainer making tools that just require basic information about cheats such as address and injection code, the program then compiles the trainer using pre-defined values and settings requiring no programming skill from the end-user. The most popular trainer making tool used today is Cheat Engine which supports wide variety of injection types and pointers, other tools that were used in past but are no longer as applicable are Trainer Maker Kit, Game Trainer Studio and Trainer Creation Kit etc. Some of the advanced techniques that Cheat Engine trainers supports include code injection, code shifting and the flexibility and versatility provided by its Lua scripting which has phased out other trainer making tools which lacked the support for some of these features.

Because the PlayStation was unable to match this at runtime, the location of every vertex was stored in every frame at 30 frames a second. Gavin, Baggett, and Cerny attempted to invent assembly language vertex compressors for this manner of animation; Cerny's version was the most successful and the most complicated. To obtain the graphic details seen in the game, Rubin, Gavin, and Baggett researched visibility calculation in video games that followed Doom and concluded that extensive pre-calculation of visibility would allow the game to render a larger number of polygons. Following experimentation in free- roaming camera control, the team settled with a branching rail camera that would follow along next to, behind, or in front of the character, generally looking at him, moving on a "track" through the world. Because only 800 polygons could be visible on the screen at a time, parts of the game's landscape would be hidden from view using trees, cliffs, walls, and twists and turns in the environment.

Development of Project64 began in March 1998 with a small team consisting of Zilmar and others. In September 1999, Zilmar was introduced to Jabo, who was developing an N64 Emulator of his own. In December 1999, Jabo was invited to join Zilmar on a collaborative effort for Project64. Jabo initially did not intend on being the RDP/Graphics developer, having a greater interest in assembly language and the central processing unit (CPU) but found himself often working on the graphics aspects. The authors have released certain parts of the source code for the now unsupported version 1.4. Project64k is a modified version of Project64 1.4 which provides multiplayer netplay abilities via integrating the Kaillera networking client. Players are able to join servers where multiple games may be hosted with other features remaining consistent with Project64 1.4. In July 2011, Jabo decided to stop developing Project64 and released a modified version of 1.6 with some improvements.

Microsoft Project 2000 'Project' was an MS-DOS software application originally written in Microsoft 'C' (and some assembly) language for the IBM PC. The idea originated from the vision of Ron Bredehoeft, a former IBM S/E and PC-enthusiast in the early 1980s, to express the recipe and all preparation for a breakfast of eggs Benedict in project management terms. Mr. Bredehoeft formed Microsoft Application Services (MAS) during the birth of the application and the company later entered an OEM agreement with Microsoft Corporation. Alan M. Boyd, Microsoft's Manager of Product Development, introduced the application as an internal tool to help manage the huge number of software projects that were in development at any time inside the company. Boyd wrote the specification and engaged a local Seattle company to develop the prototype. The first commercial version of Project was released for DOS in 1984. Microsoft bought all rights to the software in 1985 and released version 2.

In computer programming, a p-code machine, or portable code machine is a virtual machine designed to execute p-code (the assembly language of a hypothetical CPU). This term is applied both generically to all such machines (such as the Java Virtual Machine and MATLAB precompiled code), and to specific implementations, the most famous being the p-Machine of the Pascal-P system, particularly the UCSD Pascal implementation (among whose developers the "p" in "p-code" was construed to mean "pseudo" more often than "portable", "pseudo-code" thus meaning instructions for a pseudo-machine). Although the concept was first implemented circa 1966 (as O-code for BCPL and P a code for the Euler Language), the term p-code first appeared in the early 1970s. Two early compilers generating p-code were the Pascal-P compiler in 1973, by Kesav V. Nori, Urs Ammann, Kathleen Jensen, Hans-Heinrich Nägeli, and Christian Jacobi, and the Pascal-S compiler in 1975, by Niklaus Wirth.

The Mensch Computer is a computer system based on the WDC 65C265 microcontroller (which implements both the 16-bit instruction set of the W65C816/65816 microprocessor, as well as the 8-bit instruction set of the 6502 microprocessor) and produced by the Western Design Center. The computer system is named after Bill Mensch, designer of the 6502 and subsequent series of microprocessor. Designed as a computer system for hobbyists and people who enjoy computer programming, especially programming at the assembly language level, the Mensch Computer includes a basic set of peripherals which can be expanded by the owner. Much software originally written for other computer systems which use the 65816 or 6502 instruction sets (such as the Nintendo Entertainment System, Super Nintendo, or Apple IIgs, among others) can be run on the Mensch Computer (either directly as binary object code or through reassembling the software source code), to the extent that such software does not rely on hardware configurations which differ from the Mensch Computer.

Intel 8086 CPU die image The 8086 project started in May 1976 and was originally intended as a temporary substitute for the ambitious and delayed iAPX 432 project. It was an attempt to draw attention from the less-delayed 16- and 32-bit processors of other manufacturers (such as Motorola, Zilog, and National Semiconductor) and at the same time to counter the threat from the Zilog Z80 (designed by former Intel employees), which became very successful. Both the architecture and the physical chip were therefore developed rather quickly by a small group of people, and using the same basic microarchitecture elements and physical implementation techniques as employed for the slightly older 8085 (and for which the 8086 also would function as a continuation). Marketed as source compatible, the 8086 was designed to allow assembly language for the 8008, 8080, or 8085 to be automatically converted into equivalent (suboptimal) 8086 source code, with little or no hand-editing.

Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.3 for DOS User's Guide; the Functions and Macros Guide is next to it The Lotus Development Corporation was founded by Mitchell Kapor, a friend of the developers of VisiCalc. 1-2-3 was originally written by Jonathan Sachs, who had written two spreadsheet programs previously while working at Concentric Data Systems, Inc.. To aid its growth, in the UK, and possibly elsewhere, Lotus 1-2-3 was the very first computer software to use television consumer advertising. Lotus 1-2-3 was released on 26 January 1983, and immediately overtook Visicalc in sales. Unlike Microsoft Multiplan, it stayed very close to the model of VisiCalc, including the "A1" letter and number cell notation, and slash-menu structure. It was cleanly programmed, relatively bug-free, gained speed from being written completely in x86 assembly language (this remained the case for all DOS versions until 3.0, when Lotus switched to C) and wrote directly to video memory rather than use the slow DOS and/or BIOS text output functions.

While the Z8000 did see some use in the early 1980s, it was passed over for other designs relatively quickly. Federico Faggin, then CEO of Zilog, later suggested this was due to Zilog's financing arrangement with Exxon's venture capital arm, Exxon Enterprises. Enterprises had made a number of investments in the computer field, and by the early 1980s was positioning itself as a competitor to IBM in the large system space. Faggin suggests that IBM thus saw Zilog as a competitor, and refused to consider the Z8000 as a result. However, an examination of the choices available to designers in the early 1980s suggests there are more prosaic reasons the Z8000 was not more popular: Comparing assembly language versions of the Byte Sieve, one sees that the 5.5 MHz Z8000's 1.1 seconds is impressive when compared to the 8-bit designs it replaced, including Zilog's 4 MHz Z80 at 6.8 seconds, and the popular 1 MHz MOS 6502 at 13.9. Even the newer 1 MHz Motorola 6809 was much slower, at 5.1 seconds.

The title page of the assembly language code that produced Altair BASIC, developed by Allen, Gates, and Monte Davidoff, with two early Microsoft business cards showing Gates as president and Allen as vice president Allen and Gates formed Microsoft in 1975 in Albuquerque, New Mexico, and began marketing a BASIC programming language interpreter, with their first employee being high school friend and collaborator Ric Weiland. Allen came up with the name of "Micro-Soft", a combination of "microcomputer" and "software". Microsoft committed to delivering a disk operating system (DOS) to IBM for the original IBM PC in 1980, although they had not yet developed one, and Allen spearheaded a deal for Microsoft to purchase QDOS (Quick and Dirty Operating System) written by Tim Paterson who was employed at Seattle Computer Products.MS-DOS paternity suit settled The RegisterMicrosoft co-founder Paul Allen dies at 65 after a battle with cancer Business Insider As a result of this transaction, Microsoft secured a contract to supply the DOS that ran on IBM's PC line and led to Allen's and Gates' wealth and success.

Also, the software (for example, a driver or resident service) may be configurable to include or exclude certain features depending on user preferences, rendering unused code portions useless in a particular scenario. While modular software may be developed to dynamically load libraries on demand only, in most cases, it is not possible to load only the relevant routines from a particular library, and even if this would be supported, a routine may still include code sections which can be considered dead code in a given scenario, but could not be ruled out at compile time, already. The techniques used to dynamically detect demand, identify and resolve dependencies, remove such conditionally dead code, and to recombine the remaining code at load or runtime are called dynamic dead code elimination or dynamic dead instruction elimination. Most programming languages, compilers and operating systems offer no or little more support than dynamic loading of libraries and late linking, therefore software utilizing dynamic dead code elimination is very rare in conjunction with languages compiled ahead-of-time or written in assembly language.

If the same mnemonic is used for different instructions, that means that the mnemonic corresponds to several different binary instruction codes, excluding data (e.g. the `61h` in this example), depending on the operands that follow the mnemonic. For example, for the x86/IA-32 CPUs, the Intel assembly language syntax `MOV AL, AH` represents an instruction that moves the contents of register AH into register AL. The hexadecimal form of this instruction is: 88 E0 The first byte, 88h, identifies a move between a byte-sized register and either another register or memory, and the second byte, E0h, is encoded (with three bit-fields) to specify that both operands are registers, the source is AH, and the destination is AL. In a case like this where the same mnemonic can represent more than one binary instruction, the assembler determines which instruction to generate by examining the operands. In the first example, the operand `61h` is a valid hexadecimal numeric constant and is not a valid register name, so only the `B0` instruction can be applicable.

The PDP-10 was eventually eclipsed by the VAX superminicomputer machines (descendants of the PDP-11) when DEC recognized that the PDP-10 and VAX product lines were competing with each other and decided to concentrate its software development effort on the more profitable VAX. The PDP-10 product line cancellation was announced in 1983, including cancelling the ongoing Jupiter project to produce a new high-end PDP-10 processor (despite that project being in good shape at the time of the cancellation) and the Minnow project to produce a desktop PDP-10, which may then have been at the prototyping stage. This event spelled the doom of ITS and the technical cultures that had spawned the original jargon file, but by the 1990s it had become something of a badge of honor among old-time hackers to have cut one's teeth on a PDP-10. The PDP-10 assembly language instructions LDB and DPB (load/deposit byte) live on as functions in the programming language Common Lisp.

The main purpose of quajects is to provide an abstraction to manage self-modifying code, by allowing runtime code optimizing on a per-object basis. While the original Synthesis kernel required quajects to be written in hand-developed assembly language, this was done to avoid developing a complex compiler; Massalin noted that just-in-time compilation (JIT) for a high-level programming language that permits runtime code generation, as in Lisp or Smalltalk, can also apply this approach, though she also asserted that the complexity of such a compiler was likely to be prohibitive. Quajects differ from more conventional objects in two key ways: first, they always use a form of the dependency injection pattern to manage both interfaces to other quajects, and continuations out of the quaject; the list of callentry references for this is part of quaject creation, and may be updated during the quaject's lifetime. Second, and more critically, a given quaject's set of methods can be unique to the specific quaject; methods for a type or class of quajects are stored as one or more templates, rather than as fixed code.

As described above, the S/370 product line underwent a major architectural change: expansion of its address space from 24 to 31 bits. The evolution of S/370 addressing was always complicated by the basic S/360 instruction set design, and its large installed code base, which relied on a 24-bit logical address. (In particular, a heavily used machine instruction, "Load Address" (LA), explicitly cleared the top eight bits of the address being placed in a register. This created enormous migration problems for existing software.) The strategy chosen was to implement expanded addressing in three stages: # first at the physical level (to enable more memory hardware per system) # then at the operating system level (to let system software access multiple address spaces and utilize larger address spaces) # finally at the application level (to let new applications access larger address spaces) Since the core S/360 instruction set remained geared to a 24-bit universe, this third step would require a real break from the status quo; existing assembly language applications would of course not benefit, and new compilers would be needed before non-assembler applications could be migrated.

Since there is, typically, a one-to-one relationship between assembly instructions and machine instructions, the instruction path length is frequently taken as the number of assembly instructions required to perform a function or particular section of code. Performing a simple table lookup on an unsorted list of 1,000 entries might require perhaps 2,000 machine instructions (on average, assuming uniform distribution of input values), while performing the same lookup on a sorted list using a binary search algorithm might require only about 40 machine instructions, a very considerable saving. Expressed in terms of instruction path length, this metric would be reduced in this instance by a massive factor of 50 a reason why actual instruction timings might be a secondary consideration compared to a good choice of algorithm requiring a shorter path length. The instruction path length of an assembly language program is generally vastly different than the number of source lines of code for that program, because the instruction path length includes only code in the executed control flow for the given input and does not include code that is not relevant for the particular input, or unreachable code.

The 4-bit processors were programmed in assembly language or Forth, e.g. "MARC4 Family of 4 bit Forth CPU" because of the extreme size constraint on programs and because common programming languages (for microcontrollers, 8-bit and larger), such as the C programming language, do not support 4-bit data types (C requires that the size of the `char` data type be at least 8 bits, and that all data types other than bitfields have a size that is a multiple of the character size). The 1970s saw the emergence of 4-bit software applications for mass markets like pocket calculators. During the 1980s 4-bit microprocessor were used in handheld electronic games to keep costs low. In the 1970s and 1980s, a number of research and commercial computers used bit slicing, in which the CPU's arithmetic logic unit (ALU) was built from multiple 4-bit-wide sections, each section including a chip such as an Am2901 or 74181 chip. The Zilog Z80, although it is an 8-bit microprocessor, has a 4-bit ALU. Although the Data General Nova is a series of 16-bit minicomputers, the original Nova and the Nova 1200 internally processed numbers 4 bits at a time with a 4-bit ALU, p. 44.

UniFLEX is a Unix-like operating system developed by Technical Systems Consultants (TSC) for the Motorola 6809 family which allowed multitasking and multiprocessing. It was released for DMA-capable 8" floppy, extended memory addressing hardware (software controlled 4KiB paging of up to 768 KiB RAM SWTPC S/09 Dynamic Address Translation), Motorola 6809 based computers. Examples included machines from SWTPC, GIMIX and Goupil (France). On SWTPC machines, UniFLEX also supported a 20 MB, 14" hard drive (OEM'd from Century Data Systems) in 1979. Later on, it also supported larger 14" drives (up to 80 MB), 8" hard drives, and 5-1/4" floppies. In 1982 other machines also supported the first widely available 5-1/4" hard disks using the ST506 interface such as the 5 MB BASF 6182 and the removable SyQuest SQ306RD of the same capacity. Due to the limited address space of the 6809 (64 kB) and hardware limitations, the main memory space for the UniFLEX kernel as well as for any running process had to be smaller than 56 kB (code + data)(processes could be up to 64K minus 512 bytes). This was achieved by writing the kernel and most user space code entirely in assembly language, and by removing a few classic Unix features, such as group permissions for files.