"Antitoxins made from horses aren't the best for humans," Brown said.
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Treatment involves both antibiotics and antitoxins, and the case mortality rate is 5–10%.
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The gentlemen in Greenburgh on Monday also invoked all the correct balms, elixirs and antitoxins.
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We need both the human resources to administer it, and we need more antitoxins at the same time.
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However, antibiotics are not used in children of this age, as killing the toxin in their intestines can trigger the release of additional antitoxins.
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In late November, the U.N.'s World Health Organization (WHO) sent a shipment of diphtheria antitoxins - designed to treat those already infected - and vaccines to the capital Sanaa.
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But even the fourth hospital lacked adequate treatment for the infection, so she received only a half dose of antitoxins and no penicillin at all, according to a medical professional who treated her there.
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"Once we do have enough people and other organizations start to administer as well, we may get into a situation where we don't have enough antitoxins anymore," she told Reuters by phone on Thursday.
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Tom Flynn's screenplay draws its inspiration from the 1925 serum run, in which antitoxins were transported more than 600 miles, in the midst of a deadly winter storm, to stay a diphtheria outbreak in Nome, Alaska.
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The movie is based on the 1925 serum run, during which antitoxins were transported hundreds of miles by dog sled to fight a deadly disease outbreak in Nome, Alaska — in the middle of a brutal winter storm.
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Officials warned that young children were especially vulnerable to the disease, which spreads through the air and could escalate quickly into an epidemic in Yemen if health workers there lack the antitoxins and vaccine to control it.
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Building on that work, in 1890, Behring and his Japanese colleague, Dr. Shibasaburo Kitasato, developed what they would ultimately call antitoxins to diphtheria and to tetanus, another dangerous organism that does its damage by producing a toxin.
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MSF has managed to provide antitoxins to only around 12 patients daily due to the lack of trained medics, said Crystal van Leeuwen, an MSF emergency medical coordinator now in Cox's Bazar where the refugee camps are located.
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"If the diphtheria diagnosis had been made earlier and she had gotten antitoxins, she would have had a chance of surviving," the source who treated her said, asking to remain anonymous because the government has banned health professionals from speaking to the media.
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Earlier Friday in Geneva, Christian Lindmeier, a spokesman for the World Health Organization, said that 1.9 million doses of diphtheria vaccine for children under age 5, and 1,000 doses of diphtheria antitoxins needed to treat infected patients had arrived in Sana, the capital, in recent days.
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In 1888, he became an assistant at the institute of Robert Koch in Berlin. In 1890 he published an article with Kitasato Shibasaburō reporting that they had developed "antitoxins" against both diphtheria and tetanus. They had injected diphtheria and tetanus toxins into guinea-pigs, goats and horses; when these animals developed immunity, they derived antitoxins (now known to consist of antibodies) from their serum. These antitoxins could protect against and cure the diseases in non-immunized animals.
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He was also active at Presbyterian Hospital. The O'Dwyer method replaced tracheotomy until around 1895 when the development of antitoxins for diphtheria became more common.Gifford, Robert R. M., "The O'Dwyer Tube", Clinical Pediatrics, March 1970 When the development of antitoxins reduced the need for intubations, O'Dwyer was among the early practitioners to switch from intubation where appropriate.
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A vintage 1895 vial of 252x252px An antitoxin is an antibody with the ability to neutralize a specific toxin. Antitoxins are produced by certain animals, plants, and bacteria in response to toxin exposure. Although they are most effective in neutralizing toxins, they can also kill bacteria and other microorganisms. Antitoxins are made within organisms, and can be injected into other organisms, including humans, to treat an infectious disease.
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International Therapeutic ProteinsCorporate website: itproteins.com International Therapeutic Proteins Ltd 2010 (known as ITP) supplies antitoxins, antidotes to snake venoms and other biologics (biological therapeutics) to corporate and government clients.
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Serum sickness can be developed as a result of exposure to antibodies derived from animals. These sera or antitoxins are generally administered to prevent or treat an infection or envenomation.
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Physicians should make their patients aware of the drugs or antitoxins to which they are allergic if there is a reaction. The physician will then choose an alternate antitoxin if it's appropriate or continue with prophylactic measures.
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BARDA also supported the development of the antitoxins Anthrasil of Cangene (March 2015 FDA approval) and Anthim of Elusys Therapeutics (March 2016 FDA approval). Anthrax vaccines whose development was supported by BARDA include BioThrax (AVA), AV7909 of Emergent BioSolutions Px563L of Pfenex and NasoShield of Altimmune.
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In 1998, use of nitromersol (and other mercury-containing products) as OTC first-aid antiseptics and products for diaper rash and vaginal contraceptives was disallowed by the FDA. Nitromersol can cause hypersensitivity reactions, but it is still in use as a preservative for vaccines and antitoxins.
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Cures can take the form of natural antibiotics (for bacterial infections), synthetic antibiotics such as the sulphonamides, or fluoroquinolones, antivirals (for a very few viral infections), antifungals, antitoxins, vitamins, gene therapy, surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and so on. Despite a number of cures being developed, the list of incurable diseases remains long.
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Antitoxins to diphtheria and tetanus toxins were produced by Emil Adolf von Behring and his colleagues from 1890 onwards. The use of diphtheria antitoxin for the treatment of diphtheria was regarded by The Lancet as the "most important advance of the [19th] Century in the medical treatment of acute infectious disease".
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In severe cases, mechanical respiration may be used to support patients suffering from respiratory failure. The nerve damage heals over time, generally over weeks to months. With proper treatment, the case fatality rate for botulinum poisoning can be greatly reduced. Two preparations of botulinum antitoxins are available for treatment of botulism.
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Botulism is caused by the botulinum toxin, one of the deadliest known toxins. While the bacteria that cause botulism occur naturally, botulism outbreaks are considered rare and unlikely by the US CDC, except as the result of a bioterrorism attack. BARDA maintains a supply of botulism antitoxins through the Strategic National Stockpile (SNS).
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Emil von Behring, one of the discoverers of antibodies Emil von Behring and Kitasato Shibasaburō discovered in 1890 that diphtheria and tetanus toxins were neutralized in the bloodstream of animals by substances they called antitoxins, which were specific for the respective toxin. Behring received the first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their find in 1901. A year after the discovery, Paul Ehrlich used the term antibodies (German Antikörper) for these antitoxins. The principle of monoclonal antibody production, called hybridoma technology, was published in 1975 by Georges Köhler and César Milstein, who were awarded the 1984 Medicine Nobel Prize for their discovery together with Niels Kaj Jerne. Muromonab-CD3 was the first monoclonal antibody to be approved for clinical use in humans, in 1986.
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The intention behind the SNS is not to be the solution to a public health crisis. Rather, it is to be used as a temporary stopgap during an emergency while the longer-term solutions get developed. Supplies in the Strategic National Stockpile include antibiotics, antidotes, antitoxins, life- support medications, airway maintenance supplies and medical and surgical items.
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Thiomersal is used as a preservative for vaccines and intravenous drugs. The toxicity of organomercury compounds presents both dangers and benefits. Dimethylmercury in particular, is notoriously toxic, but found use as an antifungal agent and insecticide. Merbromin and phenylmercuric borate are used as topical antiseptics, while Nitromersol is used as a preservative for vaccines and antitoxins.
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An American company licensed the name in Ohio. They sold filters to private homes, hotels, restaurants, and the 1893 Chicago World's Columbian Exposition. Use of the Pasteur-Chamberland filter led to the discovery that diphtheria and tetanus toxins, among others, could still cause illness even after filtration. Identification of these toxins contributed to the development of antitoxins to treat such diseases.
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Avoidance of antitoxins that may cause serum sickness is the best way to prevent serum sickness. Although, sometimes, the benefits outweigh the risks in the case of a life-threatening bite or sting. Prophylactic antihistamines or corticosteroids may be used concomitant with the antitoxin. Skin testing may be done beforehand in order to identify individuals who may be at risk of a reaction.
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Between 1889 and 1895, Behring developed his pioneering ideas on serum therapy and his theory of antitoxins. Early 1887, in Bonn, Behring had found that the serum of tetanus- immune white rats contained a substance that neutralized anthrax bacilli. He recognized this as the source of their “resistance”. On 4 December 1890, Behring and Kitasato Shibasaburō published their first paper on blood-serum therapy.
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On 11 December, another report, signed by Behring, discussed blood- serum therapy not only in the treatment of tetanus, but also in diphtheria. When Paul Ehrlich demonstrated in 1891 that even vegetable poisons led to the formation of antitoxins in an organism, Behring's theory was confirmed. An antitoxin for scarlet fever was developed in 1924, simultaneously by Raymond Dochez and Gladys and George Frederick Dick.
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He made contributions in his research of anaphylaxis, metabolism and fatigue. Weickardt postulated that there was a specific "toxin of fatigue", and in the early part of the 20th century he performed numerous experiments with chemical antitoxins in an effort to battle fatigue. With hygienist Adolf Dieudonné (1864-1944), he was co-author of Immunität, Schutzimpfung und Serumtherapie (Immunity, vaccination and serum therapy).Google Books Immunität, Schutzimpfung und Serumtherapie.
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One of the earliest examples of immunochemistry is the Wasserman test to detect syphilis. Svante Arrhenius was also one of the pioneers in the field; he published Immunochemistry in 1907 which described the application of the methods of physical chemistry to the study of the theory of toxins and antitoxins. Immunochemistry is also studied from the aspect of using antibodies to label epitopes of interest in cells (immunocytochemistry) or tissues (immunohistochemistry).
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Jean-Ovide Decroly (Ronse, July 23, 1871 – Ukkel, September 10, 1932) was a Belgian teacher and psychologist. He studied medicine at the University of Ghent, with half a year at the University of Berlin where he studied the action of toxins and antitoxins on general nutrition in 1898. He later worked with (mentally) handicapped children at the neurological clinic in Brussels. Decroly founded The Hermitage School in 1907.
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He also worked on antitoxins for diphtheria and anthrax. Kitasato and Behring demonstrated the value of antitoxin in preventing disease by causing passive immunity to tetanus in an animal that received graded injections of blood serum from another animal infected with the disease. After returning to Japan in 1891, he founded the Institute for Study of Infectious Diseases with the assistance of Fukuzawa Yukichi. One of his early assistants was August von Wassermann.
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Immunochemistry is the study of the chemistry of the immune system. This involves the study of the properties, functions, interactions and production of the chemical components (antibodies/immunoglobulins, toxin, epitopes of proteins like CD4, antitoxins, cytokines/chemokines, antigens) of the immune system. It also include immune responses and determination of immune materials/products by immunochemical assays. In addition, immunochemistry is the study of the identities and functions of the components of the immune system.
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Veterinary biologics are vaccines, antigens, antitoxins and other preparations made from living organisms (or genetically engineered) and intended for use in diagnosing, treating, or immunizing animals. Unlike some pharmaceutical products, such as antibiotics, most biologics leave no residues in animals. Veterinary biologics are regulated by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), which licenses the facilities that produce them and conducts a program to ensure that animal vaccines and other veterinary biologics are safe, pure, potent, and effective.
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Opposition to smallpox vaccination continued into the 20th century and was joined by controversy over new vaccines and the introduction of antitoxin treatment for diphtheria. Injection of horse serum into humans as used in antitoxin can cause hypersensitivity, commonly referred to as serum sickness. Moreover, the continued production of smallpox vaccine in animals and the production of antitoxins in horses prompted anti-vivisectionists to oppose vaccination.Ciok, Amy E. "Horses and the diphtheria antitoxin." Academic Medicine 75.4 (2000): 396.
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He and the pharmacologist Hans Horst Meyer had their laboratories in the same building, and Behring stimulated Meyer's interest in the mode of action of tetanus toxin. Behring won the first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1901 for the development of serum therapies against diphtheria. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1902. In 1904 he founded the Behringwerke in Marburg, a company to produce antitoxins and vaccines.
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In 1891, Paul Ehrlich joined the newly established Robert Koch Institute in Berlin upon the invitation of Robert Koch himself. By 1896 a new branch, the Institute for Serum Research and Testing (Institut für Serumforschung und Serumprüfung), was established in Frankfurt with Ehrlich as its founding director. He worked on antitoxins for diphtheria and their binding to antibodies in the blood. He hypothesised that antibodies bind to antigens through special chemical structures that he called "side chains" (which he later named "receptors").
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Antitoxins to diphtheria and tetanus toxins were produced by Emil Adolf von Behring and his colleagues from 1890 onwards. The use of diphtheria antitoxin for the treatment of diphtheria was regarded by The Lancet as the "most important advance of the [19th] Century in the medical treatment of acute infectious disease". In 1888, Behring was sent to Berlin for a brief service at the Academy for Military Medicine. In 1889, he joined the Institute for Hygiene of the University of Berlin, then headed by Robert Koch.
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A large wood and stone frame sanitorium was built in 1898 for patients, particularly those suffering from tuberculosis. Gibier edited the Therapeutic Review. This quarterly journal, later renamed the Bulletin of the New York Pasteur Institute, included accounts of studies by Gibier and his colleagues, translations of medical articles from French and German, reports on rabies treatments, and advertisements for medical devices and products for practitioners, including antitoxins and serum remedies. His institute was the first in the United States to produce a diphtheria antitoxin.
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In order to find the moment when most antitoxins in the blood cells of the horses is produced, frequent blood samples were taken from the horses. At the point when the highest amount of antibodies were produced, five liters of blood, a tenth of the blood volume of a horse, were taken through a cannula. The blood was collected in a glass cylinder and brought to the laboratory in the Behring facilities. Above the rouleaux formation which contained the red blood cells, the serum was visible.
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Alexander Thomas Glenny (18 September 1882 – 5 October 1965), was a British immunologist known particularly for his work on the prevention of diphtheria. He was born in Camberwell, London, England, educated at Alleyn's School, Dulwich and awarded a B.Sc. by the University of London in 1905. In 1899 he started working for the Wellcome Physiological Research Laboratories, then in Central London, becoming head of the immunology department in 1906. He worked on immunizations and antitoxins against diseases, including tetanus and diphtheria, and, later, chemical weapons.
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The side-chain theory (German, Seitenkettentheorie) is a theory proposed by Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915) to explain the immune response in living cells. Ehrlich theorized from very early in his career that chemical structure could be used to explain why the immune response occurred in reaction to infection. He believed that toxins and antitoxins were chemical substances at a time when very little was known about their nature. The theory explains the interaction of antibodies and antigens in the blood, and how antibodies are produced.
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In Constantinople he also worked on improving methods for preparation of diphtheria toxin. In 1901, following disagreements with Turkish authorities and French representatives, he resigned his post at the bacteriological institute of Constantinople and returned to the Pasteur Institute. At the Pasteur Institute he performed investigations on hypersensitivity and immunity (action of antibodies, antigens and antitoxins) following inoculations of glanders bacilli into guinea pigs. From 1906 with zoologist Felix Mesnil (1868–1938), he tested benzopurpurine dyes supplied by Bayer Pharmaceutical as trypanocidal agents for destruction of the parasite associated with trypanosomiasis.
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Recovery from an anaerobic infection depends on adequate and rapid management. The main principles of managing anaerobic infections are neutralizing the toxins produced by anaerobic bacteria, preventing the local proliferation of these organisms by altering the environment and preventing their dissemination and spread to healthy tissues. Toxin can be neutralized by specific antitoxins, mainly in infections caused by Clostridia (tetanus and botulism). Controlling the environment can be attained by draining the pus, surgical debriding of necrotic tissue, improving blood circulation, alleviating any obstruction and by improving tissue oxygenation.
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She worked at the University of Cincinnati until being hired by the research division of the William S. Merrell Company where she researched serums and antitoxins. In 1940, the American Chemical Society held its meeting in Cincinnati during April 8–12. A report to the meeting indicated that there was increasing opportunity for women in the industry. It noted that in the Cincinnati section of the American Chemical Society, out of 300 members, there were ten women members and Dr. Ruby Hirose was listed as one of the ten members.
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The ruthless Monica used their relationship to exploit Banner's radiation expertise for her own research. Upon attaining her doctorate, Monica quickly became a world-renowned innovator of antitoxins and antidotes for various environmental poisons and nearly won the Nobel Prize. Recognizing the many environmental and political failings of Western civilization, Monica decided that it was too corrupt to exist. She joined a series of terrorist organizations - first the pan-European leftist group Black Orchestra, then Advanced Idea Mechanics (or A.I.M. for short), where she had a brief relationship with fellow agent George Tarleton.
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The SymR antisense RNA is transcribed 3 nt behind the SymE start codon which is why the SymR promoter is considered embedded within the SymE codon. As a result, SymR blocks RNA translation of SymE by antisense binding, suggesting that this ultimately leads to SymR mRNA degradation. Amino acid analysis has concluded that SymE may have evolved into an RNA cleavage protein that exhibits toxin-like behavior due to transcription factors or antitoxins. In contrast to other common toxin-antitoxin systems, the SymR antitoxin is more stable than the SymE toxin.
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The Society aims to advance knowledge on the properties of toxins and antitoxins and to bring together scholars interested in the field. Full membership is open to those who have published meritorious original investigations in toxinology, while persons who do not qualify for membership but are interested in the field of toxinology are eligible for associate membership. There is also student membership. World Congresses of the Society and Symposia of the IST-Sections (European, Pan-American, Asia- Pacific) are regularly organised to promote communication and exchange of results in toxinology research.
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Arrhenius family grave in Uppsala Eventually, Arrhenius's theories became generally accepted and he turned to other scientific topics. In 1902 he began to investigate physiological problems in terms of chemical theory. He determined that reactions in living organisms and in the test tube followed the same laws. In 1904 he delivered at the University of California a course of lectures, the object of which was to illustrate the application of the methods of physical chemistry to the study of the theory of toxins and antitoxins, and which were published in 1907 under the title Immunochemistry.
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A very important step in the mass production of medical products was taken that same year when Dr. John Fitzgerald founded an institution that would be named the Connaught Laboratories in 1917, at the University of Toronto. Initially the laboratories produced vaccines and antitoxins for smallpox, tetanus, diphtheria and rabies. In 1922 after the Nobel Prize winning work on Dr. Banting and Dr. Best the facility began to manufacture insulin. In 1914 Dr. John Fitzgerald established laboratories in Toronto to produce vaccines for smallpox, rabies, diphtheria and tetanus.
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From 1932 through the Second World War, Sokhey primarily focused on expanding the Institute's vaccine production and development capacity and improving the quality of its various vaccines and antitoxins. Under Sokhey's supervision, the Institute initiated studies on antibiotic therapies for plague, beginning with sulfathiazole in 1939 and continuing with tetracyclines and related antibiotics during and after the Second World War. In 1943, due to wartime needs, the Indian Medical Service was merged with the Indian Medical Department and the Indian Hospital and Nursing Corps, becoming the Indian Army Medical Corps.
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By 1920, the company employed about one thousand employees and had 52 buildings on a 200-acre property in Glenolden and Foxcroft, PA. The company property was surrounded by pastures for horses and cows which were needed to produce serum and antitoxins. The company also grew gardens of plants for research and products, including acres of the purple foxglove flower for the heart medicine digitalis. In 1929, the company merged with Sharp & Dohme Corp. At this time H. K. Mulford company produced many human and veterinary medicines, including a smallpox vaccine, the rabies vaccine, and antivenin.
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The use of antibodies to treat diseases can be traced all the way back to the late 1800s with the advent of diphtheria antitoxin for the treatment of diphtheria. It wasn't until the 1900s that the newly emerging class of naturally derived medications such as sera, vaccines, and antitoxins began to be referred to as biologics. The definition for biologics and biological therapy has changed a lot since. The development of recombinant DNA technology in the 1970s shaped the modern understanding of what constitutes as biological therapy, which often does not include traditional biological substances like vaccines.
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Gibier may have originated the idea of using serotherapy in oncology when in 1893 he submitted the proposition to the Paris Academy of Sciences "to infuse to an animal, the juice of human tumor and to use the blood or the serum of this animal to infuse in the human harboring this tumor." Gibier successfully improvised new methods of culturing microbes and producing sera and antitoxins. In October 1893 a new building on Central Park West was formally dedicated, specially built for the institute. In December 1893 Gibier was the subject of a feature article in the New York Times.
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In the 1930s, methodological advances at Connaught updated the international standard for insulin production. Efforts at Connaught to purify heparin for human clinical trials lay the foundation for various critical surgeries including vascular surgery, organ transplantation and cardiac surgery. During World War I and World War II, the Labs produced various antitoxins that became crucial due to increased risks of injury infection and exposure to diseases in other parts of the world, including the typhus vaccine and penicillin. Connaught's production technologies also enabled the mass-scale field trial of Jonas Salk's polio vaccine and its subsequent expansion.
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BTX functions peripherally to inhibit acetylcholine (ACh) release at the neuromuscular junction through degradation of the SNARE proteins required for ACh vesicle-membrane fusion. As the toxin is highly biologically active, an estimated dose of 1μg/kg body weight is sufficient to induce an insufficient tidal volume and resultant death by asphyxiation. Due to its high toxicity, BTX antitoxins have been an active area of research. It has been shown that capsaicin (active compound responsible for heat in chili peppers) can bind the TRPV1 receptor expressed on cholinergic neurons and inhibit the toxic effects of BTX.
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The Strategic National Stockpile (SNS), originally called the National Pharmaceutical Stockpile (NPS), is the United States' national repository of antibiotics, vaccines, chemical antidotes, antitoxins, and other critical medical supplies. The Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response (ASPR) of the Department of Health and Human Services has managed the Strategic National Stockpile since October 1, 2018. Prior to that, the stockpile was managed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). As of 2020, the SNS contains around $7–8 billion worth of emergency supplies stored in secret warehouses located strategically around the country.
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IstR sRNA (inhibitor of SOS-induced toxicity by RNA) is a family of non-coding RNA first identified in Escherichia coli. There are two small RNAs encoded by the IstR locus: IstR-1 and IstR-2, of which IstR-1 works as antitoxins against the toxic protein TisB (toxicity-induced by SOS B) which is encoded by the neighbouring tisAB gene. IstR-1 is a 75 nucleotide transcript expressed constitutively throughout growth, whereas IstR-2 is a 140 nucleotide transcript induced by Mitomycin C (MMC). Both IstR-2 and tisAB are thought to be regulated by LexA while IstR-1 is constitutively transcribed.
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In her research, Fraser worked predominantly in infectious disease, studying general infection, puerperal fever, scarlet fever and septic sore throat among other bacterial infections. She began studies on scarlet fever in the early 1930s, and along with Dr. Helen Plummer isolated the precipitin present in the strains of streptococci likely to lead to disease. These findings were important in determining the types of antitoxins which might be employed for immunization to neutralize the disease. The type of research Fraser was engaged in required that the bacteria of the disease which created a toxin be isolated, so that it could be injected into a horse.
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Ruby Hirose researching serums and antitoxins A poster released by the Central Council for Health Education, spreading awareness about Diphtheria. A tetanus vaccine is being administered at the Naval medical Center San Diego A toxoid is an inactivated toxin (usually an exotoxin) whose toxicity has been suppressed either by chemical (formalin) or heat treatment, while other properties, typically immunogenicity, are maintained. Toxins are secreted by bacteria, whereas toxoids are altered form of toxins; toxoids are not secreted by bacteria. Thus, when used during vaccination, an immune response is mounted and immunological memory is formed against the molecular markers of the toxoid without resulting in toxin-induced illness.
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During this period, some biological defense research also continued at the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland, and the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (WRAIR), Washington, D.C. USAMRIID and these sister laboratories conducted basic research in support of the medical component of the US biological defense research program, which developed strategies, products, information, procedures, and training for medical defense against biological warfare agents. The products included diagnostic reagents and procedures, drugs, vaccines, toxoids, and antitoxins. Emphasis is placed on protecting personnel before any potential exposure to the biological agent occurs.Huxsoll DL, Parrott CD, Patrick WC III. "Medicine in defense against biological warfare". JAMA. 1989;265:677–679.
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The SymE toxin consists of 113 amino acids. When evaluating the amino acid sequence and tertiary structure of SymE, strong similarities were found which resemble the AbrB superfamily. This superfamily mainly functions as transcription factors or antitoxins; however, the similarity of SymE to the primary sequence and tertiary structure of the AbrB superfamily suggests that SymE proteins experienced an evolutionary shift from a transcription factor or antitoxin to a RNA-associating protein that exhibits toxin behavior. Between the AbrB superfamily protein structure and the SymE protein structure, there are several key hydrophobic residues that are highly conserved in the \alpha-helix at the center of the protein as well as the \beta strand-1.
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Under Wyman's administration, the Laboratory significantly increased its research activities, including studies on diseases such as hookworm and Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and was provided with a new building in 1901. The 1902 Biologics Control Act gave the Laboratory responsibility for the regulation of biological products such as vaccines and antitoxins. In the early years of the twentieth century, Surgeon General Wyman found himself in the midst of a controversy over the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904. The service first became involved in the situation in 1900 when MHS physician Joseph J. Kinyoun, stationed in San Francisco, confirmed by bacteriological analysis that the death of a laborer in the city's Chinatown section was due to bubonic plague.
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His earliest research at the Institute involved the biochemistry of coeliac disease, then known as "sprue." In connection with this research, Sokhey conducted clinical studies of the metabolisms of men and women in Mumbai, to compare their metabolisms with those of Europeans. In 1926, he established a Biochemistry Department at the Institute, becoming its first Indian director in 1932. He was promoted to lieutenant-colonel on 26 January 1933. As Director, Colonel Sokhey expanded the scope of the Institute, establishing an Entomology Department (1938), a Serum Department (1940) to manufacture vaccines, antitoxins and snake antivenin, a Chemotherapy Department (1940) to conduct research into sulfa and synthetic pharmaceuticals, a Pharmacology Department (1943) and a Nutrition Department (1944).
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The antitoxin could save lives when given early enough in the course of the disease, and in large enough doses. Despite the developments, treatment was often too costly for middle class families since Canadian public health efforts to counter the spread of diphtheria were largely dependent upon expensive imports from commercial U.S. firms. In 1913, John G. FitzGerald took up a new role as part-time Associate Professor of Hygiene at the University of Toronto. After becoming one of the youngest graduates of the University of Toronto Medical School in 1903, he had spent a decade pursuing further study across North America and Europe, learning how to make antitoxins and observing novel approaches to public health education, research, and biological manufacture.
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John G. FitzGerald completed his medical training at the University of Toronto in 1903. After spending time as a ship's physician, FitzGerald studied psychiatry in Buffalo, New York and neurology at Johns Hopkins University and bacteriology at Harvard University with brief stints abroad at the Pasteur Institute and the University of Freiburg. Upon his return to North America in 1911, FitzGerald accepted an appointment as Associate Professor of bacteriology at the University of California Berkeley – a position he held until Amyot recruited him to return to Toronto in 1913 as the first full-time faculty member of the Department of Hygiene. FitzGerald's experience in Europe made him aware of the success of antitoxins and vaccines as a means of reducing mortality.
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Todd instead decides to kill Batman directly by traveling across the globe in search of a similar, but deadlier type of training to Bruce Wayne's own in order to prepare for that day.Red Hood: The Lost Days #2 (September 2010) For years, Todd learns various skills from various masters, assassins, mercenaries, and aviators around the globe, including guns, poisons and antitoxins, martial arts, acrobatics, and bomb- making. Upon learning that the man training him in lethal combat is also the leader of a child sex slave ring, Jason frees the latest shipment of children and takes them to a local embassy, then returns to the training compound and poisons his new mentor for his crimes. Upon being questioned by Talia al Ghul, Todd says it was not murder but rather that he "put down a reptile".
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Needing laboratory space when he arrived in Toronto, FitzGerald set up to work in the Provincial Board of Health laboratory at 4 Queen's Park where he began preparing rabies vaccine using the method of Louis Pasteur, successfully eliminating its costly, daily purchase from suppliers in New York. Capitalizing on the success of his rabies venture, FitzGerald set out to address the much larger problem of diphtheria. Despite Paul Ehrlich's demonstration of the effectiveness of diphtheria antitoxin in the 1890s, the treatment remained slowly adopted on wider scale and diphtheria deaths in children continued to rise well into early decades of the 1900s. In 1914, Fitzgerald approached the University's Board of Governors proposing a plan to create a "Serum Institute" whose purpose was to manufacture and sell diphtheria and other antitoxins through the Department of Hygiene, providing them to Provincial Health Departments across Canada for distribution.
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