1000 Sentences With "airfoil" | Random Sentence Generator

In these cases, the flexible fabric forms an airfoil shape to produce a lift force.

The dome of an umbrella is actually an airfoil, so it works like an airplane wing.

Take the shape of a wing, it produces lift from its slightly inclined and special airfoil shape.

Instead, they say the disk is designed to mimic the back cross-section of a dolphin's airfoil.

The wing is really a wing, complete with winglets and an airfoil design that manages turbulence and increases downforce.

The airfoil design generates lift across the entire fuselage rather than just the wings—meaning more power goes further—and reduces drag.

Airfoil-shaped tubes and inside-the-frame cable routing reduce air friction, and the tube-within-a-tube seat post design decouples the saddle from the frame, dampening vibrations.

" As the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum (NASM) explains, this creation "had a much thinner airfoil and longer and narrower wings, which their wind tunnel tests had shown to be more efficient.

Transonic airfoil. Reference results for the drag coefficient of a transonic airfoil, based on a large number of CFD simulations. The horizontal and vertical axis show the deformation of the shape of the airfoil. Kriging surrogate model of the drag coefficient of a transonic airfoil.

He named it "TH airfoil theory" after his name (Tatsuo Hasegawa). Hasegawa used the "TH airfoil" on the Ki-94. Hasegawa's theoretical airfoil was very similar to the Supercritical airfoil theory that NASA would later develop in the 1960s. For this reason, when NASA lodged the patent application for their airfoil in Japan in 1979, their patent was not admitted to the agency.

The airfoil is operating at a Mach number of 0.8 and an angle of attack of 1.25 degrees. We assume that the shape of the airfoil is uncertain; the top and the bottom of the airfoil might have shifted up or down due to manufacturing tolerances. In other words, the shape of the airfoil that we are using might be slightly different from the airfoil that we designed. On the right we see the reference results for the drag coefficient of the airfoil, based on a large number of CFD simulations.

The arrows show the pressure differential from high (red) to low (blue) and hence also the net force which causes the air to accelerate in that direction. An airfoil affects the speed and direction of the flow over a wide area, producing a pattern called a velocity field. When an airfoil produces lift, the flow ahead of the airfoil is deflected upward, the flow above and below the airfoil is deflected downward, and the flow behind the airfoil is deflected upward again, leaving the air far behind the airfoil in the same state as the oncoming flow far ahead. The flow above the upper surface is sped up, while the flow below the airfoil is slowed down.

The system is depicted in the figure. The figure shows the biplane configuration. The lower airfoil is rigid. The upper airfoil is flexible.

A cross-section of a wing defines an airfoil shape. An airfoil is a streamlined shape that is capable of generating significantly more lift than drag.Clancy, L. J., Aerodynamics, Section 5.2 A flat plate can generate lift, but not as much as a streamlined airfoil, and with somewhat higher drag. There are several ways to explain how an airfoil generates lift.

The aerodynamic center is defined to be the point on the chord line of the airfoil at which the pitching moment coefficient does not vary with angle of attack, or at least does not vary significantly over the operating range of angle of attack of the airfoil. In the case of a symmetric airfoil, the lift force acts through one point for all angles of attack, and the center of pressure does not move as it does in a cambered airfoil. Consequently, the pitching moment coefficient for a symmetric airfoil is zero. The pitching moment is, by convention, considered to be positive when it acts to pitch the airfoil in the nose-up direction.

This angle is 17.5 degrees in this case, but it varies from airfoil to airfoil. In particular, for aerodynamically thick airfoils (thickness to chord ratios of around 10%), the critical angle is higher than with a thin airfoil of the same camber. Symmetric airfoils have lower critical angles (but also work efficiently in inverted flight). The graph shows that, as the angle of attack exceeds the critical angle, the lift produced by the airfoil decreases.

Circulation component of the flow around an airfoil When an airfoil generates lift, several components of the overall velocity field contribute to a net circulation of air around it: the upward flow ahead of the airfoil, the accelerated flow above, the decelerated flow below, and the downward flow behind. The circulation can be understood as the total amount of "spinning" (or vorticity) of an inviscid fluid around the airfoil. The Kutta–Joukowski theorem relates the lift per unit width of span of a two-dimensional airfoil to this circulation component of the flow.von Mises (1959), Section VIII.

This is potential-flow theory with the further assumptions that the airfoil is very thin and the angle of attack is small.Clancy(1975), Sections 8.1-8 The linearized theory predicts the general character of the airfoil pressure distribution and how it is influenced by airfoil shape and angle of attack, but is not accurate enough for design work. For a 2D airfoil, such calculations can be done in a fraction of a second in a spreadsheet on a PC.

The stagnation point on the topside of the airfoil then moves until it reaches the trailing edge. The starting vortex eventually dissipates due to viscous forces. As the airfoil continues on its way, there is a stagnation point at the trailing edge. The flow over the topside conforms to the upper surface of the airfoil.

Angle of attack of an airfoil The angle of attack is the angle between the chord line of an airfoil and the oncoming airflow. A symmetrical airfoil will generate zero lift at zero angle of attack. But as the angle of attack increases, the air is deflected through a larger angle and the vertical component of the airstream velocity increases, resulting in more lift. For small angles a symmetrical airfoil will generate a lift force roughly proportional to the angle of attack.

This rotating flow is induced by the effects of camber, angle of attack and the sharp trailing edge of the airfoil. It should not be confused with a vortex like a tornado encircling the airfoil. At a large distance from the airfoil, the rotating flow may be regarded as induced by a line vortex (with the rotating line perpendicular to the two- dimensional plane). In the derivation of the Kutta–Joukowski theorem the airfoil is usually mapped onto a circular cylinder.

The circulation on every closed curve around the airfoil has the same value, and is related to the lift generated by each unit length of span. Provided the closed curve encloses the airfoil, the choice of curve is arbitrary. Circulation is often used in computational fluid dynamics as an intermediate variable to calculate forces on an airfoil or other body.

Küssner derived an approximate model for an airfoil encountering a sudden step-like change in the transverse gust velocity—or, equivalently, as seen from a frame of reference moving with the airfoil: a sudden change in the angle of attack. The airfoil is modelled as a flat plate in a potential flow, moving with constant horizontal velocity.Cebeci (2005) pp. 15–16.

On a cambered airfoil the center of pressure does not occupy a fixed location.Clancy, L.J., Aerodynamics, Section 5.6 For a conventionally cambered airfoil, the center of pressure lies a little behind the quarter-chord point at maximum lift coefficient (large angle of attack), but as lift coefficient reduces (angle of attack reduces) the center of pressure moves toward the rear.Clancy, L.J., Aerodynamics, Section 5.11 When the lift coefficient is zero an airfoil is generating no lift but a conventionally cambered airfoil generates a nose-down pitching moment, so the location of the center of pressure is an infinite distance behind the airfoil. For a reflex-cambered airfoil, the center of pressure lies a little ahead of the quarter-chord point at maximum lift coefficient (large angle of attack), but as lift coefficient reduces (angle of attack reduces) the center of pressure moves forward.

The non-uniform pressure exerts forces on the air in the direction from higher pressure to lower pressure. The direction of the force is different at different locations around the airfoil, as indicated by the block arrows in the pressure field around an airfoil figure. Air above the airfoil is pushed toward the center of the low-pressure region, and air below the airfoil is pushed outward from the center of the high-pressure region. According to Newton's second law, a force causes air to accelerate in the direction of the force.

In aeronautics, the relative wind is the direction of movement of the atmosphere relative to an aircraft or an airfoil. It is opposite to the direction of movement of the aircraft or airfoil relative to the atmosphere. Close to any point on the surface of an aircraft or airfoil, the air is moving parallel to the surface; but at a great distance from the aircraft or airfoil the movement of the air can be represented by a single vector. This vector is the relative wind or the free stream velocity vector.

Fig 9.33, 2nd Edition The vorticity in the starting vortex is matched by the vorticity in the bound vortex in the airfoil, in accordance with Kelvin's circulation theorem.A.M. Kuethe and J.D. Schetzer (1959) Foundations of Aerodynamics, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons As the vorticity in the starting vortex progressively increases the vorticity in the bound vortex also progressively increases and causes the flow over the topside of the airfoil to increase in speed. The starting vortex is soon cast off the airfoil and is left behind, spinning in the air where the airfoil left it.

The flow over both the topside and the underside join up at the trailing edge and leave the airfoil travelling parallel to one another. This is known as the Kutta condition.Clancy, L.J. Aerodynamics, Sections 4.5 and 4.8 When an airfoil is moving with an angle of attack, the starting vortex has been cast off and the Kutta condition has become established, there is a finite circulation of the air around the airfoil. The airfoil is generating lift, and the magnitude of the lift is given by the Kutta–Joukowski theorem.

XFOIL is an interactive program for the design and analysis of subsonic isolated airfoils. Given the coordinates specifying the shape of a 2D airfoil, Reynolds and Mach numbers, XFOIL can calculate the pressure distribution on the airfoil and hence lift and drag characteristics. The program also allows inverse design - it will vary an airfoil shape to achieve the desired parameters. It is released under the GNU GPL.

Airfoil changed to a NACA 4400 series. L/D of 35:1 at .

This type of flap is sometimes referred to as an external- airfoil flap.

In applying the Kutta-Joukowski theorem, the loop must be chosen outside this boundary layer. (For example, the circulation calculated using the loop corresponding to the surface of the airfoil would be zero for a viscous fluid.) The sharp trailing edge requirement corresponds physically to a flow in which the fluid moving along the lower and upper surfaces of the airfoil meet smoothly, with no fluid moving around the trailing edge of the airfoil. This is known as the Kutta condition. Kutta and Joukowski showed that for computing the pressure and lift of a thin airfoil for flow at large Reynolds number and small angle of attack, the flow can be assumed inviscid in the entire region outside the airfoil provided the Kutta condition is imposed.

300px In aeronautics and aeronautical engineering, camber is the asymmetry between the two acting surfaces of an airfoil, with the top surface of a wing (or correspondingly the front surface of a propeller blade) commonly being more convex (positive camber). An airfoil that is not cambered is called a symmetric airfoil. The benefits of cambering were discovered and first utilized by George Cayley in the early 19th century.

An airfoil at a given angle of attack will have what is called a pressure distribution. This pressure distribution is simply the pressure at all points around an airfoil. Typically, graphs of these distributions are drawn so that negative numbers are higher on the graph, as the C_p for the upper surface of the airfoil will usually be farther below zero and will hence be the top line on the graph.

He dedicated one of his monographs to the problem of the airfoil ring aerodynamics.

Aircraft wing showing the KFm2 Step Aircraft wing showing the KFm3 Step The Kline–Fogleman airfoil or KF airfoil is a simple airfoil design with single or multiple steps along the length of the wing. It was originally devised around 50 years ago for paper airplanes. In the 21st century the KF airfoil has found renewed interest among hobbyist builders of radio-controlled aircraft, due to its simplicity of construction.Example of discussion at RC Groups forum But it has not been adopted for full-size aircraft capable of carrying a pilot, passengers, or other substantial payloads.

The Kutta–Joukowski theorem is a fundamental theorem in aerodynamics used for the calculation of lift of an airfoil and any two-dimensional bodies including circular cylinders translating in a uniform fluid at a constant speed large enough so that the flow seen in the body-fixed frame is steady and unseparated. The theorem relates the lift generated by an airfoil to the speed of the airfoil through the fluid, the density of the fluid and the circulation around the airfoil. The circulation is defined as the line integral around a closed loop enclosing the airfoil of the component of the velocity of the fluid tangent to the loop. It is named after Martin Kutta and Nikolai Zhukovsky (or Joukowski) who first developed its key ideas in the early 20th century.

Camber is usually designed into an airfoil to maximize its lift coefficient. This minimizes the stalling speed of aircraft using the airfoil. An aircraft with cambered wings will have a lower stalling speed than an aircraft with a similar wing loading and symmetric airfoil wings. An aircraft designer may also reduce the camber of the outboard section of the wings to increase the critical angle of attack (stall angle) at the wingtips.

A new approach to airfoil design pioneered in the 1930s, in which the airfoil shape was mathematically derived from the desired lift characteristics. Prior to this, airfoil shapes were first created and then had their characteristics measured in a wind tunnel. The 1-series airfoils are described by five digits in the following sequence: # The number "1" indicating the series. # One digit describing the distance of the minimum- pressure area in tenths of chord.

Its wing is a new design, using the Gulfstream G550 airfoil, and has a larger area of 495 ft² vs. 369 ft² of the G200. This allows the business jet to climb directly to . Design cruise for the new airfoil is Mach 0.80, vs.

When the lift coefficient is zero an airfoil is generating no lift but a reflex- cambered airfoil generates a nose-up pitching moment, so the location of the center of pressure is an infinite distance ahead of the airfoil. This direction of movement of the center of pressure on a reflex-cambered airfoil has a stabilising effect. The way the center of pressure moves as lift coefficient changes makes it difficult to use the center of pressure in the mathematical analysis of longitudinal static stability of an aircraft. For this reason, it is much simpler to use the aerodynamic center when carrying out a mathematical analysis.

An airfoil with camber compared to a symmetrical airfoil The maximum lift force that can be generated by an airfoil at a given airspeed depends on the shape of the airfoil, especially the amount of camber (curvature such that the upper surface is more convex than the lower surface, as illustrated at right). Increasing the camber generally increases the maximum lift at a given airspeed.Clancy (1975), Section 5.2Abbott, and von Doenhoff (1958), Section 4.2 Cambered airfoils will generate lift at zero angle of attack. When the chord line is horizontal, the trailing edge has a downward direction and since the air follows the trailing edge it is deflected downward.

The principle of the Ram-Air Multicell Airfoil was conceived in 1963 by Canadian Domina "Dom" C. Jalbert, but serious problems had to be solved before a ram-air canopy could be marketed to the sport parachuting community. Ram-air parafoils are steerable (as are most canopies used for sport parachuting), and have two layers of fabric—top and bottom—connected by airfoil-shaped fabric ribs to form "cells". The cells fill with higher- pressure air from vents that face forward on the leading edge of the airfoil. The fabric is shaped and the parachute lines trimmed under load such that the ballooning fabric inflates into an airfoil shape.

Taylor 1982, p. 187. ;S-1E :Amateur-built S-1C using factory- produced kits. Uses symmetrical airfoil. ;S-1S :Aerotek-built certified S-1C for competition aerobatics, round airfoil section, four ailerons, and powered by a 180 hp (134 kW) Lycoming AEIO-360-B4A; 61 built.

The Nimbus series was designed as an attempt to combine a high aspect ratio wing with a thin airfoil section to produce a fast cross country sailplane. The first Nimbus prototype used a Göttingen airfoil, which resulted in lower than expected performance. The Nimbus III employed an FX-05-191 airfoil and this greatly improved performance. The Nimbus III is constructed entirely from wood and incorporates a three-piece wing, with a center section and removable wing tips.

His most recent production Airfoil is a collaboration with Marc Mitchell, and was released in September 2014.

AoA is one of the primary factors determining amount of lift and drag produced by an airfoil.

A linear speedup has been demonstrated for a fluid-structure interaction problem and for a transonic airfoil.

Its span wing employs a McWilliams RXM5-217 root airfoil, tapering to a NACA 64-212 tip airfoil. The wing has an area of and mounts flaps. The standard engine used is the Walter M601D turboprop powerplant powering an American three-bladed Hartzell Propeller or a Czech Avia Propeller.

The airfoil shape and angle of attack work together so that the airfoil exerts a downward force on the air as it flows past. According to Newton's third law, the air must then exert an equal and opposite (upward) force on the airfoil, which is the lift. The net force exerted by the air occurs as a pressure difference over the airfoil's surfaces.Milne-Thomson (1966), Section 1.41 Pressure in a fluid is always positive in an absolute sense,Jeans (1967), Section 33.

A Gurney flap shown on the underside of a Newman airfoil (from NASA Technical Memorandum 4071). The Gurney flap (or wickerbill) is a small tab projecting from the trailing edge of a wing. Typically it is set at a right angle to the pressure-side surface of the airfoil and projects 1% to 2% of the wing chord. This trailing edge device can improve the performance of a simple airfoil to nearly the same level as a complex high-performance design.

The design engineers said that the GAW-1 airfoil required a rigid structure because it was especially sensitive to airfoil shape, and that use of a flexible surface with that airfoil would make the Tomahawk wing "a new and unknown commodity in stalls and spins." Airworthiness Directive 83-14-08 issued in September 1983 mandated an additional pair of stall strips to be added to the inboard leading edge of the PA-38 wing to "standardize and improve the stall characteristics".

Comparison of zero-circulation flow pattern around an airfoil; and the flow pattern with circulation consistent with the Kutta condition, in which both the upper and lower flows leave the trailing edge smoothly. Applying 2-D potential flow, if an airfoil with a sharp trailing edge begins to move with an angle of attack through air, the two stagnation points are initially located on the underside near the leading edge and on the topside near the trailing edge, just as with the cylinder. As the air passing the underside of the airfoil reaches the trailing edge it must flow around the trailing edge and along the topside of the airfoil toward the stagnation point on the topside of the airfoil. Vortex flow occurs at the trailing edge and, because the radius of the sharp trailing edge is zero, the speed of the air around the trailing edge should be infinitely fast.

The purpose of the step, it is claimed, is to allow some of the displaced air to fall into a pocket behind the step and become part of the airfoil shape as a trapped vortex or vortex attachment. This purportedly prevents separation and maintains airflow over the surface of the airfoil.

Another characteristic dimension is the airfoil chord. In these tests the jet width was sufficient to keep the vortex shedding coherent across it. On an airfoil there would be a correlation length less than the wingspan, resulting in several independent dipoles arrayed laterally. The sound power would be diminished somewhat.

Lift is a result of pressure differences and depends on angle of attack, airfoil shape, air density, and airspeed.

Lednicer, David. The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage. Champaign, Illinois: UIUC Applied Aerodynamics Group, 2010. Retrieved: 19 May 2011.

The center of pressure on a symmetric airfoil typically lies close to 25% of the chord length behind the leading edge of the airfoil. (This is called the "quarter-chord point".) For a symmetric airfoil, as angle of attack and lift coefficient change, the center of pressure does not move. It remains around the quarter-chord point for angles of attack below the stalling angle of attack. The role of center of pressure in the control characterization of aircraft takes a different form than in missiles.

40, March 2002 PDF In fact, the air moving over the top of an airfoil generating lift moves much faster than the equal transit theory predicts."The actual velocity over the top of an airfoil is much faster than that predicted by the "Longer Path" theory and particles moving over the top arrive at the trailing edge before particles moving under the airfoil." Further, the theory violates Newton's third law of motion, since it describes a force on the wing with no opposite force.

At high angle of attack the flow over the lower airfoil will cause the airflow to bend up and create an upward force at the lower surface of the upper airfoil. This upward force will cause the flexible section to be pushed upward. The flexible wing section is held at points A and B. The trailing edge is rigid and can rotate about point B. Due to this effect the camber of the airfoil is increased, and hence the lift it creates is increased.

Both PROFILE and XFOIL incorporate two-dimensional panel codes, with coupled boundary layer codes for airfoil analysis work. PROFILE uses a conformal transformation method for inverse airfoil design, while XFOIL has both a conformal transformation and an inverse panel method for airfoil design. An intermediate step between Panel Codes and Full Potential codes were codes that used the Transonic Small Disturbance equations. In particular, the three-dimensional WIBCO code, developed by Charlie Boppe of Grumman Aircraft in the early 1980s has seen heavy use.

Time published an April 2, 1973 article,The Paper-Plane Caper about the paper airplane and its Kline–Fogleman airfoil. Also in 1973, CBS 60 Minutes did a 15-minute segment on the KF airfoil. It repeated the show again in 1976. In 1985, Kline wrote a book entitled "The Ultimate Paper Airplane".

Drag and lift coefficients for NACA 633618 airfoil. Full curves are lift, dashed drag; red curves have = 9·106, blue 3·106. Drag polar for the NACA 633618 airfoil, colour-coded as opposite plot. The significant aerodynamic properties of aircraft wings are summarised by two dimensionless quantities, the lift and drag coefficients and .

The gray dots indicate the configurations for which the CFD solver was run. GEK surrogate model of the drag coefficient of a transonic airfoil. The gray dots indicate the configurations for which the CFD solver was run, the arrows indicate the gradients. As an example, consider the flow over a transonic airfoil.

Its span wing employs a Greg Cole-designed airfoil, has an area of and an aspect ratio of 30:1.

To minimize drag and maintain the desired shape, choice of a material for the wing surface is also important. In DeLaurier's experiments, a smooth aerodynamic surface with a double-surface airfoil is more efficient at producing lift than a single-surface airfoil. Other ornithopters do not necessarily act like birds or bats in flight.

None of the fluid flows around the sharp corner. The Kutta condition is significant when using the Kutta–Joukowski theorem to calculate the lift created by an airfoil with a sharp trailing edge. The value of circulation of the flow around the airfoil must be that value which would cause the Kutta condition to exist.

During his college study, Roncz attempted to study the seminal airfoil-section reference book Theory of Wing Sections (1949) by Ira Abbott and Albert Von Doenhoff. He had long been interested in airplanes, and realized the formulas in that book would allow him to improve the design of airfoil sections. However, their complexity deterred him until 1975, when he purchased and assembled a Heathkit H-8 computer kit. He quickly realized this radical new invention could be used to manipulate the airfoil equations, and immersed himself in the world of computational fluid dynamics.

Sails are typically constructed out of flexible material that is shaped by various means, while in use, to offer an appropriate airfoil, according to the strength and apparent direction of the wind. A variety of features and fittings allow the sail to be attached to lines and spars. Whereas conventional sails form an airfoil with one layer of fabric, wingsails comprise a structure that has material on both sides to form an airfoil—much like a wing placed vertically on the vessel—and are beyond the scope of this article.

The position of this shockwave is determined by the geometry of the airfoil; a supercritical foil is more efficient because the shockwave is minimized and is created as far aft as possible, thus reducing drag. Compared to a typical airfoil section, the supercritical airfoil creates more of its lift at the aft end, due to its more even pressure distribution over the upper surface. In addition to improved transonic performance, a supercritical wing's enlarged leading edge gives it excellent high-lift characteristics. Consequently, aircraft utilizing a supercritical wing have superior takeoff and landing performance.

Similarly the subsonic leading and trailing are those portions of the wing edge where the components of the free stream velocity normal to the edge are subsonic. Delta wings have supersonic leading and trailing edges; in contrast arrow wings have a subsonic leading edge and a supersonic trailing edge. When designing a supersonic airfoil two factors that must be considered are shock and expansion waves. Whether a shock or expansion wave is generated at different locations along an airfoil depends on the local flow speed and direction along with the geometry of the airfoil.

The wing design depends on many parameters such as selection of aspect ratio, taper ratio, sweepback angle, thickness ratio, section profile, washout and dihedral. The cross-sectional shape of the wing is its airfoil. The construction of the wing starts with the rib which defines the airfoil shape. Ribs can be made of wood, metal, plastic or even composites.

The HP-17 was designed to test a new airfoil section, the Wortmann FX 72 MS-150A. This airfoil is a high-lift, low drag section that Scheder thought would be a good sailplane design. The HP-17 is all-metal in construction, except for its foam wing ribs. The wing features water ballast carried inside the wing spar.

Robert Hauschild Liebeck is an American aerodynamicist, professor and aerospace engineer at the Boeing Company. He currently heads Boeing's Blended Wing Body ("BWB") program and has been a member of the National Academy of Engineering since 1992. He is best known for his contributions to aircraft design and his pioneering airfoil designs known as the "Liebeck Airfoil".

Liebeck pursued studies in aerospace engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. He graduated with a Bachelor of Science in 1961, a Master of Science in 1962 and a PhD in 1968. It was while pursuing his PhD that he produced the first airfoil designs that would come to be known as the "Liebeck Airfoil".

Its span wing employs a Cole CG10 airfoil at the wing root and a Cole GC11 airfoil at the wingtip. The wing has an area of and mounts flaps. The aircraft can accept engines of . The standard engine used is the Continental IO-550 but engines as small as the Lycoming IO-360 four-stroke powerplant can be fitted.

The momentum theorem states that the integrated force exerted at the boundaries of the control volume (a surface integral), is equal to the integrated time rate of change (material derivative) of the momentum of fluid parcels passing through the interior of the control volume. For a steady flow, this can be expressed in the form of the net surface integral of the flux of momentum through the boundary.Shapiro (1953), Section 1.5, equation 1.15 The lifting flow around a 2D airfoil is usually analyzed in a control volume that completely surrounds the airfoil, so that the inner boundary of the control volume is the airfoil surface, where the downward force per unit span -L' is exerted on the fluid by the airfoil. The outer boundary is usually either a large circle or a large rectangle.

Its span wing employs a NACA 64-415 airfoil, has an area of and mounts flaps. The engines recommended are Lycoming Engines of .

In many text books, the theorem is proved for a circular cylinder and the Joukowski airfoil, but it holds true for general airfoils.

The two men then filed for a patent on the stepped airfoil. Further development resulted in two patents and a family of airfoils known as the KF airfoil and KFm airfoils (for Kline–Fogleman modified). The two patents, US Patent # 3,706,430 and US Patent # 4,046,338, refer to the introduction of a step either on the bottom (KFm1) or on the top of an airfoil (KFm2), or both on top and bottom (KFm4). It can also be used with two steps on the top (KFm3), or two steps on the top and one on the bottom (KFm7).

1 The Kutta–Joukowski model does not predict how much circulation or lift a two-dimensional airfoil will produce. Calculating the lift per unit span using Kutta–Joukowski requires a known value for the circulation. In particular, if the Kutta condition is met, in which the rear stagnation point moves to the airfoil trailing edge and attaches there for the duration of flight, the lift can be calculated theorically through the conformal mapping method. The lift generated by a conventional airfoil is dictated by both its design and the flight conditions, such as forward velocity, angle of attack and air density.

Any of these fan subtypes can be built with long-lasting erosion-resistant liners. Airfoil (Air foil) – Used for a wide range of applications in many industries, fans with hollow, airfoil-profiled blades are designed for use in airstreams where high efficiency and quiet operation are required. They are used extensively for continuous service at ambient and elevated temperatures in forced and induced draft applications in the metals, chemical, power generation, paper, rock products, glass, resource recovery, incineration and other industries throughout the world. Backward curve – These fans have efficiencies nearly as high as the airfoil design.

Pitching moment changes pitch angle A graph showing coefficient of pitching moment with respect to angle of attack. The negative slope for positive α indicates stability in pitching. In aerodynamics, the pitching moment on an airfoil is the moment (or torque) produced by the aerodynamic force on the airfoil if that aerodynamic force is considered to be applied, not at the center of pressure, but at the aerodynamic center of the airfoil. The pitching moment on the wing of an airplane is part of the total moment that must be balanced using the lift on the horizontal stabilizer.

One of the consequences of the Kutta condition is that the airflow over the topside of the airfoil travels much faster than the airflow under the underside. A parcel of air which approaches the airfoil along the stagnation streamline is cleaved in two at the stagnation point, one half traveling over the topside and the other half traveling along the underside. The flow over the topside is so much faster than the flow along the underside that these two halves never meet again. They do not even re-join in the wake long after the airfoil has passed.

Munk is best known for his development of thin airfoil theory, a means of modelling the behaviour of airfoils by separating their shape (the "mean camber line""Mean camber line" is a conceptual curved line drawn through the mean centre of the airfoil, equally spaced from the upper and lower surfaces) and their varying thickness.Distribution of thickness across the chord, i.e. from front to back of the airfoil This allows separate, and simpler, techniques to model each behaviour. Lift may be assumed to depend on the camber (and angle of attack) alone, and could be modelled by the numerical techniques of the period.

The main objective of the case study was to identify and outline a step schedule for the flight envelope of the UAV Pioneer using a stepped airfoil configuration at the same time applying active flow control to obtain enhanced aerodynamic performance over conventional NACA 4415 airfoil originally used and hence improve the flight performance characteristics like Range and Endurance of the aircraft.

When the angle of attack on an airfoil is increasing rapidly, the flow will remain substantially attached to the airfoil to a significantly higher angle of attack than can be achieved in steady-state conditions. As a result, the stall is delayed momentarily and a lift coefficient significantly higher than the steady-state maximum is achieved. The effect was first noticed on propellers.

Several other attempts to reduce wave drag have been introduced over the years. The supercritical airfoil is a type that results in reasonable low speed lift like a normal airfoil, but has a profile considerably closer to that of the von Kármán ogive. All modern civil airliners use forms of supercritical aerofoil and have substantial supersonic flow over the wing upper surface.

In the examples below, the shock wave is controlled, produced by (ex. airfoil) or in the interior of a technological device, like a turbine.

Charles Horton Zimmerman (1908 – 5 May 1996), was an aeronautical engineer, whose work on novel airfoil configurations led to several notable experimental aircraft programs.

The wing employs a NACA 63(3)-618 laminar flow airfoil. The landing gear is a monowheel arrangement. Only the prototype was ever completed.

The problem arises because lift on an airfoil in inviscid flow requires circulation in the flow around the airfoil (See "Circulation and the Kutta–Joukowski theorem" below), but a single potential function that is continuous throughout the domain around the airfoil cannot represent a flow with nonzero circulation. The solution to this problem is to introduce a branch cut, a curve or line from some point on the airfoil surface out to infinite distance, and to allow a jump in the value of the potential across the cut. The jump in the potential imposes circulation in the flow equal to the potential jump and thus allows nonzero circulation to be represented. However, the potential jump is a free parameter that is not determined by the potential equation or the other boundary conditions, and the solution is thus indeterminate.

Dallas Spirit was a high- wing monoplane with conventional landing gear. The dual wingstruts featured large airfoil shaped fairings. It was painted green and silver.

Results are presented of an investigation made to determine the two-dimensional lift and drag characteristics of nine NACA 6-series airfoil sections at RN of 15.0, 20.0, and 25.0 million. Also presented are data from NACA Rep. 824 for the same airfoils at RN of 3.0, 6.0, and 9.0 million. The airfoils selected represent sections having variations in the airfoil thickness, thickness form, and camber.

Compared to the Citabria's wingspan of , the Decathlon's wingspan is shorter, at . One of the major developments of the 8KCAB Decathlon over the 7KCAB Citabria is the Decathlon's wing, which employs a semi-symmetrical airfoil, as opposed to the Citabria's flat-bottomed airfoil. This change gives the Decathlon better inverted flight and negative-g maneuver capabilities. The landing gear of the Decathlon is in a conventional arrangement.

In reference to the figure illustrated in the blade forces section, it is evident that the angle between the apparent wind speed and the plane of rotation is dependent upon the rotor speed. This angle is termed the angle of attack. The lift and drag co-efficients for an airfoil are related to the angle of attack. Specifically, for high angles of attack, an airfoil stalls.

The wing airfoil is an SM701 at the wing root transitioning to a Wortmann FX-60-126 at the wing tip, while the tailplane uses a Wortmann FX-71-L-150/30 airfoil. The fuselage is of fibreglass monocoque construction, while its one-piece bubble canopy is made from polycarbonate. The aircraft has fixed monowheel landing gear with a wheel brake and upper wing surface air brakes.

Illustrations from Jalbert's 1966 patent, showing the keels and the airfoil shape.The NASA X-38 prototype makes a gentle lakebed landing at the end of a July 1999 test flight at the Dryden Flight Research Center. A parafoil is a nonrigid (textile) airfoil with an aerodynamic cell structure which is inflated by the wind. Ram-air inflation forces the parafoil into a classic wing cross-section.

The aircraft fuselage is made from composites. Its diameter two-bladed rotor employs an ATI 012 (VR-7 mod) airfoil at the blade root, transitioning to an ATI 008 (VR-7 mod) airfoil at the tip. The dual controls include cyclic controls mounted from the cockpit ceiling, but are otherwise conventional. The tail rotor is ring-mounted and the horizontal tailplane mounts end-fins for directional stability.

However, it also means the aircraft has a higher stalling speed making it less maneuverable, and also reduces performance in the thinner air at higher altitudes. The wings spanned 9.5 m (31 ft 2 in) and had an area of 15 m2 (161 ft2). The wing was designed using the NACA 23015.3 airfoil at the root and the NACA 23009 airfoil at the tip.Lednicer, David.

KFm Family of airfoils Poor lift-to-drag ratio performance in wind tunnel testing has meant that to date the KF airfoil has not been used on any full size aircraft. But the KF airfoil and derivative 'stepped' airfoils have in recent years gained a following in the world of foam constructed radio controlled model aircraft. The low Reynolds numbers allow for the stepped airfoils to produce a significant amount of lift for the drag incurred, making them increasingly popular among RC hobbyists. The simple KF airfoil shape lends itself well to construction in sheets of various plastic foams, typically expanded polystyrene (EPS) or expanded polypropylene (EPP).

All surfaces are aluminum covered, with the exception of the rudder which is covered in aircraft fabric. The 1-34 has air brakes capable of limiting the terminal velocity in a vertical dive to the maximum safe speed as specified in the original Standard Class rules. Developing and testing these proved expensive and time-consuming and this also extended the aircraft's development time. The 1-34 was the first Schweizer design to depart from using a NACA airfoil. The 1-34 has no wing washout and instead uses a Wortmann FX 61-163 airfoil at the wing root transitioning to a Wortmann FX 61-126 airfoil at the wing tip.

Supersonic airflow over the upper surface of the traditional airfoil induced excessive wave drag, as well as a form of stability loss known as Mach tuck. Aerodynamicists determined that, by appropriately shaping the airfoil used, the severity of these problems could be greatly reduced and allow the aircraft to attain much higher speeds; this is the basis of the supercritical wing. Its design allows the wing to maintain high performance levels at speeds closer to Mach 1 than traditional counterparts. Between 1959 and 1968, the British aerospace manufacturer Hawker Siddeley Aviation, based in Hatfield, England, designed its own improved airfoil profiles, which were sometimes referred to as rooftop rear-loaded airfoils.

The wing has a span, employs an Mu 14% airfoil and mounts spoilers for glidepath control. The aircraft was not type certified and 50 were built.

KFm2 airfoil showing purported laminar flow vortex In 1974, a NASA-funded study prompted by Kline and Fogelman's claims and the resulting national coverage found the airfoil to have worse lift-to-drag ratio than a flat plate airfoil in wind tunnel tests. In the 1990s, with 20 years of technical progress opening up new possibilities and with the original patents expired, researchers returned to the topic of stepped wings. A 1998 study by Fathi Finaish and Stephen Witherspoon at the University of Missouri tested numerous step configurations in a wind tunnel.Aerodynamic Performance Of An Airfoil With Step-Induced Vortex For Lift Augmentation, Journal of Aerospace Engineering, January 1998 While many made wing performance worse, they got promising results with backward-facing steps on the lower surface of the wing – in some cases giving considerable enhancement in lift without much of a drag penalty.

It was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1960 for Frederick W. Lanchester, an aeronautical engineer who laid the foundations of modern airfoil theory.

"Long-EZ Canard Update", The Canard Pusher Vol. 43, January 1985. This trim change is usually a nose down trim change experienced when flying into rain requiring a small aft force on the stick to maintain altitude, which is easily trimmed out, using the bungee trim system. The new canard was designed with the Roncz R1145MS airfoil, which produces considerably more lift than the original GU25-5(11)8 airfoil.

Its diameter two-bladed rotor has a chord of and employs an ATI 012 (VR-7 mod) airfoil at the blade root, transitioning to an ATI 008 (VR-7 mod) airfoil at the tip. The ring-mounted tail rotor has a diameter and a chord of . The cyclic control is mounted from the cockpit ceiling, but otherwise is conventional. The horizontal tailplane mounts end-fins for directional stability.

Refer to the Airfoil article for more information on how airfoils create lift and drag forces at various angles of attack. This interplay between the far field momentum balances and the local blade forces requires one to solve the momentum equations and the airfoil equations simultaneously. Typically computers and numerical methods are employed to solve these models. There is a lot of variation between different versions of blade element momentum theory.

On piston-engined planes, the cowling constitutes a symmetric, circular airfoil, in contrast to the planar airfoil of airplane wings. It directs cool air to flow through the engine where it is routed across the engine's hottest parts, that is, the cylinders and heads. Furthermore, turbulence after the air passes the free- standing cylinders is greatly reduced. The sum of all these effects reduces drag by as much as 60 percent.

"The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage." UIUC Applied Aerodynamics Group, 15 September 2010. Retrieved 26 June 2011. A dihedral of 6° was adopted to give increased lateral stability.

Four- and five-digit series airfoils can be modified with a two-digit code preceded by a hyphen in the following sequence: # One digit describing the roundness of the leading edge, with 0 being sharp, 6 being the same as the original airfoil, and larger values indicating a more rounded leading edge. # One digit describing the distance of maximum thickness from the leading edge in tenths of the chord. For example, the NACA 1234-05 is a NACA 1234 airfoil with a sharp leading edge and maximum thickness 50% of the chord (0.5 chords) from the leading edge. In addition, for a more precise description of the airfoil all numbers can be presented as decimals.

In the early 20th century, before computers were available, conformal mapping was used to generate solutions to the incompressible potential-flow equation for a class of idealized airfoil shapes, providing some of the first practical theoretical predictions of the pressure distribution on a lifting airfoil. A solution of the potential equation directly determines only the velocity field. The pressure field is deduced from the velocity field through Bernoulli's equation. Comparison of a non- lifting flow pattern around an airfoil and a lifting flow pattern consistent with the Kutta condition, in which the flow leaves the trailing edge smoothly Applying potential-flow theory to a lifting flow requires special treatment and an additional assumption.

65, John Wiley & Sons, New York The Kutta condition gives some insight into why airfoils usually have sharp trailing edges, even though this is undesirable from structural and manufacturing viewpoints. In irrotational, inviscid, incompressible flow (potential flow) over an airfoil, the Kutta condition can be implemented by calculating the stream function over the airfoil surface.Farzad Mohebbi and Mathieu Sellier (2014) "On the Kutta Condition in Potential Flow over Airfoil", Journal of Aerodynamics Farzad Mohebbi (2018) "FOILincom: A fast and robust program for solving two dimensional inviscid steady incompressible flows (potential flows) over isolated airfoils", . The same Kutta condition implementation method is also used for solving two dimensional subsonic (subcritical) inviscid steady compressible flows over isolated airfoils.

Many additional factors are necessary to consider for a successful experiment. Tomo-PIV has been applied to a broad range of flows. Examples include the structure of a turbulent boundary layer/shock wave interaction, the vorticity of a cylinder wake or pitching airfoil, rod-airfoil aeroacoustic experiments,D. Violato, P. Moore, and F. Scarano, "Lagrangian and Eulerian pressure field evaluation of rod-airfoil flow from time-resolved tomographic PIV," Experiments in Fluids, 2010 and to measure small-scale, micro flows.. More recently, Tomo-PIV has been used together with 3-D particle tracking velocimetry to understand predator-prey interactions, and portable version of Tomo-PIV has been used to study unique swimming organisms in Antarctica.

The second glider had a flat plate airfoil, considerable dihedral for stability and an operable elevator for pitch control. Montgomery devised an inclined rail system so the piloted glider could roll from the top of a hill and attain flight speed. In the winter of 1885-86, Montgomery constructed a third glider. It had a cambered airfoil modeled after the wings of a vulture, though the leading and trailing edges were turned upward slightly.

These designs were impractical because they left little internal room in the wing for armament or fuel.Whitcomb 2002, pp. 89–90. The Germans also discovered it was possible to "trick" the airflow into the same behaviour if a conventional thicker airfoil was used swept rearward at a sharp angle, creating a swept wing. This provided many of the advantages of a thinner airfoil while also retaining the internal space needed for strength and fuel storage.

The 18% thick section had a type of maximum- lift variation with the RN that was entirely different from the thinner sections. Any comparison of airfoil maximum-lift characteristics can be made only if the data for the group of airfoils under consideration are available at the same RN. The choice of an optimum airfoil for maximum lift for a given application must be determined from data corresponding to the operating RN of the application.

An example of the relationship between angle of attack and lift on a cambered airfoil. The exact relationship is usually measured in a wind tunnel and depends on the airfoil section. The relationship for an aircraft wing depends on the planform and its aspect ratio. The graph shows that the greatest amount of lift is produced as the critical angle of attack is reached (which in early-20th century aviation was called the "burble point").

Pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted by the air on itself and on surfaces that it touches. The lift force is transmitted through the pressure, which acts perpendicular to the surface of the airfoil. Thus, the net force manifests itself as pressure differences. The direction of the net force implies that the average pressure on the upper surface of the airfoil is lower than the average pressure on the underside.

Tubercle model of a Humpback whale flipper The tubercles on the humpback whale flipper. The tubercle effect is a phenomenon where tubercles or large 'bumps' on the leading edge of an airfoil can improve its aerodynamics. The effect, while already discovered, was analyzed extensively by Frank E. Fish et al in the early 2000 onwards. The tubercle effect works by channeling flow over the airfoil into more narrow streams, creating higher velocities.

Following on from his earlier designs Vincent Burnelli designed a commercial transport version using the lifting-fuselage concept. Burnelli's designs were based on the idea that an airfoil-section fuselage would contribute to the lift generated. The Burnelli UB-14 first flew in 1934, the airfoil-section fuselage was the centre-section of the wing. The aircraft had twin tailbooms and a widespan tailplane and elevator fitted with twin fins and rudders.

The RJ-5 sailplane was one of the first to utilize a laminar flow airfoil, and the first to achieve a glide ratio of 40-to-1.Soaring & Motorgliding, Vol. 61 No.7, July 1997, p.102 In 1948 Johnson contracted with Harland Ross to design and build the glider (originally designated R-5). One key design decision was to use a NACA 63(2)-615 laminar flow airfoil selected by Dick Lyon.

In 1963 Mike Burns adapted the flexible wing to build a towable kite-hang glider he called Skiplane. In 1963, John W. Dickenson adapted the flexible wing airfoil concept to make another water-ski kite glider; for this, the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale vested Dickenson with the Hang Gliding Diploma (2006) for the invention of the "modern" hang glider. Since then, the Rogallo wing has been the most used airfoil of hang gliders.

Therefore, the most common way in which pitch stability can be achieved is to increase the lift coefficient (so the wing loading) of the canard. This tends to increase the lift-induced drag of the foreplane, which may be given a high aspect ratio in order to limit drag. Such a canard airfoil has a greater airfoil camber than the wing. Another possibility is to decrease the aspect ratio of the canard,.

In 1994, an enclosed Supercat with a modified NACA 4415 airfoil and an inverted Rotax 503 installation engine was awarded Grand Champion Light Plane at the EAA AirVenture Oshkosh airshow.

Supercritical airfoils employ a flattened upper surface, highly cambered (curved) aft section, and greater leading-edge radius as compared to traditional airfoil shapes. These changes delay the onset of wave drag.

The pressure difference which results in lift acts directly on the airfoil surfaces; however, understanding how the pressure difference is produced requires understanding what the flow does over a wider area.

In order to reduce aerodynamic drag and maximize HondaJet's performance, Fujino has applied the Natural laminar flow (NLF) technology on the main wing airfoil (NLF wing) and fuselage nose (NLF nose).

The central box beams have a cross-section, and a length of for a total weight of . The deck has an inverse airfoil shape, providing negative lift in strong wind conditions.

But when active controls were used to keep the vortex stably in place they found the results "really encouraging". Such scientific experimental work seems to contradict the idea that the original KF airfoil will find a simple practical application in the world of full-size aircraft. But the basic idea of the stepped wing has mutated, and is now bound up with a new body of research into actively controlling the airflow over a wing's surface with new mechanisms unthinkable 50 years ago. The case study conducted as a part of this research focuses on the UAV RQ-2 Pioneer employed in a stepped airfoil configuration by comparing its aerodynamic characteristics with the conventional NACA 4415 airfoil originally used on this aircraft.

Though real fluids cannot move at infinite speed, they can move very fast. The high airspeed around the trailing edge causes strong viscous forces to act on the air adjacent to the trailing edge of the airfoil and the result is that a strong vortex accumulates on the topside of the airfoil, near the trailing edge. As the airfoil begins to move it carries this vortex, known as the starting vortex, along with it. Pioneering aerodynamicists were able to photograph starting vortices in liquids to confirm their existence.Millikan, Clark B. (1941) Aerodynamics of the Airplane, Figure 1.55, John Wiley & SonsPrandtl, L., and Tietjens, O.G. (1934) Applied Hydro- and Aero-mechanics, Figures 42-55, McGraw-Hill Massey, B.S. Mechanics of Fluids.

The Discovery is a three lifting surface aircraft that features a cantilever mid-wing, a twin boom high tail, a canard surface, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit, fixed tricycle landing gear and a single engine in pusher configuration. The aircraft is made from composites. Its span wing employs a NASA NLF-0215 airfoil and has an area of . The canard uses the same airfoil, while the tailplane uses a NASA 63218.

Further advancement in maximizing laminar flow achieved by separately identifying the low-pressure zones on upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil. The airfoil is described by seven digits in the following sequence: # The number "7" indicating the series. # One digit describing the distance of the minimum pressure area on the upper surface in tenths of the chord. # One digit describing the distance of the minimum pressure area on the lower surface in tenths of the chord.

Kutta–Joukowski theorem is an inviscid theory, but it is a good approximation for real viscous flow in typical aerodynamic applications. Kutta–Joukowski theorem relates lift to circulation much like the Magnus effect relates side force (called Magnus force) to rotation. However, the circulation here is not induced by rotation of the airfoil. The fluid flow in the presence of the airfoil can be considered to be the superposition of a translational flow and a rotating flow.

Panels are bonded rather than riveted, reducing parts count compared to the G550. The wing uses greater sweep (36 degrees) than previous Gulfstream aircraft (for example, the G550 wing has 27 degrees of sweep). It does not use leading-edge high-lift devices, and tracks for rear-mounted flaps are completely enclosed within the airfoil contour. The wing's leading edge is a continuously-changing curve, and the airfoil varies continuously from root to tip, which incorporates winglets.

This is sometimes known as "cleavage". There is a popular fallacy called the equal transit-time fallacy that claims the two halves rejoin at the trailing edge of the airfoil. This fallacy is in conflict with the phenomenon of cleavage that has been understood since Martin Kutta's discovery. Whenever the speed or angle of attack of an airfoil changes there is a weak starting vortex which begins to form, either above or below the trailing edge.

When the airfoil or the body is in motion relative to the air, the VG creates a vortex,Peppler, I.L.: From The Ground Up, page 23. Aviation Publishers Co. Limited, Ottawa Ontario, Twenty Seventh Revised Edition, 1996. which, by removing some part of the slow-moving boundary layer in contact with the airfoil surface, delays local flow separation and aerodynamic stalling, thereby improving the effectiveness of wings and control surfaces, such as flaps, elevators, ailerons, and rudders.

The semi-tapered wing was of span and used a NACA 63-518 wing root airfoil, transitioning to a NACA 4412 airfoil at the wing tip. The three-piece wing, with a fixed center section and removable tips, featured a foam-filled leading edge and large-sized lower surface dive brakes. The aircraft had a conventional tail with a tall, straight vertical fin. The M-1 used a take-off dolly, landing on a fixed skid.

The Pro version adds support for VST, Audio Unit, and LADSPA plugins, among other features. Other software by Rogue Amoeba includes Nicecast, Airfoil, and Fission. Nicecast combines Audio Hijack's ability to capture audio with the open source Icecast streaming media system to enable users to broadcast audio from any program over the internet. Airfoil allows for the transmission of any audio through the remote speaker system of Apple's AirPort Express, which currently only supports audio from iTunes.

And the soft bending "reduces the local angle of attack during gusts to better keep the airfoil in the laminar-flow range." The wing chord was optimized continuously along the entire span, dispensing with typical straight-tapered sections. It won the Design News magazine Unique Airplane design contest in 1995. The Scimitar featured an acoustic boundary layer flow control system to prevent laminar boundary layer flow separation, using a smaller, more highly cambered airfoil with a greater lift coefficient.

The helicopter lands on skids, transversely braced by a pair of airfoil section struts and positioned below the pod on two pairs of similar outward leaning struts, producing a skid track of .

Raymond L. Barger. "Adaptation of the Theodorsen Theory to the Representation of an Airfoil as a Combination of a Lifting Line and a Thickness Distribution". (NASA TN D-8117, Langley Research Center).

Later, the wings were replaced with ones using the thicker NACA Munk M-12 airfoil and which required only one set of struts. The updated plane first flew on 31 August 1926.

George Albree was awarded the first US pursuit aircraft contract in 1917. The aircraft was designed with a flat bottom airfoil and the aft fuselage was hinged to act like an elevator.

Standard engines available are the Rotax 912ULS, Jabiru 2200 and the Jabiru 3300 four-stroke powerplants. With a laminar flow airfoil the design has a high cruise speed for the installed power.

The wing was the Boeing 117 airfoil, regarded as the "fastest wing of its time". In all, 4,000,000 man-hours went into the engineering of the 377.Redding and Yenne 1997, p. 70.

The tail boom is conventional semi-monocoque construction. The non- tapered planform wings have 6061-T6 ribs and spars and employ a NACA 4413 (mod) airfoil. The airfoil modification removes the undercamber on the bottom of the wing, which makes construction easier, without giving up low speed performance. The aircraft's structure uses 2024-T3 aluminium for critical parts where extra strength is required, such as the spar, float and strut attachments as well as other critical components like the rudder horns.

The tail boom is conventional semi-monocoque construction. The non-tapered planform wings have 6061-T6 ribs and spars and employ a NACA 4413 (mod) airfoil. The airfoil modification removes the undercamber on the bottom of the wing, which makes construction easier, without giving up low speed performance. The aircraft's structure uses 2024-T3 aluminium for critical parts where extra strength is required, such as the spar, float and strut attachments as well as other critical components like the rudder horns.

NACA airfoils (NACA 0006 through NACA 6721.) used in NACA Technical Report 460. The tunnel was used for research for over 20 years, up to the 1940s. The VDT was mainly used to test airfoils as wing design was the most pressing problem in early aeronautics. Notably, the VDT produced the data for 78 classical airfoil shapes that were published in 1933 in "The Characteristics of 78 Related Airfoil Sections from Tests in the Variable-Density Wind Tunnel," NACA Technical Report 460.

This transform is also called the Joukowsky transformation, the Joukowski transform, the Zhukovsky transform and other variations. In aerodynamics, the transform is used to solve for the two- dimensional potential flow around a class of airfoils known as Joukowsky airfoils. A Joukowsky airfoil is generated in the complex plane (z-plane) by applying the Joukowsky transform to a circle in the \zeta-plane. The coordinates of the centre of the circle are variables, and varying them modifies the shape of the resulting airfoil.

Many organizations have been working on the use of such actuators for flow control. Boeing, NASA and the University of Arizona Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, [Advanced Fluidics], Technical University of Berlin are a few of them. They are slots built into the control surface of an airfoil that build on the same principles as that of blown flaps; that by actively blowing air over the surface of an airfoil the effective lift produced by it is increased.

The Woodstock was designed in the late 1970s by Maupin, with assistance from Irv Culver, who designed the airfoil for the wing. Culver's airfoil is of 18% thickness at the root, thinning to 13% thickness at the wing tip and incorporates no washout. The aircraft's design goals were low cost and simplicity of construction. Four design principles were employed: using the least expensive materials, using as little material as possible, keeping the design simple and utilizing as many common parts as possible.

The Arup S-2 featured a straight leading edge wing with a trailing edge that tapered to the rear of the aircraft giving it a guitar pick shape when viewed from above. An M6 airfoil was chosen over its predecessor's sharp edged, modified Clark-Y airfoil. The large trailing edge control surfaces were mixed for pitch and roll control, but were assisted by small, movable, semi-circular wingtips that could provide additional roll control. Conventional landing gear was used, faired with wheel pants.

Clancy, L.J., Aerodynamics, Section 5.3 More generally, a pitching moment is any moment acting on the pitch axis of a moving body. The lift on an airfoil is a distributed force that can be said to act at a point called the center of pressure. However, as angle of attack changes on a cambered airfoil, there is movement of the center of pressure forward and aft. This makes analysis difficult when attempting to use the concept of the center of pressure.

Its wooden framed, two spar, rectangular plan wings had the same airfoil section along the span; the upper and lower planes had the same span and chord. They formed an unstaggered, interplane gap, two bay structure braced with two parallel pairs of vertical interplane struts on each side. These struts had wooden box cores and were enclosed in duralumin sheet, airfoil section fairings. The E-5 had a span centre section without dihedral and outer sections with about 2° of dihedral.

The aircraft is based upon the Rutan Long-EZ. It features a cantilever mid-wing canard layout with tip rudders, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit under a bubble canopy, fully retractable tricycle landing gear and a single engine in pusher configuration. The aircraft is made from E-glass. Its span wing has a wing area of and employs a Roncz R1145MS airfoil at the wing root, transitioning to an Eppler 1230 mod airfoil at the wingtip.

Retrieved: November 22, 2010. water-cooled engine"Records." FAI. Retrieved: November 22, 2010. holds the current FAI C-1a/0 class speed record (aircraft weighing under ) at . Problems with the abrupt stall were mostly addressed by Harry Riblett, an airfoil designer who documented a procedure to apply a slight reprofile of the wing root airfoil, which softened the stall response of the aircraft without any significant performance degradation.Riblett, Harry. "An Upper Surface Wing Re-Profile for the BD-5." bd5.com.

Control volumes of different shapes that have been used in analyzing the momentum balance in the 2D flow around a lifting airfoil. The airfoil is assumed to exert a downward force -L' per unit span on the air, and the proportions in which that force is manifested as momentum fluxes and pressure differences at the outer boundary are indicated for each different shape of control volume. The flow around a lifting airfoil must satisfy Newton's second law regarding conservation of momentum, both locally at every point in the flow field, and in an integrated sense over any extended region of the flow. For an extended region, Newton's second law takes the form of the momentum theorem for a control volume, where a control volume can be any region of the flow chosen for analysis.

Airfoils in two dimensions are easier to understand, but they do not directly map to three-dimensional finite wings An unrealistic lift distribution that neglects three-dimensional effects A lift distribution as observed over a (finite) trapezoidal wing It is difficult to predict analytically the overall amount of lift that a wing of given geometry will generate. When analyzing a three-dimensional finite wing, the first approximation to understanding is to consider slicing the wing into cross- sections, and analyzing each cross section independently as a wing in a two- dimensional world. Each of these slices is called an airfoil, and it is easier to understand an airfoil than a complete three-dimensional wing. One might expect that understanding the full wing simply involves adding up the independently-calculated forces from each airfoil segment.

The NASA Paresev Rogallo flexible wing glider was built to investigate alternative methods of recovering spacecraft. Although this application was abandoned, publicity inspired hobbyists to adapt the flexible wing airfoil for modern hang gliders.

Vandermeullen, Richard: 2012 Kit Aircraft Buyer's Guide, Kitplanes, Volume 28, Number 12, December 2011, page 52. Belvoir Publications. ISSN 0891-1851 The airfoil employed is a NACA 23012. Acceptable installed engine power ranges from .

Some builders have fitted RV-3s with more powerful engines, however. The RV-3 uses a NACA 23012 airfoil on a constant chord wing. Construction is semi-monocoque of predominantly 2024-T3 aluminum sheet.

The design uses the same airfoil as the Antonov An-2 biplane, a TsAGI R-11 (14%). No regular production was ongoing in 2015 and the aircraft was at that time only produced on request.

For this case he derived the impulse response function—known as Küssner functionBisplinghoff, Ashley and Halfman (1996) pp. 287–288.—needed to compute the unsteady lift and moment exerted by the air on the airfoil.

NACA Report No. 964 - The effects of variations in Reynolds number between 3.0 x 106 and 25.0 x 106 upon the aerodynamic characteristics of a number of NACA 6-series airfoil sections was published by the United States National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics in 1950. It contained a series of graphs showing the resulting lift and drag of several NACA 6-series airfoil sections from tests performed in a variable-density wind tunnel, in which the Reynolds number (RN) was set at three different values.

Instead the mill was modernised in 1932, replacing the patent sails with airfoil shaped dekkerised sails, a steel Archimedes' screw with Dekker roller bearings and a bronze windshaft bearing. These changes improved efficiency but made the mill susceptible to over speeding in blustery winds. When the inner stock had to be replaced in 1957 the Dekker system was removed and a Fok system was fitted. The other stock was fitted with the Fok system sometime later after the steel plates of the airfoil had worn out.

The AVA-202 was based on the Van's Aircraft RV-6A and was designed to comply with European JAR-22 and JAR-VLA aircraft certification rules. It features a cantilever low-wing, a two-seats-in-side- by-side configuration enclosed cockpit under a bubble canopy, fixed tricycle landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from aluminum sheet. Its span wing employs a NACA 63-215 airfoil at the wing root and a NACA 63-015 airfoil at the wing tip.

CFD simulation. The starting vortex is a vortex which forms in the air adjacent to the trailing edge of an airfoil as it is accelerated from rest in a fluid.Clancy, L.J., Aerodynamics, Figure 4.7 It leaves the airfoil (which now has an equal but opposite "bound vortex" around it), and remains (nearly) stationary in the flow.Clancy, L.J., Aerodynamics, Figure 4.8Millikan, Clark B., Aerodynamics of the Airplane, Figure 1.56Massey, B.S. Mechanics of Fluids, Fig 9.32, 2nd Edition It rapidly decays through the action of viscosity.

The AEREON III comprised three rigid hulls, each in length and in maximum diameter, connected by truss members. The connecting structures between the hulls were faired in an airfoil section, and the aircraft as a whole functioned as an airfoil with an aspect ratio of 0.74. The design was intended to "maximize the dynamic lifting forces acting on the airship hull and to take the fullest advantage of these forces in flight." Each hull contained six gas cells, for a total lifting gas volume of .

Unlike in kuehneosaurids, which had downward-curving "wings", the ribs of Mecistotrachelos were mostly straight, and were not naturally cambered to create an airfoil. However, if the front ribs could be flexed independently of the others, it is possible that a Mecistotrachelos would have been able to create a variable airfoil. The front ribs would function as a pteroid bone in pterosaurs or an alula in birds, increasing or decreasing drag depending on their position. The robust rib heads of these front ribs also support this hypothesis.

This solution gave the exact pressure distribution around an airfoil of arbitrary shape. Seldom in aeronautics are solutions "exact". This is one of the very few. The method has been automated so that complete pressure distributions for a given airfoil section can be obtained in a matter of seconds. The philosophy in Theodorsen’s approach was that an exact formulation is often simpler and preferable to an approximate one and that although approximations are essential in applied mathematics, they should be delayed as much as possible.

Engineers fitted a Gurney flap to the NACA 2412 inverted airfoil to resolve the problem without redesigning the stabilizer from scratch. A Gurney flap was also fitted to the Bell JetRanger to correct an angle of incidence problem in the design that was too difficult to correct directly. The Eurocopter AS355 TwinStar helicopter uses a double Gurney flap that projects from both surfaces of the vertical stabilizer. This is used to correct a problem with lift reversal in thick airfoil sections at low angles of attack.

NASA TF-8A in 1973 The supercritical airfoil was first suggested by aerodynamicists in Germany during the Second World War. During 1940, K. A. Kawalki at Deutsche Versuchsanstalt für Luftfahrt Berlin-Adlershof designed a number of airfoils characterised by elliptical leading edges, maximal thickness located downstream up to 50% chord and a flat upper surface. Testing of these airfoils was reported by B. Göthert and K. A. Kawalki in 1944. Kawalki's airfoil shapes were identical to those subsequently produced by the American aerodynamicist Richard Whitcomb.

Der Donnerschlag features a wire-braced shoulder- wing, a single-seat open cockpit, fixed landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft's span wing has two beam-type spars and employs a 16% airfoil at the wing root, tapering to a 12% airfoil at the wingtip. The standard engine used is the Volkswagen air-cooled engine automotive conversion, driving a two-bladed wooden propeller. The aircraft has an empty weight of and a gross weight of , giving a useful load of .

The observer is looking at the weather side. The lee side is hidden. The same wind that was moving the French and Spanish south was also bringing the British north. A sail is basically an airfoil.

The RA-2 is a single engine, tandem seat, low-wing, conventional landing gear equipped aircraft, made out of carbon fiber. It uses a constant chord symmetrical airfoil. It has interchangeable aerobatic and cross-country wings.

These equations represent conservation of mass, Newton's second law (conservation of momentum), conservation of energy, the Newtonian law for the action of viscosity, the Fourier heat conduction law, an equation of state relating density, temperature, and pressure, and formulas for the viscosity and thermal conductivity of the fluid.Batchelor (1967), Chapter 3Aris (1989) In principle, the NS equations, combined with boundary conditions of no through-flow and no slip at the airfoil surface, could be used to predict lift in any situation in ordinary atmospheric flight with high accuracy. However, airflows in practical situations always involve turbulence in the boundary layer next to the airfoil surface, at least over the aft portion of the airfoil. Predicting lift by solving the NS equations in their raw form would require the calculations to resolve the details of the turbulence, down to the smallest eddy.

The initial (and quite brief) presence of a starting vortex as an airfoil begins to move was predicted by early aerodynamicists, and eventually photographed.Millikan, Clark B., Aerodynamics of the Airplane, Figure 1.55Prandtl, L., and Tietjens, O.G., Applied Hydro- and Aero-mechanics, Figures 42-55, McGraw-Hill, New York (1934)Massey, B.S., Mechanics of Fluids, Fig 9.33, 2nd Edition Whenever the speed or angle of attack of an airfoil changes there is a corresponding amount of vorticity deposited in the wake behind the airfoil, joining the two trailing vortices. This vorticity is a continuum of mini-starting-vortexes. The wake behind an aircraft is a continuous sheet of weak vorticity, between the two trailing vortices, and this accounts for the changes in strength of the trailing vortices as the airspeed of the aircraft and angle of attack on the wing change during flight.

The characteristics of an airfoil with a split flap were determined in one instance, as was the effect of surface roughness. Qualitative explanations in terms of flow behavior are advanced for the observed types of scale effect.

The wing employs a Wainfan 16% symmetrical airfoil and has a wing area of . The wing has almost full-span ailerons and no flaps. Other features include a wide cockpit. The DR-109 can accept engines of .

Third Edition. Prentice Hall. . Prentice Hall. However, since a round leading edge decreases an airfoil's susceptibility to flow separation, a sharp leading edge implies that the airfoil will be more sensitive to changes in angle of attack.

Also known as the FlexFoil. A modern interpretation of wing warping, internal mechanical actuators bend a lattice that changes the airfoil shape. It may have a flexible gap seal at the transition between fixed and flexible airfoils.

If a streamtube becomes narrower, the flow speed must increase in the narrower region to maintain the constant flow rate, to satisfy the principle of conservation of mass."The effect of squeezing streamlines together as they divert around the front of an airfoil shape is that the velocity must increase to keep the mass flow constant since the area between the streamlines has become smaller." Charles N. Eastlake An Aerodynamicist’s View of Lift, Bernoulli, and Newton THE PHYSICS TEACHER Vol. 40, March 2002 The upper streamtubes constrict as they flow up and around the airfoil.

2Anderson(1991), Section 3.15 It is a key element in an explanation of lift that follows the development of the flow around an airfoil as the airfoil starts its motion from rest and a starting vortex is formed and left behind, leading to the formation of circulation around the airfoil.Prandtl and Tietjens (1934)Batchelor (1967), Section 6.7Gentry (2006) Lift is then inferred from the Kutta-Joukowski theorem. This explanation is largely mathematical, and its general progression is based on logical inference, not physical cause-and-effect.McLean (2012), Section 7.2.

Their sections were different, with R.A.F.31 airfoil on the upper wings and Göttingen 436 on the lower. In plan both wings were strictly rectangular and fabric covered but they had different structures, the upper with wooden box spars and the lower with aluminium spars. They were braced together by a single interplane strut on each side; these had airfoil sections and widened considerably at the foot and more so at the top. The centre section of the upper wing was braced to the upper fuselage with four outward-leaning cabane struts.

Canards on the Saab Viggen The classic airfoil section wing is unstable in flight and difficult to control. Flexible-wing types often rely on an anchor line or the weight of a pilot hanging beneath to maintain the correct attitude. Some free-flying types use an adapted airfoil that is stable, or other ingenious mechanisms including, most recently, electronic artificial stability. To achieve stability and control, most fixed-wing types have an empennage comprising a fin and rudder which act horizontally and a tailplane and elevator which act vertically.

Domina Jalbert was first to teach of the robust airfoil formed by the ram-air principle. Every contemporary ram-air airfoil sport and utility wing began with Domina Jalbert's invention. When the parafoil is used as a gliding parachute, thus opening after the payload or human has been in free-fall, the opening of the parafoil can be very fast; the fast opening and the consequential related shock has to be damped; devices invented by others are used to slow down the opening of the parafoil. One such invention is the slider.

Its wing was of two spar construction, the spars built up from spruce with plywood webs. The wings were plywood covered ahead of the forward spar and fabric covered aft, with an almost rectangular plan of constant chord out nearly to the slightly bevelled wing tips. At 7.7, the aspect ratio was less than on the Vampyr (10.8) and the airfoil was also different. Whereas the Vampire used the airfoil (as did the Handasyde glider that came second at the Itford competition), the S.C.W. used the flat-bottomed T.62 section intended for propellers.

The Kutta condition does not apply to unsteady flow. Experimental observations show that the stagnation point (one of two points on the surface of an airfoil where the flow speed is zero) begins on the top surface of an airfoil (assuming positive effective angle of attack) as flow accelerates from zero, and moves backwards as the flow accelerates. Once the initial transient effects have died out, the stagnation point is at the trailing edge as required by the Kutta condition. Mathematically, the Kutta condition enforces a specific choice among the infinite allowed values of circulation.

Starting from a parent aircraft approach, primarily using the Musculair 1 and 2, but also including the Monarch B, MIT Daedalus, and Velair models, a first iteration choice for an airfoil was made. A modified version of the FX-76MP, as used for the Musculair 2 was chosen. Taking characteristics from this airfoil, using an initial weight buildup, the wing planform size was determined. Then, assuming a take-off weight of 81 kg (27 kg empty weight), sea-level air density, and using a CL at cruise of 0.8.

Its span wing employs an unusual Wortmann FX 05-H-126 airfoil, which was originally designed for helicopter use. This airfoil section was chosen because it has zero pitching moment, which thus allows moderate torsional loads despite the resulting glider's relatively large wing area of . The LSG-1 has no glidepath control devices, such as dive brakes, making it a challenge to land. Despite its large wingspan the aircraft has a very low empty weight of , giving it a very low wing loading of 1.55 lb/sq ft (7.6 kg/m2).

This shock causes transonic wave drag and can induce flow separation behind it; both have negative effects on the airfoil's performance. Supercritical airfoil Mach number/pressure coefficient diagram (y axis: Mach number, or pressure coefficient, negative up; x axis: position along chord, leading edge left). The sudden increase in pressure coefficient at midchord is due to the shock. At a certain point along the airfoil, a shock is generated, which increases the pressure coefficient to the critical value Cp-crit, where the local flow velocity will be Mach 1.

A supersonic airfoil is a cross-section geometry designed to generate lift efficiently at supersonic speeds. The need for such a design arises when an aircraft is required to operate consistently in the supersonic flight regime. Supersonic airfoils generally have a thin section formed of either angled planes or opposed arcs (called "double wedge airfoils" and "biconvex airfoils" respectively), with very sharp leading and trailing edges. The sharp edges prevent the formation of a detached bow shock in front of the airfoil as it moves through the air.

"The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage." ae.illinois.edu, 15 October 2010. Retrieved: 19 July 2011. with an automatic slat design based on that of the Messerschmitt Me 262 and an electrically adjustable stabilizer, another feature of the Me 262A.

It may also be given a wide airfoil- shaped body, allowing the entire craft to generate lift and thus reducing the size and drag of the wings. The BWB configuration is used for both aircraft and underwater gliders.

It carries the useful load in a fuselage producing lift. A modern example is Boeing X-48. One of the earliest aircraft using this design approach is Burnelli CBY-3, which fuselage was airfoil shaped to produce lift.

The wing is straight, tapered and has winglets, along with the trademark Schreder 90° flaps. The airfoil is a Schreder modification of a Wortmann section. of water ballast can be carried. The landing gear is a retractable monowheel.

The wing uses a Wortmann FX 61-184 airfoil. Schempp-Hirth decided to produce the Schempp-Hirth Standard Austria and its FAI Open Class variant Schempp-Hirth SHK instead and as a result only one Lo-170 was produced.

The NACA four- digit wing sections define the profile by:E. N. Jacobs, K. E. Ward, & R. M. Pinkerton. NACA Report No. 460, "The characteristics of 78 related airfoil sections from tests in the variable-density wind tunnel". NACA, 1933.

The span wing is supported by single lift struts and employs a Goettingen 533 airfoil. The aircraft's landing gear is a fixed monowheel, with a nose skid. The aircraft was issued a US type certificate on 28 September 1960.

Changes to the airfoil section and wing spacing prevented aerodynamic interference and later Mignet Flea designs incorporated these changes. By 1939, there were many improved Flying Fleas in the air, but the aircraft never completely overcame its dangerous reputation.

The wing used a thick airfoil. The pilot sat in an open cockpit above the wing while the passengers were carried in the enclosed fuselage below. The tailskid undercarriage featured large wheels mounted on each side of the fuselage.

Virginius Evans Clark (February 27, 1886 - January 30, 1948) was an officer in the United States Army, a military aviation pioneer, and a World War I engineer. Clark designed the 1922 Clark Y airfoil used by many early aircraft.

It offers medium efficiencies. A common application is the dirty side of a baghouse or precipitator. The design is more compact than airfoil, backward curved or backward inclined fans. Paddle-wheel – This is an open impeller design without shrouds.

The consultancy of Dipl. Ing. Günther Jörg who was specialist and insider of German Airplane Industry up from 1963 and a colleague of Alexander Lippisch and Hanno Fischer as well, was founded with a fundamental knowledge of Wing in ground effect physics, as well as results of fundamental tests under different conditions and designs having begun in 1960. During a period of more than 30 years Dipl. Ing. Gunther W. Jörg managed to build and fly successful a series of 15 different tandem-airfoil flairboats in different sizes and made of different materials. The following tandem-airfoil flairboat (TAF) types had been built after a previous period of nearly 10 years of research and development: # TAB VII-3: First manned tandem W.I.G type Jörg, buing built at Technical University of Darmstadt, Akaflieg; # TAF VII-5: Second manned tandem-airfoil Flairboat, 2 seater made of wood.

Other non-rotating airfoils that power sailing craft include wingsails, which are rigid wing-like structures, and kites that power kite- rigged vessels, but do not employ a mast to support the airfoil and are beyond the scope of this article.

Lift can be increased by artificially increasing the circulation, for example by boundary-layer blowing or the use of blown flaps. In the Flettner rotor the entire airfoil is circular and spins about a spanwise axis to create the circulation.

After beating a level, the player has the option to buy upgrades for Baloo's plane with the money collected, before proceeding to the next level. In bonus levels the player controls Kit on an airfoil to pop balloons for bonus points.

BAI Communications, 15 July 1998. ;RDD Enterprises LX7 :A re-manufactured version that converts an existing IV-P by replacing the wing with one with a new airfoil to reduce stall speed, a new fuel system, new interior and avionics.

This aircraft is now on public display at the NASM's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. P-61B-15NO, AF Ser. No. 42-39754, was used by NACA's Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory in Cleveland, Ohio, for tests of airfoil-type ramjets.

The XM-1 was built with a welded steel tube fuselage covered in fiberglass. The wing was fabricated from wood and covered with doped aircraft fabric. The wing employed a 14% Fauvel airfoil. The landing gear was a fixed monowheel.

The AUSM has been employed to solve a wide range of problems, low-Mach to hypersonic aerodynamics, large eddy simulation and aero-acoustics,Mary, I. and Sagaut, P., “Large Eddy Simulation of Flow Around an Airfoil Near Stall,” AIAA J.

The lift per unit span (L') acting on a body in a two-dimensional inviscid flow field can be expressed as the product of the circulation Γ about the body, the fluid density ρ, and the speed of the body relative to the free- stream V. Thus, :L' = \rho V \Gamma\\! This is known as the Kutta–Joukowski theorem. This equation applies around airfoils, where the circulation is generated by airfoil action; and around spinning objects experiencing the Magnus effect where the circulation is induced mechanically. In airfoil action, the magnitude of the circulation is determined by the Kutta condition.

Becker, J.; The high-speed frontier: Case histories of four NACA programs, 1920- SP-445, NASA (1980), Chapter 5: High-speed Cowlings, Air Inlets and Outlets, and Internal-Flow Systems: The ramjet investigation The cowling constitutes a symmetric, circular airfoil, in contrast to the planar airfoil of wings. It directs cool air to flow through the engine where it is routed across the engine's hottest parts, that is, the cylinders and heads. Furthermore, turbulence after the air passes the free-standing cylinders is greatly reduced. The sum of all these effects reduces drag by as much as 60 percent.

Reynolds numbers are used in airfoil design to (among other things) manage "scale effect" when computing/comparing characteristics (a tiny wing, scaled to be huge, will perform differently). Fluid dynamicists define the chord Reynolds number like this: , where is the flight speed, is the chord length, and is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid in which the airfoil operates, which is for the atmosphere at sea level. In some special studies a characteristic length other than chord may be used; rare is the "span Reynolds number", which is not to be confused with spanwise stations on a wing, where chord is still used.

No matter how smooth the surface of an airfoil seems, any surface is rough on the scale of air molecules. Air molecules flying into the surface bounce off the rough surface in random directions relative to their original velocities. The result is that when the air is viewed as a continuous material, it is seen to be unable to slide along the surface, and the air's velocity relative to the airfoil decreases to nearly zero at the surface (i.e., the air molecules "stick" to the surface instead of sliding along it), something known as the no-slip condition.

N. Jacobs, K. E. Ward, & R. M. Pinkerton 1933 The characteristics of 78 related airfoil sections from tests in the variable-density wind tunnel, NACA Report No. 460. airfoils that led to faster aircraft like the P-51 Mustang in World War II. In 1937, he received the Sylvanus Albert Reed Award for his improvement of airfoils. By the 1930s, Jacobs became interested in high-speed wind tunnels, and helped to build one of the first in the United States. He became the first person to observe a shock wave propagating over an airfoil using Schlieren photography.

Computer-generated model of the Boeing X-48 Blended wing body aircraft have a flattened and airfoil shaped body, which produces most of the lift to keep itself aloft, and distinct and separate wing structures, though the wings are smoothly blended in with the body. Thus blended wing bodied aircraft incorporate design features from both a futuristic fuselage and flying wing design. The purported advantages of the blended wing body approach are efficient high-lift wings and a wide airfoil- shaped body. This enables the entire craft to contribute to lift generation with the result of potentially increased fuel economy.

Computer- generated model of the Boeing X-48 Blended wing body aircraft have a flattened and airfoil shaped body, which produces most of the lift to keep itself aloft, and distinct and separate wing structures, though the wings are smoothly blended in with the body. Thus blended wing bodied aircraft incorporate design features from both a futuristic fuselage and flying wing design. The purported advantages of the blended wing body approach are efficient high-lift wings and a wide airfoil-shaped body. This enables the entire craft to contribute to lift generation with the result of potentially increased fuel economy.

The HP-11 (HP stands for high performance) was designed to compete in the FAI Open Class in the 1962 US Nationals and represented the designer's continued pursuit of the perfect competition sailplane. The HP-11 is an all-metal design, with a wing that features a 26:1 aspect ratio, a wingspan and a NACA 65 (3)-618 airfoil, the same airfoil that had been used on the HP-8 and HP-10. A total of 42 HP-11s were built from kits and plans before production was ended in favour of the Schreder HP-14.

One of the remarkable properties of a cambered airfoil is that, even though the center of pressure moves forward and aft, if the lift is imagined to act at a point called the aerodynamic center. The moment of the lift force changes in proportion to the square of the airspeed. If the moment is divided by the dynamic pressure, the area and chord of the airfoil, the result is known as the pitching moment coefficient. This coefficient changes only a little over the operating range of angle of attack of the airfoil but the change in moment slope against the AOA shown in figure below seems very steep so this should be of change in pitching moment of wing about CG rather than about AC. The combination of the two concepts of aerodynamic center and pitching moment coefficient make it relatively simple to analyse some of the flight characteristics of an aircraft.

It has been noted that Frisbie supplied pies to many Connecticut retailers and restaurants, including the Middlebury College campus. Middlebury students discovered that the pie tins, inverted, had an airfoil shape which enabled them to be thrown, with practice, in various trajectories.

The Alcor's span wing employs a Feifel airfoil. The pressurization system provides two to three inches of Mercury pressure differential. The cockpit also incorporates a solar heater to keep the canopy clear of ice condensation at high altitude and also provide pilot warmth.

This record held for 12 years, until broken by Al Parker in a Sisu 1A glider that used a more refined laminar flow airfoil. The RJ-5 has been restored and is on display at the National Soaring Museum in Elmira, New York.

The aircraft is made from fibreglass. Its span wing employs a Wortmann FX-60-157 airfoil. The AC-4 can be fitted with a McCulloch MC-101B two-stroke engine of that will sustain flight. A Ballistic Recovery Systems parachute is optional.

Drag depends on the thickness and requires an understanding of viscous flow, which was beyond contemporary capabilities. The thin airfoil technique was introduced in 1922 and remained the major theoretical design technique until the development of laminar flow airfoils in the 1930s.

His main research area was fluid flows with viscous effects. Simultaneously he also started working on airfoil aerodynamics. In 1935 Schlichting went to Dornier in Friedrichshafen. There he did the planning for the new wind tunnel and after short construction time took charge over it.

The airfoil is said to be stalled."The decrease[d lift] of angles exceeding 25° is plausible. For large angles of attack we get turbulence and thus less deflection downward." Klaus Weltner A comparison of explanations of the aerodynamic lifting force Am. J. Phys.

The span wing features a Wortmann FX 63-137 airfoil and top surface spoilers. The aircraft mounts a ballistic parachute full-aircraft recovery system. The landing gear is conventional with a steerable tailwheel. The wide cockpit features a pilot seat inclined at a 33° angle.

The wings of a fixed- wing aircraft are static planes extending either side of the aircraft. When the aircraft travels forwards, air flows over the wings, which are shaped to create lift. This shape is called an airfoil and is shaped like a bird's wing.

140, 144. This version could also have an improved APQ-7 "Eagle" bombing-through-overcast radar fitted in an airfoil shaped radome under the fuselage. Most of these aircraft were assigned to the 315th Bomb Wing, Northwest Field, Guam."History of 315 BW." 315bw.org.

Its span wing employs a Harry Ribblett GA30-618 airfoil and has an area of . The aircraft's recommended engine power range is and standard engines used include the 1/2 VW four-stroke powerplant. Construction time from the supplied kit is estimated as 420 hours.

It is also known for being extremely dangerous to aircraft since the ice can effectively 'remould' the shape of the airfoil and flight control surfaces. (See atmospheric icing.)National Weather Service Forecast Office, La Crosse, Wisconsin. Significant Weather Phenomena Matrix. Retrieved on 2006-12-08.

ISSN 1368-485XPurdy, Don: AeroCrafter - Homebuilt Aircraft Sourcebook, Fifth Edition, page 330. BAI Communications, 15 July 1998. Boyette started his company to produce his Dragon Wing rotorblade designs. Constructed of bonded aluminium and employing a custom airfoil section, they were first marketed in 1989.

A tailwind is a wind that blows in the direction of travel of an object, while a headwind blows against the direction of travel. A tailwind increases the object's speed and reduces the time required to reach its destination, while a headwind has the opposite effect. In aeronautics, a headwind is favorable in takeoffs and landings because an airfoil moving into a headwind is capable of generating greater lift than the same airfoil moving through tranquil air, or with a tailwind, at equal ground speed. As a result, aviators and air traffic controllers commonly choose to take off or land in the direction of a runway that will provide a headwind.

SAAF Museum, Port Elizabeth, South Africa. (It has since been removed from the museum) German engineer Günther Jörg, who had worked on Alexeyev's first designs and was familiar with the challenges of GEV design, developed a GEV with two wings in a tandem arrangement, the Jörg-II. It was the third, manned, tandem-airfoil boat, named "Skimmerfoil", which was developed during his consultancy period in South Africa. It was a simple and low-cost design of a first 4-seater tandem-airfoil flairboat completely constructed of aluminium. The prototype has been in the SAAF Port Elizabeth Museum since 4 July 2007, remained there till (2013) and is now in private use.

Instead, the Imp had a cantilever lower wing which had not only to support itself but also most of the forces on the upper wing. These lower wings were unswept and rectangular, with an aspect ratio of about 4.9, though the ailerons occupied the whole of the trailing edge and about 40% of the chord. Since as cantilevers they had to be internally braced, the airfoil section was fairly thick, a variation on RAF31. Rather than the usual (in Britain) double-spar and rib construction, Bolas used multiple spanwise stringers or false spars, with longitudinal formers or airfoil shaped ribs, the whole covered in stress- bearing spruce veneer.

While at its simplest the throwing stick is just a heavy club thrown at the game, a well-designed throwing stick uses the principles of an airfoil shape and gyroscopic stability; the oldest of these dates back 200,000 years to ancient Poland.How Boomerangs Work, HowStuffWorks.com The kylie, for example, Australian hunting boomerang in use into modern times, uses the bent shape and a symmetric airfoil cross-section to provide stability and low drag for long, accurate throws. Kylies do not return (a good thing, since they are large, heavy, and dangerous) but smaller, lighter versions, the classic boomerang, exhibit the classic circular path that made the boomerang famous.

A small fixed perpendicular tab of between 1 and 2% of the wing chord, mounted on the high pressure side of the trailing edge of an airfoil. It was named for racing car driver Dan Gurney who rediscovered it in 1971, and has since been used on some helicopters such as the Sikorsky S-76B to correct control problems without having to resort to a major redesign. It boosts the efficiency of even basic theoretical airfoils (made up of a triangle and a circle overlapped) to the equivalent of a conventional airfoil. The principle was discovered in the 1930s, but was rarely used and was then forgotten.

The span wing employs a NACA 4418 airfoil at the wing root and a NACA 4409 at the wing tip. Only one T-3 was built. Originally registered as N909D, the registration was later changed to N9098. The aircraft is in the Experimental - Amateur-built category.

Most surfboards, although unpowered, are planing or semi-planing hulls. They utilize the push of the waveform more or less in combination with gravity and specific angles of attack for the airfoil to maximise propulsive force and reduce the net downforce and thus achieve planing lift.

NACA Report No. 736 - Nonstationary Flow about a Wing-aileron-tab Combination Including Aerodynamic Balance was issued by the United States National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics in 1942. It analyzes the oscillating air forces on an airfoil that is equipped with various control or lift-augmenting devices.

He selected an Eppler 387 airfoil for the wing. The solar cells were round commercial units provided by Heliotech. The actual airframe was constructed by a team under expert model builder Phil Bernhardt. The Sunrise's wing span was and the aircraft had a gross weight of .

"Pappy" Spinks provided the funding and name to Charlie Hillard for the creation of the Akromaster. The Akromaster is a single-seat, low-wing, monoplane with conventional landing gear and a symmetrical airfoil. It features inverted fuel and oil systems and an air show smoke system.

The aircraft features interplane struts, inverted "V" cabane struts, four ailerons and a semi-symmetrical airfoil. Like the original FP-404 upon which it is based, the Classic has no flaps. The Classic's main landing gear is bungee suspended. Cockpit access is via the lower wing.

The LB-2 is a single engine low-wing, open cockpit monoplane with conventional landing gear. LB-2 was the considered the "World's Smallest Monoplane" when built to take the title from Ray Stits span aircraft. The wing section was adapted from a Piper Cub airfoil.

Newby-Gonzalez, Tori: Kit Aircraft Directory 2004, Kitplanes, Volume 20, Number 12, December 2003, page 81. Aviation Publishing Group. ;Pelican Sport :Development of the PL with a new longer span wing and a higher lift airfoil, introduced in 1998. Wing includes an STOL kit with drooping ailerons.

However, it sacrifices some efficiency at high airflow rates because the airfoil's high angle of attack creates more drag. The angle of attack is the number of degrees the airfoil is from being parallel with the airflow. Wells turbines are most efficient at low speed airflows.

Named the WOS-37 Splett, it used a different airfoil, a different wing plan and shorter wing struts, though the span was unchanged. The fuselage was about 6% shorter. Most noticeably, it had a tailplane, which was integral with the fin. Either one or two were built.

The M-18 design goal was extremely low operating costs. The Mite is constructed mainly of fabric- covered wood, with a single spruce and plywood "D" wing spar. The wing aft of the spar is fabric-covered. The airfoil selected for the design was the NACA 64A215.

The canard must be specified as the forward lifting surface (i.e. wing) and the wing as the aft lift surface. For airfoil designations, most traditional NACA 4-, 5-, and 6- airfoils can be specified in Digital DATCOM. Additionally, custom airfoils can be input using the appropriate namelists.

The road deck is shaped as an airfoil to provide lift in a cross wind, and the center two lanes are open grid to allow vertical (upward) air flow, which fairly precisely cancels the lift, making the roadway stable in design in winds of up to .

On rotary–wing aircraft, the AoA (Angle of Attack) is the angle between the airfoil chord line and resultant relative wind. AoA is an aerodynamic angle. It can change with no change in the AoI (Angle of Incidence). Several factors may change the rotor blade AoA.

The cantilever semi-tapered wing is of a span and employs a NACA 65-618 airfoil. The wing features DFS-style dive brakes. The landing gear is a fixed monowheel that is faired. The cockpit canopy is optional and the aircraft can be flown open cockpit.

The aircraft was registered with the US Federal Aviation Administration in the Experimental - Amateur-built category. Only one was ever constructed. In 1974 it was reported that plans were underway to create a new span wing for the LM-1, that would feature a Wortmann airfoil.

Kelsey completed the K-16 in 1961. The aircraft has a welded steel tube fuselage and a wooden structure wing, all covered in doped aircraft fabric covering. The span wing employs a modified Göttingen airfoil. The landing gear is a center-line monowheel and a fixed skid.

Its (optionally ) span wing employs a Harry Ribblett GA30-618 airfoil and has an area of . The aircraft's recommended engine power range is and standard engines used include the Volkswagen air-cooled engine four- stroke. Construction time from the supplied kit is estimated as 420 hours.

The nose section is adapted from the Bell 206. Its diameter fully articulated three-bladed main rotor employs a NACA 0015 airfoil. The two-bladed tail rotor has a diameter of . The aircraft has an empty weight of and a gross weight of , giving a useful load of .

Belvoir Publications. ISSN 0891-1851 Series 7 STI A version of the Series 7 with a larger airfoil to increase STOL (short take-off and landing) performance. Series 7 Speedster A version of the Series 7 with shorter wings to increase speed much like the Series 4 Speedster.

The Air Sedan was Stout's updated version of the Stout Batwing Limousine. William Bushnell Stout, having just completed his famous letter writing financing effort for the company, embarked on a new aircraft using the "thick airfoil" batwing design, combined with all-metal construction employed overseas in Junkers aircraft.

A variant of towed tubing dubbed "kite tubing" has begun to emerge. When tubes being towed on water reach high speeds, they may take flight. This is because the body of the tube acts as an airfoil and creates lift. In this way, the tube becomes a kite.

The main advantage to using Ring Airfoil Projectiles is that their design does not allow them be thrown back by rioters with any real effect. The M234 is no longer used by U.S. forces. It has been replaced by the M203 40 mm grenade launcher and nonlethal ammunition.

Strojnik completed and flew his S-2 design in 1980. The S-2 is of mixed construction. The span wings consist of fiberglass skins built around a carbon fiber and aluminium spars. The wings employ a Wortmann FX 67-170/17 airfoil and have flaps for glidepath control.

The airfoil is a modified Gö 549-M.2 section. Early versions took off from a dolly and landed on a fixed skid, while later versions has a fixed wheel and skid undercarriage. Originally fitted with DFS-style airbrakes, some were later modified for Schempp-Hirth style brakes instead.

Eight were flying by 2011. It has competition features, including streamlined struts and landing gear legs, no jury struts, a semi-symmetrical airfoil and extra headroom. Standard empty weight with a gross weight. Engines available include the two-stroke Rotax 447, Rotax 503, Rotax 582 or the Hirth 2702.

Thus the vertical arrows in the pressure distribution with isobars figure indicate that air above and below the airfoil is accelerated, or turned downward, and that the non-uniform pressure is thus the cause of the downward deflection of the flow visible in the flow animation. To produce this downward turning, the airfoil must have a positive angle of attack or have sufficient positive camber. Note that the downward turning of the flow over the upper surface is the result of the air being pushed downward by higher pressure above it than below it. Some explanations that refer to the "Coandă effect" suggest that viscosity plays a key role in the downward turning, but this is false.

30-cal M-2 machine gun on the starboard nose, and a flexible M-2 in the rear. The 83 BC-1As built, used a NACA 2215 airfoil at the wing root, and a NACA 4412 airfoil at the tip, with a 178 gallon fuel capacity. Based on the BT-9s, the US Navy received 40 NA-28 aircraft, designated NJ-1, 16 NA-52 aircraft, designated the SNJ-1, 36 SNJ-2s based on the NA-65, and 25 SNJ-2s based on the NA-79. In March 1937, the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation of Australia purchased a NA-32 (NA-16-1A), followed by a NA-33 (NA-16-2K)), including a manufacturing license.

V-struts made from Duralumin separated the wings and connected the upper wing to the fuselage. Steel bracing wires were used externally. An airfoil enclosed the axle of the fixed undercarriage and a small ski served as a tailskid. It had an imported Napier Lion engine enclosed in a metal cowling.

With its laminar flow wing and NACA 63-618 airfoil the 1-29 recorded a 34:1 glide ratio, an improvement of 15%. The 1-29 design was never certified and the sole aircraft that was built is an experimental aircraft in the "racing, exhibition" class and registered as N3898A.

Airflow separating from an airfoil at a high angle of attack, as occurs at the stall. In fluid dynamics, a stall is a reduction in the lift coefficient generated by a foil as angle of attack increases.Crane, Dale: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition, p. 486. Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997.

The PIK-16 is constructed from wood, with a fibreglass nose. The span wing employs a Wortmann FX-05-168 (14% modification) airfoil at the wing root, transitioning to a NACA 63 (2)-165 at the wing tip. The wing features dive brakes. A total of 56 PIK-16s were built.

The wing employs a NACA 63-618 laminar flow airfoil, an I-beam spar and has a semi-tapered planform. Only three examples were completed, all were different and all have since been modified further. The type was further refined into a new design in 1962, the Prue Super Standard.

This boundary layer can separate from the surface, essentially creating a new surface and completely changing the flow path. The classical example of this is a stalling airfoil. The delta wing image clearly shows the boundary layer thickening as the gas flows from right to left along the leading edge.

The wings have spoilers on the top surfaces and use a Gö 549 airfoil. As with all plans-built aircraft, builders have made modifications to the design. Some examples have been built with leading edges made from aluminium, cardboard, glass reinforced plastic and plywood and with many different styles of canopy.

Precision Castparts Corp. is an American industrial goods and metal fabrication company that manufactures investment castings, forged components, and airfoil castings for use in the aerospace, industrial gas turbine, and defense industries. In 2009 it ranked 362nd on the Fortune 500 list, and 11th in the aerospace and defense industry.Precision Castparts.

The aircraft fuselage is made from welded 4130 steel tubing, with an aluminium tail boom. Its diameter two-bladed rotor employs a NACA 0012 airfoil. The main transmission is of belt and chain type, whileteh tail rotor is driven by a long shaft. The control system consists of conventional helicopters controls.

As most homebuilts, the HP-18 has been constructed with many variations in detail. Perhaps the most significant version is the Super HP-18 developed by Canadians Ed Hollestelle and Udo Rumpf, which features a modified wing airfoil, winglets, a front-hinged canopy, conventional control stick and higher ballast capacity.

The cabin is enclosed under a bubble canopy. The conventional landing gear uses two side-by-side, non-retractable mainwheels under the cockpit floor set closely together. The span wing is supported by a single lift strut and jury struts on each side and employs a Wortmann FX 63-137 airfoil.

It shares its fuselage cross-section with these aircraft, paired with a new T-tail and wing. The latter is a supercritical airfoil with a 35° wing sweep and winglets. This flexible wing naturally attenuates turbulence. It was initially powered by two BMW-Rolls- Royce BR710 turbofans controlled by FADEC.

Peterson completed the Medena prototype and flew it in 1966. The designation indicates the designer's initials. The aircraft is of mixed construction, with an all-metal structure and a fiberglass cockpit section. The span wings employ a NACA 64(3)-618 airfoil and mount both spoilers and half-span flaps.

Raab designed the Krähe specifically for homebuilders. The Krähe is constructed from wood, with the fuselage made from a wooden structure covered in doped aircraft fabric. The span wings are built with a wooden structure and covered in plywood and fabric. The wings feature spoilers and a custom Raab-designed airfoil.

The wing employs a NACA 4400R airfoil. The aircraft was originally constructed with a T-tail, but this was later changed to a conventional low tail. The cockpit accommodation is one seat in a semi-reclining position. Only one example was completed and registered in the Experimental - Amateur-built category.

In extreme > cases, 2 to 3 inches of ice can form on the leading edge of the airfoil in > less than 5 minutes. It takes but 1/2 inch of ice to reduce the lifting > power of some aircraft by 50 percent and increases the frictional drag by an > equal percentage.

The airfoil was an Irv Culver modification to the NACA 0012. The landing gear was a monowheel, with small wing tip skids. Soaring Magazine described the aircraft as "purely a lark and a quirky lark at that". The designer described the performance as "somewhere between a Nimbus and a Rogallo".

A aircraft was developed with an airfoil that tapered from four feet thick to nearly flat at the wingtips. The aircraft used wing warping tips rather than ailerons. It was tested with a Hall-Scott engine by test pilot Paul Peck. A Berliner Rotary was also considered for the design.

To better shape the shocks that will contribute to lift, the rest of an ideal supersonic airfoil is roughly diamond-shaped in cross-section. For low-speed lift these same airfoils are very inefficient, leading to poor handling and very high landing speeds."Supersonic Wing Designs." selkirk.bc.ca. Retrieved: August 1, 2011.

It incorporates the semi-symmetrical airfoil and streamlined extruded aluminum wing struts from the Hawk Sport. 186 flying in 2011. Standard empty weight with a gross weight. Engines available include the two-stroke, Rotax 503, Rotax 582, Hirth 3202, Hirth 3203, Hirth F30, Hirth 3701 and the four-stroke HKS 700E.

The drag coefficient of a lifting airfoil or hydrofoil also includes the effects of lift-induced drag.Abbott, Ira H., and Von Doenhoff, Albert E.: Theory of Wing Sections. Sections 1.2 and 1.3 The drag coefficient of a complete structure such as an aircraft also includes the effects of interference drag.Clancy, L. J.: Aerodynamics.

The Kirkham-Williams Racer was a single bay sesquiplane. It used a thing airfoil section and had constant chord wings with elliptical tips. Both upper and lower wings were mounted to the fuselage, with a gap of . Single outward-leaning interplane struts were constructed around dural and spruce frames, with a plywood covering.

The Swallow OX-5, designed by Waverly Stearman, was introduced in 1927 and was the first Swallow to be built under an official ATC. This used an USA-27 airfoil and cabane N-struts. The Curtiss OX-5 water-cooled engine of the New Swallow was retained. About 250 examples were built.

Some flying Velocity planes experienced "deep stall" incidents, where the main wing stalled before the canard causing an unrecoverable stall. After a lengthy investigation, Velocity found and solved the cause of these stalls. The 173 included airfoil modifications that prevented the deep stall.Solving a Deep Stall Riddle, Sport Aviation, July 1987, pp.

Clark Y airfoil He was born on February 27, 1886 to Harry Scott Clark in Uniontown, Pennsylvania. Clark graduated the United States Naval Academy in 1907. He participated in the 1908-1909 round-the-world battleship voyage with the Great White Fleet. Later he was part of the Coast Artillery until 1912.

Jim Martin contracted Jensen to design and built him a glider for contest flying just before the Second World War. Jensen completed the aircraft in 1939. The aircraft was constructed with a wooden structure and covered in doped aircraft fabric covering. The cantilever gull-style wing employed a NACA 4400 series airfoil.

Superior Coach Company, once the nation's largest producer of buses, closed in 1981, as did Clark Equipment. Airfoil Textron closed in 1985, and Sundstrand (formerly Westinghouse) followed ten years later. By the mid-1990s, Lima had lost more than 8,000 jobs. Lima's population dropped from 52,000 in the 1970s to 45,000 in 1999.

Clancy, L.J. (1975), Aerodynamics, Section 5.2, Pitman Publishing Limited, London The angle between the chord line of an airfoil and the relative wind defines the angle of attack. The relative wind is of great importance to pilots because exceeding the critical angle of attack will result in a stall, regardless of airspeed.

The surviving gliders were reduced to components in 1952. The first G2, serial number A57-1, was modified in 1948 by the Government Aircraft Factory for trials of a suction airfoil, the modifications included the fitting of a Mercury 95A engine. Trials continued until 1951.Issacs Air International July 1976, pp. 28–30.

Its span wing employs a NACA 4415 mod airfoil, has an area of and is equipped with flaps. The recommended engines for the Rebel are the Lycoming O-320, the Lycoming O-235 and the Rotax 912, although Bayerl et al. note that the aircraft does not perform well with less than .

The wings and tail surfaces are of wooden structure, covered in aircraft fabric. The tailboom is made from a metal tube and the cockpit pod is of molded plywood. The aircraft features no glide-path control devices, although some were later modified with spoilers. The airfoil is a modified Gö 535 section.

The downward aileron deflection on the left increases the airfoil camber, which will typically increase the profile drag. Conversely, the upward aileron deflection on the right will decrease the camber and profile drag. The profile drag imbalance adds to the adverse yaw. A Frise aileron reduces this imbalance drag, as described further below.

The TST-6 was designed as a two-place touring motorglider. Production is complete and the aircraft is no longer available. The TST-6 is of mixed wood and fibreglass construction. The span forward-swept wings feature both top surface air brakes and flaps and employ a Wortmann FX 61-184 airfoil.

"Entirely satisfactory" stability and control characteristics were reported under all these conditions. With The Airfoil Boat proved, the X-112's mission was completed and Lippisch, suffering from cancer, left Collins Radio. He recovered sufficiently to design and build its successor, the fibreglass, more powerful X-113 with Rhein-Flugzeugbau GmbH in Germany.

The Lublin was an aerodynamically clean, wooden, high wing monoplane. Its one-piece wing had two spars, a trapezoidal plan and fabric covering. The fuselage had a rectangular section and in profile resembled a thick airfoil. It was covered with dural sheet forward and fabric aft and included an open, single-seat cockpit.

The fuselage aft of the canopy remained essentially unchanged in its externals. The tail section of the aircraft was redesigned as well. The rudder was slightly reduced in area and the symmetrical fin section changed to an airfoil shape, producing a sideways lift force that swung the tail slightly to the left.

In parallel, postwar Germany and the Netherlands also conducted their own research efforts into optimal transonic airfoil designs, intending for these efforts to support civil aviation programmes.Hirschel, Prem and Madelung 2012, p. 120. Up until the 1970s, there was considerable focus upon developing an airfoil that performed isentropic recompression, a shock-free return of the airflow to subsonic speeds.Hirschel, Prem and Madelung 2012, p. 185. In the United States, the supercritical airfoil was an area of research during the 1960s; one of the leading American figure in the field was Richard Whitcomb. A specially modified North American T-2C Buckeye functioned as an early aerial testbed for the supercritical wing, performing numerous evaluation flights during this period in support of the research effort.Palmer, Willam E. and Donald W. Elliott, "Summary of T-2C Supercritical Wing Program", NASA SP-301 Supercritical Wing Technology: A Progress Report on Flight Evaluations, February 1972. pp. 13–34. Following initial flight testing, the new airfoils were tested at increasingly higher speeds on another modified military aircraft, the TF-8A Crusader.Andrews, William H., "Status of the F-8 Supercritical Wing Program", NASA SP-301 Supercritical Wing Technology: A Progress Report on Flight Evaluations.

Illustration of the distribution of higher-than-ambient pressure on the ground under an airplane in subsonic flight An airfoil produces a pressure field in the surrounding air, as explained under "The wider flow around the airfoil" above. The pressure differences associated with this field die off gradually, becoming very small at large distances, but never disappearing altogether. Below the airplane, the pressure field persists as a positive pressure disturbance that reaches the ground, forming a pattern of slightly-higher-than-ambient pressure on the ground, as shown on the right.Prandtl and Tietjens (1934), Figure 150 Although the pressure differences are very small far below the airplane, they are spread over a wide area and add up to a substantial force.

This steep increase in drag gave rise to the popular false notion of an unbreakable sound barrier, because it seemed that no aircraft technology in the foreseeable future would have enough propulsive force or control authority to overcome it. Indeed, one of the popular analytical methods for calculating drag at high speeds, the Prandtl–Glauert rule, predicts an infinite amount of drag at Mach 1.0. Two of the important technological advancements that arose out of attempts to conquer the sound barrier were the Whitcomb area rule and the supercritical airfoil. A supercritical airfoil is shaped specifically to make the drag-divergence Mach number as high as possible, allowing aircraft to fly with relatively lower drag at high subsonic and low transonic speeds.

The five case studies are organized by chapter. Chapter 2 regards airfoil design generally. The early work of Davis illustrates how useful engineering has been done by people who have no formal training in engineering. The Davis wing was instrumental even though Davis did not have the theoretical basis to know how or why.

The fuselage is of a hexagonal section forward and a diamond section aft. The fuselage is built upon a main keel beam that also contains the control runs. The span wing is a gulled design, employing a Goettingen 535 airfoil, with air brakes for glidepath control. The structure is stressed for aerobatics at +/-12g.

L'anneau de vitesse () is a sports venue located in Albertville, France. It hosted speed skating events at the 1992 Winter Olympics. The stands, which remain present, were constructed as an airfoil from aerospace designs. The ice was made using of piping using R32 and brine refrigeration to cool the track to between with ice.

The cockpit was sized to an absolute minimum. The axle between wheels was shaped like an airfoil, producing some of the lift. In 1947, "Pete" was rebuilt as the "Baker Special" with a Continental engine for midget racing. The aircraft was rebuilt once again by the Experimental Aircraft Association founder Paul Poberezny as "Little Audey".

It incorporated a laminar flow airfoil, new flaperon design, metal flaperon attach brackets and a new 2:1 differential aileron control system. The gross weight of the Kitfox Model 4-1050 was the same as the Model 3, . The Model 4 standard engines include the Rotax 912 and the Rotax 912S. 322 were built.

The airfoil section was designed by Baynes and varied from the wing root outwards. At the centre it had a flat undersurface, making the wing thick and easy to strengthen as well as reducing wing root interference drag. Outwards, as thickness, chord and incidence reduced, the lower surface became increasingly concave, producing reflex camber.

He and his colleagues were able to significantly reduce the turbulence in the wind tunnel, which led to a better understanding of boundary development around airfoil sections. A better knowledge of boundary layer growth then led to an optimization scheme for low-drag laminar flow airfoils. This optimization scheme produced the NACA 4-digitE.

Alan and Dale moved into the family farmhouse to be closer to the project, and began work on the airplane in the basement of the barn "down where the cows were". They all pitched in with the designing and balanced that with hands-on labor. Jeff designed the airfoil while Sally designed the flap system.

Cirrus in flight Holighaus chose a rather thick flapless Wortmann airfoil (FX 66-196/161) which had low drag (for the time) and very gentle stall characteristics. The span and profile are optimised for the weaker gliding weather of central Europe. The result is excellent thermalling characteristics and a high glide ratio (for 1967).

"Corrigendum: A Mesozoic gliding mammal from northeastern China". Nature 446 (7131): 102. . . The tail was flat, increasing the airfoil, and the limbs were proportionally long, comparable to those of modern flying and gliding mammals. The toes were grasping, as typical for arboreal mammals; the hand, however, was poorly preserved and its anatomy is therefore unclear.

Kelsey was the driving force behind a program of advanced airfoil research which eventually resulted in the P-51 Mustang. After the war, Kelsey served in various staff assignments supervising weather operations, personnel and materiel. He was an important committee member of the group that approved and funded the rocket-powered North American X-15.

Its span wing employs a NASA NLF(1)-0215F natural laminar flow airfoil and mounts flaps. The standard engines used are the Continental O-200 on the Lancair 200 and the Lycoming O-235 powerplant on the Lancair 235. The Lycoming O-290 engine has also been used. The two models are otherwise identical.

50 in AN/M2s. The weight saved by removing the guns increased the top speed from 357 mph to 364 mph (575 km/h to 586 km/h). Also incorporated on this version was an improved APQ-7 "Eagle" bombing-through-overcast radar that was fitted in an airfoil- shaped radome under the fuselage.

That is, the drag substantially increases. The lift and drag forces influence the power production of a wind turbine. This can be seen from an analysis of the forces acting on a blade as air interacts with the blade (see the following link). Thus, forcing the airfoil to stall can result in power limiting.

The O-2 was designed by Oldershaw to compete with Dick Johnson's Ross-Johnson RJ-5. The O-2 is constructed of wood. Its span wing employs a NACA 63 (3)-618 airfoil at the wing root, with a NACA 63 (2)-615 at the wing tip. The wing is equipped with dive brakes.

These laminar-flow airfoils were the Supermarine 371-I used at the root and the 371-II used at the tip.The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage . Retrieved 26 June 2011 Supermarine estimated that the new wing could give an increase in speed of over the Spitfire Mk 21.Andrews and Morgan 1987, p. 264.

The airfoil is a Wortmann FX-MS-150-B, which was developed for low-speed flight. The Vector 1 was conceived with four design goals. First was to double the L/D of the then state of the art in foot-launched hang gliders. Hall designed the glider for an L/D of 18:1.

While the Q2 and Q200 were based on the original Quickie, the design was completely different. Now defunct, the company sold over 2,000 kits in its lifetime. The Quickie's canard wing used a GU25-5(11)8 airfoil, developed by Terence Nonweiler. It suffered performance degradation at low Reynolds numbers and in rainy conditions.

The chakram's combat application is largely dependent on its size. Regular-sized (diameter of or more) steel chakram could be thrown , while brass chakram, due to their better airfoil design, could be thrown in excess of . If properly constructed, it should be a perfect circle. Warriors trained by throwing chakram at lengths of green bamboo.

The span wing is equipped with winglets and a Wortmann FX 61-184 airfoil. The tractor configuration Hirth F-33 motor is mounted on a strut that retracts aft into a bay behind the cockpit and is enclosed by two doors. A Rotax 503 of was optional. The landing gear is retractable monowheel gear.

The wing has a rounded trailing edge to tangentially eject the air through the Coandă effect thus causing lift. The increase in velocity of the airflow over the wing also adds to the lift force through conventional airfoil lift production. The trailing edge of a CCW showing the blowing slot and tangential coanda airflow.

It employs a NACA 4415 airfoil. The acceptable power range is and the standard engines used are the Continental IO-240 and Continental O-200 powerplants. The aircraft has a typical empty weight of and a gross weight of , giving a useful load of . With full fuel of the payload for the pilot, passenger and baggage is .

The wings and tail airfoil was of steel tubing instead of wood. The wings were attached by four tapered bolts. The nose tank held 26 gallons with optional 6 gallon tanks in each wing stub using a wobble pump to transfer to the main tank....Jack L. Austin Florence, SC. @ The Wichita-assembled aircraft featured soundproofing materials.

The American Wil Schuemann pioneered several performance-enhancing modifications to the type, including a re-profiled wing, converting the airfoil to a Wortmann section, various fairings, a new canopy and a reshaped fuselage nose. Aircraft incorporating these changes are informally known as 'Schümanised' Libelles.Rogers, Bennett: 1974 Sailplane Directory, Soaring Magazine, page 52. Soaring Society of America, August 1974.

The sole SB-12, registration D-1225 and wearing HQ, for its airfoil, on the tail remained with Akaflieg Braunschweig until they sold it in 1989. About ten years later it was sold to an owner in the German Alps and in 2007 sold again and returned to Brunswick. It remained on the German register in 2010.

The series started with the Hoffmann H36 Dimona, a touring motorglider introduced in the early 1980s. The aircraft were initially produced by Hoffmann Flugzeugbau, which became HOAC Flugzeugwerk and later Diamond Aircraft Industries. Built entirely from fibreglass, the H36 family all use a Wortmann FX 63-137 airfoil. The wings feature top-surface Schempp- Hirth-style airbrakes.

Streamlines and streamtubes around an airfoil generating lift. Note the narrower streamtubes above and the wider streamtubes below. Starting with the flow pattern observed in both theory and experiments, the increased flow speed over the upper surface can be explained in terms of streamtube pinching and conservation of mass.Anderson Introduction to Flight' Eighth Ed. - Section 5.19.

Premodern MiG-21 cockpit The MiG-21 has a delta wing. The sweep angle on the leading edge is 57° with a TsAGI S-12 airfoil. The angle of incidence is 0° while the dihedral angle is −2°. On the trailing edge there are ailerons with an area of 1.18 m², and flaps with an area of 1.87 m².

The wing employs a laminated aluminium spar and a NACA 4418 airfoil. The Ranger is not equipped with any glidepath control devices, such as dive brakes. The landing gear is a single centreline mainwheel plus a nose-mounted second wheel to allow taxiing. The aircraft was registered with the Federal Aviation Administration in the Experimental - amateur-built category.

The curved arrows indicate airflow circulation about the rotor disc. The helicopter shown is the RAH-66 Comanche. In forward flight, there is no upward flow (upflow) of air in the hub area. As forward airspeed decreases and vertical descent rates increase, an upflow begins because there are no airfoil surfaces in the mast and blade grip area.

Scale gliders are models of full-size gliders. Scale gliders are generally larger models (2 m wingspan or greater) and made from composite materials. Scale Gliders are sometimes modified slightly to obtain the best flying characteristics, such as less drag and more aerobatic potential. This is achieved by changing the size of the control surfaces or the wing airfoil.

The woomera is in length. One end is wide and possessing a hollow, curved cross-section not unlike an airfoil, while the other is more pointed and has a hook. Some woomera were traditionally decorated with incised or painted designs that indicated belonging to a particular linguistic group that it may be returned to if found abandoned.

The construction of the Youngster is of wood with the fuselage built in a Warren Truss covered with a birch plywood skin. The fuselage employs longitudinal stringers to replicate the Jungmeister's shape. The wings and tail are covered with doped aircraft fabric. The wings feature interplane struts, cabane struts, bottom wing ailerons only and a NACA 2315 airfoil.

The LB-3 used new span wings made in the same fashion as Staib's LB-1 with brazed steel spring wing ribs with Taylorcraft airfoil sections. The aircraft cruised at and operated on the airshow circuit for two years. Cliff Baker operated the aircraft one more season, suffering a broken back after a high-speed incident.

In 1993 and 1994, Graeme Obree, who built his own bikes, posted two records with his hands tucked under his chest. In 1994, Moser set the veteran's record at in Mexico City. Moser beat his 1984 record, using bullhorn handlebars, steel airfoil tubing, disk wheels and skinsuit. It was also faster than Obree's first record in 1993.

The aircraft fuselage is an open frame made from bolted- together and gusseted aluminum tubing. Its diameter two-bladed extruded aluminum rotor has a chord of and employs a symmetrical airfoil. The transmission is constructed from a belt and chain mechanism. With its standard empty weight of and a gross weight of , the useful load is .

In small-scale tests, cyclorotors achieved a higher power loading than comparable scale traditional rotors at the same disk loading. This is attributed to utilizing unsteady lift and consistent blade aerodynamic conditions. The rotational component of velocity on propellers increases from root to tip and requires blade chord, twist, airfoil, etc., to be varied along the blade.

The tailwheel is fixed but the mainwheels retract backwards into the engine nacelles, leaving the wheels slightly protruding in case of a wheels-up landing. The Gemini first flew on 23 July 1996. Since then the development pace has been slow, with the company's focus elsewhere. There has been discussion of a revised airfoil section and uprated Jabiru engines.

Flying Pages Europe SARL, 2015. adding bracing struts to reinforce the horizontal stabilizer, and changing the airfoil sectionthe original design had a NACA 4412 profile (Taylor 1977, p.561); the revised design uses NASA 23013 ("WE Love Biplanes") and angles of incidence of the wings.Bayerl, Robby; Martin Berkemeier; et al: World Directory of Leisure Aviation 2011-12, page 118.

The span wing employs a NACA 23112 airfoil and has an area of , with an aspect ratio of 8:1. A unique roll control system is used as the aircraft has no ailerons. Instead the wings are pivoted to +4° and -2° to produce and control roll. The wings can be folded for ground transportation or storage.

Frame materials include carbon fibre. Cervélo currently makes 5 series of bikes: the C series and R series of road bikes, the latter featuring multi-shaped, "Squoval" frame tubes; the S series of road bikes and P series of triathlon/time trial bikes, both of which feature airfoil shaped down tubes; and the T series of track bikes.

The whole airframe is covered in doped aircraft fabric, including the plywood-covered wings. The airfoil is a custom symmetrical design. The SNS-7 is capable of advanced aerobatics, including vertical eight point rolls and inside and outside vertical eights. The tooling and manufacturing rights were acquired by Thunderbird Aviation in 2015, who began making parts and basic kits.

Marchetti decided to design a derivative of the S.50 powered by the HS 42 engine for entry in the 1923 fighter contest. The resulting S.52 was a single-seat, all-metal biplane with its fuselage suspended between the upper and lower wings. The after part of the fuselage itself was flattened to serve as an airfoil.

Tricycle landing gear is optional on home-built aircraft. This design was further developed by CEA as the DR200/220/250 series and subsequently as the Robin DR400 series. The aircraft is made from wood, with its flying surfaces covered in doped aircraft fabric. Its span wing employs a NACA 23012 airfoil and has an area of .

The first aircraft was flown with an airfoil designed for speed rather than lift. Test pilot Bert Acosta said the aircraft did not have enough lift and visibility. Bert did claim the plane was stable enough to fly with his hands off the controls for several minutes at a time. A second wing with more camber produced favorable results.

The aircraft fuselage is made from welded 4130 steel tubing, while the wings are of wooden construction all covered in doped aircraft fabric. Its span wing employs a Clark Y airfoil and has a total wing area of . The cabin width is . The acceptable power range is and the standard engine used is the Lycoming O-320 powerplant.

In an airplane, lift is created by the wings; the shape of the wings of the airplane are designed specially for the type of flight desired. There are different types of wings: tempered, semi-tempered, sweptback, rectangular and elliptical. An aircraft wing is sometimes called an airfoil, which is a device that creates lift when air flows across it.

A flying gyroscope (also known as a flying cylinder or flying tube) is a cylindrical wing or annular airfoil. It is thrown like a football, and can fly very far. The William Mark Corporation invented their flying gyroscope, X-Zylo, in 1993. It was invented by Mark Forti, a Baylor University student, and refined within the aerospace industry.

79 in) projectiles. The removal of the guns and ammunition from the wings also cleaned up the wings' airfoil and increased internal fuel capacity from 540 gal (2,044 l) to 646 gal (2,445 l). Other changes included the provision for external fuel carriage in drop tanks, flame arrestors/dampers on engine exhausts, and redistribution of some radio equipment.

The C.362 and C.366 were single-seat, low-wing monoplanes with a fixed undercarriage. Construction was of wood, with a single-spar wing of symmetrical airfoil section, the spar having spruce flanges and a birch plywood web. It was equipped with split trailing edge flaps. The principal difference between the two types was the powerplant employed.

It has a fixed monowheel landing gear, dive brakes and an optional tail-mounted drag chute. The cantilever wing uses a Wortmann 61 series airfoil. The basic Tern has a wingspan that gives a glide ratio of 34:1 at , while the longer span Tern II, with its wingspan, has a glide ratio several points higher.

Dr. C.L. Snyder experimented with tailless aircraft starting with a 1926 glider called the Dirigiplane. The aircraft used a Clark Y airfoil that could be filled with helium gas to assist with lift. Snyder formed the Monowing corporation to further develop the aircraft. The design progressed into the Arup S-1 design and the formation of Arup Manufacturing.

Its span wing with a 12:1 aspect ratio is built around an aluminum D-cell leading edge, with the aft part of the wing fabric is supported by removable fiberglass battens. The wing fabric provides an 80% double surface airfoil. The controls are three-axis, using spoilerons for roll control. Air brakes are also fitted.

The aircraft was developed from aviation articles and magazines between 1929 and 1931. The airfoil was copied from the Spirit of St. Louis profile. The Terle Sportplane is an all wood parasol taildragger powered by a Salmson radial. After an accident with the prototype, the fuselage was changed to welded steel tube with aircraft fabric covering.

The GA-1 was especially intended for flying competitive glider aerobatics and the resulting airframe was designed to Joint Aviation Requirements 22 standards and stressed to 10 g. The aircraft is made from a combination of fibreglass and aramid. Its span wing employs a Wortmann FX-71-L-150/25 airfoil. The ailerons are full- span and mass-balanced.

The supercritical airfoil shape was incorporated into the design of the supercritical wing. In such a manner, the technology has subsequently been successfully applied to several high-subsonic aircraft, noticeably increasing their fuel efficiency.Hirschel, Prem and Madelung 2012, p. 390. Early examples include the Boeing 757 and Boeing 767 airliners, both of which were developed during the 1980s.

There are six port fixed lights in a tapered shape and a forward acrylic plastic hatch for ventilation. The cockpit has two sheet winches and all lines, including the halyards, lead to the cockpit. A spinnaker can be used for downwind sailing. The genoa employs a headfoil (a headsail airfoil-shaped reinforcement) and a concealed backstay adjuster.

The cells will also have devices for transfusions during flight. Initial interior cabin noise was measured in hover at 95 decibels without any incorporated acoustic treatment or liners. An additional 1,100 liters are available in an optional belly mounted compartment. The fuselage forms an airfoil and generates over 50% of lift at high speed (US Patent # 7,806,362B2).

The XB-48 was the first aircraft designed with bicycle-type tandem landing gear, which had previously been tested on a modified B-26. The wing airfoil was too thin to house conventional landing gear mechanisms.Jones 1969 The main landing gear was in the fuselage and small outriggers located on each wing were used to balance the aircraft.

A returning boomerang is a rotating wing. It consists of two or more arms, or wings, connected at an angle; each wing is shaped as an airfoil section. Although it is not a requirement that a boomerang be in its traditional shape, it is usually flat. Boomerangs can be made for right- or left-handed throwers.

North American XP-51F North American XP-51G The lightweight Mustangs had a new wing design. The airfoil was switched to the NACA 66,2-(1.8)15.5 a=.6 at the root and the NACA 66,2-(1.8)12 a=.6 at the tip. These airfoils were designed to give less drag than the previous NAA/NACA 45-100.

The information in a graph of this kind is gathered using a model of the airfoil in a wind tunnel. Because aircraft models are normally used, rather than full-size machines, special care is needed to make sure that data is taken in the same Reynolds number regime (or scale speed) as in free flight. The separation of flow from the upper wing surface at high angles of attack is quite different at low Reynolds number from that at the high Reynolds numbers of real aircraft. In particular at high Reynolds numbers the flow tends to stay attached to the airfoil for longer because the inertial forces are dominant with respect to the viscous forces which are responsible for the flow separation ultimately leading to the aerodynamic stall.

Profile geometry – 1: Zero-lift line; 2: Leading edge; 3: Nose circle; 4: Max. thickness; 5: Camber; 6: Upper surface; 7: Trailing edge; 8: Camber mean-line; 9: Lower surface Profile lines – 1: Chord, 2: Camber, 3: Length, 4: Midline A: blue line = chord, green line = camber mean-line, B: leading-edge radius, C: xy coordinates for the profile geometry (chord = x axis; y axis line on that leading edge) The NACA airfoils are airfoil shapes for aircraft wings developed by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The shape of the NACA airfoils is described using a series of digits following the word "NACA". The parameters in the numerical code can be entered into equations to precisely generate the cross-section of the airfoil and calculate its properties.

The programme was cancelled two years later, before the rotor had flown. The later canard rotor/wing (CRW) concept added a "canard" foreplane as well as a conventional tailplane, offloading the rotor wing and providing control during forward flight. For vertical and low-speed flight, the main airfoil is tip-driven as a helicopter's rotor by exhaust from a jet engine, and there is no need for a tail rotor. In high-speed flight the airfoil is stopped in a spanwise position, as the main wing of a three-surface aircraft, and the engine exhausts through an ordinary jet nozzle. Two Boeing X-50 Dragonfly prototypes with a two-bladed rotor were flown from 2003 but the program ended after both had crashed, having failed to transition successfully.

Planform view of 737NG showing the 25% larger and wider wing compared to the 737 Classic The wing was redesigned with a new thinner airfoil section, greater chord, increased wing span by and area by 25%, which increased total fuel capacity by 30%. New quieter and more fuel-efficient CFM56-7B engines are used.Endres 2001, p. 133. Higher MTOWs are offered.

Steinruck worked on the SCS-1 for many years in his spare time at his home in Spring Valley, California, completing the aircraft in 1959. The SCS-1 is built predominantly from aluminium. It features a V-tail and a three- piece wing with a NACA 33012 airfoil. The spoilers are located in a hatch that is behind the canopy.

The wing employs a NACA 23-018 airfoil at the wing root, transitioning to a NACA 23-012 at the wing tip. The original design had a conventional cruciform tail, but in 1939 this was replaced with one of the first V-tails used on any aircraft and the first employed on a sailplane. The landing gear is a monowheel.

The AC-5M is derived from the motorized version of the Aviastroitel AC-4 Russia. Its design goals were to produce a simple and inexpensive self-launching sailplane. It had its first flight in December 1999 and production commenced in 2000 with a total of 35 completed. The AC-5M features a span wing that employs a Wortmann FX60-157 airfoil.

The aircraft's span wing employs a Wortmann FX 60-157 airfoil, mounts Fowler flaps and optional winglets. The wings are mounted to the fuselage with a single cam-pin and the ailerons and air brakes hook-up automatically. Like the AC-7M the AC-7 cockpit can accommodate pilots up to in height. The canopy provides 300° field of view and is jettisonable.

Heavier-than-air aircraft without any kind of empennage (such as the Northrop B-2) are rare, and generally use specially shaped airfoils whose trailing edge provide pitch stability, and rearwards swept wings, often with dihedral to provide the necessary yaw stability. In some aircraft with swept wings, the airfoil section or angle of incidence may change radically towards the tip.

The wings of the PC.100 and PC.500 had the same airfoil and aspect ratio; the PC.100 stalled at 35°. Piana Canova used the thick wing profile to brace the PC.500's wing internally, producing a clean, cantilever high-wing monoplane. Structurally the wing was entirely wooden and its covering fabric. The PC.500 had conventional control surfaces.

The span wing features top and bottom air brakes and employs NACA 63-618 airfoil at the wing root, and a NACA 4412 section at the wing tip. The controls are automatically connected on assembly. The bubble canopy slides aft for cockpit access and can be locked open in several positions in flight. The landing gear is a fixed monowheel.

Producing a lift force requires both downward turning of the flow and changes in flow speed consistent with Bernoulli's principle. Each of the simplified explanations given above in Simplified physical explanations of lift on an airfoil falls short by trying to explain lift in terms of only one or the other, thus explaining only part of the phenomenon and leaving other parts unexplained.

Its diameter two- bladed rotor employs a NACA 0012 airfoil. The aircraft has an empty weight of and a gross weight of , giving a useful load of . With full fuel of , located in a crash-resistant fuel cell, the payload for pilot and baggage is . The cabin width is and the aircraft mounts stub wings similar to the Bell AH-1 HueyCobra.

The shape of the wings are a specially designed shape called an airfoil. Underwater gliders use this same principle and design to glide underwater. The way weight is distributed within the underwater glider helps with this by putting the center of gravity at or just in front of the leading edge of the wings. This promotes an efficient and smooth glide slope.

The aircraft features "V" struts, jury struts and a modified GA (W)-2 airfoil. The Horizon's main landing gear uses bungee suspension. The company claims an amateur builder can complete either aircraft from the kit in 600 hours. The specified engines for the Horizon include the or Limbach Flugmotoren Volkswagen air-cooled engine–based four- stroke or the Lycoming O-235.

The LB-1 was a single engine, open cockpit biplane with conventional landing gear. The low-cost construction included using brazed steel bedspring wire for wing-ribs, and bed-sheet muslin covering. The airfoil was patterned on a Taylorcraft BC-12D. The aircraft used three fuel tanks: one in the headrest, one in the baggage compartment and one against the firewall.

Propellers were four bladed and wooden. The fuselage of the Latécoère 23 was 1.30 m (2 ft) shorter than that of its predecessor and the major hydrodynamic alteration was the inclusion of two steps rather than one. It was built of wood. The broad sponsons of airfoil section and almost rectangular plan were also mostly made of wood apart from four duralumin longerons.

Taylor 1988, p. 381. ;S1-11B :Known as Model 11 "Super Stinker", 300+ hp (220 kW) Lycoming, four-aileron, single-seat, experimental-plans or factory-built and factory component parts, symmetrical airfoil, three-blade constant speed prop, rolls better than 300 degree/s, climbs better than 3,000 ft/min (15.3 m/s)."Pitts S1 Historical Information." Steen Aero Lab, 2008.

It was relatively conventional in layout, being outfitted with low-set wings, a twin tail (on the majority of aircraft), and a metal-covered exterior. The aircraft was quite small for its bomb load and range; its capacity was achieved in part by a lift-generating, airfoil-shaped fuselage, which was another then-unusual feature (previously used e.g. on PZL.26 sports plane).

But they remain an interesting machine; restored, they work well in homes with many hardwood floors. The Constellations were changed and updated over the years until discontinued in 1975. These Constellations route all of the exhaust under the vacuum using a different airfoil. The updated design is quiet even by modern standards, particularly on carpet as it muffles the sound.

The rear spar is a similar C-channel that is high and there is a third nose spar that is in height. The wing aft of the D-cell is covered in aircraft fabric and has a modified NACA 4415 airfoil with a drooped trailing edge. The 11 nose ribs and nine aft wing ribs are made from hydroformed aluminum.

Bartos developed the BN-1 using the fuselage from a Laister-Kauffman TG-4 and designing new wings. The fuselage was highly modified to include an all-flying T-tail and new cockpit canopy. The wings have a greater span than the TG-4 using a NACA 44-series airfoil. The new wing uses top-surface spoilers in place of flaps.

The aircraft had twin booms, twin tails, twin floats and a single cockpit. A turret was placed high above and behind the pilot to have a full 360 degree firing arc. The thick airfoil wings were cantilevered without struts or wires using three spars. The fuselage was made of traditional welded tube frame with the-then new technology of an aluminum skin.

The only change this model year was the propeller on the A150L Aerobat, to a new Clark Y airfoil that increased cruise by . 1080 150s were produced in 1974. Total "L" production was 4519, plus the 485 built by Reims as the F150L and 39 FA150L Aerobats. An additional 39 were built in Argentina by DINFIA as the A-150L.

On early examples the flying surfaces were covered in dope and aircraft fabric covering, but this was later changed to heat-shrunk Dacron sailcloth, to save weight. Its span wing employs a modified Clark Y airfoil. The wings are supported by a single lift strut and a jury strut. The pilot is accommodated on an open seat, without a windshield.

The aircraft is made from aluminum tubing, with the wing leading edge made from birch plywood, supported by foam and wooden wing ribs. The wings and tail surfaces are covered in doped aircraft fabric. Its span wing employs a NACA 23015 airfoil and features flaperons. The wing is supported by lift struts that are mounted to a central inverted "V" kingpost.

According to Road Test magazine, performance was around 0 to in 5.5 seconds, 1/4 mile in 14.3 seconds at 104 mph with the Hemi. Although similar in appearance, the Superbird was actually quite different from the Daytona. The Superbird was based on the Plymouth Road Runner and the nose, airfoil, and basic sheet metal was different between the Daytona and Superbird.

Its span wing employs a TsAGI P-IIIA-15 airfoil, has an area of and mounts flaps. The standard engines fitted are two Rotax 912 or two Rotax 912S powerplants. The conventional landing gear fits wheel pants and features a steerable tailwheel. The A-28 has an empty weight of and a gross weight of , giving a useful load of .

The MD-II featured a strut-braced high-wing, a two-seats-in- side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit accessed via doors, fixed conventional landing gear with wheel pants and a single tractor engine. The aircraft was fabricated from 2024-T3 aluminum sheet. Its span wing employed a USA 35B airfoil, mounted flaps and had an area of . The cabin width was .

The aircraft features a cantilever low wing, a four-seat enclosed cabin that is wide, fixed tricycle landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from composites. Its span wing employs a McWilliams RXM5-217 airfoil at the wing root, transitioning to a NACA 64-212 at the wingtip. The wing has an area of and mounts flaps.

Jamie Staff riding a 1 km time trial Aerodynamic drag is a significant factor in both road and track racing. Frames are often constructed of moulded carbon fiber, for a lightweight design. More recently, track bikes have employed airfoil designs on the tubes of the frame to reduce aerodynamic drag. Given the importance of aerodynamics, the riders' sitting position becomes extremely important.

Its span wing is cable-braced to a top surface inverted "V" kingpost. The wing is a single-surface airfoil with a double-surface wing covering optional. The controls are conventional three-axis, including Junkers-style flaperons. The main fuselage structure is an aluminum keel tube that runs from the tail, mounts the wings and then the engine at the front.

The span wing employs a NACA 2412 airfoil, mounts flaps and has a wing area of . The standard engine used was the Lycoming O-360 powerplant. The aircraft nose wheel retracted forward and the main landing gear retracted upwards into the rear window space. The Dipper had a typical empty weight of and a gross weight of , giving a useful load of .

It had about 1.5° of dihedral. The parallel chord rear wing had its leading edge exactly c behind the front wing's trailing edge. Mounted on the upper rear fuselage, it was just c/2 above the front wing. It had about ⅔ the span and 60% of the area of the front wing, with similar dihedral but a different, nearly symmetrical airfoil.

The aircraft features a cantilever low-wing, a three-seat enclosed cockpit under a bubble canopy, fixed tricycle landing gear with wheel pants and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from composite materials. Its span wing employs a NACA 63-618 airfoil, has an area of and mounts flaps. The standard engine is the Rotax 912S four-stroke powerplant.

The PW-2 was designed as a lightweight glider of modest performance with an open cockpit. The aircraft was intended to be produced as both a completed aircraft and as a kit for amateur construction. The aircraft is made from composite material, with its control surfaces covered in doped aircraft fabric covering. Its span wing employs an American-designed NACA 4415 airfoil.

Selection of sail battens. Catamaran with full-length battens on the mainsail. A sail batten is a flexible insert in a sail, parallel to the direction of wind flow, that helps shape its qualities as an airfoil. Battens are long, thin strips of material, historically wooden but today usually fiberglass, vinyl, or carbon fiber, used to support the roach of a sail.

The span wing is made from carbon fibre sandwiches built upon a laminated wooden spar. The wing varies from the Zephyr in that it has a different tapered planform and uses a new airfoil. The design attempts to provide a lower empty weight and stall speed than the 122 Zephyr. The standard engine available is the Rotax 912ULS four-stroke powerplant.

Aero India, Bangalore (2003) The Long-EZ was a scaled-up redesign of the VariEze predecessor, allowing for the use of readily available Lycoming aircraft engines in lieu of the Volkswagen-derived engines or hard-to-find small Continentals for which the VariEze was designed. Changes from the VariEze included a larger main wing with modified Eppler 1230 airfoil and less sweep-- the canard uses the same GU25-5(11)8 airfoil as the VariEze—larger strakes containing more fuel and baggage storage, and a slightly wider cabin. Plans were offered from 1980 to 1985. As of late 2005, approximately 700 LongEZ's are FAA registered in the United States. In January 1985, it was announced that plans for a new canard were being offered, to eliminate "rain trim change" that had been experienced by Long-EZ pilots.

The Fleet 16B Finch II was a progressive development of the original Consolidated Fleet primary trainer (Fleet 10), manufacture of which commenced in Canada by Fleet Aircraft in 1930. After a Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) evaluation in 1938 recommended a number of changes, a total of 431 Finch trainers were built for the RCAF between 1939 and 1941. The aircraft had conventional construction for the period with a welded steel-tube fuselage having Warren truss structure for its sides; and composite metal, wood and fabric design features, with Frise ailerons, a flat-bottom airfoiled, variable incidence (trimmable) lifting two-piece tailplane; and similarly "lifting airfoil" on the fixed vertical stabilizer, cambered into an airfoil on its port side only, to offset the P-factor of the propeller's swirling slipstream. The RCAF acquired the aircraft type as an elementary trainer.

The actual effects of the slat are:High-Lift Aerodynamics, A.M.O. Smith, Journal of Aircraft, 1975High-Lift Aerodynamics, by A. M. O. Smith, McDonnell Douglas Corporation, Long Beach, June 1975 ;The slat effect: The velocities at the leading edge of the downstream element (main airfoil) are reduced due to the circulation of the upstream element (slat) thus reducing the pressure peaks of the downstream element. ;The circulation effect: The circulation of the downstream element increases the circulation of the upstream element thus improving its aerodynamic performance. ;The dumping effect: The discharge velocity at the trailing edge of the slat is increased due to the circulation of the main airfoil thus alleviating separation problems or increasing lift. ;Off the surface pressure recovery: The deceleration of the slat wake occurs in an efficient manner, out of contact with a wall.

Catalogue page for Nieuport II showing earliest form with all flying tail The Nieuport II was the subject of extensive research carried out by the Nieuport brothers in conjunction with the Eiffel Laboratories and benefitted from input from Robert Esnault-Pelterie, who had designed his own low-drag monoplane. The result was a wire-braced monoplane with only a single pair of bracing wires on each side, supplemented with a single pair of control wires to warp the wings for lateral control. The airfoil section was unusual in having a fairly thick (for the period), but sharp leading edge, with the undersides rising up to thin the airfoil out over the majority of the chord. The upper wires led to a pyramidal cabane and the pilot was nearly fully enclosed in the fuselage, with only his head exposed.

When the wing approaches the stall this will ensure that the wing root stalls before the tip, giving the aircraft resistance to spinning and maintaining aileron effectiveness close to the stall. Some recent designs use negative camber. One such design is called the supercritical airfoil. It is used for near- supersonic flight and produces a higher lift-to-drag ratio at near supersonic flight than traditional airfoils.

The final aircraft in the MIT Daedalus series, Daedalus 88, was used in the flight from Crete. Pieces of Daedalus 88 are now in storage at the Smithsonian's restoration facility. Both Daedalus aircraft were constructed with a framework of carbon fiber tubes. Airfoil shape for the wing and tail elements was maintained with a thin polystyrene foam leading edge, polystyrene ribs, and a Kevlar trailing edge.

The aircraft features a strut-braced high-wing, a single-seat open cockpit with a windshield, fixed conventional landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from welded steel tubing and wood, with its flying surfaces covered in doped aircraft fabric. Its span wing employs a NACA 2412 airfoil and has a wing area of . The cockpit width is .

The effect of downwash from a hovering Sikorsky Seahawk is clearly visible on the surface of water below. In aeronautics, downwash is the change in direction of air deflected by the aerodynamic action of an airfoil, wing or helicopter rotor blade in motion, as part of the process of producing lift.Crane, Dale: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition, page 172. Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997.

Its extended-span wing employs a NACA 2412 airfoil, has an area of and mounts large slotted flaps. The aircraft can be equipped with engines ranging from . The standard engine used is the Continental IO-520 four-stroke powerplant. The design includes improvements over the Cessna, including vertically hinged doors and longer span flaps combined with shorter span ailerons, in a similar manner to the Cessna 206.

The span wing employs a Wortmann FX60-157 airfoil and mounts Fowler flaps. The wings are mounted on the fuselage with a single cam-pin and the ailerons and air brakes hook-up automatically. The fixed landing gear consists of a narrow track pair of rubber-suspended main wheels, a nose wheel and a tail caster. The main wheels incorporate lever-actuated drum brakes.

Unusually, the pilot was provided with dual engine controls, one on each side of the cockpit. Like the fuselage, the empennage was built up from welded chromium-molybdenum alloy steel and covered in fabric with the elevators being adjustable in flight from the cockpit. The biplane wings were built up around two solid spruce spars with built-up plywood ribs forming the airfoil section.Juptner, 1964, p.

Its span, single-surface wing employs a special Kasper-designed airfoil that allows both normal flight and a fully controlled, completely stalled parachutal descent mode. The wing is cable- braced from a single kingpost.The pilot is accommodated in a nylon-web swing seat. The controls are unconventional, with pitch controlled by weight shift and roll and yaw controlled by canted-outwards wing tip rudders.

The JK-05L was designed to comply with the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale microlight rules. It features a strut-braced high wing, an enclosed cockpit with two seats in side-by-side configuration, fixed tricycle landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from composites. Its span wing employs an NN-1817 airfoil, has an area of and employs carbon fibre flaperons.

The wing employs a modified NACA 2412 airfoil. The landing gear is a fixed monowheel and two wing-mounted outrigger wheels that support the wing during taxiing. The engine is a Curtiss snowmobile engine that turns at a maximum rpm of 6000, powering the propeller through an oil- immersed 2:1 chain reduction drive, giving a propeller speed of 3000 rpm. Only one Buzzer 2 was constructed.

The CP-1 was built for Cal Poly instructor Martin C. Martinsen and completed in August 1929. It was a high-wing conventional landing gear equipped monoplane using dual airfoil-shaped lift struts. The fuselage is made of fabric-covered welded steel tubing, with wooden wing spars and ribs. The red, yellow and blue paint scheme was taken a from an earlier Berrylold Paint advertisement.

Information on NACA Technical Report 460 This data was used in designing American World War II aircraft such as the Douglas DC-3, the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, and the Lockheed P-38 Lightning. Additionally, the VDT served in testing thin airfoil designs and low-drag airfoils that were used to design the P-51 Mustang and reduced drag by close to two thirds.

625 made possible by the adoption of one of the novel thick Göttingen airfoil sections. It was tapered, but almost entirely on the trailing edge and with clipped wingtips. Seen in plan, the wing of the Hurricane looked much a late 20th-century light aircraft. The competition rules required that aircraft could access suitable fields via a farm gate, and many met this condition with folding wings.

The Merlin was used as the testbed aircraft for development of the Hexadyne P60 engine. The Merlin EZ uses the same foam-rib construction as previous models, but with a constant-chord wing with a Clark Y airfoil replacing the previously tapered wing. The fuselage is of 4130 welded steel tube construction, covered in aircraft fabric. The factory estimates build times at 350–450 hours of labour.

The Spijker V.3 was a conventionally laid-out single-engine tractor biplane. Its wings had constant chord and no sweep or stagger. It was a single-bay biplane, with one pair of parallel interplane struts on each side and with a central cabane between fuselage and the upper wing. The interplane struts were simple flat steel bands, without the commonly used airfoil profile.

Cross section of an aerodynamic surface with the leading edge emphasised The leading edge of the Buran space shuttle transported to the Technik Museum Speyer The leading edge of an airfoil surface such as a wing is its foremost edge and is therefore the part which first meets the oncoming air.Crane, Dale: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition, page 305. Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997.

Its diameter main rotor employs an ATI 012 (VR-7 mod) airfoil at the blade root, becoming an ATI 008 (VR-7 mod) at the tip. The main and tail rotor blades are of honeycomb composite construction. The cyclic control is roof-mounted, hanging down into the cockpit, but is otherwise conventional. The diameter tail rotor features a shrouded tail rotor and a tailplane with end-fins.

Swallow OX-5 Swallow photo from Aero Digest December 1926 Source : Aerofiles ;New Swallow : 90 h.p. Curtiss OX-5, about 50 built 1924-1926 ;Swallow OX-5 : 90 h.p. Curtiss OX-5, with USA-27 airfoil and cabane N-struts, about 250 built from 1927 ;Swallow J-5 : 225 h.p. Wright J-5, fitted with metal propellor, brakes, larger fuel tank and custom paint.

The Potez 40 was an all-metal aircraft covered with duralumin, longitudinally corrugated at approximately pitch throughout. The wing was rectangular in plan apart from its rounded tips and was built around two I-section spars. On each side a parallel pair of airfoil section struts braced the wing from the forward and rear spars to the lower fuselage longeron. The fuselage was in three demountable parts.

The M-18 represented the first time a NACA 6-series airfoil had been used on a civil aircraft after World War II. The aircraft featured a unique "safe-trim" system. This mechanical device links the wing flaps to the tail trim system and automatically adjusts the horizontal stabilizer angle when the flaps are deflected, reducing or eliminating pitch changes when the flaps are lowered.

The wings were braced with streamline section steel wire. Both upper and lower wings used a Clark Y airfoil section, and had the same span and wing chord, with rounded wing tips. The wing was rigged without stagger, or washout and at a 0° angle of incidence. The upper wing was flat across, with no dihedral, while the lower wing had 2° of dihedral.

The aircraft was high-winged with very clean aerodynamic fuselage and of full metal construction. The wing had a NACA 23012 airfoil with root thickness of 12% and the top sash thickness of 6%. The Yugoslav Air Force command was interested in the aircraft for the competition for the new Yugoslav twin engine medium bomber. The prototype had to be shipped by June 14, 1939.

The tailplane had parallel chord and rounded tips, carrying a single piece elevator. The fin had a rounded leading edge and vertical hinge for the rhomboidal rudder; the rudder's upswept lower edge allowed for elevator deflection. The fuselage was rectangular in cross-section, with sides rounded and tapered into a slender symmetrical airfoil-like shape. The open cockpit was placed a little behind the leading edge.

The airfoil is an SM 701. The fuselage is constructed from Kevlar-reinforced fibreglass with steel tube reinforcement in the cockpit area. The seating is for pilot and passenger in side-by-side configuration, sharing a centre- mounted control stick. The landing gear is of tricycle configuration, with curved main gear legs made from fibreglass and a nosewheel mounted on steel tubes with rubber puck shock absorbing.

The TST-1 was the first motor glider in a long line of aircraft produced by the company. The design goals included that it should be economical to build and operate as well as easy to fly, with outstanding soaring capabilities with the engine shut down. The aircraft has a wooden structure, with some fibreglass parts. The span wing employs a Wortmann FX 61-184 airfoil.

The Potez 26 had a fixed tail wheel undercarriage with mainwheels on a split axle supported centrally by a V-strut, hinged on another pair of struts to the lower fuselage and with vertical, airfoil section shock absorbers. There was a sprung tailskid. The Potez 26 made its first flight in August 1924 and was on display at the 1924 Paris Salon. Only one was built.

According to Airbus, new technologies adopted for the airliner were selected principally for increased safety, operational capability, and profitability. Upon entry into service in 1974, the A300 was a very advanced plane, which went on to influence later airliner designs. The technological highlights include advanced wings by de Havilland (later BAE Systems) with supercritical airfoil sections for economical performance and advanced aerodynamically efficient flight control surfaces.

These vortical structures impose a downward deflection of the airflow (downwash) over the crests of tubercles. This downward deflection delays stall on the airfoil. On the contrary, in the troughs of these structures, there is a net upward deflection of airflow (upwash). Localized upwash is associated with higher angles of attack, which relates to increased lift, as the flow separation occurs in the troughs and stays there.

WDLA UK, Lancaster UK, 2011. ISSN 1368-485X ;X-Air "F" Gumnam :Improved version, aerodynamically cleaned up, extended fuselage with baggage compartment, Lexan doors and wheel pants are standard. The wing is shorter, with a higher aspect ratio, 100% double surface, flaps and a NACA 4412 airfoil. Certified under UK BCAR Section "S" as a microlight and marketed in the UK as the X-Air Falcon.

Propellers were the first item to be manufactured by the new Hamilton Manufacturing Company, in Milwaukee. The limitations of using wood as a material for aircraft propellers were well known. Metal propellers can be thinner, more closely approximating the ideal airfoil sections needed for maximizing efficiency, while not being affected by the problems caused by moisture and vibrations, which can cause wood propellers to delaminate.

The mainsail features a mainsheet traveler, jiffy reefing and a reefing flattening system. The boat is also equipped with a boom vang, an internal mainsail outhaul and an optional jib headfoil (a headsail airfoil-shaped reinforcement). The standing rigging is of steel rod and there is an adjustable split backstay to shaoe the highly flexible mast. The design has a Portsmouth Yardstick racing average handicap of 76.2.

Forces of flight on an airfoil Understanding the motion of air around an object (often called a flow field) enables the calculation of forces and moments acting on the object. In many aerodynamics problems, the forces of interest are the fundamental forces of flight: lift, drag, thrust, and weight. Of these, lift and drag are aerodynamic forces, i.e. forces due to air flow over a solid body.

The Chinook and its improved variant, the Chinook S, have been used to study the effect of rain on airfoils and also stall dynamics. The aircraft is predominantly made from aluminium with the cockpit area made from fiberglass. Its span high aspect ratio wing employs a Wortmann FX67-K-170/17 airfoil. Glidepath control is via hydraulically operated trailing edge flaps that deflect 80°.

For many centuries, the word "wing", from the Old Norse vængr, referred mainly to the foremost limbs of birds (in addition to the architectural aisle). But in recent centuries the word's meaning has extended to include lift producing appendages of insects, bats, pterosaurs, boomerangs, some sail boats and aircraft, or the inverted airfoil on a race car that generates a downward force to increase traction.

The wrist also changes the tautness of the patagium, a furry parachute-like membrane that stretches from wrist to ankle. It has a fluffy tail that stabilizes in flight. The tail acts as an adjunct airfoil, working as an air brake before landing on a tree trunk. The colugos, Petauridae, and Anomaluridae are gliding mammals which are similar to flying squirrels because of convergent evolution.

Flow control methods are divided into passive, which require no auxiliary power and no control loop, and active, which require energy expenditure. Passive techniques include geometric shaping, the use of vortex generators, and the placement of longitudinal grooves or riblets on airfoil surfaces. Examples of active flow control methods include steady suction or blowing, unsteady suction or blowing, and the use of synthetic jets.

A factory option replaces the aft executive bucket seats with seating for 3 children. The wide cabin also supports a large instrument panel, allowing installation of virtually any avionics. There are three cargo compartments: under the nose deck ahead of the canopy, behind the rear seats in the cabin, and the tailcone. The wing uses a constant-chord NASA NLF airfoil drooped at the ends.

A boomerang is a thrown tool, typically constructed as a flat airfoil, that is designed to spin about an axis perpendicular to the direction of its flight. A returning boomerang is designed to return to the thrower. It is well known as a weapon used by some Aboriginal Australian peoples for hunting. Boomerangs have been historically used for hunting, as well as sport and entertainment.

Standard equipment includes a spinnaker and associated gear, an outboard motor bracket, headfoil (a headsail airfoil- shaped reinforcement) and a compass. The boat's controls all can be actuated from the cockpit and include internally-mounted halyards. The cockpit has two genoa winches and two winches for the halyards. There is a 4:1 internal outhaul, an 8:1 boom vang and adjustable backstay and running backstays.

At this outer boundary distant from the airfoil, the velocity and pressure are well represented by the velocity and pressure associated with a uniform flow plus a vortex, and viscous stress is negligible, so that the only force that must be integrated over the outer boundary is the pressure.Lissaman (1996), "Lift in thin slices: the two dimensional case"Durand (1932), Sections B.V.6, B.V.7Batchelor (1967), Section 6.4, p. 407 The free-stream velocity is usually assumed to be horizontal, with lift vertically upward, so that the vertical momentum is the component of interest. For the free-air case (no ground plane), the force -L' exerted by the airfoil on the fluid is manifested partly as momentum fluxes and partly as pressure differences at the outer boundary, in proportions that depend on the shape of the outer boundary, as shown in the diagram at right.

However, they concluded that a single configuration could not be best solution at every angle of attack and flight speed. Indeed, "vastly different configurations may be needed during a single maneuver." The idea works, Finaish and Witherspoon concluded, but only with active automated re-configuration of the shape of the step(s) during flight. Further testing has shown that this airfoil is effective in low Reynolds number flow.

After five seconds of free-fall, the first stage ignites and the vehicle pitches up. The 45-degree delta wing (of carbon composite construction and double-wedge airfoil) aids pitch-up and provides some lift. The tail fins provide steering for first-stage flight, as the Orion 50S motor does not have a thrust-vectoring nozzle. Approximately 1 minute and 17 seconds later, the Orion 50S motor burns out.

Its diameter two-bladed rotor has a chord of and employs a NACA 0012 airfoil. The drive train consists of a primary belt drive connected to a geared transmission built with Volkswagen gears and a belt-driven tail rotor drive. The tail rotor has a diameter of and a chord of . The aircraft has an empty weight of and a gross weight of , giving a useful load of .

The 604 is constructed from fibreglass. The wing employs a modified Wortmann FX 67-K-170 airfoil at the wing root, changing to a Wortmann FX 67-K-150 at the wing tip. The wing features six flaps, with the outer pair moving at a 2:1 differential ratio with the ailerons. For glidepath control the 604 has wing top-surface spoilers and a tail-mounted drag chute.

Its two-piece, single-spar span wing is a cantilever design and employs a Wortmann FX 63-137 airfoil. Glide path control is via spoilers on the wing top surface. The aircraft is normally flown without a windshield, but a Plexiglas canopy is optional. The aircraft's best glide ratio is 16:1 at . With both the canopy and pilot doors fitted the best glide ratio is 18:1.

The aircraft fuselage is made from welded steel tube, while the wing is of wood and foam, with doped aircraft fabric covering. Its span wing employs a modified Wortmann FX05-191 airfoil. The flight controls are unconventional; pitch and roll are controlled by elevons and yaw is controlled by the wing tip rudders. The main landing gear has suspension and the nose wheel is steerable and equipped with a brake.

Rumpler C.III It was a development of the Rumpler C.I design incorporating many aerodynamic refinements, including wing planform, airfoil section, and horn-balanced ailerons,The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Aircraft, p.2833 revised empennage, and new rear fuselage decking with compound curves.Gray & Thetford 1962, p.522 This latter feature was later removed and replaced with a simplified structure, at which point the factory designation was changed to 6A 6.

An improvement over 1-series airfoils with emphasis on maximizing laminar flow. The airfoil is described using six digits in the following sequence: # The number "6" indicating the series. # One digit describing the distance of the minimum pressure area in tenths of the chord. # The subscript digit gives the range of lift coefficient in tenths above and below the design lift coefficient in which favorable pressure gradients exist on both surfaces.

Whereas the Standard employs the NACA 63-618 airfoil, the Super uses the NACA 65-518. As required by the Standard Class rules, the Super Standard has no water ballast and the landing gear is a fixed monowheel. The wing skins of the prototype Super are thick ones made from magnesium that allow fewer wing ribs to be used. Later Supers built used aluminium wing skins, including the conforming certification prototype.

A stable configuration is desirable not only in sailing, but in aircraft design as well. Aircraft design therefore borrowed the term center of pressure. And like a sail, a rigid non-symmetrical airfoil not only produces lift, but a moment. The center of pressure of an aircraft is the point where all of the aerodynamic pressure field may be represented by a single force vector with no moment.

Many alternative explanations for the generation of lift by an airfoil have been put forward, most intended to explain the phenomenon of lift to a general audience. Although the explanations may share features in common with the explanations above, additional assumptions and simplifications may be introduced. Some explanations introduce assumptions which proved to be wrong, such as equal transit-time, and some used controversial terminology, such as "Coandă effect".

Likely encountering a Junkers F.13, Bill Stout abandoned wood construction for metal corrugated skinning over a metal frame. To reduce drag, the aircraft employed a cantilever wing without support wires or struts. This required a "thick" wing to build a spar deep enough to support the aircraft. To maintain the thin airfoil sections commonly used at the time, the chord also had to be longer as the wing became thicker.

The airframe is predominantly made from composite materials. Its span wing, has an area of , an aspect ratio of 12.03:1, an IMD 029-b airfoil and mounts three-position flaps, with settings of 0°, 8° and 19°. The sole approved powerplant is the liquid-cooled Pipistrel E-811 electric motor, rated at at 2500 rpm for 90 seconds for take-off and at 2350 rpm for continuous operation.

The aircraft features a cantilever high-wing, a single-seat enclosed cockpit, fixed or retractable tricycle landing gear or conventional landing gear and a single engine in pusher configuration. The aircraft is made from riveted aluminum sheet. Its span wing is mounted well behind the pilot and employs a NASA GA(PC)-1 airfoil. The engine is mounted behind the pilot's seat driving the propeller through an extension shaft.

Its wing has a different airfoil than the G3, improving roll rate and giving better penetration of turbulence. The GX is fitted with either a Junkers or BRS ballistic parachute recovery system. The GX2009 was introduced at the Sebring Expo. There were improvements to the instrument panel and interior and a new chromoly steel tube landing gear, which replaced the earlier composite undercarriage, is retrofitable to older models.

The Lo-150 was developed from the wing span aerobatic Vogt Lo-100 as a performance cross country sailplane. The Lo-150 is constructed from wood, including its wooden monocoque fuselage. Its span two-piece wing employs a Clark Y airfoil and incorporates flaps for glidepath control. Early examples use a take-off dolly and land on a fixed skid, while later ones use a fixed monowheel landing gear.

Egbert Torenbeek and with contributions of Mr Loek Boermans for airfoil design. The aircraft's Fowler flaps feature a completely recessed mechanism and achieve a remarkable reduction of stall speed from 76 to 58 knots in landing configuration at maximum takeoff weight. The landing gear was designed and manufactured by Gomolzig in Germany. It is unusual in its geometry, very strongly built, and completely sealed behind large carbon fiber doors once retracted.

The Waco G series was designed specifically to win the 1930 Ford Air Tour, a transcontinental race. Waco had won the race in both 1928 and 1929 and the company built two newly designed CRGs for the 1930 competition. The CRG is a powerful but conventional biplane design with straight wings with a special M18 airfoil. The landing gear shock strut was extended and featured a tailskid versus a tailwheel.

The landing gear was ash wood laminate with birch veneer. The wing struts, made of Port Orford cedar, had functional airfoil shapes to assist with lift. The New York-based Yellow Air Cab Company purchased the CF in 1924 and modified it with an updated forward cockpit, more windows, and a 110 hp Anzani engine. In 1928 it was modified with a 55-gallon fuel tank and a modified vertical tail.

Milleretta had plesiomorphic vertebrae and made its ribs wider by growing its bone out the shaft to airfoil-like section. In contrast, Eunotosaurus’ trunk vertebrae are stretched and it has “T” shaped ribs with double articulations. Not only are the centrum and arch fused, but the pubes and ischia are fused in its pelvic girdle. Alongside the fused bones, the dorsal blade on the ilium is expanded width-wise.

The Yackey monoplane had a parasol wing built around two spruce box spars with plywood skinning ahead of the forward spar. It used the popular Clark Y airfoil and had a constant chord with blunt tips. It was braced to the fuselage on pairs of parallel struts to the lower fuselage longerons, and a central, short inverted vee cabane to the top of the fuselage.Horsefall, October, 1927, p.

Turby prototype - TU Delft The Turby is a brand of vertical-axis Darrieus wind turbine. The three vertical aerofoil blades have a helical twist of 60 degrees, similar to Gorlov's water turbines . The turbine consists of three vertical symmetrical airfoil blades, each having a helical twist. The helical feature spreads the torque evenly over the entire revolution, thus preventing the destructive pulsations of the straight-bladed giromill (Darrieus turbine).

Even after the development of powered aircraft, gliders continued to be used for aviation research. The NASA Paresev Rogallo flexible wing was originally developed to investigate alternative methods of recovering spacecraft. Although this application was abandoned, publicity inspired hobbyists to adapt the flexible-wing airfoil for modern hang gliders. Initial research into many types of fixed-wing craft, including flying wings and lifting bodies was also carried out using unpowered prototypes.

Leutnant Rudolf Stark, commander of Jasta 35, wrote: Thanks to its sturdy wing and thin airfoil section, the D.XII maintained the excellent high-speed dive characteristics of the earlier Pfalz D.III. Like most contemporary fighters, however, the D.XII had an abrupt stall and a pronounced tendency to spin.Weyl 1965, p. 322. Furthermore, pilots consistently criticized the D.XII for its long takeoff run, heavy controls, and "clumsy" handling qualities in the air.

The G-200 features a cantilever low-wing, a single-seat enclosed cockpit under a bubble canopy, fixed conventional landing gear with wheel pants and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from composites. Its span wing employs a Mort airfoil, has full-span ailerons but no flaps and a wing area of . The cabin width is and has provisions for pilots from in height and to and .

The Bearcat features a strut-braced parasol-wing, a single-seat open cockpit, fixed conventional landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft fuselage is made from welded 4130 steel tubing with the wing constructed with an aluminum structure, with its flying surfaces covered in Dacron sailcloth. The ribs slide into pockets in the fabric. Its span wing employs a Clark Y airfoil and has an area of .

The Barnstormer was intended to meet the requirements of the US FAR 103 Ultralight Vehicles category, including that category's maximum empty weight. The aircraft is a single-seat ultralight with an unusual reverse-stagger on its biplane wings, the top wing being behind the bottom wing. The airfoil used is a NACA 2305 section. The control system is a conventional three-axis type with ailerons, elevators and rudder.

Its span wing employs a SM 701 airfoil, has an area of and flaperons with spoilers or optionally ailerons and dive brakes. Flaperon settings are 0°, 5°, 9° and 16°, with the last setting assisted by the spoilers. The wings can be extended to with wing tips for soaring. The main landing gear legs are fabricated from fibreglass laminates and the wheels are equipped with single lever hydraulic brakes.

The Ascender airship would operate between the ground and the Dark Sky Station at 140,000 feet (ca. 42,672 m). A long, V-shaped planform with an airfoil profile would provide aerodynamic lift to supplement the airship's inherent buoyancy, with the craft driven by propellers designed to operate in a near vacuum. The Ascender would be larger than any airship yet built, but would be dwarfed by the later stages.

The control sticks are located conventionally in front of each seat. The standard throttle arrangement is one panel-mounted centre throttle, but a second throttle located on the left side of the panel is optional, allowing the left-seat pilot to fly with either hand on the throttle or stick. The wings are strut- braced with a single spar and are made from fibreglass and foam with a 15.5% CAGI.R3 airfoil.

The W-17 Stinger features a cantilever mid-wing, a single- seat enclosed cockpit under a bubble canopy, fixed conventional landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft fuselage is made from sheet aluminum in a monocoque structure. The wings are all-wood, with laminated spruce spars. Its span wing employs a NACA 64008 airfoil at the wing root, transitioning to a NACA 64010 at the wing tip.

It also had a slightly smaller span. A single, wide chord, airfoil section interplane strut on each side, with widened roots to lower interference drag, separated the bays; on each side pairs of flying wires and landing wires provided cross bracing between these struts and the fuselage. The wings were built around twin Duralumin box main spars, with metal and wood ribs. There were ailerons on the upper planes.

The tip airfoil stalls at a higher angle of attack, ensuring that the wing root stalls first. The one company concession to the changing Standard Class rules was the development of a retractable landing gear version of the 1-34, designated as the SGS 1-34R. The 1-34 also features in-flight adjustable rudder pedals and a two-way adjustable seat to accommodate pilots of different heights.

The lift slope has a flatter top and the stall angle is delayed to a higher angle. To reach high angles of attack, the outboard airfoil has to be drooped, some experiments investigating "exaggerated" drooped leading edges. The physical reason for the cuff effect was not clearly explained.NASA TP 1589 : "The mechanism by which the outer- panel lift is maintained to such improved stall/spin characteristics has been unclear".

The turbine consists of three vertical airfoil blades, each having a helical twist of 120 degrees. This feature spreads the torque evenly over the entire revolution, thus preventing the destructive pulsations of the straight-bladed giromill (Darrieus turbine). The wind pushes each blade around on both the windward and leeward sides of the turbine. The qr5 turbine, rated for 6 kW, measures 3.0m in diameter by 5m high.

The Aerocruiser Plus features a "V" strut-braced high-wing, a four-seat enclosed cabin accessed by doors, fixed conventional landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft can be fitted with floats, wheels or skis. The aircraft is made with a welded 4130 steel tubing fuselage and a riveted 2024 aluminum wing. Its span wing employs a NACA 4412 airfoil, has an area of and mounts flaps.

In plan the wing was rectangular out to long semi-elliptical tips. It was braced with parallel pairs of airfoil-section struts from the lower fuselage to the spars. The upper surfaces were plywood covered to the rear spar across the whole span. Between the fuselage and the struts the lower wing surfaces were also ply covered to the rear spar but beyond the struts only to the forward spar.

To simplify the fuel system, both engines used the same grade of avgas. Two self-sealing fuel tanks were housed in the fuselage, one of and the other of . The cockpit was positioned just forward of the leading edge of the wing and the pilot was provided with a bubble canopy which gave him excellent visibility. The XFR-1 had the first laminar flow airfoil in a navy carrier aircraft.

Compared with the Verona, it has only minor differences.Club Escort - Historia del Ford Escort. Retrieved 2012-09-27. These are shorter gear ratios, stiffer shock absorbers, different dashboard with orange lighting (unlike the Verona, the Apollo do not share its dashboard with the Escort ), smoked tail lights very seemed to the ones from the Ford Sapphire, chrome-less rear window frames, fixed-height front seats, painted mirrors (GLS trim) and airfoil.

The HP-10 (HP stands for high performance) was designed by Schreder for the 1961 US Nationals. The aircraft is built from aluminium and has a V-tail. The constant-chord wing is made up from eight aluminum honeycomb-sandwich structural panels and has large flaps, using up , or 70%, of the wingspan. The wing uses a NACA 65 (3)-618 airfoil, the same profile as the HP-8.

An examination of the preliminary results suggested that the system was as effective as any of the other concepts previously studied. Boeing immediately started to build wind-tunnel models to verify the NASA data with layouts more closely matching their own designs. By the end of 1971, several models were being actively studied. Another NASA project the engineers were interested in was the supercritical airfoil, designed by Richard Whitcomb.

The O-3 was designed by Oldershaw as an improved version of the O-2 to complete in the FAI Open Class. As such it had longer and higher aspect ratio wings of span. The O-3 is constructed of wood, with the nose made from fibreglass. Its wing employs a Wortmann 61-184 airfoil at the wing root, with a Wortmann 60-126 at the wing tip.

A foil is a solid object with a shape such that when placed in a moving fluid at a suitable angle of attack the lift (force generated perpendicular to the fluid flow) is substantially larger than the drag (force generated parallel to the fluid flow). If the fluid is a gas, the foil is called an airfoil or aerofoil, and if the fluid is water the foil is called a hydrofoil.

Square sail edges and corners (top), running rigging (bottom) The shape of a sail is defined by its edges and corners in the plane of the sail, laid out on a flat surface. The edges may be curved, either to extend the sail's shape as an airfoil or to define its shape in use. In use, the sail becomes a curved shape, adding the dimension of depth or draft.

The horizontal stabilizer had an inverted airfoil section, which facilitated dive recovery and permitted the use of an unbalanced elevator. Idflieg found the prototype promising. It directed Pfalz to halt production of the Roland D.III and to complete the balance of the contract, 70 aircraft, to the new design. After a Typenprüfung (type test) at Adlershof in May, the Idflieg ordered various modifications, including an enlarged rudder and horn-balanced ailerons.

Likewise side-spin causes swerve to either side as seen during some baseball pitches, e.g. slider.The Curveball , The Physics of Baseball. The overall behaviour is similar to that around an aerofoil (see lift force), but with a circulation generated by mechanical rotation rather than airfoil action.Clancy, L.J. (1975), Aerodynamics, Section 4.6, Pitman Publishing The Magnus effect is named after Heinrich Gustav Magnus, the German physicist who investigated it.

Although an inviscid fluid can have abrupt changes in velocity, in reality viscosity smooths out sharp velocity changes. If the trailing edge has a non-zero angle, the flow velocity there must be zero. At a cusped trailing edge, however, the velocity can be non-zero although it must still be identical above and below the airfoil. Another formulation is that the pressure must be continuous at the trailing edge.

Zipp also developed a heat-resistant composite resin to reduce rim temperature during heavy braking. Firecrest technology was developed from Zipp's earlier “toroidal” rim shapes. These were designed with a bulge in the rim cross-section to reduce turbulence behind the tire at the leading edge of the wheel. Firecrest essentially inverts this shape, placing the leading edge of the airfoil along the interior of the rim (towards the hub).

The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage. Urbana, Illinois: UIUC Applied Aerodynamics Group, 2010. Retrieved: 18 May 2011. Earlier aircraft designs generally featured canopies consisting of small plates of perspex (called Plexiglas in the United States) in a metal "greenhouse" framework, with the top of the canopy even with the rear fuselage - this was true of the IJNAS Mitsubishi A6M Zero, whose otherwise "all-around view" canopy was still heavily framed.

A wingsail has the same need for camber adjustment, as windspeed changes—a straighter camber curvature as windspeed increases, more curved as it decreases. Mechanisms for camber adjustment are similar for soft and hard wingsails. Each employs independent leading and trailing airfoil segments that are adjusted independently for camber. More sophisticated rigs allow for variable adjustment of camber with height above the water to account for increased windspeed.

The aircraft is made from composites. Its span rectangular wing employs a NACA 63-215 airfoil, mounts flaps and has a wing area of . The acceptable power range is and the standard engines used are the Continental O-240, the Lycoming O-235-C1B or the Limbach L2000 powerplant. The KIS TR-1 has a typical empty weight of and a gross weight of , giving a useful load of .

Production aircraft featured a Wortmann airfoil, a more conventional tail, and full-span flaps that deploy to 90° for glidepath control. The flaps permit very steep approaches, allowing the aircraft to be landed in small fields with obstacles. The aircraft also has retractable landing gear and was available with optional water ballast tanks with a capacity. Production of the Concept 70 ended with 21 produced, when Zimmermann died in 1974.

The wings had an area of 9.40 m² (101.2 sq ft), an aspect ratio of 23.9 and sweepback at one quarter chord of 0.4°. The dihedral was also 0.4°. The airfoil sections used were Wortmann FX-66-S-196 at the root and FX-66-S-161 at the tips. The wings were constructed from GRP/balsa sandwich with ailerons of GRP and rigid, closed cell, polymethacrylimide (PMI) foam.

Full-span combined ailerons and flaps (flaperons), constructed like the wing, are attached to an auxiliary spar. Separate ailerons and flaps are an option, in which case the wing profile (airfoil) is changed from the laminar flow UA-2 to SL-1. The wings can be detached for transport, though wing folding is an option. Apart from its tube centre section the fuselage is wholly laminate with strengthening bulkheads and ribs.

Laced panels and stitched undercambered airfoil of a Sopwith Pup Traditional covering methods use organic materials, such as cotton. Once the aircraft structure is prepared by sanding, the material is applied using dope as an adhesive. Rib-stitching is used on faster aircraft types and especially on undercambered airfoils to ensure that the fabric follows the aircraft structure. The distance between stitches is reduced in areas affected by the propeller wash.

The airfoil section is of Kramer's own design and incorporates reverse camber at the trailing edge, giving an S-shaped camber line. The wing has a progressive and constant washout, or reduction in angle of incidence from root to tip. It also features some of the first modern winglets to be seen on a light aircraft. This combination produces an aircraft with optimized low-speed handling and very gentle stall characteristics.

Applebay started the Chiricahua as a standard class sailplane in 1959, but the aircraft was not completed for 11 years, first flying in 1970. It was named for the Chiricahua people, a group of Apache Native Americans. The aircraft is made from wood and covered in a combination of plywood and doped Ceconite. Its span wing employs a Göttingen 549 airfoil and features Schempp-Hirth style top surface airbrakes.

The aircraft is made from aluminum tubing, foam, fiberglass, with the wings finished in doped aircraft fabric covering. Its span wing features a laminar-flow airfoil, 50%-span elevons and wing tip rudders that can both be deployed simultaneously for use as air brakes. The aircraft has a 22:1 glide ratio. The F.L.A.C. has laminated fiberglass main landing gear legs and a nose wheel that is steerable.

The wing is fabric-covered and has two integral fuel tanks. The wooden structure, fabric-covered and electrically operated flaps cover 39% of the wing chord and can be lowered to fixed positions of 13°, 29° and 37°. The tail fin is of wood construction and features a NACA 0012 symmetrical airfoil. The main landing gear legs are made from fibreglass laminates and mount wheels with hydraulically operated toe-brakes.

The BKB-1 was constructed in 1959 and built entirely from wood. The wing was swept, had a 9.5:1 aspect ratio and employed a NACA 8-H-12 airfoil. The aircraft had a very high wing area of which resulted in a light wing loading of just 3.81 lb/sq ft (18.6 kg/m2). The prototype BKB-1 was originally registered in Canada as CF-ZDK-X.

The M234 Riot Control Launcher is an M16 series rifle or M4 series carbine attachment firing a M755 Grenade round. The M234 mounts on the muzzle, bayonet lug and front sight post of the M16. It fires either the M734 64 mm Kinetic Riot Control or the M742 64 mm CSI Riot Control Ring Airfoil Projectiles. The latter produces a 4 to 5 foot tear gas cloud on impact.

The parasol wing of the J 23 had a thick airfoil section, a straight leading edge and a trailing edge which curved forwards to elliptical tips. In the central region the wing became thinner and the chord decreased in front of the cockpit. It was of wooden, two spar construction and plywood covered apart from the ailerons. These were angled, fabric covered and small but slotted to improve their efficiency.

The aircraft was designed to comply with the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale microlight rules. It features a cantilever low-wing, a single- seat, enclosed cockpit with a bubble canopy, fixed conventional landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The 212 Solo is made from carbon fibre and was derived from the ATEC 321 Faeta and ATEC 122 Zephyr 2000 designs. Its span wing employs an SM701 airfoil and slotted flaps.

The Rebel was created by joining the wing from the Lyle Maxey designed Jennie Mae to a fuselage from the Irv Prue designed Prue 215. It had a wingspan of with an aspect ratio of 23.8. The airfoil was a NACA 65 (3)-518 and achieved a best L/D of 37.5. Only one was built and it is no longer listed on the Federal Aviation Administration registry.

Known as the "equal transit-time" explanation, it states that the parcels of air which are divided by an airfoil must rejoin again; because of the greater curvature (and hence longer path) of the upper surface of an aerofoil, the air going over the top must go faster in order to 'catch up' with the air flowing around the bottom. Therefore, because of its higher speed the pressure of the air above the airfoil must be lower. Despite the fact that this 'explanation' is probably the most common of all, it is false. It has recently been dubbed the "Equal transit-time fallacy"....it leaves the impression that Professor Bernoulli is somehow to blame for the "equal transit time" fallacy... The fallacy of equal transit time can be deduced from consideration of a flat plate, which will indeed produce lift, as anyone who has handled a sheet of plywood in the wind can testify.

NASA's Paresev glider in flight with tow cable (1962). In 1963, after seeing an image of a Rogallo wing airfoil on a magazine, Dickenson set to build a water skiing kite that could be released at altitude for a glide to a safe drop in the water, thus designed and built a water skiing kite wing he called the Ski Kite. His ski kite format incorporated an airframe with a triangle control frame as used in hang gliding in Breslau 1908, having a basebar tow-point and was integrated on an all-ready publicized four-boom stiffened Rogallo wing airfoil, where the pilot sat on a swinging seat while the control frame and wire bracing distributed the load to the wing as well as giving a frame to brace for weight-shift control. Dickenson's Ski Wing turned out to be stable and controllable, unlike the flat manned kites used at water ski shows.

Broadseam is a term particular to the making of a sail. The panels that make up the sections of a sail are cut with curves on the connecting edges or seams. This method adds a three dimensional shape to what would ordinarily be a flat triangular or quadrilateral piece of fabric. Since a sail is a type of airfoil, this method of sail making adds significantly to the amount of draft a sail can have.

At a high enough speed, this reactionary force (plus any small buoyant force) is larger than the force of gravity and the slab will stay afloat. In this way, the horizontal force (which may be supplied by a motor or a sail) is converted into a vertical force upwards. The concept of planing is often interpreted as analogous with aerodynamic lift (See lift on an airfoil). In reality the acting forces are different.

The KF airfoil was designed by Richard Kline and Floyd Fogleman. Aircraft wing showing the KFm4 Step In the early 1960s, Richard Kline wanted to make a paper airplane that could handle strong winds, climb high, level off by itself and then enter a long downwards glide. After many experiments he was able to achieve this goal. He presented the paper airplane to Floyd Fogleman who saw it fly and resist stalling.

The Little Bear features a strut-braced high-wing, a two-seats-in-tandem enclosed cockpit accessed via doors, fixed conventional landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft fuselage is made from welded steel with all surfaces covered in doped aircraft fabric. Its span wing employs a USA 35B airfoil, has a wing area of and is supported by "V" struts and jury struts. The cabin width is .

There was also a major undercarriage change with a retractable monowheel. This was fully exposed when lowered but only slightly so when retracted; the nose skid was shortened and reduced in length and depth. There were three one-off variants. The first, flown in 1953, was the R-22S "lamináris" Június-18, which had a laminar flow wing entirely ply- covered apart from the ailerons, and with a NACA 632-615 airfoil.

It is a shoulder wing cantilever monoplane, its wing built around a single wooden spar. Its Wortmann airfoil tapers in thickness/chord ratio from 18% at the root to 12% at the tip. The wing is also tapered in plan, with square tips; its leading edge is glassfibre/foam composite covered, with plywood over the remainder of the wing surface. There are all wood, spring trimmed ailerons and upper surface Schempp-Hirth airbrakes.

The wings themselves, unusually, had a different airfoil cross-section on the inner wings than the outer. Heavy defensive armament was fitted, with two 20 mm (.79 in) cannon in an Emerson nose turret and a Martin tail turret, and two 0.5 in (12.7 mm) machine guns in a Martin dorsal turret. The bomb bay was, like British practice, long and shallow rather than the short and deep bay popular in American bombers.

The Phantom was a single-seat, clean, high-performance glider designed for Mr Percy Michelson with distance records and a cross-channel flight in mind. It was an all-wood aircraft, built of spruce and plywood. The wing had a single spruce spar with stressed ply to the leading edge forming a torsion box. At the time, the choice of the biconvex R.A.F. 34 airfoil was unusual, the concave/convex Göttingen forms being generally used.

Ailerons occupied the entire trailing edges of the outer panels. A shallow gull form was due to reduced dihedral on the outer panels. The airfoil section chosen was derived from the NACA 23012 by Márton Pap, with the thickness of the section modified to achieve the desired pressure distribution. Maximum thickness was moved back to 45% chord to achieve laminar flow, checked in the wind tunnel of the Technical University of Budapest.

Eiffel established that the lift produced by an airfoil was the result of a reduction of air pressure above the wing rather than an increase of pressure acting on the under surface. Following complaints about noise from people living nearby, he moved his experiments to a new establishment at Auteuil in 1912. Here it was possible to build a larger wind tunnel, and Eiffel began to make tests using scale models of aircraft designs.Granet, André.

The trailing edge was spanned with aerofoil section flaps, split into two equal sections. Inboard, these acted as simple flaps; outboard, additionally, as drooping ailerons. The two NACA airfoil sections used in the wing were chosen because they have centres of pressure that vary little with the angle of incidence, which increases when the flaps are deployed. The Wanderlust also had upper surface spoilers hinged on the wing spar at about quarter span.

In particular, studding sails or topping sails could be easily added for light airs or high speeds. Square rigs have twice the sail area per mast height compared to triangular sails, and when tuned, more exactly approximate a multiple airfoil, and therefore apply larger forces to the hull. Windage (drag) is more than triangular rigs, which have smaller tip vortices. Therefore, historic ships could not point as far upwind as high-performance sloops.

The Terrier 200 was designed to comply with the US light-sport aircraft rules. It features a strut-braced high-wing, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit, fixed tricycle landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from vacuum-molded composites with the design goal of strength at a light weight. Its span wing employs a Chris Mark 4 airfoil and mounts flaps.

The K7 was intended as a two-place trainer with good performance, a rare combination in trainers of its time. The K7 is constructed with a welded steel tube fuselage, covered in doped aircraft fabric covering. The wing is a wooden structure with a doped fabric covering and employs a Goettingen 533 (16%) airfoil at the wing root, transitioning to a Goettingen 533 (14%) section at the wing tip. The wing features powerful dive brakes.

Moving to Southampton, New York, Burnelli remained tireless in his determination to promote his airfoil-shaped fuselage transport planes. In 1955, he adapted his final design, the Burnelli CBY-3 Loadmaster, to carry an expedition of 20 passengers and 41 sled dogs, along with their equipment, to the North Pole, but the enterprise was canceled. Until his death in 1964 at the age of 68, Vincent Burnelli championed his "flying wing" designs.

Under certain mathematical premises of the fluid, there can be extracted a mathematical connection between power, radius of the propeller, torque and induced velocity. Friction is not included. The blade element theory (BET) is a mathematical process originally designed by William Froude (1878), David W. Taylor (1893) and Stefan Drzewiecki to determine the behaviour of propellers. It involves breaking an airfoil down into several small parts then determining the forces on them.

Pneumatic bladders, known as dunnage bags, are used to stabilize cargo within a container. Pneumatic bladders are used in medical research. Leading edge inflatable kites use pneumatic bladders restrained by a fabric case; the bladder is selected slightly larger than the case, so that at operational inflation the bladder is not stressed while the case defines the final shape of the leading edge. Many of the wing's airfoil ribs are similarly bladdered.

The propeller folds automatically when the engine is shut down due to aerodynamic drag and also deploys automatically on engine start by centrifugal effect as it starts to spin. A fuselage mounted fuel tank holds . The Graal has a semi- tapered wing with a span that features top and bottom dive brakes, full-span flaperons and employs an Eppler E668 airfoil. Landing gear is a retractable monowheel gear and the aircraft has a ballistic parachute.

NACA "Ice" wind tunnel used by Rodert In September 1936, Lewis A. Rodert joined the NACA Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory (LMAL) and working with Alun R. Jones, reworked the icing problem. The prevailing thought was that ice added weight and prevented aircraft from climbing out of the icing areas. The new research discovered that icing was much worse than just added weight. The ice changed the wing's airfoil shape, both decreasing lift and increasing drag.

In 1928 or 1929, Edmund Schneider wanted a glider that could compete with the 1928 RRG Professor. It needed to be easy to build, safe to fly and capable of tow launching. The Professor had a span of and Schneider's ESG 31, as it is often known, was only just smaller at . The two types had much in common, though Schneider's design was original, with a different airfoil, struttage and a simplified structure.

His habilitation followed in 1963. Together with Richard Eppler and Dieter Althaus, Wortmann carried out ground-breaking work in the late 1950s and the 1960s in the field of development of laminar flow airfoil profiles using the inverse design method. His wing profile designs are known by the FX (for Franz Xaver) in their code. These wing profiles were used in many of the first and second generation of fibre- reinforced plastic gliders.

The IKV-3 was designed and the sole example produced between 1964-1966. The wings are built from pine with a birch-plywood skin to 55% from the leading edge. The wing employs a Wortmann FX62-K-152 airfoil at the wing root, a Wortmann FX62-K-153 mid-span and a Wortmann FX60-126 at the wing tip. The ailerons are 3.1m long and are constructed with foam plastic ribs and covered with plywood.

At least one example flew as a floatplane, designated Potez VIII H (H for hydravion or water plane). It had a single, central float and a small, airfoil section stabilizing float under each wing. A side-by-side version was also built and designated the Potez VIII R; it was a little heavier, with a wider fuselage and powered by a fully cowled Le Rhone 9C engine. It returned to the four wheel undercarriage.

Wing ribs of a de Havilland DH.60 Moth In an aircraft, ribs are forming elements of the structure of a wing, especially in traditional construction. By analogy with the anatomical definition of "rib", the ribs attach to the main spar, and by being repeated at frequent intervals, form a skeletal shape for the wing. Usually ribs incorporate the airfoil shape of the wing, and the skin adopts this shape when stretched over the ribs.

The aircraft is out of production but is supported by Aviat Aircraft. ;S-2C :Four aileron, two-seat, factory-built, symmetric airfoil, 260 hp (194 kW) Lycoming driving constant speed three-blade propeller, current production model. This was an evolution of the S-2B model, with improved ailerons and rudder, flat bottom fuselage, lower profile bungee gear, better inverted handling, and certified for +6 -5g. It is in production in 2008 by Aviat Aircraft.

It was powered by a single Lycoming O-235 piston engine rated at and had a fixed tricycle landing gear. Pilot and passenger sat side by side in an enclosed cabin. Grob had considerable experience in composite aircraft construction from its years of using glassfibre in its Gliders, and the G 110 was largely built of glassfibre. The wings used an airfoil section designed to give laminar flow, in order to improve performance.

Early airplane engines had little power, and lightness was very important. Also, early airfoil sections were very thin, and could not have a strong frame installed within. So, until the 1930s, most wings were too lightweight to have enough strength, and external bracing struts and wires were added. When the available engine power increased during the 1920s and 30s, wings could be made heavy and strong enough that bracing was not needed any more.

Here W = u_x - i u_y, with u_x and u_y the velocity components in the x and y directions respectively (z = x + iy, with x and y real-valued). From this velocity, other properties of interest of the flow, such as the coefficient of pressure and lift per unit of span can be calculated. A Joukowsky airfoil has a cusp at the trailing edge. The transformation is named after Russian scientist Nikolai Zhukovsky.

The Champion was created by scaling down the Avid Mark IV and narrowing the wider fuselage into a single seat design intended to comply with the US FAR 103 Ultralight Vehicles category. The design is a conventional tractor configuration, featuring tube and aircraft fabric construction. The main landing gear is bungee suspended and includes a steerable tailwheel. Like other Avid designs, the wing has an under-cambered airfoil, Junkers style ailerons and scalloped trailing edges.

It was a single bay biplane with approximately equal span, rectangular plan wings mounted with dihedral only on the lower wing and with marked stagger, so that the single interplane strut on each wing leant forward strongly. These struts had airfoil sections and had extended, faired heads and feet. Inverted-V cabane struts linked the upper wing centre section to the upper fuselage. Long ailerons were fitted only on the lower wing.

For the 1920 Rhön meeting at Wasserkuppe the FVA built a simple monoplane glider. This aircraft, the FVA-1 Schwatze Düvel, was an internally braced, thick airfoil cantilever monoplane with large trousers over landing skids on each side. To keep costs low the aircraft was largely covered in black muslin fabric, donated by the father of a student's girlfriend. Cardboard was used on the wing leading edges and fuselage nose rather than expensive aircraft plywood.

The aircraft features a cantilever low-wing, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit under a bubble canopy, retractable tricycle landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from carbon fibre. Its span wing employs an NFL (1)-0215F airfoil at the wing root transitioning to a Wortmann FX-62-K-131 at the wing tip. The wing has an area of and mounts flaps.

The main lift struts had a wide chord airfoil section and themselves contributed to lift. The main undercarriage legs were fitted to these struts at the crank- point, each axle supported by a pair of V-struts to the lower fuselage. There was a castoring tailwheel under the tailplane. The fuselage was mostly constructed from square-section duralumin tube with some steel at critical points and alloy formers and stringers to shape it.

Koun, a cook by profession, developed the Aircraft Dirigible Helicopter to demonstrate an aircraft with vertical takeoff and landing capability. The vehicle was constructed over the course of five years. The vehicle resembled a conventional light aircraft with the exception of two large airfoil-shaped cuffs over the wings intended to hold compressed Helium. The designer felt that using compressed helium would provide additional buoyancy, requiring less volume than an unpressurized dirigible.

Westfall's Special was noted for its excellent landing characteristics and gentle stall, a result of installing its lower wing at a lower angle of attack than the upper and of using wings of unequal span. The airfoil was a Boeing 106R. The 43-inch-chord wings were separated by a 46-inch gap. The aerodynamics resulting from this arrangement were analyzed by William H Durand in a series of articles in EAA's Sport Aviation magazine.

Various forms of integral approach are now available for unbounded domain and for artificially truncated domain. The Kutta Joukowski theorem can be recovered from these approaches when applied to a two-dimensional airfoil and when the flow is steady and unseparated. # Lifting line theory for wings, wing-tip vortices and induced drag. A wing has a finite span, and the circulation at any section of the wing varies with the spanwise direction.

A symmetrical airfoil, mounted with a zero angle of incidence, provides equal performance in both upright and inverted flight. The landing gear is fixed taildragger style with composite main legs and fiberglass wheel pants. The powerplant is a fuel-injected Lycoming AEIO-540 which produces 300 horsepower (224 kW). The first two-seat Extra 300 made its maiden flight on 6 May 1988, with German type certification following on 16 May 1990.

Mark Drela is an American aeronautical engineer, currently the Professor of Fluid Dynamics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and an Elected Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. He is primarily concerned with computational engineering, design, and optimization. Drela is famed for his work on aerodynamics softwares XFOIL, for airfoil analysis using a panel method, and Athena Vortex Lattice (AVL), for flight dynamic analysis using a vortex lattice method.

The short- span D.IIc prototype had been further refined and with a narrower chord upper and lower wing, using the Göttingen 180 airfoil. One wing was slightly longer than the other to counter the P-factor of its huge four-blade propeller. The port panels outboard of the struts were in length, while those on the starboard side were long. The performance improved noticeably in top speed and in climb rate over the D.III.

The IS-10 had spoilers, opening both above and below the wing, mounted at midchord on the inner panels. The wing tips carried the small, streamlined bodies known as salmons, which were common at the time. The laminar flow wing sections were from the NACA airfoil 6-series, with a thickness-chord ratio of 18% over most of the span. The fuselage of the IS-10 was an oval section, slender plywood monocoque.

Sail battens made from a variety of materials. A sail batten is a flexible insert in a fore-and-aft sail that provides added stiffness and definition to the sail's airfoil cross-section. The most common use of sail battens is in the roach of a mainsail. The batten extends the leech past the line that runs from the head and the clew of the sail to create a wider sail towards the top.

The TST-5 Variant features a strut-braced shoulder-wing, a two- seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit under a bubble canopy, fixed tricycle landing gear with wheel pants and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is of all-wood construction. Its constant-chord wing with a NACA 4415 airfoil is intended to give docile handling and is supported by "V"-struts. The standard engine used is the M-125 powerplant.

The design shares a similar fuselage to the HP-19, but has a different double-tapered wing of smaller area, versus for the HP-19. This gives the HP-20 a higher wing loading and higher best glide speed, although the glide ratio is the same as the HP-19 at 42:1. The airfoil is a Schreder modification of a Wortmann section, designated as Schreder 3. of water ballast can be carried.

The Cri- Cri features a cantilever low-wing, a single-seat enclosed cockpit under a bubble canopy, fixed tricycle landing gear and twin engines mounted on pylons to the nose of the aircraft in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from aluminum sheet glued to Klegecell foam. Its span wing employs a Wortmann 21.7% mod airfoil, and has an area of . The aircraft is also capable of aerobatics within the limitations of twin-engined aircraft.

A single fin and rudder would be provided to help with lateral stability at higher speeds. The pilot would sit in a cockpit nacelle that protruded from the front of the circular airfoil-section fuselage. After the war, a wooden 1/10 scale model of the Rochen was built in Bremen and subjected to wind tunnel tests. Heinrich Focke filed for a patent of the aircraft in 1957, but it was never built.

The original model, the LP-46 was first flown in 1966, with the LP designating Laister Products. The LP-46 features a wingspan and the first LP-46 has fixed monowheel landing gear. The LP-49 is an improved version of the LP-46, designed for the Standard Class with a wingspan. The LP-49 has a metal wing with a NACA 64(3)-618 laminar flow airfoil and all-metal tail surfaces.

Next, Baley interviews Kelden Amadiro, Fastolfe's chief political rival and head of the Robotics Institute, who explains the Institute's political motivations: that they wish to see Aurora alone colonize the Galaxy, by means of humaniform robots which at present only Fastolfe can build. On the way from the interview with Amadiro, Baley's airfoil (a personal hovercraft) is forced to stop. The air compressor has been sabotaged. Baley, suspecting Amadiro, orders Daneel and Giskard to flee.

Mark D. Maughmer (born January 18, 1950) is a Professor of Aerospace Engineering in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at The Pennsylvania State University. He is a widely published author known throughout the world as one of the leading aerodynamicists, especially in the areas of airfoil and winglet design and analysis, wing optimization, natural laminar flow aerodynamics, and subsonic, low turbulence wind-tunnel design and operation.Groen Brothers Aviation Consultant Resumes . Accessed January 3, 2007.

The aircraft fuselage is fabricated from welded 4130 steel tubing covered in doped aircraft fabric. The aluminum structure wing, covered in flush riveted aluminum sheet, employs a new Harry Riblett-designed airfoil and does not have flaps. The wing is supported by a single strut per side. The engine power range is and the recommended engines include the Continental A-65, Continental A-75 and the Continental O-200 four-stroke powerplants.

It was designed to mimic the flight characteristics of the lunar module (LEM), which had to rely on a reaction engine to land on the Moon. The idea of using the same engine for vertical and horizontal flight by altering the path of the thrust was conceived by Michel Wibault. It led to the Bristol Siddeley Pegasus engine which used four rotating nozzles to direct thrust over a range of angles."Airfoil". Basics of Aeronautics.

That year, he published a paper giving an exact solution to the problem of the lift of an airfoil of elliptical outline. Two years later, he conducted experiments in fluid dynamics with an advanced design shock tube facility put together under Lincoln Smith at Michigan. When Smith left in 1946, Laporte took over the facility. The shock tube allowed him to make spectroscopic measurements in new regions through the shock heating of gases.

The RAE first tested it in an "as delivered" configuration. The wing airfoil was designed to support laminar flow to 60% of chord. In the "as delivered" configuration, a profile drag was measured which was representative of the wing section with boundary layer transition at the leading edge (0% laminar flow). Reducing the surface roughness reduced the drag at low lift coefficients to a level representative of laminar flow to 35% of chord.

Landing gear and engine mount are made from 4130 steel tubes and plates. There are no double curvature skins in the whole airplane. Very few formed blocks are necessary, considering that the wing and horizontal tail have constant chord. The wing has a 15% thickness laminar airfoil, with the single spar located at the maximum thickness and is assembled as a unit to the fuselage and can be removed in approximately two hours.

The Scimitar was intended to use new aerodynamic technology to achieve higher performance in a competition sailplane. The aircraft mated a Schempp-Hirth Ventus fuselage with a wing of the same planform as the Schempp- Hirth Discus, outfitted with an electronic boundary layer control system. The aircraft was made from carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer and fiberglass with Kevlar wing skins. Its span wing initially employed a Wortmann FX 79-K-144 airfoil.

The Freedom Falcon was constructed with a wooden frame, covered with plywood and doped aircraft fabric covering. It mounts a OMC Golden Phantom Wankel engine behind the cockpit, with the variable-pitch propeller above the tail boom. The span wing employs a Göttingen 549 airfoil and mounts spoilers for glidepath control. Only one example was completed and it was registered with the US Federal Aviation Administration in the Experimental - amateur-built category.

The A-15 was a follow-on design, based on the bureau's experience gained with the A-11 and A-13 gliders. This new open class design quickly proved its worth as a record-setter. The aircraft is made from aluminium. Unusually for a Cold War Soviet aircraft, its span wing employs an American NACA 64-618 airfoil at the wing root, transitioning to an NACA 64-616 section at the wingtip.

The device operates by increasing pressure on the pressure side, decreasing pressure on the suction side, and helping the boundary layer flow stay attached all the way to the trailing edge on the suction side of the airfoil. Common applications occur in auto racing, helicopter horizontal stabilizers, and aircraft where high lift is essential, such as banner-towing airplanes. It is named for its inventor and developer, American race car driver Dan Gurney.

NASA, February 1972. pp. 49–58. While the supercritical airfoil has been initially work on by NASA as part of the United States' National Supersonic Transport programme, the supersonic airliner that was being developed to harness it, the Boeing 2707, was ultimately cancelled due to a combination of technical challenges and relatively high costs. Despite this, the work was one aspect of the programme that survived the cancellation of its principal intended recipient.

Little or no maneuverability required, as once at speed the model's altitude is maintained by centripetal Acceleration. Racing models need to be both relatively light for good acceleration from the start, or after a pit stop, and to reduce the pitch of the airfoil required to maintain lift. Race Aircraft also be fairly strong to withstand the pit man catching the model after landing. To control the airplane, the lines must remain in tension.

Its mainwheels were on faired, cranked axles hinged from the central fuselage underside, braced by drag struts hinged further aft; these members were enclosed in balsa and fabric airfoil fairings. Short, vertical oleo legs were attached to the bottom of the outer engine mountings. The wheels had independent Bendix brakes and were almost entirely enclosed in large dural tube, fabric covered fairings. A small tailwheel was mounted on a rubber- sprung pylon.

Aft of the trailing edge root the bottom of the fuselage rose strongly to carry a tall, broad fin and rudder. The X-112 had a T-tail, carrying elevators. Its thick airfoil wings were low mounted, each with a tip float or "pontoon" which, in combination with the strong anhedral kept the fuselage well clear of the water surface. Each float carried a winglet fitted with an aileron for roll control.

A type of split flap that slides backward along curved tracks that force the trailing edge downward, increasing chord and camber without affecting trim or requiring any additional mechanisms.Gunston 2004, p. 270. It was invented by Arthur Gouge for Short Brothers in 1936 and used on the Short Empire and Sunderland flying boats, which used the very thick Shorts A.D.5 airfoil. Short Brothers may have been the only company to use this type.

The mast is unstayed, has an airfoil cross-section shape and rotates on earlier models. The mainsail is fully battened and lowers into lazy jacks. A spinnaker is used, flown from an unusual pole that extends though a "gun mount" sleeve mounted to the steel framed pulpit and is not attached to the mast. This arrangement means that spinnaker winches are not needed and the spinnaker can be raised from the cockpit.

The resulting stepped wing can have improved performance and flying characteristics compared to the even simpler 'flat plate' wing used in some radio-controlled models. The Airfoils illustrated in this article are examples of those used in radio control foam models. The first man carrying KF airfoil based aircraft was successfully flown in 1987 by Richard Wood in Canada. (The Recreational Flyer Magazine November December 1991) Top speed was higher and stall was slower (The Recreational Flyer Magazine.

Flow around an airfoil All fluids are viscous, meaning that they exert some resistance to deformation: neighbouring parcels of fluid moving at different velocities exert viscous forces on each other. The velocity gradient is referred to as a strain rate; it has dimensions T^{-1}. Isaac Newton showed that for many familiar fluids such as water and air, the stress due to these viscous forces is linearly related to the strain rate. Such fluids are called Newtonian fluids.

It aimed for half of a market for 1000 with break-even after twelve years with 400 sold. Keeping 75% of the Brasilia parts and systems, the EMB145 Amazon aimed for a 1991 first flight. The stretch resulted from two plugs of the diameter fuselage in the front and behind the redesigned wing. Its supercritical airfoil with a 14% root thickness had its chord extended at the leading edge with a slight sweepback, increased aspect ratio and winglets.

Schmutzhart had already built one glider when he lived in his native Austria. When he moved to the United States in 1958 he decided to design and build a new glider, but was constrained by the dimensions of his small Washington, DC townhouse. As a result, he built a small aircraft that still achieved good performance for its size. The SCH-1 has a wingspan and employs a Nickel 17% airfoil, with flaps for glidepath control.

Landing gear is a monowheel. Drawings are still available. ;Goat 2 :Lighter-weight version, with a kingpost and steel cable- bracing in place of struts and push-pull tubes eliminated in favor of cables. Landing gear is a monowheel. Drawings no longer available as it has been replaced by the Goat 4. ;Goat 3 :Short-wing version, with "V" lift struts and jury struts similar to the Goat 1, plus a higher-speed airfoil. Drawings are still available.

The Jetwing was a small, mid-wing design powered by a turbofan and fitted with tail-wheel undercarriage. The upper surface of the swept wings incorporated a slot along 70% span, through which air from the engine's fan stage could be discharged. Mounted above this slot was a small secondary airfoil called an "augmentor", intended to direct the discharged airflow over the wing. With this arrangement, it was found that the aircraft remained controllable at airspeeds as low as .

The Letov Š-14 was designed alongside the Letov Š-13, sharing its Škoda licence-built 300 hp (224 kW) Hispano-Suiza 8Fb water-cooled V-8 engine but not its thick airfoil wings. Like the Š-13, it was intended as a single-seat biplane fighter aircraft. It was of mixed construction, with wooden wings and a metal-framed fuselage. The wings, mounted without stagger, were straight edged with a constant chord and blunt wingtips.

Extended spoilers are intended to increase the lift-induced drag by spoiling the spanwise lift distribution across the wing. The glider shown is a Slingsby Capstan. In aeronautics, a spoiler (sometimes called a lift spoiler or lift dumper) is a device which intentionally reduces the lift component of an airfoil in a controlled way. Most often, spoilers are plates on the top surface of a wing that can be extended upward into the airflow to spoil the streamline flow.

In 2004, aircraft designer Burt Rutan demonstrated the feasibility of a shape-changing airfoil for reentry with the sub-orbital SpaceShipOne. The wings on this craft rotate upward into the feather configuration that provides a shuttlecock effect. Thus SpaceShipOne achieves much more aerodynamic drag on reentry while not experiencing significant thermal loads. The configuration increases drag, as the craft is now less streamlined and results in more atmospheric gas particles hitting the spacecraft at higher altitudes than otherwise.

The ASK 14 was developed as a low-wing motorized version of the Schleicher Ka 6E. The powerplant is a Hirth F10 K19 four-cylinder, two-stroke engine, made by Hirth and driving a fully feathering propeller. The aircraft is built from wood and covered with doped aircraft fabric covering. The span wing employs a NACA 63-618 airfoil at the wing root transitioning to a NACA 63-615 section at the wing tip and features spoilers.

After Prue fielded the Standard in 1961 he quickly set about improving the design based on initial experience. The Super Standard appeared as a result, in 1962. The Super Standard incorporated many changes, including a conventional low-tail to replace the Standard's V-tail, which was intended to reduce induced drag in circling flight. Other changes included a two-piece canopy, a fuselage with less height, trailing edge dive brakes and the use of a different airfoil.

The aerodynamic center occupies a fixed location on an airfoil, typically close to the quarter-chord point. The aerodynamic center is the conceptual starting point for longitudinal stability. The horizontal stabilizer contributes extra stability and this allows the center of gravity to be a small distance aft of the aerodynamic center without the aircraft reaching neutral stability. The position of the center of gravity at which the aircraft has neutral stability is called the neutral point.

The Condor IV has a span wing that employs a Goettingen 532 airfoil at the wing root, changing to a NACA 0012 section at the wing tip. The wings have balanced DFS-style dive brakes for glidepath control. The horizontal stabilizer is of an all-flying tail design. The landing gear was originally a dolly for take-off, with the aircraft landing on a fixed skid, although at least one was modified to use a fixed monowheel.

The Cambridge first appeared as the Zander and Weyl Cambridge, making its first flight a few months before Zander and Weyl Ltd. changed its name to Dart Aircraft Ltd. Like the Slingsby Kite 1, the Cambridge was an updated version of the successful and influential Grunau Baby. It retained the Baby wing with its thick, high lift airfoil, though slightly increased in span, introduced a smoother monocoque fuselage, a tailplane of greater span and a new rudder.

The Puma was designed to comply with the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale microlight rules. It features a cantilever low-wing, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit under a bubble canopy, retractable tricycle landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft fuselage is made from welded steel tubing, with an aluminum sheet wing. Its span wing employs a NACA 4415 airfoil at the wing root, transitioning to a NACA 4412 at the wing tip.

Seen in plan the leading edge may be straight, curved, kinked or a combination of these. A straight leading edge may be swept or unswept, while curves or kinks always mean that part of the leading edge is swept. On a swept wing the sweep angle may differ from that of the wing, as wing sweep is conventionally measured at the airfoil 25% chord line. However on a delta wing the leading edge sweep defines the wing sweep.

The investment casting segment of Precision Castparts includes PCC Structurals and PCC Airfoils. It manufactures castings for aircraft engines, industrial gas turbine engines, airframes, medical implants, armament, unmanned aerial vehicles, and other industrial applications. They are the market leader in manufacturing large, complex, structural investment castings and the leading manufacturer of airfoil investment castings used in jet engines. The structural casting business manufactures the largest- diameter, nickel-based super-alloy, titanium and stainless steel investment castings in the world.

The DR-107 is a monoplane that features a cantilever low-wing, a single-seat enclosed cockpit under a bubble canopy, fixed conventional landing gear with wheel pants and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is predominantly made from wood, with some steel parts and doped aircraft fabric. Its span wing employs a Wainfan 16% symmetrical airfoil and has a wing area of . The wing has almost full-span ailerons that produce rolls of 360° per second.

In the episode "Stormy Weather", Kit chastised Baloo saying, "You can't tell me what to do! You're not my dad!" This was a decision Kit would come to regret later in that episode. Kit had the ability to cloud surf using a crescent shaped metal device called an airfoil and a regular cord attached to the back of the Sea Duck or another plane, thus allowing him to "surf" in a similar fashion to someone wakeboarding or water skiing.

The Porsche 911 whale tails were used in conjunction with a chin spoiler attached to the front valence panel, which, according to some sources, did not enhance aerodynamic stability. It has been found to be less effective in multiplying downforce than newer technologies like an airfoil, "rear wing running across the base of the tailgate window", or "an electronically controlled wing that deploys at about 50 mph"(2006). BusinessWeek European Edition: 86. EBSCO Publishing (80 km/h).

The T-2's tricycle landing gear all featured single wheels, with the nose gear retracting backward and the main gear retracting forward into the fuselage, rotating 90° to lie flat, and incorporated an antiskid control system.Lake 1994, pp. 144–145. The nose gear was offset slightly to the right, with a small fixed vertical airfoil mounted in front of it to compensate for the extended nose gear's tendency to cause yaw.Lake 1994, pp. 145–146.

39-40 Wings were built around two solid spruce spars with the airfoil formed from trussed ribs made from plywood and spruce. The leading edge was covered in aluminum sheeting and the whole assembly covered in fabric. Ailerons were interconnected with a strut mounted to the trailing edge and on some versions were sheeted with ribbed aluminum. Most models were not fitted with flaps – the VKS-7F, built for the Civilian Pilot Training Program (CPTP) being the exception.

The aircraft has a standard empty weight of . The B-10 is configured as a tailless aircraft. The aircraft's fuselage structure is made from aluminum tubing while the wing has a birch plywood D-cell leading edge and foam ribs, covered with Dacron sailcloth or doped aircraft fabric. Its span wing employs a NACA 23015 airfoil, has an area of , an aspect ratio of 8:1 and mounts external ailerons as well as wing tip rudders.

The Sea Storm features a cantilever shoulder-wing, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration, with four seats optional, an enclosed cockpit under a hinged canopy, retractable conventional landing gear and a single engine in pusher configuration. There are two small airfoil sponsons for water balance mounted low on the fuselage. The aircraft has a highly swept fin and rudder. The aircraft wings are made from aluminum sheet with some fibreglass parts, while the hull is composite.

The rest of the wing is fabric covered, including the ailerons. In plan the wing has a rectangular centre section, occupying about 40% of the span and braced from below at about 25% of the overall span by airfoil section lift struts from the lower fuselage. Outboard, the wings are double straight tapered, with most of the sweep on the trailing edge, and end in blunt tips. Ailerons fill the whole trailing edge of these outer panels.

Helmholtz's theorems have application in understanding: :Generation of lift on an airfoil :Starting vortex :Horseshoe vortex :Wingtip vortices. Helmholtz's theorems are now generally proven with reference to Kelvin's circulation theorem. However the Helmholtz's theorems were published in 1858, nine years before the 1867 publication of Kelvin's theorem. There was much communication between the two men on the subject of vortex lines, with many references to the application of their theorems to the study of smoke rings.

This machine had five axes of cutter > movement, and each of these was tracer controlled using a template. Nobody > was using my method of making templates, so just imagine what chance they > were going to have of making an accurate airfoil shape with inaccurate > templates. Parson's worries soon came true, and Lockheed's protests that they could fix the problem eventually rang hollow. In 1949 the Air Force arranged funding for Parsons to build his machines on his own.

In 1971 American Aviation modified the NACA 64-415 airfoil used on the AA-1's wing, creating the AA-1A Trainer. The recontoured leading edge produced softer stall characteristics and permitted lower approach speeds. While this did tame the AA-1's sharp stall, it also reduced the cruise speed compared to the original AA-1 by 10 mph. First flight was on March 25, 1970 and 470 AA-1As were built in 1971–72.

The aircraft is made from semi-monocoque 6061-T6 aluminum sheet construction, with pre-punched holes from a numerical control design. The Yukon's wing employs a modified NACA 4415 airfoil, has an area of and mounts flaps. The standard engines used are the Lycoming O-360 and the Lycoming IO-390 four-stroke powerplants. The aircraft is available as a complete kit, a fast build kit, or as three component sub-kits that can be purchased separately over time.

The Alpha fuselage is made from wood, with some fiberglass components incorporated. The fuselage uses a circular cross-section from nose to tail, with the diameter varying from the diameter at the tail to a diameter at the cockpit. The HP-11 wing is of all-metal and features a 26:1 aspect ratio, a wingspan and a NACA 65 (3)-618 airfoil. The v-tail is removable by first removing the tailcone and then withdrawing two pins.

The original model Storm 300 features a cantilever low-wing, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit under a bubble canopy, fixed conventional landing gear or optionally tricycle landing gear, both with wheel pants, and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from aluminum sheet with some fibreglass parts. Its span wing employs a GA 3OU-6135 Mod airfoil, mounts flaps and has a wing area of . The cabin width is .

The A-1 had a one piece, cantilever wing with swept leading edges, an unswept trailing edge and blunted tips. It had a reflex, Joukovsky airfoil section and was thick in the centre, thinning outboard where tapered ailerons reached out to the tips. It was built around pairs of swept wooden spars with plywood skin from the forward one around the nose forming a torsion resisting D-box. The rest of the wing was covered with silk (pongée).

Elsewhere the wings were fabric covered. The central 30% of the span was rectangular in plan and the remainder straight- tapered to rounded tips. The half-wings joined on a faired-in structure above the fuselage and each was braced with a faired V-strut from the lower fuselage to the wing spars near the outer end of the inner section. There was significant dihedral over the whole span, emphasised by under-surface airfoil thinning outboard.

The Bagaliante is constructed from wood and metal and is of pod- and-boom layout. The span wing employs a Göttingen 535 airfoil at the wing root, transitioning to an NACA 4412 section at the wingtip. The wing uses a semi-tapered planform, tapering outboard of the mid-span point. The specified engine is a Rotax 277 two-stroke aircraft engine, mounted aft of the cockpit and driving a pusher propeller mounted above the tail boom.

After the D-2 was readied for flight in 1942, Hughes himself took over the flight test program. However, after only a few brief hops, it was clear that high control forces were a problem. When full flight tests were finally conducted in spring 1943, modifications still had not been made to correct this problem. Hughes reluctantly concluded that the D-2 needed major modifications, including a complete redesign of the wings and a change in airfoil section.

The presence of "hind wings", asymmetrical flight feathers stemming from the legs similar to those seen in dromaeosaurids such as Microraptor, also would have added to the aerial mobility of Archaeopteryx. The first detailed study of the hind wings by Longrich in 2006, suggested that the structures formed up to 12% of the total airfoil. This would have reduced stall speed by up to 6% and turning radius by up to 12%. The feathers of Archaeopteryx were asymmetrical.

The strut braced tailplane was placed on top of the fuselage. The D.IX's fixed conventional undercarriage was of the single axle type, with the mainwheels on V-struts. This was much like that of the D.VII but the airfoil shaped axle fairing was enlarged to contain a fuel tank, an arrangement first trialed in the Fokker V.36. An extra strut from the rear of the tank to the central fuselage underside helped to support it.

Those triangular sails that are attached to both a mast along the luff and a boom along the foot have depth, known as draft or draught, which results from the luff and foot being curved, rather than straight as they are attached to those spars. Draft creates a more efficient airfoil shape for the sail. Draft can also be induced in triangular staysails by adjustment of the sheets and the angle from which they reach the sails.

The AL 5 had a much more robust undercarriage than its predecessor. A frame with two near vertical legs to the lower fuselage longerons and two diagonal struts to the central fuselage underside supported a single axle within an airfoil section fairing, with the wheels at its extremities. A long tailskid protected the bottom of the rudder. The Lachassagne AL 5 flew for the first time on 25 May 1930 at Orly, piloted by Marcel Haegelen.

The shape of the wings' airfoil gave greater lift, with its relatively "blunt" leading edge (as seen in cross-section) giving it more docile stalling behavior than the thin wings commonly in use. Late in 1917, Fokker built the experimental V 11 biplane, fitted with the standard Mercedes D.IIIa engine. In January 1918, Idflieg held a fighter competition at Adlershof. For the first time, front line pilots participated in the evaluation and selection of new fighters.

M234 Riot Control Launcher USMC M16A2s with the OKC-3S bayonet The M234 Riot Control Launcher is an M16-series rifle attachment firing an M755 blank round. The M234 mounts on the muzzle, bayonet lug, and front sight post of the M16. It fires either the M734 64 mm Kinetic Riot Control or the M742 64 mm CSI Riot Control Ring Airfoil Projectiles. The latter produces a 4 to 5-foot tear gas cloud on impact.

Some of his designs used a bent aluminium sheet for blades, thus creating an airfoil shape. They were heavily undercambered, and this plus the absence of lengthwise twist made them less efficient than the Wright propellers.Physical propeller theory was at the time restricted to the Rankine–Froude theory, also known as the "actuator disc theory" or the axial momentum theory. That theory, however adequate, does not give indication on the shape that should be given to the propeller.

In glide recovery, the ejection charge either deploys an airfoil (wing) or separates a glider from the motor. If properly trimmed, the rocket/glider will enter a spiral glide and return safely. In some cases, radio-controlled rocket gliders are flown back to the earth by a pilot in much the way as R/C model airplanes are flown. Some rockets (typically long thin rockets) are the proper proportions to safely glide to Earth tail-first.

Haufe and Hill intended to design and build a glider in the style of the classic open-cockpit gliders of the 1930s, like the Hütter Hü 17. The resulting design was an all-metal aircraft, with a welded steel tube fuselage, covered in doped aircraft fabric covering. The span wing has an 11.2:1 aspect ratio, employs a Clark Y airfoil and mounts spoilers. The landing gear is a fixed monowheel, supplemented by a fixed skid.

The RJ-5 was conceived by Johnson, who contracted Ross to design and built a glider with record-setting performance. The aircraft utilizes a NACA 63 (2)-615 laminar flow airfoil and was one of the first gliders to achieve a 40:1 glide ratio. Johnson asked Ross to build the RJ-5 in 1948. Ross completed the design work and much of the construction, with help from Stan Hall, but by 1950 the glider was still incomplete.

The Pelican has an unconventional layout, based on the Fauvel AV.36, with a low aspect ratio wing, twin rudders mounted at mid-span and a pusher configuration Solo 210 engine mounted in the rear fuselage producing . The aircraft is constructed from fibreglass, with some surfaces fabric covered. The span wing is semi-tapered, tapering outside the rudders and employs a Fauvel F4 17% airfoil. The fuselage is just in length, making the aircraft very compact.

Baslee constructed a series of homebuilt aircraft, selling each one to pay for the next one. He had aspired to build a Fokker Triplane, but found the existing replica plans very complex and slow to construct. He applied his engineering knowledge and created a new design of the DR.1, with a simplified structure and revised airfoil, a modified Clark Y, to improve handling. The resulting design uses aluminum tubing and pop riveted gussets, in place of wooden structure.

A dipole sound field was created at the trailing edge due to the fluctuating force exerted on it. At higher speeds on powered aircraft, the boundary layer on the airfoil is turbulent, and more complex vortex shedding patterns have been observed. Since it is difficult to measure in flight, HaydenHayden, R. E., Fox, H. L., Chanaud, R. C. "Some Factors Influencing Radiation from Flow Interaction with Edges of Finite Surfaces", NASA CR-145073, 1976. made static tests.

Production was handled at the Liberal (Kansas) Division, where the Beechcraft Duchess and Musketeer were produced. The Skipper wing utilizes a GA(W)-1 airfoil, specifically developed for low-speed aviation applications, based on 1970s NASA research. The aircraft was certified for intentional spins. While it is an all-metal design, the Skipper incorporated a number of innovative construction techniques, including tubular spars and aluminum honeycomb construction with metal-to-metal bonding, a technique inherited from the Musketeer family.

The Skylane is a high-wing monoplane with a fixed nose-wheel landing gear and powered by a Rotax 912 piston engine. The enclosed cabin has side-by-side seating for two and dual yoke-style controls. The aircraft is built from a combination of wood and composites. The fuselage is of composite construction, while the strut-braced wing is of wooden structure with a semi-laminar MS (1)-313 airfoil and features a D-cell.

The launcher is capable of firing from 4 to 6 projectiles per minute. The velocity is sufficiently high to prevent dodging by target individuals at effective ranges. The effective range of the projectile is 40 meters on an individual and 60 meters on groups of individuals with a maximum range of 100 meters. The main advantage to using Ring Airfoil Projectiles is that their design does not allow them be thrown back by rioters with any real effect.

The V-1 was an attempt to create a glider design based on the Northrop Corporation flying wing designs of the 1940s, such as the Northrop YB-49. The aircraft is made from metal and wood, with doped aircraft fabric covering. Its span wing employs a modified Northrop airfoil and tip-mounted ailerons, in the form of rotating wing tips, of each. A single vertical stabilizer and rudder was mounted at the rear of the wing center trailing edge.

It was certified as a purely DHV Class 1 glider, from which it takes its name. The four model sizes produced are each named for their relative size. The design is made from high- tenacity, low-porosity material of 49 g/m2 and incorporates diagonal tapes instead of the more commonly used whole diagonal ribs. The tapes form triangles, in conjunction with reinforcement tapes on the bottom surface of the glider wing and prevent airfoil deformation.

Marvin Hicks of Aurora, Colorado purchased a set of plans and built a modified version of the aircraft over a ten-year period, culminating in a first flight on 1 January 1963. Hicks' aircraft used an increased span wing with flaps and a NACA 63 (3)-618 laminar flow airfoil. He designated the aircraft as the RH-3, indicating Ross-Hicks as contributing designers. The RH-3 proved to be a good performer in soaring contests.

The Via was designed to comply with the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale microlight rules and US light-sport aircraft rules. It features a cantilever low-wing, an enclosed cockpit with two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration under a bubble canopy, fixed tricycle landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from sheet aluminum. Its span wing employs a MS 316 airfoil at the wing root, transitioning to an MS 313 at the wing tip.

Parallel pairs of airfoil section flying struts ran on each side from the lower fuselage to the wing spars at about one third span. Over the fuselage a pair of N-form cabane struts leaned inwards to meet at the wing's centre. Like the wing, the fuselage and empennage of the J 23 were wooden structures. The elliptical cross section fuselage consisted of pre-shaped, stress bearing plywood panels around a light framework of frames and stringers.

The wing planform was strongly double straight tapered, mostly on the trailing edge where ailerons occupied almost half the span. These were split into two nearly equal sections and acted differentially. Parallel ruler type airbrakes were placed a little inboard of the ailerons, at mid-chord. Near the roots the airfoil section was NACA 4514; further out this was tapered into the symmetric NACA 0012 of the tips, which had 4° of washout to prevent tip stalling.

He began in late 1927 after the demise of the ML 2, using its troublesome air-cooled Anzani engine. The O.2 had a two part, rectangular plan wing built around two spars and ply covered. The airfoil was aerodynamically semi-thick and the thickness was constant over the span. Each part was mounted on a lower fuselage longeron with light dihedral and braced to the upper longerons with pairs of parallel wooden struts to the spars.

The Zephyr was designed to comply with the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale microlight rules. It features a cantilever low-wing, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit under a bubble canopy, fixed tricycle landing gear, a T-tail and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft's fuselage is made from composites with wooden bulkheads. The semi-tapered span wing is made from plywood with composite spars and leading edges and employs a UA-2 airfoil.

A conventional helicopter will reach a hard limit in terms of maximum speed when the relative airspeed of the retreating blades decays to near zero thus resulting in retreating blade stall. One solution to this problem is to increase the rotor rpm so that the relative airspeed of the retreating blades are higher. However, this solution also has its limits. As any airfoil approaches the speed of sound it encounters a problem known as wave drag.

The Mark II features a two-seats- in-tandem open cockpit with an optional bubble canopy, fixed conventional landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The Mark II was intended as a two-seat trainer version as a companion to a planned single-seat competition version. The aircraft is made from welded steel tubing with the airframe covered in sheet aluminum. Its span wings employ a NACA 23012 airfoil and each has a single torsional spar.

The fuselage was rectangular in section and ply-covered. It was deepest under the wing to accommodate the open cockpit and tapered strongly both forward and aft, with a profile like that of a thick airfoil. The M.1's empennage was a fabric-covered cantilever structure with a conventional fin and rudder but a one-piece, flight- adjustable tailplane. The M.1 made its first and last flight on 29 August 1923, just before the Contest began.

Air is not always the best test medium for studying small-scale aerodynamic principles, due to the speed of the air flow and airfoil movement. A study of fruit fly wings designed to understand how the wings produce lift was performed using a large tank of mineral oil and wings 100 times larger than actual size, in order to slow down the wing beats and make the vortices generated by the insect wings easier to see and understand.

Previous Travel Air biplanes had been designed under the direction of Walter Beech, however the 14 was designed by Fred Landgraff, whose previous design experience included the Rearwin Ken-Royce and Alexander Eaglerock biplanes - to which the new design owed more than it did to the Travel Air 4000/4 it was intended to replace. The handling of the aircraft reflected this, and it was described as being "no Travel Air".Juptner, 1962 p.243 One of the possible reasons for the difference in handling may be due to the airfoil chosen - previous Travel Air biplanes had used the Travel Air #1 airfoil section, while the CW-14 used the Navy N-9 section which was also used by the Beechcraft 17 Staggerwing, and the Vought UO, while the contemporary Curtiss-Wright CW-12 and CW-16 used a 15% Clark Y. Wings were built around four solid spruce spars, used single piece web ribs and were fitted with Frise ailerons on the top wing only, which provided good low speed control while helping counteract adverse yaw.

The Gulfstream II is a twin-jet swept wing corporate transport powered by two Rolls-Royce Spey turbofan engines and designed to provide high speed and long range capability without sacrificing the airport performance, reliability, and other operational advantages of its predecessor, the turboprop Gulfstream I. Preliminary design of the wing was influenced by both cruise and low speed considerations. The aft-mounted engine location was selected after extensive analysis and design iterations considering aerodynamic, structural, and ground clearance requirements. Airfoil geometry was developed to maximum sweep benefit from the selected planform. The interference problem at the wing-body juncture was treated by modification of the airfoil shape and thickness over the inner third of the wing span. The basic airfoils for the main area of the wing are similar to those of the Grumman A-6 Intruder aircraft and utilize NACA 6-series thickness distributions combined with an in-house mean line. A buffet boundary commensurate with the M=.85 speed capability was attained by incorporating a row of co-rotating vortex generators on the outer wing panel.

McDonnell engineers returned on 30 June 1940 with the Model II, which was also rejected, so it was reworked into the Model IIa, which emerged on 24 April 1941. The new design was powered by a more traditional layout, a pair of engines in wing-mounted nacelles with four-bladed propellers in a tractor configuration. However, the design was still quite ambitious; the design team tried to maintain a true airfoil section through the center fuselage, merge the rear portions of the engine nacelles with the wing, and radically fillet all edges of the fuselage and nacelles into the wings in an effort to reduce drag. The design used laminar airfoil sections throughout. McDonnell designers promised that the design would deliver a top speed of 472 mph (760 km/h) with a gross weight of 18,600 lb (8,440 kg), although the anticipated gross weight was soon increased to a somewhat more realistic 20,000 lb (9,070 kg). On 30 September 1941, the USAAFThe USAAC became the USAAF on 20 June 1941.

A torque converter eliminated the need for a clutch pedal and gearshift. The engine idled at 54% of full throttle, which meant that the driver didn't even have to press the accelerator pedal to pull away; all he had to do was ease his foot off the brake pedal. A movable panel was mounted behind the cockpit, which acted as an airbrake. The suspension's coil springs were located inside the backbone and the suspension A-frames had airfoil cross-sections.

The aircraft features a V-strut-braced low-wing, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit, fixed tricycle landing gear or optionally conventional landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft fuselage is made from welded steel tube, while the wing is plywood, with some surfaces covered in doped aircraft fabric and some covered in plywood. Its span wing has a wing area of and employs a NACA 4412 airfoil. The cabin width is .

Kestrel set new standards again in 1989, with the launch of the first carbon fork and the debut of the KM40 Airfoil, the first true aero triathlon frame. Carbon framesets by better-known, mainstream manufacturers such as Giant and, most notably, Trek (with its OCLV frames), have been directly influenced by Kestrel design principles. Kestrel builds monocoque frames rather than more traditional tube and lug designs. This has always meant that Kestrels have tended to have a very fluid, curved appearance.

Wooden CBY-3 wind-tunnel test model The CBY-3 "lifting fuselage" was an evolution of the earlier Burnelli UB-14. Burnelli worked as a designer at Canadian Car and Foundry (CanCar) in Montreal, and the CBY-3 was intended for bush operations in northern Canada. The sole prototype was extensively tested but failed to gain a production contract. Burnelli had a lifelong career devoted to exploiting the advantages of the lifting body airfoil concept that characterized many of his earlier aircraft designs.

The MB.60 was a high-wing monoplane with a closed cabin. Although a two seater like the Brochet MB.50, it was distinguished by an airfoil without sweep-back, a raised upper deck of the rear fuselage and a fixed landing gear with split axle. Power came from a 83 horsepower Salmson 5-cylinder radial engine. The only MB.60 to be completed (registered F-BFKT) took to the air on 24 June 1949 in Chavenay, piloted by André Deschamps.

The Nucleon was built by Schultz in 1954 and even though the wing was strut-braced the aircraft introduced some innovative construction techniques. The wing was carved from Styrofoam around its spar and then covered in fiberglass for a skin. The wing uses a NACA 65-415 airfoil, has full-span flaps and drooping ailerons, and is braced with a single faired strut. The strut-braced tailplane folds so that the aircraft can be loaded for ground transportation on a trailer.

The MU-1 was designed by Schultz prior to the Second World War and was used by the United States Army Air Corps for glider training and designated as the Midwest TG-18. The MU-1 was constructed with a welded steel tube fuselage and a wooden-framed wings, all covered in doped aircraft fabric covering. The wing was of span, employed a NACA 4412 airfoil and was supported by two parallel struts with jury struts. Landing gear was a fixed monowheel.

The G 4-2 R features a single main rotor, a two-seats-in tandem enclosed cockpit, tricycle landing gear and a four-cylinder, air and liquid- cooled, four-stroke, dual-ignition Rotax 912S engine in pusher configuration. The ULPower UL260i powerplant is optional. The aircraft fuselage is made with a stainless steel tube frame; the cockpit is formed from carbon fibre. Its diameter two-bladed aluminium Averso rotor employs a NACA 8H12 airfoil and has a 1500-hour time between overhauls.

As the F-16 was being optimized for high combat agility, GD's designers chose a slender cropped-delta wing with a leading edge sweep of 40° and a straight trailing edge. To improve maneuverability, a variable-camber wing with a NACA 64A-204 airfoil was selected; the camber is adjusted by leading-edge and trailing edge flaperons linked to a digital flight control system (FCS) regulating the flight envelope. The F-16 has a moderate wing loading, reduced by fuselage lift.Dryden, Joe Bill.

The North Star features a strut-braced high-wing, a single-seat, a two-seats-in-tandem enclosed cockpit that is wide, fixed conventional landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft fuselage is made from welded 4130 steel tubing, with the wing constructed from aluminum sheet and all surfaces covered in doped aircraft fabric. Its span wing employs a USA 35B airfoil, has an area of and mounts flaps. The wing is supported by "V"-struts and jury struts.

A B-24 Liberator photographed from above, showing the Davis wing design The Davis wing is an aircraft wing design that was used for some time on a variety of World War II aircraft, most notably a number of designs from Consolidated Aircraft, including the Consolidated B-24 Liberator. The airfoil had a lower drag coefficient than most contemporary designs, which allowed higher speeds. It also allowed significant lift at low angles of attack. Its use ended almost immediately following World War Two.

In the summer of 1937 Reuben H. Fleet, president of Consolidated Aircraft met with David R. Davis. Davis was a freelance aeronautical engineer who was looking for development funds for his airfoil design, the "Fluid Foil". Davis had designed the profile "in reverse", starting with a basic low- drag teardrop shape and then modifying it to provide lift. In comparison with conventional designs, Davis's design was relatively thick, having a short chord while still being deep enough to allow a high aspect ratio.

The Topaz is a development of the Ekolot JK-05L Junior and was designed to comply with the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale microlight rules. It features a cantilever high wing in place of the Junior's strut-braced wing, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit, fixed tricycle landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. Like the Junior, the Topaz is made from composites. Its span wing employs an NN-1817 airfoil, has an area of and flaps.

The prototype Prue UHP-1 was constructed by Prue, completed in 1966 and first flown in 1967. The prototype features a NACA 63-618, with an all-metal wing with doped aircraft fabric covering aft of the wing spar. This arrangement did not hold the correct airfoil shape at high speeds according to tests conducted. The fuselage is also of all-metal construction and features a fixed monowheel landing gear, coupled with a skid, a conventional T-tail and a drag chute.

Either Euler or potential-flow calculations predict the pressure distribution on the airfoil surfaces roughly correctly for angles of attack below stall, where they might miss the total lift by as much as 10-20%. At angles of attack above stall, inviscid calculations do not predict that stall has happened, and as a result they grossly overestimate the lift. In potential-flow theory, the flow is assumed to be irrotational, i.e. that small fluid parcels have no net rate of rotation.

The vertical pressure gradient at the wing tips causes air to flow sideways, out from under the wing then up and back over the upper surface. This reduces the pressure gradient at the wing tip, therefore also reducing lift. The lift tends to decrease in the spanwise direction from root to tip, and the pressure distributions around the airfoil sections change accordingly in the spanwise direction. Pressure distributions in planes perpendicular to the flight direction tend to look like the illustration at right.

These compensations can only do so much. Increasing angle of attack to compensate for reduced blade airspeed has the effect of maintaining lift only until the point where critical angle of attack is reached, after this point lift sharply decreases. All airfoils have a critical angle of attack (also called a stall angle of attack) which is the angle of attack that produces most lift. Above this angle flow over the airfoil becomes detached and lift decreases, this is commonly called a stall.

The DynaRig owes its origin to Wilhelm Prölss' research in the 1960s. The DynaRig consists of freestanding rotating masts with rigid yards and acts as a square rig. Each of Black Pearls masts supports six yards, which, unlike a conventional square rigger, have built-in camber of 12%. The fifteen square sails are set between the yards in such a way that when deployed there are no gaps in the sail plan of each mast, enabling them to act as a single airfoil.

Its flight characteristics came in for continued criticism. It was heavy, with an empty weight of compared with the of the Grunau Baby 2, caused partly by the need for extra strength to cope with the stresses of aerobatics. This made slow flight within thermals difficult, not helped by the choice of airfoil. There are no known contemporary reports of its aerobatic performance but the heavy ailerons were much criticised, one student reported that their operation required both hands on the control column.

Professional athletes who fly through the air for long distances, such as ski jumping, have also used certain bodyflight techniques to increase jumping distance by manipulating their bodies to be more airfoil-like. Frequent visitors to a vertical wind tunnel are often called 'tunnel rats', much like frequent visitors to ski slopes are called 'ski bums'. Some body flying enthusiasts develop their tunnel-flying skills not for sky diving training, but in order to be able to give professional performances.

The L.66 was intended to be a low cost, easy maintenance two-seater. Thus a low power engine was required and the prototype was fitted with a Haacke HFM-2 flat twin, though other engines could be used. It was a cantilever parasol monoplane with an aerodynamically thick airfoil section wing, which had a simple, rectangular plan and significant dihedral. The wing was a wooden structure with two spars, the ailerons mounted directly to a rounded groove in the rear spar.

The Aerion SBJ's key enabling technology, supersonic natural Laminar flow, has been conclusively demonstrated in transonic wind tunnel tests and in supersonic flight tests conducted in conjunction with NASA. In the summer of 2010, an Aerion-designed calibration fixture was tested aboard a NASA F-15B. The experiments were intended to influence future laminar flow airfoil manufacturing standards for surface quality and assembly tolerances. A second test surface was flown during the first half of 2013, its design guided by the 2010 test.

Savannahs have been powered with a variety of small engines in the 35–70 kW range. The cabin seats two side by side under the wing, the newer XL version having increased width and enhanced glazing. Aft, the fuselage is flat-sided, with the underside rising towards the tail. The rectangular tailplane and elevators, which use a conventional airfoil unlike that of the Zenith, are set at the top of the fuselage, with the rudder running between the elevators to the keel.

The two piece, 3-ply covered wing was built around twin spruce flanged box spars with 3-ply webs. In plan it had constant chord and was unswept; the wingtips were angled and the short ailerons tapered slightly outboard. Each wing was braced to the fuselage with a parallel pair of airfoil section struts from the wing spars to the lower fuselage longerons. Behind the engine the fuselage was rectangular in cross-section, with four longerons and 3-ply covered.

These luxury packages (four leather seats, bars with cut glass, deep pile carpets and aircraft switches) were built, again as running cars, for an importer in New York. At the 1969 April New York Automobile Show, Intermeccanica had cars on three different stands. For the 1969 Turin Automobile Show, a modified Italia, which conformed to Italian requirements, and added a few features such as a rear movable airfoil, was built. It was called the Italia IMX but remained a prototype.

Because wind-powered vehicles typically sail at apparent wind angles aligned with the leading edge of the sail, the sail acts as an airfoil and lift is the predominant component of propulsion. Low forward resistance to motion, high speeds over the surface, and high lateral resistance help create high apparent wind speeds—with closer alignment of the apparent wind to the course traveled for most points of sail—and allow wind-powered vehicles to achieve higher speeds than conventional sailing craft.

Designer Frank Smith died of a heart attack shortly after completing the prototype. His wife, Dorothy, and son, Donald continued to market the plans into the 1970s and Donald worked on a two-seat version, the Miniplane +1. In the late 1990s Sky Classic Aircraft of Des Moines, Iowa was developing an improved version of the Miniplane designated as the Smith Sport Miniplane. This model featured more cockpit room for larger pilots, a new airfoil and re-drawn plans to aid construction.

The LoCamp is intended to resemble a 1930s style light aircraft. It features a cantilever low-wing, a two-seats-in-tandem open cockpit with polycarbonate windscreens, fixed conventional landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft fuselage is made from welded steel tubing, with the wing built from wood or optionally aluminum sheet and its flying surfaces covered in doped aircraft fabric. Its span wing employs a NACA 4416 airfoil, has an area of and mounts flaps.

Although Holighaus had designed and built the ground-breaking D-36 together with Gerhard Waibel, Wolf Lemke and Walter Schneider, he followed a completely different design philosophy for the Cirrus, preferring a thicker airfoil and the use of PVC foam instead of balsa as a core material. The resultant Cirrus has mid-set cantilever wings with a span of 17.74 metres, and a conventional low-set cruciform tailplane. It can carry water-ballast in the wings. There are no flaps.

In the 1950s Simmering- Graz-Pauker A.G. (SGP) was a large manufacturing concern but the M-222 Flamingo was their first aircraft. It was a conventional twin engine monoplane, smaller than many but seating four in two rows. The wings of the Flamingo had a laminar flow airfoil and were made entirely of wood. The first prototype was powered by 150 hp (112 kW) Lycoming O-320 flat-four engines but later aircraft had 200 hp (150 kW) Lycoming IO-360 flat-fours.

Only the upper wings carried ailerons. The wings were two-spar wooden structures and were fabric covered. Its single engine was an uncowled, Walter-built Jupiter IV on a steel tube mounting and with a pair of long, airfoil-section fuel tanks placed on the upper wing near the ends of the centre-section. Behind its firewall the fuselage, built from steel tubes, was rectangular in section and housed a passenger cabin long fitted with six permanent and two folding seats.

The Chevrolet Bruin/GMC Brigadier carried over the H/J 9500 cab introduced in 1966, but with a number of changes. Replacing the removable steel hood is a fully tilting fiberglass hood with a larger rectangular grille; the larger hood features a redesigned radiator, featuring better engine cooling. For durability, the previous-generation center-hinged "butterfly" hood remains available. While produced with an optional cab airfoil, the cab is sold with either a one-piece or a two-piece windshield.

The DG-600 fuselage is based on the fuselage of the DG-400 but with a more slender tailboom which also incorporates a tailfin ballast tank with a capacity of 7 liters. The design of the canopy and the instrument panel is practically the same as on other DG gliders. The control surfaces incorporate flaperons which serve as both flaps and ailerons. The wing has a newly designed thinner airfoil and higher aspect ratio than previous types of DG gliders.

Another field of study was the aerodynamics of supporting surfaces and the velocity and pressure distribution on wings of various shapes. He experimented and studied the effects of jet emitted near the trailing edge on airfoil lift including the effect of spoilers. A number of his papers was devoted to the aerodynamics of aircraft propulsion (piston, turbo-prop and turbojet engines). Furthermore, he tackled the problem of air flow through the introduction pipe and exhaustion of combustion gases through a jet exhaust nozzle.

Hence the rear stage develops a significantly lower pressure ratio than the first stage. Higher stage pressure ratios are also possible if the relative velocity between fluid and rotors is supersonic, but this is achieved at the expense of efficiency and operability. Such compressors, with stage pressure ratios of over 2, are only used where minimizing the compressor size, weight or complexity is critical, such as in military jets. The airfoil profiles are optimized and matched for specific velocities and turning.

The main rotor hub has a single piece aluminum hub with elastomeric bearings designed not to require lubrication or any other kind of maintenance throughout its design life. The main rotor blades have titanium spars and incorporate a ten degree twist to give an even loading when hovering, while they use a non-symmetrical airfoil section with a drooped leading edge. The rotor tips are tapered and swept back. Flight controls are servo-assisted, with a Stability Augmentation System fitted.

The Sport Jet II featured a cantilever mid-wing, a four-seat enclosed and pressurized cabin, retractable tricycle landing gear, a T-tail and a single jet engine. The aircraft fuselage was made from composites, with the wing fashioned from aluminum sheet. Its span employed a NACA 64-415 airfoil, had an area of and mounted flaps. The standard engine recommended was the thrust Pratt & Whitney Canada JT15D turbofan, although when under development by Excel Jet a Williams FJ33 4A was used.

The GS-750 Grand Magic is a development of the two-seat Ibis GS-700 Magic. It features a strut-braced high-wing, a four-seat enclosed cabin with doors, fixed tricycle landing gear with wheel pants and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from sheet aluminium "all-metal" construction, with the wing tips and cowling made from composite material. Its span wing employs a NACA 650-18m airfoil, mounts flaps and has a wing area of .

A 33 page evaluation of two versions of the Paresev hang glider by "Preliminary Flight Evaluation of Two Unpowered Manned Paragliders" written by Barrison F. Layton, Jr., and Milton O. Thompson in National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Technical [vvvvvv Note D-1826] is open to the public and can be freely copied and distributed. Author(s): Layton, G. P., Jr.; Thompson, M. O. Note that the "paraglider" involved in the early 1960s experiments is a different airfoil concept used today in paragliding.

Bikle developed the all-metal T-6 during the time when he was director of the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration Dryden Flight Research Facility. He changed the design from the HP-14 by adding in to each wing, bringing the span to . The flaps were shortened by each and the ailerons increased in span by a corresponding amount. The airfoil was altered from the stock Wortmann FX 61-163 to simplify construction, even at the cost of some measure of performance.

Below are several important examples. # Impulsively started flow at small angle of attack. For an impulsively started flow such as obtained by suddenly accelerating an airfoil or setting an angle of attack, there is a vortex sheet continuously shed at the trailing edge and the lift force is unsteady or time-dependent. For small angle of attack starting flow, the vortex sheet follows a planar path, and the curve of the lift coefficient as function of time is given by the Wagner function.

1959 Piper PA-24 180 The original version of the Comanche was the PA-24, which featured a carbureted Lycoming O-360-A1A engine, swept tail, laminar flow airfoil, and all-flying stabilator. The standard fuel capacity of the PA-24-180 was . The flaps were manually actuated, controlled by the same Johnson bar actuator as the Piper Cherokee. The aircraft specifications were for cruise speeds of and fuel burns between 7.5 and 10.5 gph at 55-percent and 75-percent power settings.

In addition to the more powerful engine, the aircraft now had an ejection seat, additional cockpit armor, and a revised canopy. More importantly, it was fitted with new wings with a greater span and more surface area; they also had a new airfoil designed to delay Mach tuck. The area of the tailplane and the vertical stabilizer was also increased. Two prototypes were built and the first one was completed in February 1947 and made its first flight on 1 March.

The aircraft is made from riveted sheet aluminum with a rounded turtle deck and flat sides and bottom skins. Its span wing employs a NACA 64A212 airfoil at the wing root, transitioning to a NACA 64A210 at the wingtip. Standard engines used include the Lycoming O-320, the Lycoming O-360 and the fuel-injected Lycoming IO-360 four-stroke powerplants. Standard fuel capacity is 25 US gallons, but optional wet wings increase the fuel capacity to 61 US gallons.

For later flights of his VS-300, Sikorsky also added a vertical airfoil surface to the end of the tail to assist anti-torque but this was later removed when it proved to be ineffective. The cyclic control was found to be difficult to perfect, and led to Sikorsky locking the cyclic and adding two smaller vertical-axis lifting rotors to either side aft of the tailboom.Dorr 2005, p. 32. By varying pitch of these rotors simultaneously, fore and aft control was provided.

Compared to the similar RV-7, the RV-9 has a wing of increased span and higher aspect ratio using a Roncz airfoil. The RV-9 has a low stall speed, comparable to the Cessna 150, and docile handling suitable for low-time pilots. The cruise speed is a very respectable TAS even with the engine. The RV-9 was offered after the RV-8, but before the RV-7 and shares many common parts with both aircraft, which reduces production costs.

The wing plan was unaffected but the airfoil section of the outer panels was thinned from Göttingen 549 to 682. Longer span, shorter chord plain flaps replaced the Fowler flaps and the ailerons were simplified, retaining only the outer pair. There were two suspected causes of the tail failure; the effect of repeated landing shocks and possible tail flutter. The fuselage underside was reshaped to distribute landing loads better and the fin was increased in area with a shallow dorsal fillet.

The air molecules at the surface of a wing are effectively stationary (see the no-slip condition). If the flow is smooth, known as laminar flow, the velocity of the air increases steadily as measurements are taken further away from the surface. However the smooth flow is often disturbed by the boundary layer breaking away from the surface and creating a low pressure region immediately behind the airfoil (see flow separation). This low pressure region results in increased overall drag.

This was normally accomplished by leaving the majority of the front face of the engine open to the air, causing considerable drag. During the late 1920s, NACA led development of a dramatic improvement by placing an airfoil-shaped ring around the outside of the cylinder heads (the NACA cowling). The shaping accelerated the air as it entered the front of the cowl, increasing the total airflow, and allowing the opening in front of the engine to be made smaller.Hansen, James.

In January 1945, Jones developed a theory of the delta wing based on thin-airfoil theory. Others at Langley were sceptical until supersonic testing of models was done by Robert Gilruth and in April by Theodore von Karman. Jones’s theory was not truly accepted until that summer when Von Karman's team of investigators found that German experts had been working on swept-wing designs for several years. Jones’s thin-wing design ultimately proved superior to thick airfoils developed by Alexander Lippisch in Germany.

The wing is built in two pieces, has a very high aspect ratio of 36:1 and employs a Wortmann airfoil. The aircraft can be assembled from its trailer in just ten minutes using special ground handling stands that eliminate the need to lift the large wings by hand. All control surfaces are 100% mass balanced and feature automatic connections upon assembly. The sole Mescalero completed was intended as a prototype for mass production and was registered in the Exhibition/Racing category.

Early research on this topic was performed by Watts & Fish followed by further experiments both in water and wind tunnels. Watts & Fish determined that the presence of tubercles on the leading edge of airfoil increased lift by 4.8%. Further numerical computations confirmed this result, and indicated that the presence of tubercles can decrease the effects of drag by 40%. Leading-edge tubercles have been found to reduce the point of maximum lift and increase the region of post-stall lift.

28, 2015, with double the wingspan of the earlier versions, however, through development, the team managed to reduce the final glider's drag by 11%. Initially, each aircraft was radio operated with a hobby-grade controller and launched with a bungee cord system. Later flight tests switched from a bungee launch method to a towed launch system. The first two vehicles of the program showed twist of the airfoil in providing an bell shaped lift distribution instead of the elliptical distribution.

The aircraft features a strut-braced high wing, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit accessed via doors, fixed tricycle landing gear, or, optionally conventional landing gear with wheel pants and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from sheet aluminum. Its span high aspect ratio wing employs a Marsden- designed IARV 419 airfoil, mounts flaps and has a wing area of . Winglets were a factory option to improve low speed handling, lateral control and STOL performance.

The integration of QBlade into XFLR's sophisticated graphical user interface makes this software accessible to a large potential user community. QBlade is especially adequate for teaching, as it provides a ’hands-on’ feeling for HAWT rotor design and shows all the fundamental relationships between blade twist, blade chord, section airfoil performance, turbine control, power and load curves in an easy and intuitive way. QBlade also includes post processing of conducted rotor simulations and gives deep insight into all relevant blade and rotor variables.

The aircraft was derived from the FMP Qualt 200 and designed to comply with the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale microlight rules. It features a cantilever low-wing, a T-tail, a two-seats-in-side-by- side configuration enclosed cockpit under a front-hinged bubble canopy, fixed conventional landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The Speedy Mouse is made from mixed wood and epoxy construction. Its span wing employs a GA-W 1 airfoil and has an area of .

The Gemini was designed to explore the use of flaps to create a variable geometry sailplane that would be optimized for both low speed thermalling flight and also high speed gliding between thermals. The aircraft was predominantly made from aluminium, with some stainless steel used for the wing ribs, controls and fittings. The two-place side-by-side cockpit was made from fibreglass. Its four-piece span high aspect ratio wing employed a modified Wortmann FX-61-163/35SF airfoil.

Ross designed the R-3 as simplified version of the Ross R-2 Ibis with the intention of making the aircraft type easier to construct for amateur builders. The fuselage remained similar to the R-2, but the wing was redesigned as a straight wing, in contrast to the R-2's complex gull wing. The R-3 design was intended to be of all-wooden construction and employed a NACA 23018 airfoil section. Ross never constructed an example of the R-3.

Hirschel, Prem and Madelung 2012, pp. 184-185. The aviation authors Ernst Heinrich Hirschel, Horst Prem, and Gero Madelung have referred to the supercritical airfoil as being of equal importance, in terms of aerodynamics, as the innovation of the swept wing to high speed aircraft.Hirschel, Prem and Madelung 2012, p. 389. During the 1950s and 1960s, a number of different high speed research aircraft equipped with conventional airfoils repeatedly encountered difficulties in breaking the sound barrier, or even reaching Mach 0.9.

The Panda was designed to comply with the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale microlight rules. It features a cantilever high-wing, a T-tail, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cabin, fixed tricycle landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from sheet aluminum, with some parts, such as the engine cowling and wing tips made from composites. Its span wing employs a modified NACA 633-618 airfoil, has an area of and flaps.

2009 NHRA Top Fuel championship trophy Before their run, racers often perform a burnout in order to clean and heat tires. Additionally, the burnout applies a layer of fresh rubber to the track surface, which greatly improves traction during launch. At maximum throttle and RPM, the exhaust gases escaping from a dragster's open headers produce about of downforce. The massive airfoil over and behind the rear wheels produces much more, peaking at around when the car reaches a speed of about .

A retractable water-rudder, fuselage mounted at the point at which the lower fuselage rose upwards, provided directional control on the water surface. Tests made during 1963 began with the Airfoil Boat operated like any fast motor boat, planing on the surface. With speeds increased to around the X-112 rose clear of the surface as a ram-air air cushion or ground effect vehicle. Solo free flights at up to were made; tests with two occupants were also conducted.

The J4 was designed to comply with the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale microlight rules and US light-sport aircraft rules. It features a strut-braced high-wing, a two-seats-in-side-by- side configuration enclosed cabin accessed by doors, fixed tricycle landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft fuselage is made from welded steel tubing, with riveted aluminum tail and wings. Its span wing has an area of , employs a custom Iannotta airfoil and mounts flaps.

The wing, spanwise, was "gull" shaped. Controls allowed the pilot to vary the angle of incidence of the left and right wing either in unison or independently. Dihedral and an operable elevator were also included. Montgomery concluded that a better understanding of aerodynamics was needed for the design of a proper airfoil. In an 1893 speech, Montgomery said that flights were made in these three craft during the period 1884-1886, with the occasional assistance of at least three friends and two younger brothers.

Montgomery's own account made clear that he considered the technology of the second and third gliders of 1885 and 1886 as effective, but the airfoil designs were a disappointment in terms of lift-generation as they produced much shorter gliding flights in comparison to the first craft of 1884. He realized he was getting increasingly farther from understanding the mechanism of lift and began controlled laboratory experiments to investigate airfoils. In 1886, he briefly considered filing a patent caveat for lateral balancing, but did not.

The airflow approaching the airfoil would direct heavier insects along the stagnation point, and smaller insects to go above the wing. Post-flight examination found only 3 insect carcasses splattered on the Voyager's wings. Roncz's computations were used extensively in the Beech Starship, Scaled Composites Triumph, intended for Beechcraft as the first light jet powered by the Williams FJ-44 engine, and many other Rutan designs. However, Beechcraft's deteriorating financial situation in the 1990s doomed the concept, and only the first Triumph prototype was built.

In 1921, Colonel Virginius Clark, chief designer of the Dayton-Wright Company, designed the Chummy sporting biplane. The airframe was advanced in its use of the new Clark Y airfoil thick-section aerofoil and a welded fuselage framework of chrome-molybdenum steel tubing. A departure from the all-wood structures found in other trainers, the structure proved sturdy and dependable. It was offered to the USAAS as a replacement for the Curtiss JN-4D trainer, with a choice of Le Rhone or Clerget rotary piston engines.

The company states the design goal of the AC-6 as a glider for the competition and training roles, even though it does not have provisions for water ballast. The AC-6 is a wing span development of the span AC-5M, with longer, higher aspect ratio wings terminating in winglets. Like the AC-5, the AC-6 wing employs a Wortmann FX 60-157 airfoil. Assembly of the wing to the fuselage uses a cam pin and incorporates automatic hookups for the ailerons and air brakes.

Schweizer Aircraft started construction of the 1-35 prototype in late 1972 and it first flew in April 1973. The company carried out side-by-side comparisons with fiberglass sailplanes as part of 50 hours of flight evaluations before making the decision to proceed with manufacturing the design on 10 May 1973. The 1-35 is an all-metal aircraft with a monocoque fuselage. The wing has a single spar and the stressed skin features multi- stringers for stiffness, to best retain airfoil shape and laminar flow.

This complication was avoided by the combination of low wing loading and fixed leading-edge camber that varies with spanwise position along the wing. Airfoil thickness ratios vary from 6% at the root to 3% at the tip. The empennage is of metal and composite construction, with twin aluminium/composite material honeycomb structure vertical stabilizers with boron-composite skin, resulting in an exceptionally thin tailplane and rudders. Composite horizontal all-moving tails outboard of the vertical stabilizers move independently to provide roll control in some flight maneuvers.

However, the structures of skin in bats, birds, and gliding lizards are very different from those of typical mammalian skin. The structural arrangement of the fibers within bat wing skin enables the bat to act like a spring during the down-stroke of flapping. The scales of gliding lizards are arranged in a regular rib like pattern to enable to lizard to act as an airfoil. Avain skin must be structurally arranged such that "the coat of feathers" remains smooth and intact during flight.

Its span wing employs a Clark Y airfoil, mounts flaps, has a wing area of and is supported by "V" struts and jury struts. The standard engine used is the Rotax 503 two-stroke and Rotax 912 four-stroke powerplant, although a four-stroke BMW boxer engine was also available as a factory option The Tulak has a typical empty weight of and a gross weight of , giving a useful load of . The manufacturer estimated the construction time from the supplied kit as 700 hours.

The Letov Š-13 was designed as a cantilever biplane, its Zhukovsky airfoil wings thick enough in section to allow internal bracing. In other ways it much resembled the 1923 Letov Š-7. The wings, mounted with modest stagger, were straight edged with constant chord and blunt wingtips. The slightly broader chord upper wing was braced to the fuselage with a cabane, formed on each side by a forward parallel pair of struts from the mid- fuselage, and a rear inverted-V pair from the upper fuselage.

The quickest way to do this is by 3D scanning the product. After the part is scanned, an STL file can be passed to a CNC code generating software such as NX CAM. The tool paths are regenerated to suit the measured geometry and not the nominally generated CAD in a process known as adaptive machining. The processes would typically involve removing part or all of a blade(s), followed by a weld back to approximate size before finishing by final machining back to the airfoil shape.

Considered from an aerodynamic perspective, it is desirable to have the forward-most wing stall first, which will induce a pitch-down moment, aiding in stall recovery.Appendix C1 to "General Aviation Aircraft Design" by Snorri Gudmundson; section C1.2, p.9 Biplane designers may use incidence to control stalling behavior, but may also use airfoil selection or other means to accomplish correct behavior. Decalage angle can also refer to the difference in angle of the chord line of the wing and the chord line of the horizontal stabilizer.

Aviméta 88 photo from L'Aéronautique August,1927 Aviméta, (Société pour la Construction d'Avions Métallique)‚ grew out of the Aeronautical Department of the Schneider-Creusot arms manufacturer. Both the frame and the corrugated covering of the Aviméta 88 were made from Alferium, an aluminium-iron alloy developed by Schneiders. It was a parasol aircraft, with wings of constant chord and with slightly pointed, semi-elliptical tips. The thin-airfoil- section wings were built around two lattice girder spars and had a skin thickness of 300 μm.

The upper wings were attached to the fuselage at shoulder wing position and the lower ones to the lower fuselage, leaving a gap of about 400 mm (16 in). The stagger placed the trailing edge of the upper wing above the lower wing's leading edge. The upper plane had a longer span and wider chord than the lower one. There were no traditional interplane struts; instead, the wing tips were joined by "curtains", approximately parallelogram-shaped airfoil structures the width of the lower wing.

The UMF costume has also offered Spider-Man 2099 limited protection from energy weapons, as the energy blasts could not penetrate it. However, this did not prevent Miguel from suffering the impact of the blasts, and he was still seriously injured. Likewise, if Miguel fell from a great height, the UMF would not protect him from the impact of landing, it simply would not tear in the process. Spider-Man 2099 has a small, web-like airfoil attached to the back of his costume.

Its airfoil section is from the NACA laminar flow 6-series. Ahead of the spar, the wing is skinned with plywood laid with its grain at 45° to the centre line for strength; this goes around the nose of the wing, forming a torsion resisting D-box. Behind the spar the wing is fabric covered. The plan is essentially double straight tapered, though a short centre section has a leading edge normal to the fuselage centre line, and a trailing edge slightly more forward sweep than outboard.

The Silent 2 Electro was derived from the Alisport Silent 2 Targa and differs primarily in having the front electric sustainer with its nose-mounted electric motor and propeller and associated batteries and controllers. It was originally called the Silent Targa E. The aircraft is made from composites and features a T-tail. The wing skins are made from a composite sandwich built over pultruded carbon fibre spars. Its span, elliptical planform wing employs a 16% IMD 050 airfoil, has an area of and mounts flaperons.

The Corvus Fusion is an all composite aircraft offered either as a factory built aircraft or as a kit. It was conceived by Andras Voloscsuk, Chief Executive Engineer, as "... an ultralight aircraft for enthusiasts who would love to try something similar that the Racer 540 can do." It was announced in August 2011 and introduced 27 January 2012 in Pordenone, Italy. The Corvus Fusion features an inverted oil system and a symmetrical airfoil, which allows it to fly equally well either upright or inverted.

The DB-20 was an all-metal monoplane with a mixture of steel and duralumin tube frames and duralumin skin. Designed as a ground attack aircraft, it was heavily armoured. An earlier Dyle and Bacalan twin engine design, the DB-10 had a very deep airfoil centre section between the engines which replaced the forward fuselage. The DB-20 refined this layout; on it the section between the engines was again a single structural unit but it became thinner rapidly outwards to the engines.

The G.M.G. II was a high wing, strut braced monoplane of wooden construction. Its wing had a single spar and was plywood covered from the spar forward to form a torsion resistant D-box. Behind the spar the wing was fabric covered. It was braced on each side with a single, short, airfoil section strut to the lower fuselage longeron and mounted centrally on an arched continuation of the upper fuselage structure from the engine installation, over the tandem cockpits, to behind the seating.

Both have spans of 18.0 m (59 ft 1 in) and are straight tapered with rounded wing tips, although the Air's taper ratio (wing root chord to tip chord) is higher, resulting a slightly greater aspect ratio. Some later Air 100s have squared-off tips terminated in streamlined "salmons". Both wings use the Göttingen 549 airfoil inboard of the tips, though the Air's roots have a thickened version. They are wooden single spar structures, plywood covered ahead of the spar and fabric covered behind.

Mechanics report ice present on the inlet guide vanes, engine cowlings and engine bullet noses, but no ice was found on the aircraft surfaces. A mechanic recommended that the engine anti-icing system be used, but no maintenance was performed on the aircraft in Anchorage. Investigators suspected that ice on the airfoil or transducer may have caused the stall warning to fail. The ice present on the surface of the wings and leading edges could have reduced the angle of attack needed to produce a stall.

The original plan had been for six aircraft with a mixture of nose and side air inlets and varying wing airfoil sections. That plan was quickly reduced to three aircraft of a single configuration with a nose inlet. Plans for the second phase with mixed rocket/jet propulsion were also dropped. Instead, a new aircraft, the D558-2, was designed with mixed rocket and jet propulsion for supersonic flight. Construction of the first 558-1 began in 1946 and was completed in January 1947.

Designed for the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale European microlight class, the Storm 320E features a cantilever low-wing, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit under a forward-hinged bubble canopy, fixed tricycle landing gear with wheel pants, and a single engine in tractor configuration. A conventional landing gear version is designated the Storm 280. The aircraft is made from aluminum sheet with some fibreglass parts. Its span wing employs a NACA 4415 airfoil, mounts flaps and has a wing area of .

An Antonov An-2 biplane An aircraft propeller, or airscrew, converts rotary motion from an engine or other power source, into a swirling slipstream which pushes the propeller forwards or backwards. It comprises a rotating power-driven hub, to which are attached several radial airfoil-section blades such that the whole assembly rotates about a longitudinal axis.Beaumont, R.A.; Aeronautical Engineering, Odhams, 1942, Chapter 13, "Airscrews". Three types of aviation engines used to power propellors include reciprocating engines (or piston engines), gas turbine engines, and electric motors.

Mozhaysky's design relied upon a ramp rather than engine power to generate sufficient speed for lift. The wing design of his aircraft lacked the airfoil camber necessary to generate sufficient lift. While it is possible that Mozhaysky's wings slowed his monoplane's descent after launch from the ramp, the wings were unlikely ever to have provided sufficient lift for sustained flight unless used at angles of attack that would have been impractical, given the steam engines then available to Mozhaysky. He also experimented with different angles of attack.

The SAB AB-20 was a four-engine night bomber development of the three-engine Dyle et Bacalan DB-70 airliner. The change of manufacturer's name was the result of the financial failure of Dyle et Bacalan in 1929, followed by its immediate reappearance as SAB, who took over DB-70 development. The latter was built around a thick, wide chord airfoil centre section which provided generous internal space for passengers. The engines were mounted on this structure as were twin fuselages to carry the tail.

The D.III entered squadron service in December 1916, and was immediately acclaimed by German aircrews for its maneuverability and rate of climb. Two faults with the new aircraft were soon identified. Like the D.II, early D.IIIs featured a Teves und Braun airfoil-shaped radiator in the center of the upper wing, where it tended to scald the pilot if punctured. From the 290th D.III onward, the radiator was offset to the right on production machines while others were soon moved to the right as a field modification.

The GHT operates under a lift-based concept (see airfoil). The foil sections on the GHT are symmetrical, both top- to-bottom and also from the leading-to-trailing edge. The GHT can actually spin equally well in either direction. The GHT works under the same principle as the Darrieus turbine; that is, it relies upon the movement of the foils in order to change the apparent direction of the flow relative to the foils, and thus change the (apparent) "angle of attack" of the foil.

Landing accident, 1953 The delta wing's thin airfoil cross section, low weight and structural strength made it a good candidate for a supersonic airplane. The large surface area of 425 ft2 (39 m2) gave a low wing loading which in turn led to good low-speed performance. Very slow landing speeds could be achieved, at the cost of extremely nose-high landing angles and the resulting poor visibility. The combination of good high-speed and low- speed characteristics was very difficult to achieve for other planforms.

The NACA-derived airfoil provided a high maximum lift coefficient and small pitching moments and the wing had washout to avoid tip stall. There were Schempp-Hirth style airbrakes mounted on the rear of the spar in the central section, extending above and below the wing. On the first two 703s the central sections were set with strong (6.5°) dihedral and the outer section with none, forming a gull wing. The third 703 had the same wing but with constant dihedral from root to tip.

The CAGI RII airfoil, a flat bottomed section, decreased in thickness to chord ratio along the span. Built around a single spar, the wing was also strongly straight tapered in plan, with a taper ratio of 0.18. Near the roots the wing was plywood covered forward of a diagonal sub-spar; further out the ply covering ran around the leading edge from the main spar forming a D shaped torsion box. The rest of the wing was fabric covered, including the half span, tapered ailerons.

The Ultra was designed as a highly efficient aircraft, to comply with the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale microlight rules. It features a cantilever low-wing, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit under a bubble canopy, fixed tricycle landing gear with wheel pants and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from composites. Its span wing employs a Wortmann FX 66-17All-182/26 airfoil, has an area of and flaps that have deflections of 0°, 15° and 35° available.

The prototype was registered as an amateur-built in 1972, but no further aircraft were completed. The Beta 1 was constructed predominantly from fiberglass, with the wing covered in plywood with a layer of fiberglass cloth and resin over that. The wing featured terminal velocity Schempp-Hirth style dive brakes and a Wortmann FX 61-184 airfoil becoming an FX 61-160 at the tip. The fuselage was a pod-and-boom design, with fully reclined pilot seating, a fixed monowheel landing gear and T-tail.

The GS-501 Urraco features a strut-braced high-wing, a two- seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cabin with vertically-hinged doors, fixed tricycle landing gear with wheel pants and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from sheet aluminium "all-metal" construction, with the wing tips and cowling made from composite material. Its span wing employs a NACA 650-18m airfoil, mounts flaps and has a wing area of . The wing is supported by V-struts and jury struts.

The GS-600 Arrow features a strut- braced high-wing, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cabin with vertically-hinged doors, fixed tricycle landing gear with wheel pants and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from sheet aluminium "all-metal" construction, with the wing tips and cowling made from composite material. Its span wing employs a NACA 650-18m airfoil, mounts flaps and has a wing area of . The wing is supported by V-struts and jury struts.

If the speed is high enough air flowing over the car's overall airfoil shape will create sufficient lift to force the car to become airborne. To prevent this, NASCAR developed a set of flaps that are recessed into pockets on the roof of the car. As a car is turned around and reaches an angle where significant lift occurs, the low pressure above the flaps causes them to deploy. The first flap oriented 140 degrees from the centerline of the car typically deploys first.

An advantage is that their single-thickness, curved plate blades prevent the possibility of dust particle buildup inside the blade, as may occur with perforated airfoil blades. The robust design allows high tip-speed operation, and therefore this fan is often used in high-pressure applications. Backward inclined – These fans have simple flat blades, backwardly inclined to match the velocity pattern of the air passing through the fan wheel for high-efficiency operation. These fans are typically used in high-volume, relatively low-pressure, clean air applications.

The upper wing carried Handley Page slots and Frise ailerons; the lower wing alone had dihedral. Both wings used the relatively thick and still novel Raf34 airfoil section; they folded for storage. The rudder was balanced and the braced tailplane carried aerodynamic servo-assisted elevators operated via trailing edge tabs. Barnes Wallis had recently been appointed chief structural engineer for Vickers aircraft and he brought to the Type 207 new methods of duralumin construction in both wings and fuselage from his previous work on airships.

The initial practical result of this legislation was the delivery of four Curtiss N-8s, S.C. Nos. 60–63, which were essentially variants of the JN–3 with a different wing and airfoil and powered by a 90 hp engine. Tests conducted over the next six days verified that these were incapable of meeting the operational conditions in Mexico. On 1 May, it was concluded that the Curtiss N–8 was too slow and under-powered and the landing gear too weak for rough terrain.

Kites sometimes combine ram-air inflation as well as closed-bladder inflation. The shape is loosely derived from an airfoil with air inlets usually at the front, and a bridle which distributes the tether line loads evenly across the whole base of the kite. These kites have no rigid spars. The immense strength of synthetic fabrics allows the creation of non-rigid three-dimensional shapes which hold their shape because the pressure of the air inside the kite is slightly higher than the pressure outside.

This weak starting vortex causes the Kutta condition to be re- established for the new speed or angle of attack. As a result, the circulation around the airfoil changes and so too does the lift in response to the changed speed or angle of attack."This starting vortex formation occurs not only when a wing is first set into motion, but also when the circulation around the wing is subsequently changed for any reason whatever." Millikan, Clark B. (1941), Aerodynamics of the Airplane, p.

Pearse incorporated small "ailerons". Diagrams and eyewitness recollections agree that Pearse placed controls for pitch and yaw at the trailing edge of the low- aspect-ratio kite-type permanently stalled wing. This control placement (located in turbulent air-flow, and close to the centre of gravity) would have had minimal, possibly inadequate, turning moment to control the pitch or yaw of the aircraft. The Wright brothers, in comparison, successfully applied the principles of airfoil wing-profile and three-axis control to produce fully controlled flight.

The Exec 162F is the latest in the Exec series of helicopters manufactured by RotorWay International. The RotorWay Scorpion design was updated with an aluminum tail and full fiberglass cockpit enclosure to become the Exec. The Exec 90 was developed in the early 1990s, it was, at the time, the only piston-powered helicopter to utilize an asymmetrical airfoil for improved autorotation characteristics and safety. In 1994, a fuel injection system with electronic ignition, and FADEC was added to the Exec 90, producing the Exec 162F.

Logo of Hangar-7 Exterior of Hangar-7 at night Hangar-7 is a building in Salzburg, Austria, hosting a collection of historical airplanes, helicopters and Formula One racing cars, and serving as home for the Flying Bulls, a private aircraft fleet stationed in Salzburg. Hangar-7 is owned by Red Bull founder Dietrich Mateschitz. It houses the Michelin-starred restaurant Ikarus, two bars and a lounge. The building is airfoil shaped, constructed of 1,200 tons of steel and 75,000 sqft of glass surface.

QBlade is an open-source wind turbine calculation software, distributed under the GNU General Public License. The software is seamlessly integrated into XFOIL, an airfoil design and analysis tool. The purpose of this software is the design and aerodynamic simulation of wind turbine blades. The integration in XFOIL allows for the user to rapidly design custom airfoils and compute their performance curves, Extrapolating the performance data to a range of 360°Angle of attack, and directly integrate them into a wind turbine rotor simulation.

The SG-1 was conceived as a very simple and economical aircraft that could be built with modest construction skills and very little financial investment. The prototype was completed in 1970 for US$400 and subsequent aircraft were built for under US$1000. The SG-1 is constructed with a welded steel fuselage and tail surfaces and covered with doped aircraft fabric. The wing is made from an aluminium structure, covered in aluminum sheet and features upper-surface spoilers and a modified Gö 549 airfoil.

Bowlus, William H. "How to Build the Bowlus Sailplane" Modern Mechanics and Inventions for January, 1930, pp. 140-148. Otherwise the aircraft was predominantly wood and doped aircraft fabric.Bowlus, William H. "How to Build the Bowlus Sailplane" Modern Mechanics and Inventions for January, 1930, pp. 140-148. The aircraft originally had a span wing with a USA 35-A airfoil with conventional aileron control and landing wheels for the rough dirt surface at Lindbergh Field.Fogel, Gary. 2000. Wind and Wings: The History of Soaring in San Diego.

The HP-8 was designed as a result of the lessons learned in flying the HP-7 in the 1957 US Nationals. The HP-7 was destroyed in an aero-towing accident shortly after the Nationals and Schreder decided to improve on the earlier design with the HP-8. As in all of Schreder's designs, the HP stands for "high performance". The HP-8 is an all-metal design with a very high aspect ratio wing of 24:1, that incorporates a NACA 65 (3)-618 airfoil.

Whilst this makes the Parsons turbine much longer and heavier, the overall efficiency of a reaction turbine is slightly higher than the equivalent impulse turbine for the same thermal energy conversion. In practice, modern turbine designs use both reaction and impulse concepts to varying degrees whenever possible. Wind turbines use an airfoil to generate a reaction lift from the moving fluid and impart it to the rotor. Wind turbines also gain some energy from the impulse of the wind, by deflecting it at an angle.

Developed from the V-STOL Solution, the Super Solution 2000 was developed for flight training, recreational flying and crop dusting. It features a cable-braced parasol wing, a two-seats-in-tandem open cockpit without a windshield, fixed conventional landing gear with wheel pants and a single engine in pusher configuration. The aircraft is made from bolted- together aluminum tubing, with its flying surfaces covered in Dacron sailcloth. Its span wing uses a single surface high-lift airfoil, mounts flaps and has a wing area of .

Its fixed undercarriage had mainwheels on a rigid axle, rubber sprung from the crosspiece between two tall V-form legs mounted on the fuselage at the same points as the interplane struts. The axle and crosspiece were enclosed within an airfoil section fairing, which provided some additional lift. The J 23 first flew in June 1923 and was tail heavy, a fault rectified by an increase in length (several sources, e.g. put the length at about but L'Aérophile, a year after the first flight, gives ).

A new radiator, shallower but wider than that fitted to the E was developed. A boundary layer duct allowed continual airflow to pass through the airfoil above the radiator ducting and exit from the trailing edge of the upper split flap. The lower split flap was mechanically linked to the central "main" flap, while the upper split flap and forward bath lip position were regulated via a thermostatic valve which automatically positioned the flaps for maximum cooling effectiveness.109 F cooling system Retrieved 24 April 2008.

Munk earned an engineering degree from the Hannover Polytechnic School in 1914 and doctorates in both physics and mathematics from the University of Göttingen in 1918 with a dissertation on parametric studies of airfoils under Ludwig Prandtl. Munk's dissertation contained the nucleus of what would become airfoil theory. After World War I, NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, later to become NASA) brought Munk to the United States. President Woodrow Wilson signed orders allowing Munk to come to the United States and work in government.

Both a decrease in lift on the wing due to an altered airfoil shape, and the increase in weight of the aircraft directly caused by the ice load will usually result in the pilot having to fly at a greater angle of attack of the airfoil to make up for the loss of lift needed to maintain an assigned altitude, or chosen rate of descent/ascent, notwithstanding power changes that are available and the airspeed desired. If the greater angle of attack exceeds the critical angle of attack, an aerodynamic stall will occur, which can occur at any airspeed and at any flight attitude, an oft-overlooked fact (even by pilots). In summary, depending on whether the icing event occurs on the wing or horizontal stabilizer/stabilator, the lifting force that is deceased can result in a pitch up or pitch down. One "trick" employed by pilots wishing to improve both the airspeed and load carrying performance of aircraft in both icing and non-icing conditions is to load the aircraft closer to its rear CG (center of gravity) limit, and/or fly with rearward (nose up) trim.

Roncz was particularly interested in the world of laminar flow, that elusive concept which promises greatly reduced drag if it could be achieved and maintained in a practical operational situation. Of his own volition, he analyzed the canard airfoils of Burt Rutan's homebuilt airplane design, the Long-EZ. He was not acquainted with Rutan, but he sent his analysis to the then-famous airplane designer. Rutan verified the analysis with an airfoil specialist at Rockwell International, then contacted Roncz. The two have since collaborated on some 20 designs, 17 of which have been constructed.

The Nieuport 24 utilized a new wing of the same planform as the preceding Nieuport 23, but with a plywood leading edge and a new airfoil section having a flatter underside. The forward spar was moved aft, visibly affecting the cabane struts, which were then angled back. The ailerons had their tips rounded off and to reduce drag and were given a fabric strip reinforced with wire to cover the hinge gap, however the strip severely affected the type's handling, so it was removed shortly after service entry.Varriale, 2015, pp.

1947 Buick Super Sedanet rear 1948 Buick Super convertible 1948 Buick Super The 1942 Super coupes adopted the appealing Sedanet fastback style that had been the sensation of 1941 on Century and Special. New wider and lower bodies were offered and "Airfoil" front fenders that flowed into the lines of the rear fenders were introduced on convertibles and sedanet models. The Super had new front fender trim featuring parallel chrome strips. Also featured for 1942 was a handsome new grille with a lower outline and thin vertical strips.

The Starlet features a strut-braced parasol wing, a single- seat open cockpit with a windshield, fixed conventional landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft fuselage is made from welded 4130 steel tubing, while the wing is made from wood and covered in doped aircraft fabric. Its span wing employs a Clark YH airfoil, has an area of . The recommended installed power is , and engines used include the Volkswagen air-cooled engine, the Rotax 912UL, Subaru EA-81, Suzuki and small Continental Motors, Inc. powerplants.

A 2008 study by Fabrizio De Gregorio and Giuseppe Fraioli at CIRA and the University of Rome in Italy tried this out. The model aerofoils used in their wind tunnel tests were equipped with numerous small holes through which air could be blown or sucked in an active way. They concluded that the trapped vortex formed by a cavity or step could not be held in place without such active control. Just relying passively on wing shape wasn't enough – the vortex would detach possibly giving you worse characteristics than the original unstepped airfoil.

Skin friction arises from the interaction between the fluid and the skin of the body, and is directly related to the area of the surface of the body that is in contact with the fluid. Skin friction follows the drag equation and rises with the square of the velocity. Skin friction is caused by viscous drag in the boundary layer around the object. There are two ways to decrease skin friction: the first is to shape the moving body so that smooth flow is possible, like an airfoil.

It was a single-engine, high-wing monoplane with a twin-boom layout and tricycle undercarriage to enable easy access to the fuselage pod via rear doors. The inner wing sections, fitted with slotted flaps on the trailing edges had constant chord but further out the wings tapered, with slotted ailerons. There was a single lift strut on each side between wing and lower fuselage, with an airfoil profile to add to the lift from the wings. The fuselage of the Tagak was a wood and plywood framed semi-monocoque skinned with Wobex and ply.

The Tigress was made from composites, including graphite fiber. Its span was shorter than that used on the Lancair IV, mounted flaps and had a wing area of . The Tigress's wing used a McWilliams RXM5-217 airfoil at the wing root, transitioning to a NACA 64-212 at the wing tip, the same as employed on the Lancair IV. The aircraft had a typical empty weight of and a gross weight of , giving a useful load of . With full fuel of the payload for pilot, passengers and baggage was .

The weight reduction over traditional designs means that a larger percentage of the total weight of the boat is concentrated in the keel providing greater stability and the ability to carry a larger sail plan for greater power. The weight of the entire boat is 2100 kilograms, including the hull and standing rigging. The design concentrates the righting moment of the keel in a 990 kilogram torpedo- shaped bulb at the end of an airfoil shaped fin. The ballast to displacement ratio is 0.47 which provides a "stiff" and stable platform.

The CBY-3 in 1948 Originally registered CF-BEL-X while still in the experimental stage, this one-off, twin-boom, aerofoil-section fuselage, high- lift airliner garnered significant interest from the industry. CF-BEL-X underwent rigorous testing and proving flights designed to show off its potential. Despite a trouble-free test program and glowing accolades from the press and industry observers, no production orders resulted and the prototype was later sold in the United States as N17N. Moving to Southampton, New York, Burnelli continued to promote his airfoil-shaped fuselage transport aircraft.

LAK-17bt fuselage and engine The LAK-17 is designed to meet the requirements of the utility category of JAR-22. It is a single- seat mid-wing sailplane of composite construction with a T-tail and flaps, it has a retractable single-wheel main landing gear and has airbrakes on the upper wing surface. The airfoil is a combination of the LAP92-130/15, at its roots, and the LAP-92-150/15, at its tips. The LAK-17 holds water ballast in tanks in the wing and fin.

The wing features a thick, deep spar to reduce wing flexing and "oil-canning" that might interrupt laminar flow. The wing was assembled using flush rivets and has balanced top and bottom dive brakes. The aircraft first flew in 1958 and flight testing was reported by Schweizer Aircraft as on-going through 1959. The 1-29 program did yield positive results. The standard production model SGS 1-23H-15 with the same fuselage and wingspan as the 1-29 and a NACA 43012A airfoil, produced a best glide ratio of 29:1.

The Cyclone is a replica of the Cessna 180 that incorporates modifications and improvements, such as an extended wing span, greater wing area and vertically hinged doors. It features a strut-braced high-wing, a four-seat enclosed cabin accessed via doors, fixed conventional landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from sheet aluminum, with the kit airframe parts preformed with pilot holes to allow construction without the use of jigs. Its span wing employs a NACA 2412 airfoil, mounts flaps and has a wing area of .

Its span, semi-tapered wing employs a Wortmann FX-60-17A11-182 airfoil at the wing root, transitioning to an FX-60-126 at the wing tip. The wing has an area of and mounts top surface Schempp-Hirth-style air brakes. The L-33 was a competitor in the IGC World Class sailplane design competition, but lost to the Polish Politechnika Warszawska PW-5. The design is type certified to JAR 22 in Argentina, Canada, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States.

63, No. 5, May 1935. the story of "Mile A Minute-Thrills of the Water" tells the story of the "No-Vac" by LeRoy F. Malrose Sr. aka. Fred W. McQuigg (pen name). LeRoy was the lead design illustrator for Popular Mechanics magazine, which at the time was located in Chicago, Il. The No-Vac design and build actually began in 1933, when LeRoy Sr. conceptualized an airfoil hull surface design which proved to produce far less drag than conventional "V" style boat hull designs of the time.

The Zugvogel was designed with the goal of a simple and inexpensive, but high performance, open class competition glider, with quick assembly. It was developed through several variants before production ended after 100 had been completed. The aircraft is of mixed construction, with a welded steel tube fuselage covered in doped aircraft fabric covering, wooden framed tail surfaces covered in fabric and wooden wings. The span wing uses a NACA 63-616 airfoil at the wing root, changing to a NACA 63-614 section at the wing tip.

Only later was the reason for the Davis wing's performance properly understood. Largely through accident, the shape maintained laminar flow further back from its leading edge, to about 20 or 30% of chord compared to the 5 to 20% managed by most airfoil sections of the era. Although other designs greatly improved on this, with some designs maintaining laminar flow to upwards of 60% of chord, the Davis wing represented a great improvement at the time. The thick profile of the wing quickly led to its being superseded.

The NASA high-speed 0213 airfoil sustains natural laminar flow over 30% of the upper surface for 10-15% better lift-to- drag than the larger NACA 23000-series wing of the Citation 500. Its structure is a conventional ladder with chord-wise ribs over front and rear spars, and an aft sub spar to support the landing gear. To reduce interference drag, a large fairing encases the low wing center section, and the engines are mounted high on the tail. The Williams FJ44 has a 2.58:1 bypass ratio.

The bat wing is a membrane stretched across four extremely elongated fingers and the legs. The airfoil of the bird wing is made of feathers, strongly attached to the forearm (the ulna) and the highly fused bones of the wrist and hand (the carpometacarpus), with only tiny remnants of two fingers remaining, each anchoring a single feather. So, while the wings of bats and birds are functionally convergent, they are not anatomically convergent. Birds and bats also share a high concentration of cerebrosides in the skin of their wings.

Going to McCook Field, Ohio, in November 1921, Gardner worked with the development of bomb sights. In August 1923 he went to Luke Field, Hawaii, for duty with the 23d Bomb Squadron, assuming command of it the following July. Two years later he was reassigned to McCook Field, to attend the Air Corps Engineering School, graduated in June 1927, and a year later received his Master of Science degree in mathematics from Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His thesis was titled "Dynamics of fluid motion about an airfoil" and ran 84 pages.

The 1964 version of the Super Javelot increased the dihedral on the outer panels to 5.50°, refined the aerodynamics of the wing root to fuselage junction and covered the whole wing with birch ply to encourage laminar flow. The Wassmer WA 23 was a final, experimental development. It had a Super Javelot fuselage fitted with a new, 18 m (59 ft 1 in) span wing, an aspect ratio of 22 and a new airfoil profile specially designed by Maurice Collard. The empty weight of the WA 23 was 295 kg (650 lb).

The later models use conventional fabric methods and this makes the factory- claimed build times 150–200 hours for the SS and 180–200 hours to the RX 550 Plus. All Beaver wings are swept-back and have elliptical tips. The Plus wing differs from the earlier Beaver wings in that it replaces the internal drag wires with tubes and uses many more ribs to maintain a better airfoil shape, at the cost of additional weight and complexity. The SS and RX 550 Plus wings have 3/4 span ailerons.

Together with the upward deflection of air in front and the downward deflection of the air immediately behind, this establishes a net circulatory component of the flow. The downward deflection and the changes in flow speed are pronounced and extend over a wide area, as can be seen in the flow animation on the right. These differences in the direction and speed of the flow are greatest close to the airfoil and decrease gradually far above and below. All of these features of the velocity field also appear in theoretical models for lifting flows.

Air passing through the high-pressure region below the airfoil is slowed down as it enters and then sped back up as it leaves. Thus the non- uniform pressure is also the cause of the changes in flow speed visible in the flow animation. The changes in flow speed are consistent with Bernoulli's principle, which states that in a steady flow without viscosity, lower pressure means higher speed, and higher pressure means lower speed. Thus changes in flow direction and speed are directly caused by the non-uniform pressure.

This requires maintaining pressure differences in both the vertical and horizontal directions, and thus requires both downward turning of the flow and changes in flow speed according to Bernoulli's principle. The pressure differences and the changes in flow direction and speed sustain each other in a mutual interaction. The pressure differences follow naturally from Newton's second law and from the fact that flow along the surface follows the predominantly downward-sloping contours of the airfoil. And the fact that the air has mass is crucial to the interaction.

The Euler equations are the NS equations without the viscosity, heat conduction, and turbulence effects.Anderson (1995) As with a RANS solution, an Euler solution consists of the velocity vector, pressure, density, and temperature defined at a dense grid of points surrounding the airfoil. While the Euler equations are simpler than the NS equations, they do not lend themselves to exact analytic solutions. Further simplification is available through potential flow theory, which reduces the number of unknowns to be determined, and makes analytic solutions possible in some cases, as described below.

Culver designed the Rigid Midget as a development of the Screaming Wiener in 1941, but due to the Second World War no prototype was constructed until 1947. The Rigid Midget resembles the Screaming Wiener, but the Midget has a wingspan that is greater and it uses a different airfoil. The first Midget was built by Parker and Bowmar and is registered with the Federal Aviation Administration as a Bellow Flex CC 4-36. Bowmar completely restored and rebuilt the aircraft in about 1971 and donated it to the National Soaring Museum.

CFD-FASTRAN was used to study the aerodynamic performance of a hypersonic vehicle powered by scramjet engines. Flow conditions were simulated at various angles of attack at Mach 5.85.Liang Jin, Xian Yu Wu, Jing Lei, Li Yan, Wei Huang, Jun Liu, “CFD Analysis of a Hypersonic Vehicle Powered by Triple-Module Scramjets,” Applied Mechanics and Materials, Volume 390, Pages 71-75, August 2013. Two-dimensional numerical flow simulations were performed with CFD-FASTRAN to compare the effects of a combined jet flap and Coanda jet effects a supercritical airfoil.

MSRP is between $20 and $40 USD. The Picoo Z features a self-stabilized main rotor with a weighted airfoil-type stabilizer bar that removes the need for corrective pilot input to achieve stable flight. Because of this full-cyclic-authority stabilizer design, merely applying enough lift power to cancel gravity allows the Picoo Z to hover almost immediately making it very simplistic for a beginner. The Picoo Z can reduce or increase the output through the tail rotor by means of an independent motor, allowing it to yaw left or right.

Like most 1930s primary gliders, the Basettino was a simple, high braced wing aircraft with a forward nacelle and an open frame rear fuselage. Its two spar, fabric covered wing had greater span and aspect ratio than most of its class and had a higher performance airfoil. A straight, constant chord centre section occupied most of the span, with straight tapered outer panels which carried the ailerons and had rounded tips. The wings were supported over the nacelle by a single, central N form strut, with an upright forward member and a sloping rear component.

The wing uses a NACA 63(3)-618 laminar flow airfoil and achieves a glide ratio of 28:1. About 6 were built. ;Cook LEC-1 Modified Cherokee :Built as a stock Cherokee II by Larry Cook of Hershey, Pennsylvania the aircraft was damaged and rebuilt with the wing from a Miller Tern, giving it a wingspan of . The aircraft was later further modified by later owners adding span spoilers on the upper wing surfaces, removing the dorsal fin, increasing the fin chord, as well as adding flaps and small rear windows.

The drag-divergence Mach number (not to be confused with critical Mach number) is the Mach number at which the aerodynamic drag on an airfoil or airframe begins to increase rapidly as the Mach number continues to increase. This increase can cause the drag coefficient to rise to more than ten times its low-speed value. The value of the drag-divergence Mach number is typically greater than 0.6; therefore it is a transonic effect. The drag-divergence Mach number is usually close to, and always greater than, the critical Mach number.

It was linked to the upper fuselage by a rather complicated set of struts. Traditionally, Albatros had constructed fuselages with wood frames, but the L.66 marked a departure, with a welded steel tube longeron and strut framework covered with fabric. The sides were flat and almost airfoil-shaped, with a blunt, rounded nose and taper aft. The nose-mounted engine, driving a two-blade propeller, was raised above the fuselage with a fairing behind it, enclosing the oil tank and with the instrument panel attached to its rear.

Airfoils attached to the structure generated forces used to control the airship and to lift the other half of the load. The aerostat contained a rigid internal axle along its long axis. Halfway along the axle, two long beams were fixed at right angles to it and to each other, passing through the aerostat (envelope) where they carried four wings of symmetric airfoil section, or blades as AeroLift termed them. Each blade carried at its tip another, shorter wing mounted with its long axis perpendicular to the plane of the blade, making a T shape.

By the mid–to–late eighties the LS4 had lost its leading position in the Standard Class to new arrivals, in particular the excellent Discus from Schempp-Hirth. The LS7, in spite of its advanced design, did not recapture the lead and, with flagging sales, Rolladen-Schneider went back to the drawing board. Designer Wolf Lemke was skeptical of the usefulness of developing a new airfoil. There was no guarantee that the large effort and investment required would bring any palpable gains, as the LS7, ASW 24 and DG-600 had clearly shown.

Kiceniuk abandoned the designs for Icarus III and Icarus IV in favor of a monoplane configuration for Icarus V. Icarus V was a swept wing, constant-chord, flying wing monoplane with a span. Construction was of cable- braced aluminum tubing covered with fabric. The leading edge had foam sheet formed over aluminum ribs. It had an efficient high-lift airfoil giving it a glide ratio of 10:1, which was remarkable for a hang glider (Rogallo wings were hardly more than steerable parachutes with glide ratios of around 3:1).

The Potez VIII as first displayed, unflown, at the 1919 Paris Salon was a conventional small, single engine aircraft of its time apart from a most unusual engine and an unconventional undercarriage. It was a single bay biplane with rectangular plan wings mounted without stagger but with marked dihedral and braced with pair of parallel, airfoil section interplane struts. A pair of inverted V cabane struts, parallel to each other, joined the central section of the upper wing to the upper fuselage longerons. There were ailerons on the upper wing only.

Versions with the more powerful O-235 were also offered, listed at $4,200. Development dragged on and a lot of money was expended without delivering a final design. A few local Cleveland businessmen took control of the company in 1968 and renamed it American Aviation in order to produce the design in complete factory-built form as the American AA-1. A number of changes were later introduced into the design to make it more stable, notably a larger horizontal tail, and then a more forgiving airfoil on the main wing.

The SF-2A Cygnet is a development of the earlier Sisler SF-2 Whistler introduced in 1973. The design features a strut-braced shoulder-wing, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit under a bubble canopy, fixed conventional landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from wood, 4130 steel tubing and covered in doped aircraft fabric. Its span wing employs a NACA 3413 airfoil, has an area of and is supported by a single strut with a jury strut.

The Stipa-Caproni experimental airplane in flight on October 7, 1932, piloted by Caproni company test pilot Domenico Antonini. The prototype, named the Stipa- Caproni,Guttman refers to it as the "Caproni Stipa" throughout his March 2010 Aviation History article. first flew on October 7, 1932. Remarkably ungainly in appearance, the plane nonetheless proved Stipa's concept in that its intubed propeller increased its engine's efficiency, and the airfoil shape of the tube gave it an improved rate of climb compared to conventional aircraft of similar engine power and wing loading.

At 180,000 ft it would accelerate forwards using lightweight, low power ion propulsion, enabling it to rise further with additional aerodynamic lift. This would be powered by solar panels which cover most of the upper surface of the airship. They say that the V-shaped planform and airfoil profile would allow hypersonic flight by 200,000 feet, increasing to orbital speed (above Mach 20). They say that there is a wide margin of drag-to-power ratios within which an orbital airship can attain orbit.Boyle, A. “Airship groomed for flight to edge of space” nbcnews.

Paragliding at Cochrane hill, AB, Canada, 1991. An APCO Starlite 26. Apco Starlite 26 paraglider launch inflating cells by pulling up top risers Paragliders - virtually all of which use ram-air canopies - are more akin to today's sport parachutes than, say, parachutes of the mid-1970s and earlier. Technically, they are ascending parachutes, though that term is not used in the paragliding community, and they have the same basic airfoil design of today's 'square' or 'elliptical' sports parachuting canopy, but generally have more sectioned cells, higher aspect ratio and a lower profile.

Plasma actuators are a type of actuator currently being developed for aerodynamic flow control. Plasma actuators impart force in a similar way to ionocraft. Plasma flows control has drawn considerable attention and been used in boundary layer acceleration, airfoil separation control, forebody separation control, turbine blade separation control, axial compressor stability extension, heat transfer and high-speed jet control. The working of these actuators is based on the formation of a low-temperature plasma between a pair of asymmetric electrodes by application of a high-voltage AC signal across the electrodes.

Despite the limitation imposed by a lack of suitable engines, the fighter remained a relatively compact and balanced design.Cattaneo 1967, pp. 3-4. The aircraft was furnished with an elliptical wing, the internal structure of which comprised a multi-cell configuration using a total of five spars, stress-skin covering, and integral fuel tanks within the center section. The wing made use of a modified N.38 airfoil section and was outfitted with Frise-type ailerons complete with static and aerodynamic balance, along with a split-continuous flap.

Because most biplanes do not have cantilever structures, they require rigging wires to maintain their rigidity. Early aircraft used simple wire (either braided or plain), however during the First World War, the British Royal Aircraft Factory developed airfoil section wire named RAFwire in an effort to both increase the strength and reduce the drag. Four types of wires are used in the biplane wing structure. Drag wires inside the wings prevent the wings from being folded back against the fuselage, running inside a wing bay from the forward inboard corner to the rear outboard corner.

The Annebula design is derived from the Cherokee II, but while retaining the basic Cherokee structure, Leonard incorporated many changes and new features. The aircraft is built from wood and fiberglass, with aircraft fabric covering. The Annebula uses a completely new single-spar wing with Prue-type trailing edge dive brakes. The airfoil is a NACA laminar flow type of varying section over the span, starting at the wing root as a NACA 64(3)-618, becoming a NACA 64(3)-615 by mid-span and then a NACA 4412 at the tip.

The wings were duralumin-skinned, riveted to the substructure with separate enclosed leading edge sections which were bolted onto the central box, and the rear parts of the wing were similarly constructed. All sections were individually watertight with the leading edges housing the fuel tanks. The outer sections had high-aspect-ratio ailerons along their trailing edges. A Hispano-Suiza 12Nbr water-cooled, geared V-12 engine was mounted in a pusher position over the wing within a cowling which had an airfoil section in plan but which followed the contours of the cylinder heads.

The wings used a thick airfoil and were straight edged, slightly tapered and square tipped; the lower wing had a slightly smaller span. The upper wing had a deep cut-out to provide some upward vision for the pilot, who sat under the wing just aft of mid-chord. The It had a fixed, conventional undercarriage with its mainwheels on a single axle mounted on a pair of V-struts to the lower fuselage longerons, assisted by a long tailskid, mounted well forward. Ponnier had hoped for military orders but none came.

The GS-710 Magic was designed to comply with the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale microlight category, including the category's maximum gross weight of . The aircraft features a strut-braced high-wing, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cabin with doors, fixed tricycle landing gear with wheel pants and a single engine in tractor configuration. The GS-710 Magic is made from sheet aluminium "all-metal" construction, with the wing tips and cowling made from composite material. Its span wing employs a NACA 650-18m airfoil and mounts flaps.

Sierra Nevada proposed Dream Chaser for the CCDev phase 2 solicitation by NASA in October 2010, with an estimated project cost of less than $1 billion. On 18 April 2011, NASA awarded $80 million to Sierra Nevada Corporation for Dream Chaser. Since then, nearly a dozen further milestones have been completed under that Space Act Agreement. Some of these milestones included testing of an improved airfoil fin shape, integrated flight software and hardware, landing gear, a full-scale captive carry flight test, and a Systems Requirement Review (SRR).

The BZ-1 started as a design by Clark Frazier of Bluffton, Ohio in 1967. He started construction of a glider fuselage from the drop tank of a North American F-86 Sabre and called it the Zeus II. Frazier never completed the project and it was subsequently purchased by Michael Bowlus of Worthington, Ohio. Bowlus constructed wings for the re- designated BZ-1, starting with the wing design of the Schreder Airmate HP-11, but shortened to . The wing incorporates ailerons hinged at the bottom and a NACA 65 (3)-618 laminar flow airfoil.

The original intention for Gemini was to land on solid ground instead of at sea, using a Rogallo wing rather than a parachute, with the crew seated upright controlling the forward motion of the craft. To facilitate this, the airfoil did not attach just to the nose of the craft, but to an additional attachment point for balance near the heat shield. This cord was covered by a strip of metal which ran between the twin hatches. This design was ultimately dropped, and parachutes were used to make a sea landing as in Mercury.

Finally, for small perturbations in subsonic and supersonic flows (not transonic or hypersonic) these equations can be linearized to yield the linearized potential equations. Historically, methods were first developed to solve the linearized potential equations. Two-dimensional (2D) methods, using conformal transformations of the flow about a cylinder to the flow about an airfoil were developed in the 1930s. One of the earliest type of calculations resembling modern CFD are those by Lewis Fry Richardson, in the sense that these calculations used finite differences and divided the physical space in cells.

Streamlines around a NACA 0012 airfoil at moderate angle of attack A foil generates lift primarily because of its shape and angle of attack. When oriented at a suitable angle, the foil deflects the oncoming fluid, resulting in a force on the foil in the direction opposite to the deflection. This force can be resolved into two components: lift and drag. This "turning" of the fluid in the vicinity of the foil creates curved streamlines which results in lower pressure on one side and higher pressure on the other.

Transonic flow patterns on an airfoil showing the formation of shock waves at different Mach numbers (M) in high-speed flight. In high-speed flight, the assumptions of incompressibility of the air used in low-speed aerodynamics no longer apply. In subsonic aerodynamics, the theory of lift is based upon the forces generated on a body and a moving gas (air) in which it is immersed. At airspeeds below about , air can be considered incompressible in regards to an aircraft, in that, at a fixed altitude, its density remains nearly constant while its pressure varies.

It was noted at the time that the wings were very thin and so required elaborate struttage which also involved the fixed landing gear. The central part of the latter was a wooden airfoil section, span plane which contributed an extra 13% lifting area. This had metal carriers at its tips, each supported by a pair of almost parallel struts to the lower fuselage. Split axles, mounted centrally on a transverse V-strut from the fuselage, were connected to the carriers via rubber shock absorbers and mounted the wheels.

The undercarriage was initially completed with a long sprung tail skid, later replaced by a shorter cane skid mounted further aft.The Dyott monoplane at Hendon Flight 1 November 1913 At the same time, Dyott made some changes to the transverse bracing of the main undercarriage. The low aspect ratio wings were parallel edged and almost square tipped, with the thin airfoil section typical of the time. They were built around two spars, each a spruce-ash-spruce sandwich, and the profile was formed with mixed spruce and ash ribs.

The Shark was designed with the goal of providing similar performance to other twin-engined light aircraft, but on 30% less power. It features a cantilever low-wing, a five-seat enclosed cabin, retractable tricycle landing gear and twin wing-mounted engines in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from Kevlar and carbon fibre. Its span wing employs a Jd 16 (40) 162 airfoil at the wing root, transitioning to a Jd 17 (40) 157 at mid-span and a Jd 15 (35) 136 at the wing tip.

This would be solved regarding that theory only in the 1920s by complement of the Betz law (Goldstein, Betz, Prandtl and Lanchester): William Graebel, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, p. 144, , John Carlton, Marine Propellers and Propulsion, p. 169, . The Wright brothers however were equating the propeller blade to an airfoil instead, which for they previously had already determined the aerodynamic behavioural patterns: John David Anderson, A History of Aerodynamics: And Its Impact on Flying Machines, Even so, this was perhaps the first use of aluminium in the construction of an airscrew.

Designed in the 1970s, the Nugget was intended to compete with the new European fiberglass gliders that were beginning to appear, and as such incorporated mixed construction methods. The fuselage is built with a fiberglass cockpit area, with the fuselage aft of the wing trailing edge made from aluminum. The wing is of Chem-weld bonded aluminum construction, the bonding replacing rivets in an attempt to get a surface as smooth and wave-free as fiberglass. The wing employs a Wortmann FX 67 170/150 airfoil and has flaps.

A "dogtooth" in aviation is a wing or tailplane design where the leading edge of the airfoil has a noticeable "notch." Many high-performance aircraft use the dogtooth design, which induces a vortex over the wing to control boundary layer spanwise extension, increasing lift and improving resistance to stall. Some of the best-known uses of the dogtooth are in the stabilizer of the F-15 Eagle and the wings of the F-4 Phantom II, F/A-18 Super Hornet, CF-105 Arrow, F-8U Crusader, and the Ilyushin Il-62.

The top of the wing of an Oracle AC45 racing catamaran Wingsails are of two basic constructions that create an airfoil, "soft" (fabric-shaped) and "hard" (rigid-surfaced). L. Francis Herreshoff pioneered a precursor rig that had jib and main, each with a two-ply sail with leading edges attached to a rotating spar. The C Class Catamaran class has been experimenting and refining wingsails in a racing context since the 60s. Englishman, John Walker, explored the use of wingsails in cargo ships and developed the first practical application for sailing yachts in the 1990s.

M.D. Maughmer and D.M. Somers - Design and experimental results for a high-altitude, long-endurance airfoil Journal of Aircraft Vol. 26, No. 2 (1989) doi: 10.2514/3.45736 (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Association) [Retrieved 2015-12-09] The research paper, 2025, written by B.W. Carmichael (Colonel), and Majors, T.E. DeVine, R.J. Kaufman, P.E. Pence and R.E. Wilcox, and presented July 1996, foresaw routine HALE-UAV operations happening within the early 21st century. In contemplation of a future of the military, projected to 2025, the authors thought a HALE in flight for 24 hours.

Underneath the cockpit were four 20 mm (0.79 in) M3 autocannon. Their 600 rounds of ammunition were carried behind the pilot. The empty casings of the two upper guns were retained in the aircraft, while those from the two lower guns were ejected overboard.Koehnen 1983, pp. 3, 6. After a company-wide contest to name the aircraft, the initial prototype received the name Pirate and made its first flight on 2 October 1946. Flight testing revealed severe aerodynamic problems, mostly caused by the airfoil section and thickness of the wing.

The LM-1 was built using a modified wing from a Laister-Kauffman TG-4. The wing retains its original wood and doped aircraft fabric construction, its span as well as the use of a NACA 4418 airfoil at the wing root, transitioning to a NACA 4409 at the wing tip. The newly designed fuselage is made from welded steel tube and fiberglass. The landing gear was originally a retractable dual-wheel hydraulic arrangement, that was replaced with a more conventional retractable monowheel from a Schreder HP-14.

All the three aerodynamic coefficients are integrals of the pressure coefficient curve along the chord. The coefficient of lift for a two-dimensional airfoil section with strictly horizontal surfaces can be calculated from the coefficient of pressure distribution by integration, or calculating the area between the lines on the distribution. This expression is not suitable for direct numeric integration using the panel method of lift approximation, as it does not take into account the direction of pressure-induced lift. This equation is true only for zero angle of attack.

Full-span leading-edge slot in the wing of the PZL-104M Wilga 2000 At an angle of attack above about 15° many airfoils enter the stall. Modification of such an airfoil with a fixed leading-edge slot can increase the stalling angle to between 22° and 25°.Clancy, L.J., Aerodynamics, Section 6.9 Slots were first developed by Handley Page in 1919 and the first aircraft to fly with them was the experimental H.P.17, a modified Airco DH.9A. Their invention is credited jointly to Sir Frederick Handley Page and Gustav Lachmann.

The Pacer Monoplane, designed by Frank R. Seesock, was a parasol wing, open cockpit four-seater, offered with a choice of engines. Its wings were rectangular in plan out to tips tapered on their leading edges and were built around twin, solid spars and plywood ribs, with fabric covering. They were joined to the lower fuselage longerons by parallel pairs of struts to the spars at about 2/3 span. These had a broad chord, airfoil section and, with a combined area of , made a useful contribution to the Pacer's lift.

The HP-13 (HP stands for high performance) was a developmental milestone aircraft between the HP-11 and the later HP-14. The HP-13 was designed by taking the fuselage of the HP-11 and wings similar to the HP-12, featuring the same Wortmann FX 61-163 airfoil but extended from the HP-12's FAI Standard Class span to for the open class. Eight HP-13s were completed. The HP-13 was later developed into the HP-14 by designing a new fuselage for the wings.

During the time of the first flights, Frederick W. Lanchester, Martin Kutta, and Nikolai Zhukovsky independently created theories that connected circulation of a fluid flow to lift. Kutta and Zhukovsky went on to develop a two-dimensional wing theory. Expanding upon the work of Lanchester, Ludwig Prandtl is credited with developing the mathematics behind thin-airfoil and lifting-line theories as well as work with boundary layers. As aircraft speed increased, designers began to encounter challenges associated with air compressibility at speeds near or greater than the speed of sound.

By increasing efficiency, a lower cruise-speed augments the range and reduces the environmental impact of aviation; however, a higher cruise-speed allows more revenue passenger miles flown per day. Jet engine efficiency increases with velocity because the speed difference between the flight and the exhaust is lower. However, above the drag divergence Mach number, the aerodynamic drag on the airframe overwhelms this effect because supersonic shockwaves begin to form, greatly increasing drag and needing supercritical airfoil designs for transonic flight. For supersonic flight, drag increases at Mach 1.0 but decreases again after the transition.

The design of Centurion resulted in an aircraft that looked very much like the Pathfinder, but with a much longer wingspan of . Although the Centurion shape resembled the Pathfinder, the structure was designed to be stronger and capable of carrying numerous payloads (up to ) more efficiently. Its wing incorporated a redesigned high-altitude airfoil and the span was increased to . The number of motors was increased to 14 and the number of underwing pods to carry batteries, flight control system components, ballast, and landing gear rose to four.

One attribute that is often first noticed is the large diameter of the engine intakes. This feature, related to the high bypass ratio turbofan, reduces the noise from the engines and improves fuel efficiency. Another obvious characteristic is the highly swept wing with a supercritical airfoil, used in order to increase the critical Mach number and therefore the top speed. The Citation X has 37 degrees of sweepback at the quarter chord, more than any other business jet and, among civil aircraft, second only to the Boeing 747's 37.5 degrees.

Cousteau and his associates, Professor Lucien Malavard and Dr. Bertrand Charrier, used a fixed cylinder that looked like a smokestack and functioned like an aeroplane wing. It consists of an airfoil, vertical and grossly ovoidal tube, with a mobile flap which improves the separation between the intrados and extrados. An aspiration system pulls air into the tubes, and is used to increase the depression on one side of the sail; a reaction force occurs as the result of the pressure difference. In this way, the sails act as wings, creating both lift and drag.

A Boeing 727-200F, one of the many 3rd party aircraft available for X-Plane Users are encouraged to design their own aircraft, and design software titled Plane Maker and Airfoil Maker are included with the program. This has created an active community of users who use the simulator for a variety of purposes. Since designing an aircraft is relatively simple and the flight model can help predict performance of real-world aircraft, several aircraft companies use X-Plane in their design process. The CarterCopter uses X-Plane for flight training and research.

The Karakán's wing had a greater span and area. Lippisch had a used standard Göttingen airfoil whereas Rotter used one of his own, though both designers chose to merge into more symmetric profiles outboard. The Karakán was the heavier of the two, with the higher wing loading. The major differences were in the forward part of the semi-monocoque, ply-covered fuselages; the Karakán replaced the open Wien cockpit with one enclosed under a removable, wood framed canopy, with four transparent panels on each side, which maintained the smoothly increasing fuselage section.

According to Newton's laws of motion, in order to obtain upward lift on the wings, in reaction the air passing over them must be deflected downwards. At supersonic speeds this creates at least one shock wave and possibly more. Like any other airfoil, the Busemann biplane can be given a small positive angle of attack to generate lift in this way, however it will also now generate external shockwaves. The Busemann biplane configuration can still be used to minimize the energy of these shock waves and the associated drag.

The adoption of the supercritical airfoil amongst modern jet aircraft has diminished the use of some other methods of decreasing wave drag. The anti-shock body was one such method, having also been derived from Richard Whitcomb's work as well as that of the German aerodynamicist Dietrich Küchemann. Alternatively referred to as "Whitcomb bodies" or "Küchemann carrots", it is closely associated with the area rule, a recent innovation of the era to minimise wave drag by having a cross-sectional area which changes smoothly along the length of the aircraft.

Note that the lowest drag, which corresponds to 'optimal' performance, is close to the undeformed 'baseline' design of the airfoil at (0,0). After designing a sampling plan (indicated by the gray dots) and running the CFD solver at those sample locations, we obtain the Kriging surrogate model. The Kriging surrogate is close to the reference, but perhaps not as close as we would desire. In the last figure, we have improved the accuracy of this surrogate model by including the adjoint-based gradient information, indicated by the arrows, and applying GEK.

The cyclogyro wing resembles a paddle wheel, with airfoil blades replacing the paddles. Like a helicopter, the blade pitch (angle of attack) can be adjusted either collectively all together or cyclically as they move around the rotor's axis. In normal forward flight the blades are given a slight positive pitch at the upper and forward portions of their arc producing lift and, if powered, also forward thrust. They are given flat or negative pitch at the bottom, and are "flat" through the rest of the circle to produce little or no lift in other directions.

484-7 The wings of the CLA.3 were straight and had constant chord apart from at the rounded tips. The airfoil section used, the Eiffel 371Although Gustave Eiffel is best known for his large engineering structures, principally the Eiffel tower and the armature of the Statue of Liberty, he did important work in aerodynamics from 1909 onwards (Anderson 1997, pp.268-282), using his own, large wind tunnels to establish the pressure distributions over aerodynamic surfaces was something of a novelty, a thick wing with a quite flat bottom.

Schweizer 333 Shortly after the release of the 330, Schweizer began work on upgrading the dynamic components of the Schweizer 330SP. Over two years later, Schweizer released a new variant, the Schweizer 333. Featuring the newly developed dynamic systems components and new-technology rotor blades with a cambered airfoil and a larger diameter rotor, the upgraded helicopter benefited from a greater max gross weight, more useful load, more speed and more hover performance; nearly a 30% increase in performance over the 330SP. Schweizer created a kit to upgrade Model 330 and 330SP aircraft.

The NASA Paresev was one of the first powered Rogallo-winged aircraft to fly In aeronautics, a flexible wing is an airfoil or aircraft wing which can deform in flight. Early pioneer aeroplanes such as the Wright flyer used the flexible characteristics of lightweight construction to control flight through wing warping. Others made collapsible wings for folding away, such as the flying car designs by Gustave Whitehead. Since the 1960s flexible wings have dominated hang glider and ultralight aircraft designs, with such types as the delta-shaped Rogallo wing and the fully collapsible paraglider.

The 767 is a low-wing cantilever monoplane with a conventional tail unit featuring a single fin and rudder. The wings are swept at 31.5 degrees and optimized for a cruising speed of Mach 0.8 (). Each wing features a supercritical airfoil cross-section and is equipped with six- panel leading edge slats, single- and double-slotted flaps, inboard and outboard ailerons, and six spoilers. The airframe further incorporates Carbon- fiber-reinforced polymer composite material wing surfaces, Kevlar fairings and access panels, plus improved aluminum alloys, which together reduce overall weight by versus preceding aircraft.

Its outer parts carried washout and had unusual short but broad chord ailerons which widened to full chord close to the tip. Each aileron was operated independently with its own lever. The wing was held low over the fuselage by a steel tube cabane and braced centrally with outward-leaning splayed N-struts from the fuselage lower longerons to the wing spars on each side. Its rectangular section, plywood-covered fuselage included an open cockpit under the wing and had an unusual profile, like a cambered airfoil with a strongly arched underside.

Vickers based their entrant on the earlier Type 151 Jockey fighter, using the same wing and tail airfoil sections and dimensions but replacing the Wibault-Vickers corrugated construction of the Jockey with a modern stressed skin structure.Goulding 1986, p. 63. left The Venom (originally known as the Jockey Mk II) was a low-wing monoplane, with square-tipped constant chord wings and tailplane. The fin, too, was square-tipped but the rather angular appearance did not extend to the fuselage, which tapered rearwards from the engine's long chord cowling back to the tail.

Before designing the aircraft, Piper widely surveyed flight instructors for their input into the design. Instructors requested a more spinnable aircraft for training purposes, since other two-place trainers such as the Cessna 150 and 152 were designed to spontaneously fly out of a spin. The Tomahawk's NASA GA(W)-1 Whitcomb airfoil addresses this requirement by making specific pilot input necessary in recovering from spins, thus allowing pilots to develop proficiency in dealing with spin recovery. Tomahawk cockpit The Tomahawk was introduced in 1977 as a 1978 model.

Worried about the effects of rain or insects on the canard, he funded a wind tunnel model, which was tested at The Ohio State University Aeronautical and Astronautical Research Laboratory in their 3 by 5 foot wind tunnel. With Roncz running the computer data system, and Dick Rutan running the wind tunnel, they created vortex generator designs which would protect the canard wing in any weather. He also designed the propellers for both the front and rear engines, increasing their efficiency by 4%. He designed all the airfoil surfaces to control contamination by drag increasing bug-spattering.

In 1929 Jozef Morisson (sometimes written Moryson) designed a significantly revised version of the Ostrovia I which he named the Ostrovia II. It was built with funding from LOPP and first flew on 24 September 1930. Like the Ostrovia I, the new design had a low cantilever wing built around two spars, but it employed a blend of four different airfoil sections and was tapered in plan. It was built in three parts, a centre-section which contained the two fuel tanks and two outer panels. Plywood covered the underside and leading edge, with fabric covering elsewhere.

In March 2008, Sukhoi was selected to design and produce the carbon fibre composite wings. The UAC subsidiary AeroComposit developed the vacuum infusion process to produce the wingbox and wing panels. The vertical and horizontal fins and wingbox are also composite and the high aspect ratio wing is a supercritical airfoil. The MC-21 design is more innovative than the C919: it is the only airliner with a carbon fibre wingbox made with resin infused dry fibre, cured in an oven out of autoclave. The initial design was including ~33% composite materials, increasing to 40–45% with the composite wing.

The aircraft features a strut-braced high-wing, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit with doors for access, fixed tricycle landing gear or conventional landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft fuselage is made from welded steel tubing while the wing is made from aluminum sheet parts, with all surfaces covered in formed epoxy polymer. Its span wing is supported by "V" struts, employs a NASA-HQ3.0 airfoil, has an area of and mounts flaperons. The wings can be folded in 15 minutes for ground transportation or storage.

The V6 STOL consists of plans to power an existing certified Piper PA-20 Pacer airframe with a Ford Motor Company V6 engine and moving it from the Certified Category to the Experimental Amateur-built category. The aircraft features a strut-braced high wing, a four-seat enclosed cabin accessed via doors, fixed conventional landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. Since it uses a standard Piper Pacer airframe, the aircraft is made from welded steel tubing, covered in doped aircraft fabric. Its span wing employs a USA 35B airfoil, mounts flaps and has a wing area of .

Campagna 1998, p. 61. As he continued these experiments, he found that the same thrust-direction system he intended for VTOL operations worked just as well for forward flight. In this case the disk shape was not of itself a good lifting surface, as it was neutral in terms of lift direction – that is, it would fly sideways as readily as it would fly forward. However, by modifying the airflow with the application of a small amount of jet thrust, the overall airflow over the craft could be dramatically altered, creating a sort of "virtual airfoil" of any needed configuration.

As design evolved HPC design improved through better airfoil design. As part of the Tech-56 improvement program CFMI has tested the new CFM-56 model with six-stage high-pressure compressor stages (discs that make up the compressor system) that was designed to deliver same pressure ratios (pressure gain 30) similar to the old nine-stages compressor design. The new one was not fully replacing the old one, but it offered an upgrade in HPC, thanks to improved blade dynamics, as a part of their "Tech Insertion" management plan from 2007.Norris, Guy "CFMI details insertion plan for Tech 56".

The reduced weight is usually the result of smaller accommodation volume in the hull and lower freeboard, hence less hull structure. The weight reduction over traditional designs means that a larger percentage of the total weight of the boat is concentrated in the keel providing greater stability and the ability to carry a larger sail plan for greater power. The weight of the entire boat is 1180 kilograms, including the hull and standing rigging. The design concentrates the righting moment of the keel in a 770 kilogram torpedo-shaped bulb at the end of an airfoil shaped fin.

Since the shape of the wing (airfoil) is formed by the moving air entering and inflating the wing, in turbulent air, part or all of the wing can deflate (collapse). Piloting techniques referred to as "active flying" will greatly reduce the frequency and severity of deflations or collapses. On modern recreational wings, such deflations will normally recover without pilot intervention. In the event of a severe deflation, correct pilot input will speed recovery from a deflation, but incorrect pilot input may slow the return of the glider to normal flight, so pilot training and practice in correct response to deflations are necessary.

The Rogallo wing is one of the simplest airfoils ever created. A wing using the airfoil could be used to carry payloads, undercarriage devices, pilot- control assemblies, etc. For the next six years, the Rogallos tried ceaselessly to attract both government and industry interest in their flexible wing, and they licensed a manufacturer in Connecticut to sell a kite based on it. When the DuPont company announced the development of Mylar in 1952, Rogallo immediately saw how superior it would be for his kite, and the five- dollar toy "Flexikite" became one of the first products to use the plastic material.

The wings had about 3.5° of dihedral, partly achieved by airfoil section thinning outboard. The wing centre-section was widest from leading edge to around the forward spar, then angled inwards in plan until it almost reached the fuselage edge, following it to the trailing edge. The outer wings were folded in two stages, first rotating them around a pivot on the forward spar until the trailing edge was upright, then hinging the wings back along the side of the fuselage. The JG.10 was powered by a four-cylinder, upright, air-cooled inline Renault 4P engine, largely exposed, in the nose.

The Burnelli RB-1, often known as the Remington-Burnelli Airliner, was an American passenger biplane from 1920, designed by Vincent Burnelli.Taylor 1989, p.225 It incorporated Burnelli's lifting-body design. Following several more conventional designs during the WWI years, Burnelli came up with the idea of a lifting body: an airfoil-shaped fuselage that could be used to generate up to 50% of the lift, improving performance, due to reduced wing area and fuel consumption. The RB-1's body contributed about 27% of the total lifting area and was designed to support about 15% of its weight.

The iTunes Remote app on iOS can be used to control media playback and select AirPlay streaming receivers for iTunes running on a Mac or PC. As of macOS 10.14, there is no public API for third-party developers to integrate AirPlay 2 into their macOS apps. However, there are third-party streamers such as Airfoil. In May 2019, a third-party developer released a macOS app that can stream audio using AirPlay 2. The app includes a helper tool called "AirPlay Enabler" that uses code injection to bypass restrictions to the AirPlay 2 private API on macOS.

A free-flight hand-launched glider Generally known collectively in all its forms as the sport and pastime of aeromodelling, some flying models resemble scaled down versions of full scale aircraft, while others are built with no intention of looking like real aircraft. There are also models of birds, bats and pterosaurs (usually ornithopters). The reduced size affects the model's Reynolds number which determines how the air reacts when flowing past the model, and compared to a full sized aircraft the size of control surfaces needed, the stability and the effectiveness of specific airfoil sections may differ considerably requiring changes to the design.

The reaction force of the deflected air mass must then act on the wing to give it an equal and opposite upward component." In: Anderson and Eberhardt (2001)Langewiesche (1944)"When air flows over and under an airfoil inclined at a small angle to its direction, the air is turned from its course. Now, when a body is moving in a uniform speed in a straight line, it requires force to alter either its direction or speed. Therefore, the sails exert a force on the wind and, since action and reaction are equal and opposite, the wind exerts a force on the sails.

Bernoulli's principle states that there is a relationship between the pressure at a point in a fluid and the speed of the fluid at that point, so if one knows the speed at two points within the fluid and the pressure at one point, one can calculate the pressure at the second point, and vice versa. For any airfoil generating lift, there must be a pressure imbalance, i.e. lower average air pressure on one side than on the other. Bernoulli's principle states that a speed rise must accompany any lower pressure, and a speed decrease must accompany any higher pressure.

The tail rotor system rotates airfoils, small wings called blades, that vary in pitch in order to vary the amount of thrust they produce. The blades most often utilize a composite material construction, such as a core made of aluminum honeycomb or plasticized paper honeycomb, covered in a skin made of aluminum or carbon fiber composite. Tail rotor blades are made with both symmetrical and asymmetrical airfoil construction. The pitch change mechanism uses a cable control system or control tubes that run from the anti-torque pedals in the cockpit to a mechanism mounted on the tail rotor gearbox.

The P.6 was only the second aircraft designed and built by Boulton & Paul, although during the First World War they had built many aircraft under contract, including 1,575 Sopwith Camels. the P.6 was a wood and fabric two-seat single-engined single-bay biplane. Its wings were without stagger or sweep, with a constant chord of 5 ft (1.52 m) on both wings. The intention was to explore the effects of different airfoil sections and the large interplane gap, also 5 ft, would have helped to reduce the complications of interference effects. The initial section used was RAF15.

The optimum glide ratio of greater than 40:1 was good, but the high inter-thermal glide speed was exceptional. The Meteor was one of a group of mid-1950s gliders to use the NACA 6 series laminar flow airfoil first adopted by the Ross-Johnson RJ-5, which required careful attention to profile control and surface finish. In plan the wings are straight tapered with unswept leading edges and forward sweep on the trailing edge. The wing tips carries small, elongated bodies termed "salmons" to dampen tip vortices, as on the slightly earlier Bréguet Mouette and has a constant 2° of dihedral.

The Trigull was designed as an improved and updated Republic RC-3 Seabee. It features a cantilever high-wing, a four to six seat enclosed cabin, retractable tricycle landing gear and a single engine in pusher configuration. The aircraft is made from aluminum sheet with the forward cabin made from fibreglass. Its span wing employs a NACA 23015 R-4 airfoil, has an area of and flaps. Standard engines available were initially intended to be the Continental Tiara 6-285 and Tiara 6-320 four-stroke powerplants. Later the Lycoming IO-540-M1A5D and turbocharged Lycoming TIO-540-J2BD were used.

The aircraft features a strut-braced high-wing, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit with doors, fixed conventional landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft fuselage is made from welded 4130 steel tubing, with its wings usually made with a wooden structure, all covered in doped aircraft fabric. Its span wing employs a Clark Y airfoil, has an area of and optional flaps. The wing is supported by V-struts and jury struts and is constructed with marine plywood ribs and a D-cell leading edge, although a metal wing was under development.

These Sesquiplans had a span of , a wing area of , a length of and a loaded weight of . The following year Lacointe crashed again in a Sesquiplan with a new squared off wing of similar span and with a Göttingen 416 airfoil section replacing the original wing,Sanger, 2002, p.174 having set a new world record speed of 325 kmh (202 mph) over 100 km (62 mi). The surviving aircraft was modified with a 400 hp (298 kW) Wright Hispano H-3 engine and a revised vertical tail, possibly becoming the Nieuport NiD 41Hartmann, p.

A difficulty with a thin, high aspect ratio wooden wing is that a very strong and therefore heavy spar is needed, with the result that the Spillo had the highest wing loading of any glider of its time. It used a single double box spar with thick laminated wood flanges and three vertical plywood webs. There were poplar ribs; the wing, including the ailerons was skinned with plywood, carefully smoothed and filled to follow accurately the NACA non-laminar flow airfoil. Upper surface hinged ailerons reached the wing tip and occupied about 36% of the span, though they were later slightly extended.

The new design was initially known as the VCP-2, but was soon redesignated as PW-1 (Pursuit, Water-CooledDorr and Donald 1990, p. 23.) in the U.S. Army Air Service's new designation system. The first aircraft was used for static testing, while the second prototype flew in November 1921, reaching a speed of . It was rebuilt later that year with a new untapered set of wings using a Fokker style thick airfoil, becoming the PW-1A, but performance was reduced, and the aircraft was refitted with its original wings, reverting to the designation PW-1.

The Feiro I was the first design of Lajos Rotter in his collaboration with the brothers Gyula and László Feigl. It was also the first civil transport to be designed in Hungary, flying in the winter of 1923-4. It had four seats and was powered by a Le Rhone 9J rotary engine, though it was intended that this would be replaced by Haake or Siemens-Halske radial engines of similar power in production aircraft. It was a high wing monoplane, with an aerodynamically thick (thickess/chord ratio 14%) Joukowski-Göttingen "tadpole shaped" airfoil over the whole span.

By this time, Chyliński was a director of the Department of Materials Strength. From 1962 until 1965, he was testing the strength of the airplane PZL-104 Wilga, gliders Kobuz, Foka, and Kormoran and also diesel engine shafts and underwater airfoil of the hydrofoil craft "Gryf". Furthermore, under his directions endurance tests were conducted of the wings of the glider "Mucha-100", the ferruling of the wings on the PZL MD-12, shafts and connecting rods of the airplane engine WN3 and the grinder of the rotor blade of the helicopter SM-1 (Mil Mi-1).

A surrogate model is an engineering method used when an outcome of interest cannot be easily directly measured, so a model of the outcome is used instead. Most engineering design problems require experiments and/or simulations to evaluate design objective and constraint functions as a function of design variables. For example, in order to find the optimal airfoil shape for an aircraft wing, an engineer simulates the airflow around the wing for different shape variables (length, curvature, material, ..). For many real-world problems, however, a single simulation can take many minutes, hours, or even days to complete.

Based on a partial skeleton missing part of the tail, some ribs, a hand, and parts of the legs, it was a small animal, about 10 centimeters (4 in) long from the skull to the hips. Like its relative Kuehneosaurus, it was able to glide short distances using 'wings' consisting of highly elongated ribs covered with skin. These gliding membranes would have had a convex upper surface and a concave lower surface, thus creating a simple airfoil structure well-suited to gliding. This method of gliding is also seen in Coelurosauravus and the modern Draco, neither of which are closely related to Icarosaurus.

The Cessna 177 was designed in the mid-1960s when the engineers at Cessna were asked to create a "futuristic 1970s successor to the Cessna 172". The resulting aircraft featured newer technology such as a cantilever wing lacking the lift struts of previous models, and a new laminar flow airfoil. The 177 is the only production high-wing single-engined Cessna since the Cessna 190 & 195 series to have both fixed landing gear and a cantilever wing without strut bracing. In 1971, Cessna experimented with a "Quiet Cardinal" similar to the Beechcraft QU-22 Pave Eagle.

Belgian Class 3 competition land yacht Wind-powered vehicles derive their power from sails, kites or rotors and ride on wheels—which may be linked to a wind-powered rotor—or runners. Whether powered by sail, kite or rotor, these vehicles share a common trait: As the vehicle increases in speed, the advancing airfoil encounters an increasing apparent wind at an angle of attack that is increasingly smaller. At the same time, such vehicles are subject to relatively low forward resistance, compared with traditional sailing craft. As a result, such vehicles are often capable of speeds exceeding that of the wind.

It was not made clear where Kit learned this skill, but he demonstrates at numerous times throughout the various episodes that he is incredibly adept at it. He can also use his board to free glide without being towed by a plane. Baloo would often give his permission for Kit to be towed behind the Sea Duck when appropriate, trusting in Kit's skill to let him have some fun. Baloo also had enough confidence in Kit to keep himself safe on the airfoil when separated and under attack, or when Kit had to be outside for something important.

Fizir AF-2 photo from l'Aerophile April 1931 The Fizir AF-2 was an amphibious flying boat with a wood framed, plywood covered, single step hull, stabilized on the water by a pair of sponsons. On its forward upper surface there was a tall, airfoil section, largely vertically sided column containing the cockpit and joining fuselage and the wing centre section. The cockpit contained two seats in tandem with the pilot in front ahead of the wing leading edge and behind a vertical windscreen. He had two side windows, as did the passenger in the rear.

In 1926 he published a seminal paper, An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design. He demonstrated that the woeful performance of existing turbines was due to a flaw in their design which meant the blades were "flying stalled", and proposed a modern airfoil shape for the blades that would dramatically improve their performance. The paper went on to describe an engine using an axial compressor and two-stage turbine, the first stage driving the compressor, the second a power-take-off shaft that would be used to power a propeller. This early design was a forerunner of the turboprop engine.

The propeller would be of the same diameter as the tube, and its slipstream would exit the tube via the opening at the tube's trailing edge at the rear of the fuselage.Guttman, Aviation History, March 2010, pp. 18–19. Stipa spent years studying the idea mathematically, eventually determining that the Venturi tube's inner surface needed to be shaped like an airfoil in order to achieve the greatest efficiency. He also determined the optimum shape of the propeller, the most efficient distance between the leading edge of the tube and the propeller, and the best rate of revolution of the propeller.

The A3C was designed to comply with amateur-built aircraft rules. It features a single main rotor, a two-seat side-by-side configuration enclosed cockpit with a windshield, tricycle landing gear and a four-cylinder, air and liquid-cooled, four-stroke, dual- ignition, turbocharged Rotax 914 or a normally-aspirated Rotax 912S engine mounted in pusher configuration. Air Copter is well known as a designer and manufacturer of gyroplane rotor blades and other dynamic components and they also make their own components for the A3C. The aircraft's diameter rotor has a chord of and employs a NACA 8H12 airfoil.

It had unusually short and broad slotted ailerons which reached behind the trailing edge. The fixed part of the wing had the popular, thick (15%) flat-bottomed Göttingen 387 airfoil with room within it for the extension, which had a right angle triangular plan and circular arc profile. When retracted, its rear edge protruded slightly out of the slot in the trailing edge of the fixed section. At its root, which was supported in a groove in the narrow, central upper fuselage, it increased the chord by about 35%; overall it added 20% to the wing area and increased the camber.

Although the human application of gliding flight usually refers to aircraft designed for this purpose, most powered aircraft are capable of gliding without engine power. As with sustained flight, gliding generally requires the application of an airfoil, such as the wings on aircraft or birds, or the gliding membrane of a gliding possum. However, gliding can be achieved with a flat (uncambered) wing, as with a simple paper plane, or even with card-throwing. However, some aircraft with lifting bodies and animals such as the flying snake can achieve gliding flight without any wings by creating a flattened surface underneath.

Depending on the need, the thruster may be equipped with a nozzle for propeller collision protection or to reduce noise submission, or it may be equipped with a direct drive thruster to keep the efficiency at the highest level and the noises at the lowest level. Advanced AUV thrusters have a redundant shaft sealing system to guarantee a proper seal of the robot even if one of the seals fails during the mission. Underwater gliders do not directly propel themselves. By changing their buoyancy and trim, they repeatedly sink and ascend; airfoil "wings" convert this up-and-down motion to forward motion.

The proper name and even the existence of this aircraft have been disputed in the past, but plans for the Type 02 high altitude fighter aircraft have since been found in the French Musée de l'Air. Hauet also refers to it as the C.02 and Green and Swanborough as the Type O, though the latter was a quite different sports aircraft from 1914. The Type 02 was designed to fight at altitudes up to through a combination of engine power and flat airfoil section. It was a conventional single bay biplane with fabric covered, unswept, parallel chord wings ending in angled tips.

The wings can be removed for transportation or storage in five minutes. The Europa touring wing uses a unique Dykins 12% thickness/chord ratio airfoil designed by Don Dykins, who had been deputy Chief Aerodynamicist at Hawker Siddeley Aviation, and later technical director of British Aerospace and chief aerodynamicist on the European Airbus. The motorglider wing uses a different wing section, also designed by Dykins, with its center of pressure coincident with that of the smaller wing to ensure that the rudder and tailplane are equally effective with either. Wingspan is increased to bringing the wing area to .

Lower port wing internal structure Apart from the engine, the new Gipsy Moth was still a standard DH.60. Except for changes to accommodate the engine the fuselage remained the same as before, the exhaust still ran alongside the left side of the cockpits and the logo on the right side still read 'De Havilland Moth'. The fuel tank was still housed in the bulging airfoil that formed the centre section of the upper wing. The wings could still be folded alongside the fuselage and still had de Havilland's patented differential ailerons on the bottom mainplanes and no ailerons on the top ones.

The Bekas series was an attempt by Kasper to create an experimental tailless glider with a higher glide ratio, better ground handling and rigging, using a flexible wing to study the effects of wing flexing on stability and controllability in flight. The Bekas is built from wood and covered in plywood. The wing uses a NACA 8-H-12 airfoil and has greater span and higher aspect ratio than the BKB-1 to achieve its goals. The wing features outboard trailing edge control surfaces that act both as elevator for pitch control and aileron for roll control.

This is due to the upstream effects of the trailing vortices' added downwash on the angle of attack of the wing. This reduces the wing's effective angle of attack, decreasing the amount of lift produced at a given angle of attack and requiring a higher angle of attack to recover this lost lift. At this new higher angle of attack, drag has also increased. Induced drag effectively reduces the slope of the lift curve of a 2-D airfoil and increases the angle of attack of C_{L_{max}} (while also decreasing the value of C_{L_{max}}).

The understanding of low speed propeller aerodynamics was fairly complete by the 1920s, but later requirements to handle more power in smaller diameter have made the problem more complex. Alberto Santos Dumont, another early pioneer, applied the knowledge he gained from experiences with airships to make a propeller with a steel shaft and aluminium blades for his 14 bis biplane. Some of his designs used a bent aluminium sheet for blades, thus creating an airfoil shape. They were heavily undercambered, and this plus the absence of lengthwise twist made them less efficient than the Wright propellers.

The Koolhoven FK.42 was designed to train civilian pilots and enable them to gain their certificates rapidly on an aircraft similar to those low performance types they were likely to fly later, rather than slowly on specialised aircraft designed to train military pilots. The Farman F.200 was built to the same end. Its one-piece, wooden parasol wing was built around two box spars and was covered in plywood. On each side two parallel, airfoil- section struts braced the wing from the lower fuselage to the spars, each pair only about from the centreline.

Following earlier leads by Frederick Lanchester from 1902-1907, Prandtl worked with Albert Betz and Max Munk on the problem of a useful mathematical tool for examining lift from "real world" wings. The results were published in 1918-1919, known as the Lanchester-Prandtl wing theory. He also made specific additions to study cambered airfoils, like those on World War I aircraft, and published a simplified thin-airfoil theory for these designs. This work led to the realization that on any wing of finite length, wing-tip effects became very important to the overall performance and characterization of the wing.

For example, Inconel X-750 was used on parts of the airframe of the X-15, a North American aircraft that flew at hypersonic speeds in 1958. Titanium is another high-strength material, even at high temperatures, and is often used for wing frames of supersonic aircraft. The SR-71 used titanium skin panels painted black to reduce the temperature and corrugated to accommodate expansion. Another important design concept for early supersonic aircraft wings was using a small thickness-to-chord ratio, so that the speed of the flow over the airfoil does not increase too much from the free stream speed.

This project was called Blue Gemini. The USAF did not like the fact that Gemini would have to be recovered by the US Navy, so they intended for Blue Gemini eventually to use the airfoil and land on three skids, carried over from the original design of Gemini. At first some within NASA welcomed sharing of the cost with the USAF, but it was later agreed that NASA was better off operating Gemini by itself. Blue Gemini was canceled in 1963 by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, who decided the NASA Gemini flights could conduct necessary military experiments.

The Unit developed original methods of solution and calculation of nonlinear problems of non-separable and cavitating flow around an airfoil near the free surface. Scientists also studied oscillating profile with a separation of the jets, the profiles' grating and the problems of electrochemical dimensional processing of metals. The obtained results were generally recognized, reflected in the number of special reports, books and monographs on the theory of jets and cavitation. The Unit of boundary value problems and the analog modeling laboratory (founded in 1976) made a great contribution to the theory of hydrodynamic design of objects with given properties.

The latter's leaves are rougher and ice less than the smoother lotus. Aircraft icing accidents result from a combination of increased weight, increased drag, decrease or loss of lift, and decrease or loss of thrust from ice accumulation on the airframe, airfoil(s), propellers (if present) and or wings, depending on the type of ice that forms (e.g. rime ice, clear ice, etc.), which is a function of the specific meteorological conditions. Also, induction ice can cause power losses in icing conditions either externally at air intakes (either turbine or piston aircraft), or locally in the induction system within the engine (e.g.

The Lachassagne AL 3 was the first French monoplane to have wings with in-flight adjustable camber. The idea was to provide a high camber, high lift airfoil at low speed and a lower camber, lower drag section at high speeds, increasing the speed range of the aircraft. The AL 3 first flew late in 1926 and only survived a short period of testing before its old and fragile undercarriage collapsed whilst landing, badly damaging it. Nonetheless, enough had been learned to encourage Lachassagne to build a new, improved version incorporating, amongst other things, a stronger undercarriage and a more modern engine.

The vanes of each feather have hooklets called barbules that zip the vanes of individual feathers together, giving the feathers the strength needed to hold the airfoil (these are often lost in flightless birds). The barbules maintain the shape and function of the feather. Each feather has a major (greater) side and a minor (lesser) side, meaning that the shaft or rachis does not run down the center of the feather. Rather it runs longitudinally of center with the lesser or minor side to the front and the greater or major side to the rear of the feather.

The propellers of a C-130J Super Hercules military transport aircraft In aeronautics, a propeller, also called an airscrew,Beaumont, R.A.; Aeronautical Engineering, Odhams, 1942, Chapter 13, "Airscrews". converts rotary motion from an engine or other power source into a swirling slipstream which pushes the propeller forwards or backwards. It comprises a rotating power-driven hub, to which are attached several radial airfoil-section blades such that the whole assembly rotates about a longitudinal axis. The blade pitch may be fixed, manually variable to a few set positions, or of the automatically variable "constant-speed" type.

The twisted airfoil (aerofoil) shape of an aircraft propeller was pioneered by the Wright brothers. While some earlier engineers had attempted to model air propellers on marine propellers, the Wright Brothers realized that a propeller is essentially the same as a wing, and were able to use data from their earlier wind tunnel experiments on wings, introducing a twist along the length of the blades. This was necessary to maintain a more uniform angle of attack of the blade along its length. Their original propeller blades had an efficiency of about 82%,Ash, Robert L., Colin P. Britcher and Kenneth W. Hyde.

The 304 S Shark features an all new wing design using the HpH xn2 profile with the airfoil only 13.2% of the cord thickness (16.4% at the root). The 18 metre wing yields a best glide of 51:1 and minimum sink of 0.44 m/s (0.85 kt). The new Safety Cockpit uses a Carbon/Kevlar safety shell that meets the latest EASA Safety Standards. The 304 S is larger than the 304 C and while interchangeable wing extensions are available for 15-metre or 18-metre span, the most common configuration is the 18-metre version.

Boeing-Canada A-213 Totem taxiing across the water The Chief Engineer, Edward Fothergill Elderton was British, and had previously worked at Short BrothersSpooner, 23 September 1932, pp.890-892 and Saunders-Roe before coming to Canada to work for Canadian Vickers and Boeing of Canada. Despite being developed while the Boeing 40H-4 and C-204 were under construction, the Totem's design owed little to Boeing aside from the Boeing 103 airfoil section and the rudder shape. Indeed, previous Boeing flying boats used wood extensively in the hull, and the 40H-4 used welded steel tubes for its fuselage structure.

A 1° sweep at one quarter chord produces a swept spar to allow the two ends to meet just behind the rear seat. On the later models the gull wing is replaced by one with a constant 5° dihedral without altering the tip ground clearance, though the clearance with extended airbrakes is small. Otherwise the wing of the Mg 19b is unchanged. The wing of the World Gliding Championships contending Mg 19c is different, with straight tapered outer panels, small tip bodies and a section which is a blend of the laminar flow NACA 64-2015 airfoil and the older, proven Göttingen 549.

These weight gains, coupled with the large proportion of gross weight that is made up by the pilot weight and the high pitching moment of the Wortmann FX-MS-150-B airfoil led to the center of gravity of the glider being too far forward. This required Hall to place eight pounds of lead ballast in the tail and enlarge the horizontal tail surfaces. As a result of the extra weight, more wind was required for successful foot-launching of the Vector 1. As a result, Hall modified the prototype so that it could be auto towed for initial test flights.

The Concept 70 was intended to be a domestic US fiberglass sailplane that would compete with the best European 15 metre aircraft being produced in the late 1960s. The company started out as a fiberglass aircraft repair shop founded by Zimmermann and Wolfgang Schaer, but quickly progressed to aircraft design and construction. The aircraft is made from molded fiberglass, with an internal fuselage steel frame skeleton that connects the monowheel landing gear, wing fittings and provides a protective cockpit cage for improved impact survivability. The prototype has an Eppler airfoil and an all-flying horizontal stabilator.

The design goals of the Free Spirit Mk II included long range, high speed and a high rate of climb. The aircraft features a cantilever low- wing, a two-seats-in-side-by-side configuration, plus a jump seat in an enclosed cockpit, retractable tricycle landing gear and a single engine in tractor configuration. The aircraft is made from lightweight pre-molded composites. Its span wing employs a NASA NLF(1)-0215F natural laminar flow airfoil, mounts flaps and has a very small wing area of , giving a high wing loading of 25.0 lb/sq ft (122 kg/m2).

They were made so thin that they had to be machined from a thick, solid sheet of metal.Miller, J.; The X-Planes, Speciality Press, 1983. Even with this low-drag wing the Douglas X-3 Stiletto was too underpowered to reach its design flight speed of Mach 2, but the design of its simple hexagonal- airfoil wing was developed for various other X-planes and for Lockheed's widely produced F-104 Starfighter Mach 2.2 high-altitude interceptor. The small wing of the Starfighter was found to have good gust response at low level, providing a smooth ride at high subsonic speeds.

Consequently, the type was adopted for the ground-attack role, notably by the German Luftwaffe. However the high loading of the wing resulted in a high stalling speed with marginal take-off and landing characteristics and a corresponding high level of takeoff and landing accidents. A variant with a curved airfoil, blunt trailing edge and conventional internal structure was developed for the North American X-15 rocket plane. Lockheed continued to use the basic design on many of its aircraft proposals in the 1950s, including the Lockheed CL-400 Suntan and early versions of their supersonic transport designs.

It also had a lower angle of attack: viewing this tandem wing aircraft as a biplane with a large negative stagger of c, the decalage was -3°. Due to its smaller area, lower angle of attack and more symmetrical airfoil, the rear wing generated less lift than the front; the interaction between the two wings also reduced the lift coefficient of the rear one compared with that of the same surface in isolation. Oval end plate fins recovered some of these losses and also carried rudders. Both wings carried pairs of control surfaces which acted together to control pitch.

The Parrish Dart started in 1983 as a delta-winged design, but was developed into a canard configuration resembling a Rutan Long-EZ. It features a cantilever mid-wing, a two-seats-in-tandem enclosed cockpit under a bubble canopy, fixed tricycle landing gear main gear with a retractable nosewheel and a single engine in pusher configuration. The aircraft is made from fibreglass, with the fuselage a fibreglass sandwich and the wings and canard built from fibreglass spars and solid-core fibreglass airfoil shapes cut with a hot wire. Its span wing has a wing area of .

Glider sound Trailing edge tone Trailing edge spectra The boundary layer on the airfoil of a glider is laminar, and vortex shedding similar to that of a cylinder occurs at the trailing edge. The sound can be a nearly pure tone. The figure on the left shows a one-third octave band spectrum taken under a glider flyover; the tone is 15 dB above the broad band sound. The aircraft speed U was , and the frequency was near 1400 Hz. Based on a Strouhal number of 0.20, the characteristic dimension δ was calculated to be near ; the boundary layer thickness.

Planform view, showing wing sweep It is a small, low-winged twin- turbofan aircraft of all metal construction, flown by a crew of two pilots and accommodating eight passengers in a pressurised cabin. Its wings use a computer designed, supercritical airfoil in order to minimise drag. Its two Pratt & Whitney Canada JT15D turbofans are mounted on the rear fuselage. Powered by JT15D-5/-5R, it can fly with four passengers, cruising at Mach 0.71–0.73, and most pilots are comfortable flying it over three hours, about cruising at Mach 0.73–0.76, typical missions are 1.5 to 2.0 hours with block speeds.

Xplorair PX200 (1/2 scale model) at Paris Air Show 2013.The Xplorair is a project of compact VTOL aircraft without rotating airfoil from aerospace engineer Michel Aguilar, funded by the French Armed Forces procurement agency DGA and supported by various European aeronautics firms such as Dassault Systèmes, EADS Innovation Works, MBDA, Altran Technologies, Sogeti, Turbomeca, COMAT Aerospace and the Institut Pprime. Announced in 2007, the project aimed to develop a UAV prototype scheduled for flight in 2017, followed by a single- seater flying car whose commercialization could occur the decade after. The Xplorair is a personal air vehicle (PAV).

Structurally, the wings were similar, with two spars of unequal strength; the forward spar beams were part of plywood covered D-boxes around the leading edges and the rear spar was a lighter simple beam. The wings were fabric covered behind the main spar, as were the ailerons. Both designs had, on each side, an airfoil-faired V-form strut from the lower fuselage to the outer ends of the centre section, the forward member of the V, connected to the main spar, was more substantial than the rear. thumb At a more detailed level, there were many differences between the two aircraft.

Rotating stall is a local disruption of airflow within the compressor which continues to provide compressed air, but with reduced effectiveness. Rotating stall arises when a small proportion of airfoils experience airfoil stall, disrupting the local airflow without destabilising the compressor. The stalled airfoils create pockets of relatively stagnant air (referred to as stall cells) which, rather than moving in the flow direction, rotate around the circumference of the compressor. The stall cells rotate with the rotor blades, but at 50 to 70% of their speed, affecting subsequent airfoils around the rotor as each encounters the stall cell.

Later, he discussed his ideas with aerodynamicist and wing designer Bob Liebeck of Douglas Aircraft Company. Liebeck tested the device, which he later named the "Gurney flap" and confirmed Gurney’s field test results using a 1.25% chord flap on a Newman symmetric airfoil. His 1976 AIAA paper (76-406) "On the design of subsonic airfoils for high lift" introduced the concept to the aerodynamics community. Gurney assigned his patent rights to Douglas Aircraft, but the device was not patentable, since it was substantially similar to a movable microflap patented by E. F. Zaparka in 1931, ten days before Gurney was born.

The Gurney flap increases the maximum lift coefficient (CL,max), decreases the angle of attack for zero lift (α0), and increases the nosedown pitching moment (CM), which is consistent with an increase in camber of the airfoil. It also typically increases the drag coefficient (Cd), especially at low angles of attack, although for thick airfoils, a reduction in drag has been reported. A net benefit in overall lift-to-drag ratio is possible if the flap is sized appropriately, based on the boundary layer thickness. The Gurney flap increases lift by altering the Kutta condition at the trailing edge.

Control reversal also affected the Gossamer Condor, the Kremer Prize-winning human-powered airplane. When a wing warping mechanism was tried as a solution to a long-running turning problem, the effect was to turn the airplane in the opposite direction to that expected by conventional airplane knowledge. When the Condor was rigged "conventionally", the inside wing slowed down so much that it settled to the ground. By employing "backwards" wired wing-warping, the inside wingtip angle of attack was increased so that the added drag slowed that wing while the added lift allowed the airfoil to stay aloft at a slower speed.

It was intended as the first of a range of similar Emsco aircraft, differing in having one or two engines. The Challenger's wing was built in two parts, both rectangular in plan out to semi-elliptical tips, which met on top of the fuselage and were mounted with 1.5° dihedral. They had wooden structures built around two box spars and were fabric covered. Parallel struts from beyond mid- span braced the spars to the lower fuselage longerons and the rear struts were also braced near their midpoints to the upper longerons; all struts were enclosed in wide, airfoil section fairings.

Airplane wing performance has a substantial effect on not only the runway length, approach speed, climb rate, cargo capacity, and operation range but also the community noise and emission levels. The wing performance is often degraded by flow separation, which strongly depends on the aerodynamic design of the airfoil profile. Furthermore, non-aerodynamic constraints are often in conflict with aerodynamic restrictions, and flow control is required to overcome such difficulties. Techniques that have been developed to manipulate the boundary layer, either to increase the lift or decrease the drag, and separation delay are classified under the general heading of flow control.

Total drag angle (β ≈ apparent wind angle) for high- performance sailing craft as a ratio of VB to VT at a course of 135° off the wind, achieved by such craft, as shown. Given an ideal circumstance of a frictionless surface and an airfoil that can develop power, there is no theoretical limit to how fast a sailing craft can travel off the wind as the apparent wind angle becomes ever smaller. In reality, both sail efficiency and friction provide an upper limit. Speed is determined by the ratio of power developed by the sail over power lost through various forms of drag (e.g.

This makes the insect wing an excellently constructed airfoil, capable of exerting both propulsion and lift while minimizing drag. Variation of the wing beat may also occur, not just amongst different species, but even among individuals at different times. In general, the frequency is dependent upon the ratio between the power of the wing muscles and the resistance of the load. Large-winged, light-bodied butterflies may have a wing beat frequency of 4–20 per second whereas small- winged, heavy-bodied flies and bees beat their wings more than 100 times a second and mosquitoes can beat up to 988–1046 times a second.

The innovative cantilever structure for the wings were also covered in chordwise sheet steel panels. The wing root had a depth of about 75 per cent of the height of the fuselage at the root's thickest point, and the wing had at least three airfoil changes, along with tapering of the leading and trailing edge angles between the wing's root and the wingtip. These changes in wing section would become a Junkers design hallmark on the later 1918 Junkers D.I. single-seat all-metal fighter design, which was covered with Wilm's duralumin, corrugated as first attempted with the Junkers J 3 airframe exercise of 1916–17.

Other systems, such as the center-section fuel tanks, were incorporated into the wing, which complicated their design considerably. To minimise drag, the coolers and ducts for the engine were housed within the contours of the airfoil between the fuselage and tail booms. The armament initially consisted of two 13.2 mm automatkanon m/39A (akan m/39A) autocannons in the wings and two more 13.2 mm akan m/39A autocannons and a 20 mm akan m/41A in the nose. On the A-2 model the 20 mm akan m/41 was replaced with a belt fed Bofors designed 20 mm akan m/45.

The angle of zero lift of the cambered airfoils showed almost no variation with RN. Throughout the range of RN of this investigation, the values of the lift-curve slope for the smooth sections are very close to that predicted by thin-airfoil theory (2π per radian, or 0.110 per degree). The effects of increasing RN on the maximum lift showed two general trends: for airfoils of 12% thickness or less, the maximum lift remains relatively constant over the lower range of RN. Increasing the RN, however, causes a rapid increase in maximum lift; the 18% thick airfoils demonstrated a steady increase of maximum lift as RN is increased.

The LeO H-27 was built in response to a French government call for a postal aircraft able to cover the South Atlantic routes. It was in competition with the Latécoère 300 and the Blériot 5190. The design of the LeO H-27 was assisted by Lioré at Olivier's experience with the LeO H-180 and LeO H-240 flying boats, the first single-engined and the second with one push-pull pair. It was a high wing cantilever monoplane with an all-metal wing in two parts, each with a thick airfoil, rectangular plan centre section and a trapezoidal outer panel with a rounded tip.

After graduating, Hasegawa joined Tachikawa Aircraft Corporation and was involved in the development of the Tachikawa Ki-94 in 1943 as the chief designer. This high-altitude interceptor aircraft was designed to intercept American B-29 bombers, and proposed to the Imperial Japanese Army. Although one aircraft was completed in August 1945, World War II ended before the aircraft ever conducted its first flight. Before the start of development of the Ki-94, Hasegawa had designed an airfoil based on his theory, and published a paper in the scholarly journal of the Japan Society for Aeronautical Sciences (now The Japan Society for Aeronautical and Space Sciences) in March, 1942.

The Texas Wildcat was briefly tested in the United States before shipment, being fitted with a different wing with a more conventional airfoil for operation out of the confined Curtiss Field. First flying on July 25, it demonstrated a speed of , with a speed of expected when fitted with the high speed racing wing. Both aircraft were then sent by ship to France, with no testing carried out on the high speed wing and Cactus Kitten unflown before sailing. Texas Wildcat was reassembled at the Morane-Saulnier factory with the high speed wing, but was found to be unstable at high speeds when flown by test pilot Roland Rohlfs.

The fin was triangular and similar to the unit on earlier Lloyd designs, but featured an extension at the top of the rudder that reached over the top of the fixed part of the fin. With its curved leading edge and scalloped trailing edge, this rudder resembled the tail of a rooster, and gained the aircraft the nickname Kikeriki (German: "Cock-a- doodle-doo"). The wings departed from the usual structure of one or more spars surrounded by airfoil-shaped ribs and were built instead from ribs surrounded by longerons that stretched span-wise along the wings. This was all then covered in plywood sheeting.

OS X Mountain Lion introduced a feature to output system-wide audio directly to AirPort Express. This allows output of the audio of protected video content within iTunes, and also correctly maintains the audio sync with the image displayed on-screen. Video is synced with output audio when playing the video through an AirPort Express if the video is in a format supported by QuickTime Player (such as HTML 5 video in Safari etc.). For Windows and Mac operating systems (before OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion) there are a few software options available for streaming system-wide audio to the AirPort Express, such as Airfoil, TuneBlade and Porthole.

Brinsmead suggested it would take about two weeks to repair the damage to the aircraft.Brisbane Courier (Thursday 9 July 1925) "A nose dive. Nearly a disaster" p. 9 retrieved 2010-06-24 Repairs actually took much longer and modifications to improve the craft's handling were also made including a deeper step further aft, cutting away the side windscreens and new centre-section tanks faired into the airfoil instead of above the wings. Just under five months later on 3 December 1925 the Widgeon successfully completed its first flight from Botany Bay piloted by Squadron Leader Wackett, lasting ten minutes and reaching a height of about .

As thermals can only be indirectly observed through the reaction of the aircraft to the invisible rising air currents, skill is required to find and stay in the thermals. Hang gliders are composed of rigid frame from which the fabric skin is attached, much like a triangular sailboat sail. The payload (and crew) are suspended or hung from the frame, and control is exercised through the movement of the harness in opposition to a control frame, Paragliders use a special type of steerable parachute for a wing. Control is exercised through lines that deform the trailing edge of the airfoil or the wing's end regions.

The results showed the combined jet flap provided the best performance.M. Mamou, M. Khalid, “Steady and unsteady flow simulation of a combined jet flap and Coanda jet effects on a 2D airfoil aerodynamic performance,” Colloque International sur les Energies Renouvelables CER '2007 Oujda, 4 to 5 May 2007, Oujda, Morocco. CFD-FASTRAN was used to simulate flow past helicopter rotors in hover and forward flight conditions. The predictions matched experimental data.M. Mamou, M. Khalid, “Time-Accurate Flow Simulations Past Helicopter Rotors in Hover and Forward Flight Conditions Using Chimera Grid Technique,” Canadian Aeronautics and Space Journal, 2006, 52(4): 135-148, 10.5589/q06-016.

Vortex lift works by capturing vortices generated from the sharply swept leading edge of the wing. The vortex, formed roughly parallel to the leading edge of the wing, is trapped by the airflow and remains fixed to the upper surface of the wing. As the air flows around the leading edge, it flows over the trapped vortex and is pulled in and down to generate the lift. A straight, or moderate sweep, wing may experience, depending on its airfoil section, a leading-edge stall and loss of lift, as a result of flow separation at the leading edgeDesign For Air Combat, Ray Whitford 1987, , p.

A symmetrical airfoil, mounted with a zero angle of incidence, provides equal performance in both upright and inverted flight. The landing gear is fixed taildragger style with composite main legs and fiberglass wheel pants. The piston-engined powerplant is a fuel-injected Lycoming AEIO-360-A1E that produces 200 horsepower (149 kW), and it is equipped with a 3-bladed constant- speed MTV-12-B-C/C 183-17e propeller made of laminated wood encased in glass- fiber reinforced plastic. The Extra 200 is stressed for ±10 G with one person on board and ±8 G with two, and has an FAA certified load factor in the US to ±10 G.

The Konsul was a wood framed aircraft with a high, cantilever, single spar wing with stressed 3-ply covering from the spar to the leading edge and fabric covered aft. It was built in three parts, an 8 m (26 ft 3 in) inner section with a box spar and outer panels with an I-section one. The wing had a thick and strongly cambered profile, using the then new Göttingen 535 airfoil with its high lift to drag ratio that attracted many pre-World War II sailplane designers. The long wings had constant chord except for tapered tips, where the wing decreased in thickness.

Generally, the drag coefficient peaks at Mach 1.0 and begins to decrease again after the transition into the supersonic regime above approximately Mach 1.2. The large increase in drag is caused by the formation of a shock wave on the upper surface of the airfoil, which can induce flow separation and adverse pressure gradients on the aft portion of the wing. This effect requires that aircraft intended to fly at supersonic speeds have a large amount of thrust. In early development of transonic and supersonic aircraft, a steep dive was often used to provide extra acceleration through the high-drag region around Mach 1.0.

Eastman Jacobs joined NACA in 1925 after earning a bachelor's degree in Electrical Engineering at the University of California, Berkeley. He applied at the Bell Labs but was not accepted and opted for his second choice Langley. His knowledge of complex analysis was key to current airfoil design techniques at the time.Guy Williams neighbor in Malibu circa 1957-1959 He quickly became one of the leading scientists at the Langley Research Center due to his work with optimizing airfoils using a variable density wind tunnel that could operate with high Reynolds numbers. He was also officially the head of the Variable Density Wind Tunnel Division from 1928-1939.

The Citabria Pro was tested by Champion in 1968, but was never put into production at Champion nor by Bellanca which acquired the company and designs only a short time later. The Citabria Pro was based on the 7KCAB, but with a vertically shortened fuselage, a wing of semi-symmetric airfoil mounted in a parasol configuration, and a unique engine, the Lycoming IO-360SPL. While it was flown as a single-seat, there was a second set of controls and room for a second seat. The design changes were intended to produce an aircraft capable of more complex maneuvers and better performance in inverted flight.

The Strale was a refinement of the pioneering CVT2 Veltro of 1954. The Veltro went from design commencement to completion in eight months; the Strale, started in 1955, was not finished until July 1961, even though the two aircraft had much in common. The main differences between the Veltro and the Strale were in the wing, even though these had a similar straight tapered plan and used the same laminar flow NACA airfoil sections. The Starle's wing was constructed, like that of the Veltro, around a forward main box spar and a lighter secondary spar aft but was in two rather than three parts.

It was not possible to determine the position of the rudder, slats, elevators, and ailerons due to impact damage and the majority of the flight control system having been destroyed. The National Transportation Safety Board determined that the probable cause of the crash included the flight crew's failure to enforce a sterile cockpit during the final pre-flight checklist procedure. The engines anti-ice heaters were not engaged during the ground operation and takeoff. The decision to take off with snow/ice on the airfoil surfaces of the aircraft, and the captain's failure to reject the takeoff during the early stage when his attention was called to anomalous engine instrument readings.

Lippisch began the design of the influential Fafnir in 1929. Its refined design proved difficult to construct and the aircraft was only just ready for flight tests at the start of the 1930 Rhön competition on the Wasserkuppe. The Fafnir was not the first glider with a cantilever wing, for the Darmstadt Konsul had been built seven years earlier but a cantilever wing with an aspect ratio of almost 20 was exceptional. The single wing spar had to be deep for strength and Lippisch accommodated this by using the Göttingen 652 airfoil which is thick and strongly cambered, additionally providing lift at low speeds.

CW 5 bis ZASPL, the Aviation Association of students of the Lwów Technical University, was the oldest aviation organization in Poland. Revived after World War I, by 1926 it had workshops in Lwów which began building the glider designs of ZASPL member Wacław Czerwiński. The 1931 CW 5 was his response to a call from the government for a high performance glider. His earliest draft, the CW 5, specified the Gôttingen Gô 652 airfoil that Alexander Lippisch had used on the RRG Fafnir, despite the lack of full information on its characteristics at the time, and wind tunnel tests proved very disappointing. The CW 5.

Additionally if there is no mainsail there is difficulty in heaving to or coming to rest with sails set and boat "weathercocked" with bows into the wind. This can make the boat much more vulnerable in storms when a partly furled foresail has exactly the wrong effect on boat position relative to wind and waves while hove-to and this, though less of an issue for racing, is still an issue for long-distance cruising. The performance of the sail is dependent on having a forestay which is taut. If the forestay is allowed to slack, the sail will lose its airfoil shape and not perform as well.

An open-face supermarket freezer with an air curtain. Cooling air circulates across the food through the dark slot seen at the rear of the freezer, and through another grille not visible along the front. The Dyson Air Multiplier fans, and the Imperial C2000 series range hood fans, have no exposed fan blades or other visibly moving parts except their oscillating and tilting head. The airflow is generated using the Coandă effect; a small quantity of air from a high- pressure-bladed impeller fan, contained in the base rather than exposed, drives a large airmass via a low-pressure area created by the airfoil.

The 777-300ER was to shed by replacing the fuselage crown with tie rods and composite integration panels, similar to those used on the 787. The new flight control software was to eliminate the need for the tail skid by keeping the tail off the runway surface regardless of the extent to which pilots command the elevators. Boeing was also redesigning the inboard flap fairings to reduce drag by reducing pressure on the underside of the wing. The outboard raked wingtip was to have a divergent trailing edge, described as a "poor man's airfoil" by Boeing; this was originally developed for the McDonnell Douglas MD-12 project.

In November 1916, the Gothaer Waggonfabrik received a production order for 35 aircraft: this was subsequently increased to 50 in February 1917. A further 80 aircraft were ordered from the Siemens- Schuckert Werke (SSW) and 100 from Luft-Verkehrs-Gesellschaft (LVG). Compared to the Gothaer aircraft, these licence-built aircraft were slightly heavier and slower, because Idflieg specified the use of a strengthened airframe. In order to counteract this, SSW built a number of highly modified examples, including one driven by tractor instead of pusher engines, one with an extra bay added to its wing cellule, two with a new airfoil section for the wings, and one with a supercharger.

Morgan was born in Mount Pleasant, Iowa, received his M.S. in Mechanics and Hydraulics 1951 from the University of Iowa, and a doctorate in Naval Architecture from the University of California, Berkeley, in 1961, and devoted his entire professional career to the Carderock Division (David Taylor Model Basin), Naval Surface Warfare Center, Bethesda, Maryland. Morgan started working with UNIVAC I and UNIVAC II computers in 1954. He introduced computers into naval engineering and thereby revolutionized propeller design. He published numerous studies of sub- cavitating, super-cavitating, and contra-rotating propellers; annular airfoil and ducted propeller theory; propeller blade strength; hydrodynamic properties of blade sections; and propeller cavitation, ventilation and noise.

Uniquely, it has properly controlled airfoil sections, high-aspect-ratio wings, and a construction method designed to allow the builder to vary every aspect of its shape. It was the subject of a book, "Amazing Paper Airplanes" in 1987, and a number of newspaper articles in 1992. It is ineligible for most paper plane competitions due to the use of a staple, but it has extremely high gliding performance exceeding glide ratios of 12 to 1 with good stability. In 1975, origami artist Michael LaFosse designed a pure origami (one sheet; no cutting, glue or staples...) flying wing, which he named the "Art Deco Wing".

Sectioned compressor stage of a J79 The J79 is a single-spool turbojet with a seventeen-stage compressor with, what was at the time, a novel arrangement of variable stator blades which allow the engine to develop pressure similar to a twin-spool engine at a much lower weight. Anyone new to variable stators had to overcome the complexity of the linkages and the difficulty of sealing the pivots and airfoil root/casing clearances. Two spools needed more knowledge about bearings and sealing. GE studied both options for nearly a year before deciding, in 1952, that they should pursue variable stators for the 12:1 pressure ratio(PR) compressor.

Variously described as a rigid-wing hang-glider or as a foot-launched sailplane, the Canard 2FL was the brainchild of Swiss aerodynamicist Hans Farner. Of fibreglass construction, it consisted of a tiny fuselage, just big enough to accommodate the pilot in a prone position, provided with doors in the bottom through which the pilot's legs could extend for takeoff and landing. A large canard was fitted at the nose (as the name suggests), and the main lifting surfaces were supported atop tall, V-shaped pylons which both generated lift and acted as vertical fins. Wings, pylons and canard have Wortmann FX-67-170 airfoil section.

The weapon consists of modular components that are attached to either a general purpose Mark 84 bomb or a penetrating-warhead BLU-109 bomb. Each weapon has five components—a forward guidance section, warhead adapter section, control module, airfoil components, and a weapon data link. The guidance section is attached to the nose of the weapon and contains either a television guidance system for daytime or an imaging infrared system for night or limited, adverse weather operations. A data link in the tail section sends guidance updates to the control aircraft that enables the weapon systems operator to guide the bomb by remote control to its target.

A different airfoil section, the same as on the Rhönsperber, was used and the gull wing was more pronounced with airbrakes on the inner wing. It was a shoulder wing aircraft with a double straight tapered gull wing, built around two spars and fabric covered apart from the leading edge from the front spar forward and the wing roots, which were plywood skinned. The wing roots were carefully faired into the fuselage. The inner panels, filling about one third of the span had only slight taper, the sweep entirely on the trailing edge; the inner parts of them carried about 10° of dihedral but they flattened outboard.

After the failure of the HP-15 to perform well in the 1969 US Nationals Schreder started the HP-16 with a new design philosophy. Avoiding the extremely high aspect ratio that the 15 had, he opted for a more modest 21.5:1 aspect ratio and larger wing area to improve performance in weak conditions. The HP-16's wing has 50% more wing area than the HP-15 and uses a Wortmann 67-150 airfoil. Like other Schreder designs the HP-16 is of all-metal construction, but with the wing skins bonded to foam ribs rather than using rivets to provide a smoother surface.

It is a gull wing, with dihedral only on the inboard section where the leading edge is parallel to the spar and the trailing edge tapers towards it. Over most of the wing the profile is Göttingen 549R, a revision of the much used Göttingen 549 airfoil, the R indicating a reflexed, camber reduced trailing edge. Outboard the leading edge also tapers towards the spar, giving it sweepback, ending in semi-elliptical tips. The composite construction of the wing around the spar was completely new to sailplane construction; wooden extensions of the spar were bonded to it; wing ribs were riveted to the spa via metal brackets.

The theory of arbitrary airfoils based on conformal mapping developed by Theodorsen, is a model of classical applied mathematics. Two key concepts made Theodorsen’s approach different from and a clear improvement on the methods that preceded it, such as that of von Mises and von Karman. One was the important use of the complex variable not in the usual form of a polynomial or power series, but in the form of an exponential to power series. The equation led directly to the basic boundary value equation which, as an integral equation, represents an exact solution of the problem in terms of the given airfoil data.

Retrieved: 31 July 2011. Because aluminum in the USSR was supplied in different gauges from that available in the US (metric vs imperial), the entire aircraft had to be extensively re-engineered. In addition, Tupolev substituted his own favored airfoil sections for those used by Boeing, with the Soviets themselves already having their own Wright R-1820-derived 18 cylinder radial engine, the Shvetsov ASh-73 of comparable power and displacement to the B-29's Duplex Cyclone radials available to power their design. In 1947, the Soviets debuted both the Tupolev Tu-4 (NATO ASCC code named Bull), and the Tupolev Tu-70 transport variant.

This method involves significantly more computational power. Their initial findings saved a lot of money in building and testing – since it causes supersonic flow of air, a shock wave forms on the aft part of the wing, drastically increasing drag and reducing lift. After modifying their goals to only keep the lift to drag ratio high and even out the pressure, the simulation provided a better design – showing that this tool is very adaptable to the situation at hand. The end result of this study was that Airbus had a set of airfoil designs that are suited to a very large wing-body aircraft.

Designed by Fairchild Aircraft as a replacement for current primary trainers, the XNQ-1 was the fastest primary trainer to date. The Model M-92 featured a controllable-pitch propeller, flaps, electronically operated retractable landing gear and all-metal skin with fabric-covered rudder, ailerons and elevators. Its unobstructed bubble canopy provided instructors and students seated in tandem with good visibility, and its cockpit instruments were arranged to match those found in contemporary jet fighters. To help students recognize controls, the landing gear handle was in the shape of a small landing gear wheel, and the flap handle was shaped like the airfoil of a flap.

Designed for the 15 metre racing class, the Mosquito married the Standard Class Hornet fuselage with a new one-piece canopy and a flapped wing employing the then widely-used FX 67-K-170 airfoil. This profile and its sister profile FX 67-K-150 are among the most prolific in the history of gliding, as they were employed also in the Nimbus-2, Mini-Nimbus, DG-200 and DG-400, PIK-20, Kestrel, Mosquito, Vega, Jantar and LAK-12 among other types. The 303 wing featured innovative interconnected trailing edge dive brakes- variable camber flaps. The glider had automatic connection for all controls: ailerons, elevator, air brakes and water ballast.

8 No.7. He also was involved in the development of the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, in particular, the incorporation of aerodynamically balanced control surfaces on the B-17E, replacing spring tabs. During the design of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress he was responsible for the incorporation of the Boeing 117 wing airfoil, previously designed for use on the Boeing XPBB Sea Ranger. Working with the head of the company's Research Division, test pilot Edmund T. "Eddie" Allen, he also helped defend the use of a much higher wing loading (69 lbs/sq foot) on the B-29 than had been used on previous designs.

Kramer kept the engines and designed a new plane for them, which would remedy the deficiencies he saw in the Superfloater.Dale Kramer; "Remembering Peter Corley: and the birth of the Lasair ultralight", free flight, Issue 2004/4 August/September, 2004, Page 4. He started with a blank sheet of paper and designed a completely new aircraft, the Lazair, even going so far as to design a custom airfoil for it. He named it Lazair for several reasons, including a reference to the successful Laser sailing dinghy of Canadian design, as a contraction of "lazy air" due to the slow cruising speed, and as an allusion to "laissez-faire".

The CB-16 was built for and financed by Paul W. Chapman, chairman of Sky Lines Inc. in 1928, following the success of the Burnelli RB-2. The CB-16 was a twin-engined high-wing monoplane, constructed of metal. The slightly tapered wing was braced from the lower fuselage by pairs of parallel struts. The fuselage was 36 ft (11 m) long and 12 ft (3.7 m wide) wide externally, with an airfoil cross section. As with the earlier RB-1 and RB-2, the twin engines were embedded within the leading edge of the fuselage though, unlike them, the rest of this surface was largely filled with radiators.

The "variable-lift airfoil" shown in Figure 1 of the 1935 E. F. Zaparka patent . It is a movable microflap, similar to the fixed Gurney flap. A Gurney flap on the trailing edge of the rear wing of a Porsche 962 The original application, pioneered by American automobile racing icon Dan Gurney (who was challenged to do so by fellow American racer Bobby Unser), was a right-angle piece of sheet metal, rigidly fixed to the top trailing edge of the rear wing on his open-wheel racing cars of the early 1970s. The device was installed pointing upward to increase downforce generated by the wing, improving traction.

In fluid mechanics, external flow is such a flow that boundary layers develop freely, without constraints imposed by adjacent surfaces. Accordingly, there will always exist a region of the flow outside the boundary layer in which velocity, temperature, and/or concentration gradients are negligible. It can be defined as the flow of a fluid around a body that is completely submerged in it. An example includes fluid motion over a flat plate (inclined or parallel to the free stream velocity) and flow over curved surfaces such as a sphere, cylinder, airfoil, or turbine blade, air flowing around an airplane and water flowing around the submarines.

The Uribel B was one of the first sailplanes to use an airfoil with two such "drag buckets". The Uribel C differs from the B version in having a simpler, straight tapered wing plan, without the forward sweep inherited from the Urendo. The wing is built around a single main spar, with all its surfaces covered in plywood which is generally 1.5 mm (0.059 in) thick except at the roots, where 2.0 mm (0.079 in) ply is used. The plywood skin extends forward almost to the leading edge, where it is bonded to a false spar; the leading edge itself is formed from balsa wood.

When air flows over a swept wing, it encounters a force towards the wing tip. At high speeds, this force is too small to have an effect before the air is past the wing. At lower speeds, this sideways motion becomes more evident, and as the sideways motion pushes on the air outboard of it, this spanwise flow becomes more and more noticeable towards the wing tips. At very low speeds, the flow can become so sideways that the front-to-back flow, which is what gives rise to lift, is no longer above the stall speed of the airfoil, and the wing tips may stall.

However, when the helicopter starts to move forward its speed is added to the speed of the blades as they advance towards the front of the aircraft, and subtracted as they retreat. For instance, if the helicopter is flying forward at 100 km/h, the advancing blades see 300 + 100 km/h = 400 km/h, and for the retreating ones its 300 – 100 km/h = 200 km/h. In this example, the relative airspeed changes by a factor of two during every rotation. Lift is a function of the angle of the airfoil to the relative airflow combined with the speed of the air.

They were initially hinged together at their leading edges, but later the hinge point was moved rearwards towards the aerodynamic centre to reduce pilot load and separated only behind the hinge. Since there were no ribs, the airfoil was determined by the airflow and the pilot, as for the sloop's jib. The main wing, a single surface stretched between the spars and the extreme tail, also had its camber determined by the airflow, like the mainsail of the sloop. Both wing sheets were produced by sewing together narrow strips of material; the longitudinal joints between them are prominent in some back lit, better quality images.

The combination of a sailing craft's speed and direction with respect to the wind, together with wind strength, generate an apparent wind velocity. When the craft is aligned in a direction where the sail can be adjusted to align with its leading edge parallel to the apparent wind, the sail acts as an airfoil to generate lift in a direction perpendicular to the apparent wind. A component of this lift pushes the craft crosswise to its course, which is resisted by a sailboat's keel, an ice boat's blades or a land-sailing craft's wheels. An important component of lift is directed forward in the direction of travel and propels the craft.

An important distinction should be made between returning boomerangs and non-returning boomerangs. Returning boomerangs fly and are examples of the earliest heavier- than-air human-made flight. A returning boomerang has two or more airfoil wings arranged so that the spinning creates unbalanced aerodynamic forces that curve its path so that it travels in an ellipse, returning to its point of origin when thrown correctly. While a throwing stick can also be shaped overall like a returning boomerang, it is designed to travel as straight as possible so that it can be aimed and thrown with great force to bring down the game.

Montgomery first tested his concepts for the design, construction and control of gliders with small-scale, free flight models. His first glider in 1883-84 had a cambered airfoil based on the curve of the seagull wing. Pitch was controlled by an operable elevator and roll was controlled by pilot weight shift. Yaw was uncontrolled. This aircraft design served as the basis for three gliders over the period 1883-1886. In the spring of 1884, Montgomery made flights of up to 600 feet (180 m) from the rim of Otay Mesa.Montgomery, James P., direct testimony in response to Q. 16, Jan. 13, 1919, Regina C. Montgomery et al. v. the United States - Equity No. 33852.

A flying disc with the Wham-O registered trademark "Frisbee" A frisbee (pronounced , origin of the term dates to 1957, also called a flying disc or simply a disc) is a gliding toy or sporting item that is generally made of injection molded plastic and roughly in diameter with a pronounced lip. It is used recreationally and competitively for throwing and catching, as in flying disc games. The shape of the disc is an airfoil in cross-section which allows it to fly by generating lift as it moves through the air. Spinning the disc imparts a stabilizing gyroscopic force, allowing it to be both aimed with accuracy and thrown for distance.

Two-dimensional aerodynamic data obtained at RN of 3.0, 6.0 and 9.0 million are now generally available for a large number of systematically derived NACA airfoil sections. This range of RN is sufficient to satisfy engineering needs for many practical applications, but the recent trends toward both very large and very high-speed aircraft have emphasized the necessity for aerodynamic data at higher values. An investigation has accordingly been made of the aerodynamic characteristics of a number of systematically varied NACA 6-series airfoils at RN of 15.0, 20.0 and 25.0 million. The results of this investigation at high RN together with those for the same airfoils at lower RN are presented in Report No. 964.

The 1-35 was only competitive for a very short period of time in the early 1970s before European sailplanes such as the Schempp-Hirth Mini-Nimbus and the Glasflügel Mosquito, both introduced in 1976, out-classed it. The metal wing, while of good quality construction, just could not be made to hold an airfoil profile to the same accuracy as a fiberglass wing. The SGS 1-35 would mark the last attempt by the company to produce a competition sailplane. The 1-35 quickly found a home as a club and personal glider and, other than in national or world-class competition, has proved popular due to its rugged metal airframe and aesthetic appeal.

For other objects (for instance, a rolling tube or the body of a cyclist), A may be significantly larger than the area of any cross section along any plane perpendicular to the direction of motion. Airfoils use the square of the chord length as the reference area; since airfoil chords are usually defined with a length of 1, the reference area is also 1. Aircraft use the wing area (or rotor-blade area) as the reference area, which makes for an easy comparison to lift. Airships and bodies of revolution use the volumetric coefficient of drag, in which the reference area is the square of the cube root of the airship's volume.

The Mureaux was intended to operate at high altitudes, so the wing had a high aspect ratio for its time and used a thin wing section of Brunet's own design. In plan it was unswept, with constant chord, semi-circular tips and a rounded cut-out in the trailing edge over the forward cockpit. Ailerons occupied the whole of the trailing edge; they could be used differentially for roll control or together as camber changing flaps for landing. The wing mounting was unusual, with airfoil section, N-form struts on each side connecting the wing spars not to the lower fuselage but instead to the frames that carried the independently rubber sprung undercarriage mainwheels.

In 1920 the American oil millionaire S.Cox had two specialised racing monoplanes built for him by the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company to take part in the Gordon Bennett Trophy race to be held in France in September 1920. The two aircraft, named Texas Wildcat and Cactus Kitten, were single-engined, braced, high-wing monoplanes powered by a Curtiss C-12 inline piston engine. They had streamlined wooden fuselages with the pilot sitting in an enclosed cockpit towards the rear of the fuselage, under a forward sliding canopy. The wing, which had a special double camber airfoil section, was high-mounted, and was braced by struts to the mainwheels of the fixed conventional landing gear.

In its original sense, the Coandă effect refers to the tendency of a fluid jet to stay attached to an adjacent surface that curves away from the flow, and the resultant entrainment of ambient air into the flow. The effect is named for Henri Coandă, the Romanian aerodynamicist who exploited it in many of his patents. More broadly, some consider the effect to include the tendency of any fluid boundary layer to adhere to a curved surface, not just the boundary layer accompanying a fluid jet. It is in this broader sense that the Coandă effect is used by some to explain why airflow remains attached to the top side of an airfoil.

Frank Barnwell's design to meet this requirement, the Bagshot, was a high-wing all-metal monoplane with an unusual triangular- section fabric-covered steel-tube fuselage with two upper longerons and a single lower member. The pilot sat in line with the wing's leading edge, with one gun position in the nose and another just behind the wing. The two-spar wing had a steel primary structure and duralumin nose ribs and end-members, and was a semi-cantilever, being braced by a pair of diagonal struts on each side. The legs of the fixed undercarriage met the wing at the same place as the struts and had an axle fairing of airfoil section, contributing some lift.

Such aircraft began to appear from 1950 onwards and showed striking improvements in performance. The HKS-1 was a tandem two seat sailplane first flown in 1953, designed to be fast but also to fly slowly for soaring in thermals. Its designers chose a 14% maximum thickness-to-chord ratio NACA airfoil, capable of maintaining laminar flow over the front 50% of the wing at lift coefficients between 0.5 and 0.9. They noted that the first of the laminar designs, the Ross-Johnson RJ-5, only achieved its potential after its flaps and spoilers were removed and the underside aileron hinge gaps carefully sealed, so decided to remove all hinged control surfaces and replaced them by wing warping.

Northrop continued work on the bomber after he formed his own company, Northrop Corporation, in 1939. In response to the United States Army Air Corps' XC-219 specification, which called for a new high-altitude medium bomber, Northrop made several major changes to the design and gave it the model number N-1. The wing was now thicker, and the separate fuselage structure was dispensed in favor of incorporating the crew compartments into the airfoil. The vertical stabilizers were replaced with drooped wingtips with an anhedral of 35 degrees, which were apparently found to stabilize paper planes during tests conducted by Jack Northrop, his son John, and Moye Stephens on a stormy weekend.

In November 1916, Idflieg banned Windhoff "ear" radiators in operational aircraft because they were at a lower level than the crankcase of the engine they were cooling, and a shot into either radiator was likely to drain the cooling system. Late production D.IIs switched to using a Teves und Braun "airfoil shape" radiator (the Teves company still exists in the 21st century), in the center section of the upper wing. This also proved to be problematic as a leaking or battle damaged radiator could scald the pilot's face. On later Albatros fighters (late models of the D.III, and the D.V) the radiator was moved to the right of the centre section to alleviate this problem.

The chord of the slat is typically only a few percent of the wing chord. The slats may extend over the outer third of the wing, or they may cover the entire leading edge. Many early aerodynamicists, including Ludwig Prandtl, believed that slats work by inducing a high energy stream to the flow of the main airfoil, thus re- energizing its boundary layer and delaying stall.Theory of wing sections, Abbott and Doenhoff, Dover Publications In reality, the slat does not give the air in the slot high velocity (it actually reduces its velocity) and also it cannot be called high-energy air since all the air outside the actual boundary layers has the same total heat.

Another prototype was begun in 1946, but this aircraft was intended to use the Yakovlev-designed version of the afterburning RD-10F engine. However, wind tunnel testing of the Su-9 in September revealed that drag could be reduced if the engine nacelles were mounted in the wing rather than underneath it, and the wing tips were redesigned to use a different airfoil that significantly reduced Mach tuck. These changes required that the entire wing be redesigned; the wing spar was bent into an inverted U to accommodate the engines and slotted flaps replaced the simple flaps previously used. The tailplane was given a 5° dihedral to move it out of the engine exhaust.

He warmed to Baloo only after being given the chance to fly the Sea Duck, and even then was ready to leave for greener pastures. Nevertheless, he looked upon the other members of the "Higher for Hire" company as a surrogate family, affectionately referring to Baloo as "Papa Bear" on occasion. He clearly demonstrated his fondness for Rebecca Cunningham's daughter Molly on a number of occasions throughout the show, having been seen giving Molly piggyback rides, and on one occasion rescuing her on his airfoil (the device Kit uses for cloud surfing – see below). Baloo gives him the same nicknames, such as "Little Britches" that was bestowed on Mowgli from The Jungle Book.

The wing of the Korvet has no sweep and is of constant chord, with 1.5° dihedral; its thick airfoil section has a thickness-to-chord ratio of 0.15. It is a single spar, riveted duralumin covered structure, apart from its full span slotted flaperons, which are fabric covered, and GFRP sandwich, down turned, buoyant wing tips which support the wings when the aircraft is moored. Later aircraft have remodelled tips which include integral miniature float bodies to provide stability at speed on the water; they may also have separate flaps and ailerons. The wing is braced to the mid-fuselage by a single streamlined strut on each side, with the assistance of jury struts.

This was true of the ulna, radius, metacarpals and fingers, as well of the tibia, fibula, metatarsals and toes. Furthermore, in order to elongate the flippers, the number of phalanges had increased, up to eighteen in a row, a phenomenon called hyperphalangy. The flippers were not perfectly flat, but had a lightly convexly curved top profile, like an airfoil, to be able to "fly" through the water. Cast of the "Puntledge River elasmosaur", Canadian Museum of Nature While plesiosaurs varied little in the build of the trunk, and can be called "conservative" in this respect, there were major differences between the subgroups as regards the form of the neck and the skull.

As the various hovertrain systems were developing, a major energy use issue cropped up. Hovercraft generate lift by providing pressure, as opposed to generating lift due to the momentum of air flowing over an airfoil. The pressure of the air required is a function of the vehicle weight and the size of the lift pad, essentially a measure of overall vehicle density. A non-moving vehicle only loses this air due to leakage around the pads, which can be very low depending on the relative pressure between the pad and the outside atmosphere, and further reduced by introducing a "skirt" to close the gap between the pad and running surface as much as possible.

The term "foil" is used to describe the shape of the blade cross-section at a given point, with no distinction for the type of fluid, (thus referring to either an "airfoil" or "hydrofoil"). In the helical design, the blades curve around the axis, which has the effect of evenly distributing the foil sections throughout the rotation cycle, so there is always a foil section at every possible angle of attack. In this way, the sum of the lift and drag forces on each blade do not change abruptly with rotation angle. The turbine generates a smoother torque curve, so there is much less vibration and noise than in the Darrieus design.

A racing package was optional with a Proctor tapered anodized aluminum spar with two wire jib halyards, two spinnaker halyards, one wire main halyard, and a wire pole lift all internal. Also included were airfoil spreaders, a spinnaker pole and reaching strut, three Number 20 Barlow winches, one Number 24 Barlow halyard winch, one Number 14 Barlow auxiliary winch, one Number 4 Barlow main sheet winch. All winches also have cleats. The racing package also added eight additional recessed tracks and cars, two additional sets of genoa sheets, one additional set of spinnaker sheets, four additional snatch blocks, one Omni compass, boomvang, folding propellor The boat is available with wheel steering or tiller.

Efficiency can decrease slightly over time, one of the main reasons being dust and insect carcasses on the blades which alters the aerodynamic profile and essentially reduces the lift to drag ratio of the airfoil. Analysis of 3128 wind turbines older than 10 years in Denmark showed that half of the turbines had no decrease, while the other half saw a production decrease of 1.2% per year. Ice accretion on turbine blades has also been found to greatly reduce the efficiency of wind turbines, which is a common challenge in cold climates where in-cloud icing and freezing rain events occur. Vertical turbine designs have much lower efficiency than standard horizontal designs.

Both wings were built around two I-section spars and were braced together on each side by two sets of airfoil section, N-form interplane struts, one from the upper fuselage to mid-way along the lower wing and the other from there outwards to the upper wing. There was significant stagger, with the leading edge of the lower wing ahead of that of the upper, so the N-struts leaned backwards. There was no dihedral on the lower wing but the upper one was set at 1.5° and slightly swept (2°). The lower wing was mounted on the lower fuselage frame and the upper on a very short upper fuselage pillar.

The strengthened forward edge of the structure extended above the hinge and connected to an elastic block housed in a reinforced transverse beam which passed under the cockpit, incorporating shock absorbers. The DB-80's high, cantilever wing was unusual both in its construction and high aspect ratio of 9. In plan it was straight tapered on both edges but with semi- elliptical tips curved particularly on the trailing edges, where its ailerons were full span and broad. The wing was built around three spars, rather than the traditional one or two, and the detail of their caps or flanges, rather than the shape of the longitudinal braces or ribs, determined the airfoil profile.

Artist's concept of the Zephyr rover, 5.5 m wide and 6.6 m tall The propulsion concept is a rigid wingsail, mounted perpendicular to the base that can rotate via an electric motor about its mean aerodynamic center to produce a lift (thrust) vector at any orientation, depending on the direction of the wind. The wing also provides a more stable surface on which to mount the solar cells used to power instruments on the rover. A symmetric flat airfoil is much easier to control at the sacrifice of a small amount of lift. Construction of the wing is standard spar, rib, and skin, using materials appropriate for the corrosive high temperature environment.

The key difference between a pure aerodynamic fighter and a supermaneuverable one is generally found in its post-stall characteristics. A stall, as aforementioned, happens when the flow of air over the top of the wing becomes separated due to a high angle of attack (this can be caused by low speed, but its direct cause is based on the direction of the airflow contacting the wing); the airfoil then loses its main source of lift and will not support the aircraft until normal airflow is restored over the top of the wing. A Su-27 from the Russian Knights aerobatic team, a supermaneuverable 4th-generation jet. This jet can easily perform Pugachev's Cobra.