But Andrew Young, an atmospheric scientist at San Diego State University, cautions that even the most extreme mirages are not easily noticed by the casual observer because the vertical extent of the distorted images at the horizon is puny.
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It has since become an established term in earth science, for example in geology, for the depth of sedimentary rocks, in hydrogeology for the vertical extent of groundwater – i.e. the distance from the base of the groundwater layer to its surface – or in soil science for the vertical extent of soil horizons.
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Depending on their vertical size, clouds of the cumulus genus type may be low-level or multi-level with moderate to towering vertical extent.
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Downward-growing nimbostratus can have the same vertical extent as most large upward-growing cumulus, but its horizontal extent tends to be even greater.
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Several additional types usually form in the low or middle étages but typically extend into all three altitude levels as clouds with significant vertical extent. These include nimbostratus, towering cumulus congestus, and cumulonimbus.
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The standard levels and genus-types are summarised below in approximate descending order of the altitude at which each is normally based. Multi-level clouds with significant vertical extent are separately listed and summarized in approximate ascending order of instability or convective activity.
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During work as a surveyor (appointed by engineer John Rennie) for the Somerset Coal Canal Company and subsequently, he mapped the locations of rock strata, and their vertical extent, and drew cross-sections and tables of what he saw and earned the name "Strata Smith".
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Photo and stress wave tomogram of a eucalyptus tree with some rot. Healthy wood is shown in brown colors. Right: The 3D visualization shows the vertical extent of the rot. Acoustic or stress wave tomography is a non-destructive measurement method for the visualization of the structural integrity of a solid object.
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Hydraulic fracturing causes induced seismicity called microseismic events or microearthquakes. These microseismic events are often used to map the horizontal and vertical extent of the fracturing. The magnitude of these events is usually too small to be detected at the surface, although the biggest micro-earthquakes may have the magnitude of about -1.5 (Mw).
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Scientific investigation for the IAP is defined by the vertical extent of the atmosphere. Types of investigations include theoretical models, numerical simulation, and experiment for the Earth's boundary layer, troposphere, middle atmosphere, ionosphere and magnetosphere. The main research topic areas currently include mesoscale, dynamical, and applied meteorology. Furthermore, the processes of the atmospheric boundary layer are also of interest.
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The K-Index or George's Index is a measure of thunderstorm potential in meteorology. According to the National Weather Service, the index harnesses measurements such as "vertical temperature lapse rate, moisture content of the lower atmosphere, and the vertical extent of the moist layer." It was developed by the American meteorologist J.J. George, and published in the 1960 book Weather Forecasting for Aeronautics.
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Cumulonimbus cloud over the Gulf of Mexico in Galveston, Texas The largest free-convective clouds comprise the genus cumulonimbus, which have towering vertical extent. They occur in highly unstable air and often have fuzzy outlines at the upper parts of the clouds that sometimes include anvil tops. These clouds are the product of very strong convection that can penetrate the lower stratosphere.
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The domes are of rhyolitic composition, the block-and-ash deposits consist of ash and lapilli and appear to have formed when domes collapsed. As lava domes grow, they tend to become unstable as their vertical extent increases until they collapse. Additionally, internally generated explosions appear to have occurred at Cerro Blanco as lava domes grew and sometimes completely destroyed the domes.
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Moondyne Cave is a karst cave in the South West region of Western Australia. It is located on Caves Road, north of Augusta. It has a pothole entrance, a vertical extent of , and a length of , with some large dry chambers. Moondyne Cave was discovered in 1881 by Joseph Bolitho Johns, who had formerly been the bushranger known as Moondyne Joe.
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A cuboid demonstrating the dimensions length, width, and height. Height is measure of vertical distance, either vertical extent (how "tall" something or someone is) or vertical position (how "high" a point is). For example, "The height of that building is 50 m" or "The height of an airplane in-flight is about 10,000 m". When the term is used to describe vertical position (of, e.g.
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Hail forms in strong thunderstorm clouds, particularly those with intense updrafts, high liquid water content, great vertical extent, large water droplets, and where a good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing . These types of strong updrafts can also indicate the presence of a tornado. The growth rate of hailstones is impacted by factors such as higher elevation, lower freezing zones, and wind shear.
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Kirindy Forest or Kirindy Private Reserve is a private park situated in the western Madagascar, 50 km northeast of the town of Morondava. The forest was earlier operated as an experimental sustainable timber harvesting scheme, which has not left indelible scars on the region. Most of the canopy top is about 14 meters in height, but in wetter parts (e.g. in riparian zones) it may almost triple in vertical extent.
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To create an open-pit mine, the miners must determine the information of the ore that is underground. This is done through drilling of probe holes in the ground, then plotting each hole location on a map. The information gained through the holes with provide an idea of the vertical extent of the ore's body. This vertical information is then used to pit tentative locations of the benches that will occur in the mine.
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Length is commonly understood to mean the most extended dimension of a fixed object. However, this is not always the case and may depend on the position the object is in. Various terms for the length of a fixed object are used, and these include height, which is vertical length or vertical extent, and width, breadth or depth. Height is used when there is a base from which vertical measurements can be taken.
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Convergence and divergence of an air parcelEquation (3) is the atmospheric equivalent to angular momentum. For example, a spinning ice skater with her arms spread out laterally can accelerate her rate of spin by contracting her arms. Similarly, when a vortex of air is broadened, it in turn spins more slowly. When the air converges horizontally, the air speed increases to maintain potential vorticity, and the vertical extent increases to conserve mass.
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Stratus fractus is distinguishable from cumulus fractus by its smaller vertical extent, darker color, and by the greater dispersion of its particles. Cumulus fractus clouds actually look like ragged cumulus clouds. They may originate from dissipated cumulus clouds, appearing in this case as white ragged clouds located at significant distances from each other. Cumulus fractus in particular form on the leading and trailing edges of summer storms in warm and humid conditions.
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A further of pitches leads to an extensive horizontal development called Subsoil. Subway Level, the lowest stratigraphical layer of the cave, can then be reached by descending down the Four Pitches of the Apocalypse. In 2014 the cave was connected to the Schwatzmooskögel System which has a combined length of over and a vertical extent of . There are over a hundred caves in the vicinity, most of which connect into the Schwatzmooskögel System.
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The vertical extent of jets is not known. They decay over two to three scale heights above the clouds, while below the cloud level, winds increase slightly and then remain constant down to at least 22 bar—the maximum operational depth reached by the Galileo Probe.Ingersoll (2004), p. 12 Zonal wind speeds in the atmosphere of Jupiter The origin of Jupiter's banded structure is not completely clear, though it may be similar to that driving the Earth's Hadley cells.
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False color image of the halo ring obtained by Galileo in forward-scattered light The halo ring is the innermost and the vertically thickest Jovian ring. Its outer edge coincides with the inner boundary of the main ring approximately at the radius (). From this radius the ring becomes rapidly thicker towards Jupiter. The true vertical extent of the halo is not known but the presence of its material was detected as high as over the ring plane.
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Hydraulic fracturing routinely produces microseismic events much too small to be detected except by sensitive instruments. These microseismic events are often used to map the horizontal and vertical extent of the fracturing.Les Bennett and others, "The Source for Hydraulic Fracture Characterization ," Schlumberger, Oilfield Review, Winter 2005/2006, p.42–57 However, as of late 2012, there have been three known instances worldwide of hydraulic fracturing, through induced seismicity, triggering quakes large enough to be felt by people.
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Bust of W. Smith, in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History In 1799 Smith produced the first large-scale geological map of the area around Bath, Somerset. Previously, he only knew how to draw the vertical extent of the rocks, but not how to display them horizontally. However, in the Somerset County Agricultural Society, he found a map showing the types of soils and vegetation around Bath and their geographical extent. Importantly, the differing types were coloured.
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The hailstone then may undergo 'wet growth', where the liquid outer shell collects other smaller hailstones. The hailstone gains an ice layer and grows increasingly larger with each ascent. Once a hailstone becomes too heavy to be supported by the storm's updraft, it falls from the cloud. Hail forms in strong thunderstorm clouds, particularly those with intense updrafts, high liquid water content, great vertical extent, large water droplets, and where a good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing .
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They are believed to be due mainly to moist convection within Jupiter's troposphere. Storms are actually tall convective columns (plumes), which bring the wet air from the depths to the upper part of the troposphere, where it condenses in clouds. A typical vertical extent of Jovian storms is about 100 km; as they extend from a pressure level of about 5–7 bar, where the base of a hypothetical water cloud layer is located, to as high as 0.2–0.5 bar.Sanchez- Lavega et al.
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The accident report made seven recommendations: # That the location and vertical extent of the low flying areas and link routes should be made available. # Private pilots should be alerted to the nature of military low flying activities and the need to avoid them. #An advisory service be provided to enable civil pilots to co-ordinate their activities with the military. #That civil aircraft involved in low-flying activities should be painted as conspicuously as possible and fitted with high power collision warning lights preferably strobe type.
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Summing reflectivities in the Vertically Integrated Liquid or VIL, gives the liquid water content in the cloud. Research shows that hail development in the upper levels of the storm is related to the evolution of VIL. VIL divided by the vertical extent of the storm, called VIL density, has a relationship with hail size, although this varies with atmospheric conditions and therefore is not highly accurate. Traditionally, hail size and probability can be estimated from radar data by computer using algorithms based on this research.
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The vertical extent of the entire Playfield display varies between 0 and 240 scanlines - this depends on the number of lines ANTIC is programmed to display according to the Display List. ANTIC begins generating scan lines at TV scan line 8 continuing to line 247 for a total of 240 scan lines. The horizontal width of the Playfield display may be set to 256, 320 or 384 pixels wide corresponding to 128, 160, or 192 color clocks. In the widest mode, only 352 pixels (176 color clocks) are actually visible.
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Although altostratus forms mostly in the middle level of the troposphere, strong frontal lift can push it into the lower part of the high- level. The main high-level stratiform cloud is cirrostratus which is composed of ice crystals that often produce halo effects around the sun. Cirrostratus forms at altitudes of in high latitudes, in temperate latitudes, and in low, tropical latitudes. Of the non-stratiform clouds, cumulonimbus and cumulus congestus are the most closely related to nimbostratus because of their vertical extent and ability to produce moderate to heavy precipitation.
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Identifying an accurate position of the depth of the PBL is essential for reliable representation of parameters in meteorological and air quality models as the PBL is the region of maximum turbulence. It is well known that convective mixing processes are predominant in the PBL which in result influences the structure and composition of aerosols. Knowing the vertical extent of the convective mixing will allow a more accurate depiction of the atmosphere in the boundary layer. In recent years, remote sensing instruments such as lidar have been employed to identify and observe the PBL height.
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Hematite mineralization occurs along a strike length of 14 km, with a width of 3.2 km and a maximum vertical extent of 400 m below the original topographic surface. The Sishen mine was opened in 1947, and produced 30.9 million tonnes of iron ore in 2013. In 2015, the mine produced far less and quarter on quarter results in 2016 show a decline in output. In 2016, Kumba Iron Ore began the process of cutting nearly 4000 jobs in an attempt to restructure the Sishen mine and ensure profitability.
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At its southern end the vein came to an end as it approached the east-west Clay Vein by splitting into a number of small stringers, described as "a horsetail structure". All attempts to find the vein south of the Clay Vein were unsuccessful. The northern end of the vein was never determined, but all searches for lead beyond the limit of the northernmost ore shoot (about from the southern end) were also unsuccessful. The vertical extent of the vein was traced and worked from the top of Green Side down to the upper boundary of the Skiddaw Group, a distance of .
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Cumulus humilis are cumuliform clouds with little vertical extent, common in the summer, that are often referred to as "fair weather cumulus". If they develop into cumulus mediocris or cumulus congestus, thunderstorms could form later in the day. They generally form at lower altitudes (500–3000 m (1,500–10,000 ft)), but in hot countries or over mountainous terrain these clouds can occur at an altitude of up to . They show no significant vertical development, indicating that the temperature in the atmosphere above them either drops off very slowly or not at all with altitude; that is, the adiabatic lapse rate is small.
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Both the thick and thin Stephen formation were deposited below wave base. It was originally thought that the Burgess Shale was deposited in anoxic conditions, but mounting research shows that oxygen was continually present in the sediment. The anoxic setting had been thought to not only protect the newly dead organisms from decay, but it also created chemical conditions allowing the preservation of the soft parts of the organisms. Further, it reduced the abundance of burrowing organisms — burrows and trackways are found in beds containing soft-bodied organisms, but they are rare and generally of limited vertical extent.
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Cumulus mediocris cloud before becoming a cumulus congestus, seen from Swabian Jura Cumulus mediocris is a low to middle level cloud with some vertical extent (Family D1) of the genus cumulus, larger in vertical development than Cumulus humilis. It also may exhibit small protuberances from the top and may show the cauliflower form characteristic of cumulus clouds. Cumulus mediocris clouds do not generally produce precipitation of more than very light intensity, but can further advance into clouds such as Cumulus congestus or Cumulonimbus, which do produce precipitation. Cumulus mediocris is also classified as a low cloud and is coded CL2 by the World Meteorological Organization.
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Additionally, while an accretion disk can be crudely envisioned as a two-dimensional structure with no significant thickness, the accretion flow in a polar has complex three-dimensional structure because the magnetic field lines lift it out of the orbital plane. Indeed, in some polars, the vertical extent of the accretion flow enables it to regularly pass in front of the WD's accretion spot as seen from Earth, causing a temporary decrease in the system's observed brightness. Polars derive their name from the linearly and circularly polarized light that they produce. Information about the accretion geometry of a polar can be found by studying its polarization.
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The halo ring appears brightest in forward-scattered light, in which it was extensively imaged by Galileo. While its surface brightness is much less than that of the main ring, its vertically (perpendicular to the ring plane) integrated photon flux is comparable due to its much larger thickness. Despite a claimed vertical extent of more than , the halo's brightness is strongly concentrated towards the ring plane and follows a power law of the form z−0.6 to z−1.5, where z is altitude over the ring plane. The halo's appearance in the back-scattered light, as observed by Keck and HST, is the same.
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In 2007 US dollar terms, the total cost to produce a pound of U308 from the average pipe was about $24. Average ore reserves for an individual mineralized pipe at that time were determined to be about 3.5 million pounds U308, with an average grade of about 0.6 percent U308, then giving the average economically mineralized pipe an approximate before-tax, undiscounted in-ground value of about $105 million (more than $225 million in 2007 US dollars). The breccia pipe mineral deposits range from 1000 to 1800 feet deep and have a vertical extent of up to 600 feet. The pipes typically have a diameter.
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One of the key parameters which determine the vertical extent of the ML is the PBL height. From an observational perspective, PBL height has historically been measured with radiosondes but in recent years remote sensing instruments such as lidar have been utilized. Since it is well known that PBL height varies greatly in both time and space, on the order of a few meters and several minutes, radiosoundings aren’t the optimal choice for observations of PBL height. The concept of using lidar to detect PBL height relies on the assumption that there is a strong gradient in the concentration of aerosols in the ML versus the free atmosphere.
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Open ocean OMZs exist in all ocean basins and have similar variation in spatial extent; an estimated 8% of global ocean volume is within OMZs. The largest OMZ is in the eastern tropical north Pacific and comprises 41% of this global volume, and the smallest OMZ is found in the eastern tropical North Atlantic and makes up only 5% of the global OMZ volume. The vertical extent of low oxygen conditions is also variable, and areas of persistent low oxygen have annual variation in the upper and lower limits of oxygen-poor waters. Typically, OMZs are expected to occur at depths of about 200 to 1,000 meters.
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The Red Hills Fissure is a karstic solutional feature, with a vertical extent of about 8 m and a maximum width of 3 m, that was exposed by road construction in 1988. Originally a cleft or cave in the rock, it was infilled with sediments and debris that included the remains of animals that became trapped there. When it was discovered it was recognised as a rich source of vertebrate, gastropod and well-preserved millipede fossils dating from the late Pleistocene. The abundant fossil remains of the Jamaican Coney (Geocapromys brownii) found there have enabled the construction of a life table for that species.
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The Walcott quarry produced such spectacular fossils because it was so close to the Stephen Formation — indeed the quarry has now been excavated to the very edge of the Cambrian cliff. It was originally thought that the Burgess Shale was deposited in anoxic conditions, but mounting research shows that oxygen was continually present in the sediment. The anoxic setting had been thought to not only protect the newly dead organisms from decay, but it also created chemical conditions allowing the preservation of the soft parts of the organisms. Further, it reduced the abundance of burrowing organisms — burrows and trackways are found in beds containing soft-bodied organisms, but they are rare and generally of limited vertical extent.
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Hydraulic fracturing routinely produces microseismic events much too small to be detected except by sensitive instruments. These microseismic events are often used to map the horizontal and vertical extent of the fracturing. However, a 2012 US Geological Survey study reported that a "remarkable" increase in the rate of M ≥ 3 earthquakes in the US midcontinent "is currently in progress", having started in 2001 and culminating in a 6-fold increase over 20th-century levels in 2011. The overall increase was tied to earthquake increases in a few specific areas: the Raton Basin of southern Colorado (site of coalbed methane activity), and gas- producing areas in central and southern Oklahoma, and central Arkansas.
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Measurement of dissolved oxygen in coastal and open ocean waters for the past 50 years has revealed a marked decline in oxygen content. This decline is associated with expanding spatial extent, expanding vertical extent, and prolonged duration of oxygen-poor conditions in all regions of the global oceans. Examinations of the spatial extent of OMZs in the past through paleoceanographical methods clearly shows that the spatial extent of OMZs has expanded through time, and this expansion is coupled to ocean warming and reduced ventilation of thermocline waters. Many persistent OMZs have increased in thickness over the last five decades through both shoaling of the upper limit and downward expansion of the lower limit.
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There is no international agreement on the vertical extent of sovereign airspace, with suggestions ranging from about —the extent of the highest aircraft and balloons—to about —the lowest extent of short-term stable orbits. The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale has established the Kármán line—at an altitude of —as the boundary between the Earth's atmosphere and outer space, while the United States considers anyone who has flown above to be an astronaut. Indeed, descending Space Shuttles flew closer than over other nations, such as Canada, without requesting permission first. Nonetheless, both the Kármán line and the U.S. definition are merely working benchmarks, without any real legal authority over matters of national sovereignty.
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Crust and lithosphere produced by the IBM arc system during its ~50 Ma history are found today as far west as the Kyushu- Palau Ridge (just east of the West Philippine Sea Basin), up to 1,000 km from the present IBM trench. The IBM arc system is the surficial expression of the operation of a subduction zone and this defines its vertical extent. The northern boundary of the IBM arc system follows the Nankai Trough northeastward and onto southern Honshū, joining up with a complex system of thrusts that continue offshore eastward to the Japan Trench. The intersection of the IBM, Japan, and Sagami trenches at the Boso Triple Junction is the only trench-trench-trench triple junction on Earth.
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As an ancient river community, the region was conditioned by a privileged position: it had access to the sea and interior territory, across many of the ravines and rivers that cross the region and protected by a dominant mountain. Alvor was, since this early period, a reference for many of the smaller populations that developed along the eastern maritime coast east of the River Arade. The structure was installed on a hilltop: a rectangular plan, the castle's walls continue to exist after many years of wear and ruin, comprising many blocks of irregular forms. A perceptible path still circles this structure, identifiable by a staircase located along the southern wall, but the vertical extent of this wall is clouded by limited vestiges.
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Due to the slight difference between the orbital and WD rotation periods, the WD and its magnetosphere slowly rotate as seen from the donor star. Critically, this asynchronous rotation causes the accretion stream to interact with different magnetic field lines. Since the accretion flow travels along the field lines which have captured it, it will follow different trajectories when it interacts with different field lines. As a concrete example, the accretion flow in the eclipsing polar V1432 Aql sometimes threads onto field lines which carry it so far above the orbital plane that the flow is not obscured when the donor star eclipses the WD, but at other times, it threads onto field lines with less vertical extent, causing the accretion flow to be much more fully eclipsed.
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Any cloud type with significant vertical extent that can occupy more than one étage is coded as low (cumulus and cumulonimbus) or middle (nimbostratus) depending on the altitude level or étage where it normally initially forms aside from any vertical growth that takes place. The symbol used on the map for each of these étages at a particular observation time is for the genus, species, variety, mutation, or cloud motion that is considered most important according to criteria set out by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). If these elements for any étage at the time of observation are deemed to be of equal importance, then the type which is predominant in amount is coded by the observer and plotted on the weather map using the appropriate symbol. Special weather maps in aviation show areas of icing and turbulence.
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Molnar in 1980 acknowledged that these were ossified tendons, but denied that they were homologous to the ossified tendons of other Ornithischia and claimed that they resembled the pathological tendon aponeurosis of modern crocodiles. Victoria Megan Arbour in 2014 deemed this unlikely and could find only one autapomorphy in the holotype:Arbour, Victoria Megan, 2014, Systematics, evolution, and biogeography of the ankylosaurid dinosaurs Ph.D thesis, University of Alberta the high vertical extent of the musculus articulospinalis tendon ossification at its outer front end, wrapping itself around the side process of the vertebra. In 2015, Arbour and Philip Currie concluded that even this was not unique, which would mean the holotype had no diagnostic features and Minmi would be a nomen dubium. However, the 2015 description of Kunbarrasaurus announced that new distinguishing traits of Minmi had been discovered and that it should be considered a valid taxon.
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Additionally, each particular stratum could be identified by the fossils it contained, and the same succession of fossil groups from older to younger rocks could be found in many parts of England. Furthermore, he noticed an easterly dip of the beds of rock—low near the surface (about three degrees), then higher after the Triassic rocks. This gave Smith a testable hypothesis, which he termed The Principle of Faunal Succession, and he began his search to determine if the relationships between the strata and their characteristics were consistent throughout the country. During subsequent travels, first as a surveyor (appointed by noted engineer John Rennie) for the canal company until 1799 when he was dismissed, and later, he was continually taking samples and mapping the locations of the various strata, and displaying the vertical extent of the strata, and drawing cross-sections and tables of what he saw.
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Gust fronts may be produced by the outflow of rain-cooled air from an intense thunderstorm. Or, the wind gusts may be produced by a dry cold front, that is, a cold front that is moving into a dry air mass and is producing no precipitation—the type of dust storm which was common during the Dust Bowl years in the U.S. Following the passage of a dry cold front, convective instability resulting from cooler air riding over heated ground can maintain the dust storm initiated at the front. In desert areas, dust and sand storms are most commonly caused by either thunderstorm outflows, or by strong pressure gradients which cause an increase in wind velocity over a wide area. The vertical extent of the dust or sand that is raised is largely determined by the stability of the atmosphere above the ground as well as by the weight of the particulates.
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