Tractability is the final criterion in this framework, and worth breaking down a bit further.
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Long story short, Let's Fund rated climate policies on three metrics: importance, neglectedness, and tractability, i.e.
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Thunderous thanks to the trailblazing techies tendering terrific tools to transform this titanic task to tractability.
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The framework for judging causes based on importance, neglectedness, and tractability (INT, for short) is not new.
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"Farmed animals is really promising for scale, neglectedness, and tractability," Toni Adleberg, director of research at Animal Charity Evaluators, told me.
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The great spreadsheet of causes lists the tractability of macroeconomic policy as "highly uncertain," which makes finding grantees a bit of a challenge.
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This is because Yantai Cash has just started to set up a responsible management system and has not yet completed supply chain tractability, he added.
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When you consider that the side effects of the lobotomy — tractability, passivity, docility — overlap nicely with what many men considered to be ideal feminine traits, that disparity is perhaps not surprising.
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Open Phil's spreadsheet of causes ranks policy interventions based on their importance and tractability: how much good they're capable of producing, and whether philanthropy can actually effect policies that produce that good.
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The speaker gave it up, reluctantly but of his own free will, for the sake of a theory about Senate seats or a fantasy about Trump's tractability or just because his members wanted him to do so.
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Why it matters: Despite the fanfare and handwringing in Washington over the Green New Deal, carbon taxes and related measures with little near-term political tractability, improvements in state-level clean energy standards have garnered bipartisan support and made meaningful market impacts.
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Two of the most studied systems are those of Klebsiella pneumoniae and Azotobacter vinelandii. These systems are used because of their genetic tractability and their fast growth.
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Constraint satisfaction problems can be reformulated in terms of other problems, leading to equivalent conditions to tractability. The most used reformulation is that in terms of the homomorphism problem.
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Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg favored Hindenburg, supposing him amenable to moderate peace terms,Müller, 1961, p. 187. mistaking his amiability as tractability and unaware that he was intent on enlarging Prussia.
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A beam search is most often used to maintain tractability in large systems with insufficient amount of memory to store the entire search tree.Furcy, David. Koenig, Sven. "Limited Discrepancy Beam Search". 2005.
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A necessary condition for the tractability of a constraint language based on the universal gadget has been proved. The universal gadget is a particular constraint satisfaction problem that was initially defined for the sake of expressing new relations by projection.
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Lotfi A. Zadeh picked up this point, and drew attention to a "major misunderstanding" about applying fuzzy logic. It is true that the basic aim of fuzzy logic is to make what is imprecise more precise. Yet in many cases, fuzzy logic is used paradoxically to "imprecisiate what is precise", meaning that there is a deliberate tolerance for imprecision for the sake of simplicity of procedure and economy of expression. In such uses, there is a tolerance for imprecision, because making ideas more precise would be unnecessary and costly, while "imprecisiation reduces cost and enhances tractability" (tractability means "being easy to manage or operationalize").
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Some considered restrictions are based on the tractability of the constraint satisfaction problem where the constraints are all binary and form a tree over the variables. This is a structural restriction, as it can be checked by looking only at the scopes of the constraints, ignoring domains and relations. This restriction is based on primal graph of the problem, which is a graph whose vertices are the variables of the problem and the edges represent the presence of a constraint between two variables. Tractability can however also be obtained by placing the condition of being a tree to the primal graph of problems that are reformulations of the original one.
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Cox point processes exhibit a clustering of points, which can be shown mathematically to be larger than those of Poisson point processes. The generality and tractability of Cox processes has resulted in them being used as models in fields such as spatial statisticsJ. Møller and R. P. Waagepetersen. Modern statistics for spatial point processes.
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Lamborghini believed that a grand tourer should have attributes that were lacking in Ferrari's offerings, namely high performance without compromising tractability, ride quality, and interior appointments. A clever businessman, Lamborghini also knew that he could make triple the profit if the components used in his tractors were installed in a high-performance exotic car instead.
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A value that holds true given particular constraints is a marginal value. A change that would be affected as or by a specific loosening or tightening of those constraints is a marginal change. Neoclassical economics usually assumes that marginal changes are infinitesimals or limits. Although this assumption makes the analysis less robust, it increases tractability.
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The Warlander is a horse of Baroque type, produced by crossing Friesian horses with horses of a purebred registered Iberian horse breed such as the Andalusian, Lusitano, or Menorquina. The ideal Warlander combines the Iberian horse's intelligence, facility for collection, flexibility, and powerful hindquarters, with the Friesian's tractability, dramatic leg action, "bone," and strong forequarters.
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The tractability of the Poisson process means that sometimes it is convenient to approximate a non-Poisson point process with a Poisson one. The overall aim is to approximate the both number of points of some point process and the location of each point by a Poisson point process.L. H. Chen, A. Röllin, et al. Approximating dependent rare events.
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Dantzig–Wolfe decomposition is an algorithm for solving linear programming problems with special structure. It was originally developed by George Dantzig and Philip Wolfe and initially published in 1960. Many texts on linear programming have sections dedicated to discussing this decomposition algorithm. Dantzig–Wolfe decomposition relies on delayed column generation for improving the tractability of large-scale linear programs.
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Establishing whether a constraint satisfaction problem on a finite domain has solutions is an NP complete problem in general. This is an easy consequence of a number of other NP complete problems being expressible as constraint satisfaction problems. Such other problems include propositional satisfiability and three-colorability. Tractability can be obtained by considering specific classes of constraint satisfaction problems.
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The necessary condition for tractability based on the universal gadget holds for reduced languages. Such a language is tractable if the universal gadget has a solution that, when viewed as a function in the way specified above, is either a constant function, a majority function, an idempotent binary function, an affine function, or a semi-projection.
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In option pricing, a jump-diffusion model is a form of mixture model, mixing a jump process and a diffusion process. Jump-diffusion models have been introduced by Robert C. Merton as an extension of jump models. Due to their computational tractability, the special case of a basic affine jump diffusion is popular for some credit risk and short-rate models.
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Whatever the reason, a typical Bearded Collie is an enthusiastic herding dog which requires structure and care; it moves stock with body, bark and bounce as required. Very few Beardies show "eye" when working; most are upright. Herding instincts and tractability can be assessed in noncompetitive herding tests. Beardies exhibiting basic herding instincts can be trained to compete in herding trials.
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12, pp. 5800-5812, Nov. 2013. they often suffer from a loss of tractability while the Poisson process greatly simplifies the mathematics and techniques, explaining its continued use for developing stochastic geometry models of wireless networks. Also, it has been shown that the SIR distribution of non-Poisson cellular networks can be closely approximated by applying a horizontal shift to the SIR distribution of a Poisson network.
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Wolves and wolf-dog hybrids are sometimes kept as exotic pets. Although closely related to domestic dogs, wolves do not show the same tractability as dogs in living alongside humans, being generally less responsive to human commands and more likely to act aggressively. A person is more likely to be fatally mauled by a pet wolf or wolf-dog hybrid than by a dog.
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Senior nobleman Zierotin's son- in-law, Georg von Nachod, commanded the Moravian cavalry and his brother-in- law, Wallenstein, the infantry. Both decided to take their regiment into Austria. Nachod's troops rebelled and he fled for his life. Wallenstein's major demanded authorisation from the Estates upon which Wallenstein drew his sword and ran him through,"A fresh major was immediately appointed and displayed greater tractability".
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Though wolves are trainable, they lack the same degree of tractability seen in dogs. They are generally not as responsive as dogs to coercive techniques involving fear, aversion to stimuli, and force. Generally, far more work is required to obtain the same degree of reliability seen in most dogs. Even then, once a certain behavior has been repeated several times, wolves may get bored and ignore subsequent commands.
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The second stage of the process comprises the design of the market with simultaneous consideration of the transaction object, the market microstructure, the IT infrastructure, and the business model. Supported by different tools and methodologies such as mechanism and parametric design the market mechanism is deduced as an allocation and payment function. For designing the IT infrastructure in order to e.g. ensure computational tractability we rely on methods from computer science.
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A sufficient condition of tractability is that a non-uniform problem is tractable if the set of its unsatisfiable instances can be expressed by a Boolean Datalog query. In other words, if the set of sets of literals that represent unsatisfiable instances of the non-uniform problem is also the set of sets of literals that satisfy a Boolean Datalog query, then the non-uniform problem is tractable.
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Each microbiome system is suited to address different types of questions based on the culturability of microbes, genetic tractability of microbes and host (where relevant), ability to maintain system in laboratory setting, and ability to make host/environment germfree. Three different systems are shown in the figure on the right. (A) Pairwise interactions between the soil bacteria Bacillus subtilis and Streptomyces spp. are well-suited for characterizing the functions of secondary metabolites in microbial interactions.
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Lévy subordination is used to construct new Lévy processes (for example variance gamma process and normal inverse Gaussian process). There is a large number of financial applications of processes constructed by Lévy subordination. An additive process built via additive subordination maintains the analytical tractability of a process built via Lévy subordination but it reflects better the time-inhomogeneus structure of market data. Additive subordination is applied to the commodity market and to VIX options.
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This technique later proved very useful in showing fixed-parameter tractability results. It is now considered to be one of the fundamental techniques in the area of parameterized algorithmics. Iterative compression has been used successfully in many problems, for instance odd cycle transversal (see below) and edge bipartization, feedback vertex set, cluster vertex deletion and directed feedback vertex set.. It has also been used successfully for exact exponential time algorithms for independent set..
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Tractability at lower engine speeds also improved since the smaller charger was more willing to spool up; this had been an area of concern with the earlier engine which had little power beneath 3500 rpm. In July 1988 the engine was upgraded to CB61 specifications; this version received grey rather than red casings in the engine compartment. For the Canadian (and Swiss) markets, a catalysed version of the carburetted CB60 engine was installed.
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In probability theory and directional statistics, a wrapped normal distribution is a wrapped probability distribution that results from the "wrapping" of the normal distribution around the unit circle. It finds application in the theory of Brownian motion and is a solution to the heat equation for periodic boundary conditions. It is closely approximated by the von Mises distribution, which, due to its mathematical simplicity and tractability, is the most commonly used distribution in directional statistics.
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Like many other anurans, they are often used in laboratory as research subjects. Xenopus embryos and eggs are a popular model system for a wide variety of biological studies. This animal is used because of its powerful combination of experimental tractability and close evolutionary relationship with humans, at least compared to many model organisms. Xenopus has long been an important tool for in vivo studies in molecular, cell, and developmental biology of vertebrate animals.
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Enterprise Information Integration (EII) applies data integration commercially. Despite the theoretical problems described above, the private sector shows more concern with the problems of data integration as a viable product. EII emphasizes neither on correctness nor tractability, but speed and simplicity. Practitioners cite the following major issues which EII must address for the industry to become mature: ; Combining disparate data sets : Each data source is disparate and as such is not designed to support EII.
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Hybrid logic refers to a number of extensions to propositional modal logic with more expressive power, though still less than first-order logic. In formal logic, there is a trade-off between expressiveness and computational tractability (how easy it is to compute/reason with logical languages). The history of hybrid logic began with Arthur Prior's work in tense logic. Unlike ordinary modal logic, hybrid logic makes it possible to refer to states (possible worlds) in formulas.
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The lateral-computing successfully tackles a class of problems by exploiting tolerance for imprecision, uncertainty and partial truth to achieve tractability, robustness and low solution cost. Lateral- computing techniques which use the human like information processing models have been classified as "Soft Computing" in literature. Lateral-computing is valuable while solving numerous computing problems whose mathematical models are unavailable. They provide a way of developing innovative solutions resulting in smart systems with Very High Machine IQ (VHMIQ).
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It can be shown that a cap on a LIBOR from t to T is equivalent to a multiple of a t-expiry put on a T-maturity bond. Thus if we have an interest rate model in which we are able to value bond puts, we can value interest rate caps. Similarly a floor is equivalent to a certain bond call. Several popular short rate models, such as the Hull–White model have this degree of tractability.
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Ancient Mesopotamians knew of head injury and some of its effects, including seizures, paralysis, and loss of sight, hearing or speech. The Edwin Smith Papyrus, written around 1650–1550 BC, describes various head injuries and symptoms and classifies them based on their presentation and tractability. Ancient Greek physicians including Hippocrates understood the brain to be the center of thought, probably due to their experience with head trauma. Medieval and Renaissance surgeons continued the practice of trepanation for head injury.
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Wicksteed, Philip Henry; The Common Sense of Political Economy (1910),] Bk I Ch 2 and elsewhere. The sorts of marginal values most common to economic analysis are those associated with unit changes of resources and, in mainstream economics, those associated with infinitesimal changes. Marginal values associated with units are considered because many decisions are made by unit, and marginalism explains unit price in terms of such marginal values. Mainstream economics uses infinitesimal values in much of its analysis for reasons of mathematical tractability.
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It has been used to analyze not only personal and household choices about traditional economic matters like consumption and savings, but also choices about education, marriage, child- bearing, migration, crime and so on, as well as business decisions about output, investment, hiring, entry, exit, etc. with varying degrees of success. Despite the empirical shortcomings of rational choice theory, the flexibility and tractability of rational choice models (and the lack of equally powerful alternatives) lead to them still being widely used.
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In structural engineering, the Bouc–Wen model of hysteresis is one of the most used hysteretic models typically employed to describe non-linear hysteretic systems. It was introduced by Robert Bouc and extended by Yi-Kwei Wen, who demonstrated its versatility by producing a variety of hysteretic patterns. This model is able to capture, in analytical form, a range of hysteretic cycle shapes matching the behaviour of a wide class of hysteretical systems. Due to its versatility and mathematical tractability, the Bouc–Wen model has gained popularity.
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For some other operations, the abstraction may lose precision: for instance, it is impossible to know the sign of a sum whose operands are respectively positive and negative. Sometimes a loss of precision is necessary to make the semantics decidable (see Rice's theorem, halting problem). In general, there is a compromise to be made between the precision of the analysis and its decidability (computability), or tractability (computational cost). In practice the abstractions that are defined are tailored to both the program properties one desires to analyze, and to the set of target programs.
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In order to design interventions aimed at promoting inclusive institutions when the status quo witnesses prevalently weak state structures, tractability of theoretically analyzing regime transitions is critical. But according to Geddes (1999), this is because different kinds of authoritarianism differ from each other as much they differ from democracy. To facilitate the analysis of these differences, she classifies authoritarian regimes as 'personalist', military, single-party, or amalgams of the pure types. It is important to note that all of them can be conceptualized from the perspective of “Limited Access Order” societies (North 1999).
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Weymann saloon by H. J. Mulliner YF5001: the first 8 Litre made; built for entertainer Jack Buchanan. Announced on 15 September 1930 and launched at the London Olympia Motor Show in October 1930, the 8 Litre Bentley was noted for its tractability and smoothness; it could be driven from walking pace to highway speeds in top gear without effort. As a result of the worldwide Great Depression, the 8 Litre did not sell well enough to improve Bentley's financial situation. The chassis was priced at £1,850, roughly equivalent to £293,000 in 2010.
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The constraint composite graph is a node-weighted undirected graph associated with a given combinatorial optimization problem posed as a weighted constraint satisfaction problem. Developed and introduced by Satish Kumar Thittamaranahalli (T. K. Satish Kumar), the idea of the constraint composite graph is a big step towards unifying different approaches for exploiting "structure" in weighted constraint satisfaction problems.Kumar, T. K. S. (2008), "A Framework for Hybrid Tractability Results in Boolean Weighted Constraint Satisfaction Problems", Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Conference on Principles and Practice of Constraint Programming (CP).
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A constrained conditional model (CCM) is a machine learning and inference framework that augments the learning of conditional (probabilistic or discriminative) models with declarative constraints. The constraint can be used as a way to incorporate expressive prior knowledge into the model and bias the assignments made by the learned model to satisfy these constraints. The framework can be used to support decisions in an expressive output space while maintaining modularity and tractability of training and inference. Models of this kind have recently attracted much attention within the natural language processing (NLP) community.
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This has affected the development and reception of theories of marginal utility. Quantitative concepts of utility allow familiar arithmetic operations, and further assumptions of continuity and differentiability greatly increase tractability. Contemporary mainstream economic theory frequently defers metaphysical questions, and merely notes or assumes that preference structures conforming to certain rules can be usefully proxied by associating goods, services, or their uses with quantities, and defines "utility" as such a quantification.Kreps, David Marc; A Course in Microeconomic Theory, Chapter two: The theory of consumer choice and demand, Utility representations.
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Bounding the width of a decomposition method by a constant creates a structural restriction, that is, it limits the possible scopes of constraints, but not their relations. The complementary way for obtaining tractable subclasses of constraint satisfaction is by placing restriction over the relations of constraints; these are called relational restriction, and the set of allowed relations is called constraint language. If solving problems having a decomposition width bounded by a constant is in P, the decomposition leads to a tractable structural restriction. As explained above, tractability requires that two conditions are met.
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Dr. Aballay's laboratory takes advantage of the compromise between complexity and tractability of the C. elegans–S. enterica pathogenesis model. The focus of the laboratory is to use C. elegans as a host to screen thousands of bacterial clones from mutagenized libraries to identify novel Salmonella virulence factors and to address how they alter host signaling pathways. Since several components of innate immunity are conserved among different organisms throughout evolution, his group is also exploiting the genetic and genomic resources available for C. elegans to study the basis of the immune response.
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The current format of the draw has been criticized for lacking balance, fairness and equal distribution of quality. A study in the Journal of Quantitative Analysis in Sports suggested that while the current model does ensure Randomness, Tractability, and Geographic separation, it "fails to satisfy the principle of balance". Under the study's proposed draw model, based on over 40,000 simulations of the 2014 draw, the model exhibited a much more balanced group and much less variation in the strength of the groups when compared to the current system utilized by FIFA.
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The M1 has an unassisted rack and pinion steering, double wishbone suspension system with adjustable coil springs and Bilstein gas filled dampers. The road car had softer suspension bushings to have better ride quality and tractability. The ventilated brakes of the car measured at the front and at the rear and were constructed from steel. The M1 used special Campagnolo alloy wheels measuring 7x16-inches at the front and 8x16-inches at the rear fitted with Pirelli P7 tyres (having sizes of 205/55 VR15 at the front and 225/50 VR15s at the rear).
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Bounded rationality is the idea that rationality is limited, when individuals make decisions, by the tractability of the decision problem, the cognitive limitations of the mind, and the time available to make the decision. Decision-makers, in this view, act as satisficers, seeking a satisfactory solution rather than an optimal one. Herbert A. Simon proposed bounded rationality as an alternative basis for the mathematical modeling of decision- making, as used in economics, political science and related disciplines. It complements "rationality as optimization", which views decision-making as a fully rational process of finding an optimal choice given the information available.
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Herbert A. Simon, winner of the 1975 Turing award and the 1978 Nobel Prize in economics Bounded rationality is the idea that when individuals make decisions, their rationality is limited by the tractability of the decision problem, their cognitive limitations and the time available. Decision-makers in this view act as satisficers, seeking a satisfactory solution rather than an optimal one. Herbert A. Simon proposed bounded rationality as an alternative basis for the mathematical modeling of decision-making. It complements "rationality as optimization", which views decision-making as a fully rational process of finding an optimal choice given the information available.
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An early structural restriction (that later evolved into that based on induced width) is based on the width of the primal graph of the problem. Given an ordering of the nodes of the graph, the width of a node is the number of nodes that join it and precede it in the order. However, restricting only the width does not lead to a tractable restriction: even restricting this width to 4, establishing satisfiability remains NP- complete. Tractability is obtained by restricting the relations; in particular, if a problem has width k and is strongly k-consistent, it is efficiently solvable.
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Because the exponent of depends on , this algorithm is not fixed-parameter tractable. Although it can be improved by fast matrix multiplication the running time still has an exponent that is linear in Thus, although the running time of known algorithms for the clique problem is polynomial for any fixed , these algorithms do not suffice for fixed-parameter tractability. defined a hierarchy of parametrized problems, the W hierarchy, that they conjectured did not have fixed-parameter tractable algorithms. They proved that independent set (or, equivalently, clique) is hard for the first level of this hierarchy, W[1].
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The first mathematical formulation of quasispecies was deterministic; it assumed steady state mutant distributions in genetic equilibrium without perturbations derived from modifications of the environment or population size. These conditions are common in initial theoretical formulations of complex phenomena because they confer mathematical tractability. Since then, several extensions of the theory to non-equilibrium conditions with stochastic components have been developed, with the aim of finding general solutions for multi-peak fitness landscapes. These objectives approximate quasispecies to the real case of RNA viruses, which are compelled to deal with dramatic variations in population size and environment.
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Flock House virus (FHV) is in the alphanodavirus genus of the Nodaviridae family of viruses. Flock House virus was isolated from a grass grub (Costelytra Zealandica) at the Flock House research station in Bulls, New Zealand. FHV is an extensively studied virus and is considered a model system for the study of other non-enveloped RNA viruses owing to its small size and genetic tractability, particularly to study the role of the transiently exposed hydrophobic gamma peptide and the metastability of the viral capsid. FHV can be engineered in insect cell culture allowing for the tailored production of native or mutant authentic virions or virus-like-particles.
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Einstein–Cartan theory has been historically overshadowed by its torsion-free counterpart and other alternatives like Brans–Dicke theory because torsion seemed to add little predictive benefit at the expense of the tractability of its equations. Since the Einstein–Cartan theory is purely classical, it also does not fully address the issue of quantum gravity. In the Einstein–Cartan theory, the Dirac equation becomes nonlinear and therefore the superposition principle used in usual quantization techniques would not work. Recently, interest in Einstein–Cartan theory has been driven toward cosmological implications, most importantly, the avoidance of a gravitational singularity at the beginning of the universe.
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Adapting the Triumph head design for use in a saloon car engine required much work in reducing friction and improving timing. Much of the development of the prototype engine was carried out by Dr. J. N. H. Tait. Tait had been involved with Donald Healey in the early post war years, working successfully on modified Riley 2½-litre Big Four engines, the final incarnation of which was used in 1953 Zethrin Rennsport prototype, delivering close to 200 bhp with surprising tractability. The two sizes of the Daimler derivative engines share similar but not identical external dimensions and design, the 4.5 litre being longer, deeper and wider.
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It quickly became clear that QED was almost "magical" in its relative tractability, and that most of the ways that one might imagine extending it would not produce rational calculations. However, one class of field theories remained promising: gauge theories, in which the objects in the theory represent equivalence classes of physically indistinguishable field configurations, any two of which are related by a gauge transformation. This generalizes the QED idea of a local change of phase to a more complicated Lie group. QED itself is a gauge theory, as is general relativity, although the latter has proven resistant to quantization so far, for reasons related to renormalization.
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Bernoulli's treatment of fluid dynamics and his examination of fluid flow was introduced in his 1738 work Hydrodynamica. Rational mechanics dealt primarily with the development of elaborate mathematical treatments of observed motions, using Newtonian principles as a basis, and emphasized improving the tractability of complex calculations and developing of legitimate means of analytical approximation. A representative contemporary textbook was published by Johann Baptiste Horvath. By the end of the century analytical treatments were rigorous enough to verify the stability of the solar system solely on the basis of Newton's laws without reference to divine intervention—even as deterministic treatments of systems as simple as the three body problem in gravitation remained intractable.
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This endowment is determined by many things including physical laws (which constrain how forms of energy and matter may be transformed), accidents of nature (which determine the presence of natural resources), and the outcomes of past decisions made by the individual himself or herself and by others. For reasons of tractability, it is often assumed in neoclassical analysis that goods and services are continuously divisible. Under this assumption, marginal concepts, including marginal utility, may be expressed in terms of differential calculus. Marginal utility can then be defined as the first derivative of total utility—the total satisfaction obtained from consumption of a good or service—with respect to the amount of consumption of that good or service.
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In the head, the valve angle was reduced by two degrees and the intake valve size increased as a result of testing; the valves on test engines had a worrying tendency to meet during the overlap period. Derived from Edward Turner's original twin-cylinder design and a development of the Triumph Tiger, the 'Daytona' sacrificed low-speed tractability for a pronounced power step at 3,500 rpm that helped it to compete with the advanced designs from Japanese manufacturers like Honda. As well as decreased engine flexibility, however, the increase in power reduced the life of the valve gear, leading to heavy oil consumption. Gary Nixon won the 1967 Daytona 200 race on the newly designated Triumph Daytona.
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The function corresponding to a solution can be calculated from the first part of the table above and the solution. As an example, for the last solution marked in the table, this function can be determined for arguments 1,0,1 as follows: first, these three values are the first part of the row "c" in the table; the value of the function is the value of the solution in the same column, that is, 0. A necessary condition for tractability is the existence of a solution for a universal gadget of some order that is part of some classes of functions. This result however only holds for reduced languages, which are defined below.
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The open system interconnection (OSI) model of communication networks comprises multiple design layers. For tractability reasons, each layer was individually optimized, up until it was recognized that joint designs can afford markedly improved performance. For wireless networks, Giannakis and collaborators were the first to demonstrate how by leveraging channel knowledge at the transmitter, a modulator that adapts to the intended fading channel at the physical (PHY) layer can be fruitfully co-designed with the automatic repeat request (ARQ) strategy at the medium access control (MAC) layer to improve throughput. In addition to PHY-MAC, they investigated co-designs involving schedulers with quality of service (QoS) guarantees, as well as queuing with adaptive modulation and coding.
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The new material, because of its less thick quarry-sizes and tractability, reacted on the workmanship, with the result that the masonry-courses became reduced in size and the carvings more delicate and highly finished. The temple, perhaps built in the latter half of the 11th century, has a five-storeyed vimana (tower), square on plan from the base to the shikhara, and had originally a closed square navaranga in front, though an open mandapa was added in front later on. The central bay of the navaranga is a larger square than the peripheral eight around it. The second storey, as in the Jaina temple at Pattadakkal, is functional and has an antarala-mantapa in front over the vestibule of the lower storey.
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Re scoring is usually done by trying to minimize the Bayes risk (or an approximation thereof): Instead of taking the source sentence with maximal probability, we try to take the sentence that minimizes the expectancy of a given loss function with regards to all possible transcriptions (i.e., we take the sentence that minimizes the average distance to other possible sentences weighted by their estimated probability). The loss function is usually the Levenshtein distance, though it can be different distances for specific tasks; the set of possible transcriptions is, of course, pruned to maintain tractability. Efficient algorithms have been devised to re score lattices represented as weighted finite state transducers with edit distances represented themselves as a finite state transducer verifying certain assumptions.
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A sufficient condition for tractability is related to expressibility in Datalog. A Boolean Datalog query gives a truth value to a set of literals over a given alphabet, each literal being an expression of the form L(a_1,\ldots,a_n); as a result, a Boolean Datalog query expresses a set of sets of literals, as it can be considered semantically equivalent to the set of all sets of literals that it evaluates to true. On the other hand, a non-uniform problem can be seen as a way for expressing a similar set. For a given non-uniform problem, the set of relations that can be used in constraints is fixed; as a result, one can give unique names R_1,\ldots,R_n to them.
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With 335 hp (250 kW), Ascari was able to keep up with the Alfa Romeo 158 of Juan Manuel Fangio but retired with engine trouble. Although the 340 proved itself capable, it was only the middle step in Ferrari's 1950 car development. Ferrari 375 Indy Ferrari achieved the 4.5-litre goal of the formula with the 375 F1, two of which debuted at Monza on September 3, 1950. This 4.5-litre (4493.73 cc/274 in³) engine produced roughly the same power as its 4.1-litre predecessor, but its tractability earned Ascari second place in that debut race. A series of modifications through the 1951 season allowed Ferrari to finally put Alfa Romeo behind it in a Formula One race, with José Froilán González' victory at Silverstone on July 14 becoming the constructor's first World Championship win.
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A necessary condition for tractability can be expressed in terms of the universal gadget. The solutions of such a gadget can be tabulated as follows: a b c d e f g h \--------------- 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 (solutions that exist by definition) 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 \--------------- .... 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 (other solutions are possible) .... This table is made of two parts. The first part contains the solutions that exist by definition of this problem; the second part (that may be empty) contains all other solutions. Since the columns of the table are by definition associated to the possible k-tuples of values of the domain, every solution can be viewed as a function from a k-tuple of elements to a single element.
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From the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, the reformulation of econometric techniques along Bayesian principles under the traditional structural approach dominated the research agenda, with Zellner's An Introduction to Bayesian Inference in Econometrics in 1971 as one of its highlights, and thus closely followed the work of frequentist econometrics. Therein, the main technical issues were the difficulty of specifying prior densities without losing either economic interpretation or mathematical tractability and the difficulty of integral calculation in the context of density functions. The result of the Bayesian reformulation program was to highlight the fragility of structural models to uncertain specification. This fragility came to motivate the work of Edward Leamer, who emphatically criticized modelers' tendency to indulge in "post-data model construction" and consequently developed a method of economic modelling based on the selection of regression models according to the types of prior density specification in order to identify the prior structures underlying modelers' working rules in model selection explicitly.
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Making decisions in many domains (such as natural language processing and computer vision problems) often involves assigning values to sets of interdependent variables where the expressive dependency structure can influence, or even dictate, what assignments are possible. These settings are applicable not only to Structured Learning problems such as semantic role labeling, but also for cases that require making use of multiple pre-learned components, such as summarization, textual entailment and question answering. In all these cases, it is natural to formulate the decision problem as a constrained optimization problem, with an objective function that is composed of learned models, subject to domain- or problem-specific constraints. Constrained conditional models form a learning and inference framework that augments the learning of conditional (probabilistic or discriminative) models with declarative constraints (written, for example, using a first-order representation) as a way to support decisions in an expressive output space while maintaining modularity and tractability of training and inference.
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