702 Sentences With "species diversity" | Random Sentence Generator

Yes, the country is an epicenter for wild species diversity.

They found current protected areas only cover about 1/4 of species diversity.

The network of islands about 1,000 miles northwest of Australia are isolated, but rich in species diversity.

The owner was trying to build up his species diversity, so he used to go and buy different birds.

Species diversity is shrinking worldwide, habitats are disappearing, polar ice is melting, the oceans are warming, and sea levels are rising.

In Guinea, which has the highest plant species diversity in West Africa, many rare species are increasingly threatened by habitat loss and degradation, according to the report.

Not only was their pairing genetically attractive to zoo curators (since they have rare genetic make-ups, which promotes species diversity) — but their personalities were a match, too!

The National Wildlife Federation documented that these significant losses in habitat for grassland birds caused a drop in both species diversity and abundance in the Prairie Pothole Region.

"That whale falls harbor unique communities, enhancing species diversity and evolutionary novelty in the deep sea," said Craig Smith, professor of oceanography at the University of Hawaii at Manoa.

Viruses can mix and mutate in wild and domestic animals, especially in environments like markets where species diversity may be high and live animals are preferred to dead ones.

WWF, which has been working to protect the endangered Yangtze finless porpoises that live in Poyang, has said that the project would "irreversibly and unpredictably" affect water quality and species diversity.

They noticed a decline in species diversity around the Eocene-Oligocene event, which they assumed stemmed from the lizards' inability to keep up with the cooling and changing environment and other geologic factors.

It's the International Space Station, set adrift in space after centuries of adding modules upon modules from alien worlds to the point that it has become planet-like in size and species diversity.

Three sites, we don't know where the tipping is, where does it matter in terms of the connectivity of the animals and when will you lose not just species diversity but ecosystem function and services.

Although not proven yet, scientists believe that a high species diversity for gut bacteria could be beneficial for the whole system, in the same way that ecosystems are stronger as a result of lots of different types of species thriving.

In his series entitled Photo Ark , Sartore has challenged himself to photograph the 12,000 species currently in human care across the planet—a sort of visual counterpart to Bernie Krause's work in sound ecology and audio recordings of the decline in species diversity.

Pair this with a potential quartering of global species diversity, and increased risk of drought, flooding and other natural disasters, and it becomes clear that action needs to be taken, today, tomorrow, and forever, to mitigate the already steep impact of global climate change.

"It astounded me — the angling opportunities, the species diversity and the fact that you can catch a trophy fish with the Empire State Building behind you," said Darin Alberry, a fisheries biologist for the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation and a longtime angler.

"There is no doubt at all that methane contributes to the increased levels of greenhouse gas concentrations, which contribute to the long-lasting changes in our climate, such as rising global temperatures, sea level change, in weather and precipitation patterns and changes in the ecosystem's habits and species diversity," Rep.

"I'm just working on the data now and the samples are some of the most diverse, have some of the highest species diversity of samples ever collected from the sea floor," Smith said, who is doing baseline surveys for UK Seabed Resources, noting that each of these quarter square meter samples contain upwards of 60 species of polychaete worms, crustaceans, mollusks and snails.

Photo: Liran Samuni/Taï Chimpanzee Project"When you look at what has been published over the last decade, there's a lot about biodiversity and species diversity, but not about other levels of diversity," Hjalmar Kühl, a lead researcher on the paper, senior scientist at the Max Planck Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology, and researcher at the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research, told Gizmodo.

"The discovery of hidden species diversity on such an eye-catching (more than 2.5 meters/8 feet long) and long-known (described 250 years ago) organism... indicates that an enormous amount of species are waiting to be discovered in the Amazon rainforest," C. David de Santana, the study's first author from the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C., told Gizmodo in an email.

Beta diversity quantifies how many subunits there would be if the total species diversity of the dataset and the mean species diversity per subunit remained the same, but the subunits shared no species.

K. Rohde: Latitudinal gradients in species diversity and their causes. I. A review of the hypotheses explaining the gradients. Biologisches Zentralblatt 97, 393-403, 1978a.K. Rohde: Latitudinal gradients in species diversity and their causes.

Species diversity in the deepsea has been largely underestimated until recently (e.g., Briggs 1994: total marine diversity less than 200,000 species).J. C.Briggs. Species diversity: land and sea compared. Systematic Biology 43, 130-135, 1994.

Due to its humid climate, Meghalaya has the most amphibian species diversity.

Evolution and Measurement of Species Diversity. Taxon, 21, 213-251. together with the terms beta diversity (β-diversity) and gamma diversity (γ-diversity). Whittaker's idea was that the total species diversity in a landscape (gamma diversity) is determined by two different things, the mean species diversity in sites or habitats at a more local scale (alpha diversity) and the differentiation among those habitats (beta diversity).

The hypothesis of effective evolutionary timeK. Rohde: Latitudinal gradients in species diversity: the search for the primary cause, Oikos, 65, 514-527,1992. attempts to explain gradients, in particular latitudinal gradients, in species diversity. It was originally named "time hypothesis".

For example, low species diversity is known to occur often in stable environments such as tropical mountaintops. Additionally, many habitats with high species diversity do experience seasonal climates, including many tropical regions that have highly seasonal rainfall (Brown and Lomolino 1998).

Depending on the purposes of quantifying species diversity, the data set used for the calculations can be obtained in different ways. Although species diversity can be calculated for any data-set where individuals have been identified to species, meaningful ecological interpretations require that the dataset is appropriate for the questions at hand. In practice, the interest is usually in the species diversity of areas so large that not all individuals in them can be observed and identified to species, but a sample of the relevant individuals has to be obtained. Extrapolation from the sample to the underlying population of interest is not straightforward, because the species diversity of the available sample generally gives an underestimation of the species diversity in the entire population.

A consistent terminology for quantifying species diversity? Yes, it does exist. Oecologia 4: 853–860.

The presence of a foundation species has the ability to either reduce or increase species diversity depending on its particular role in a specific ecosystem. The studies discussed highlighted examples in which foundation species limited species diversity in similar and differing taxa (the McKenzie Flats and eastern hemlock studies, respectively); however, there are many other examples in which removal of foundation species could decrease species diversity within the same or differing taxa.

This species diversity contrasts with other temperate forest types, which typically have a canopy dominated by one or a few species. Species diversity generally increases towards the tropics. In this sense, the laurel forest is a transitional type between temperate forests and tropical rainforests.

Rainforest species diversity is also in large part the result of diverse and numerous physical refuges.

Gamma diversity and alpha diversity can be calculated directly from species inventory data. The simplest of Whittaker's original definitions of beta diversity is β = γ/α Here gamma diversity is the total species diversity of a landscape and alpha diversity is the mean species diversity per habitat. Because the limits among habitats and landscapes are diffuse and to some degree subjective, it has been proposed that gamma diversity can be quantified for any inventory dataset and that alpha and beta diversity can be quantified whenever the dataset is divided into subunits. Then gamma diversity is the total species diversity in the dataset and alpha diversity the mean species diversity per subunit.

Veech, J. A. et al. (2002) The additive partitioning of species diversity: recent revival of an old idea. Oikos, 99, 3-9. However, it has been argued that it would be better to use the effective number of species as the universal measure of species diversity.

Nature 403:853-858. Although species diversity is lower than on mainland systems, endemism is high. Species diversity is highest and endemism is lowest in Trinidad, which has a predominantly continental flora. Endemism is highest in Cuba and Hispaniola, the largest members of the Greater Antilles.

The observed species diversity is affected not only by the number of individuals but also by the heterogeneity of the sample. If individuals are drawn from different environmental conditions (or different habitats), the species diversity of the resulting set can be expected to be higher than if all individuals are drawn from a similar environment. Increasing the area sampled increases observed species diversity both because more individuals get included in the sample and because large areas are environmentally more heterogeneous than small areas.

Ecology, 88, 2427–2439.Tuomisto, H. 2010. A consistent terminology for quantifying species diversity? Yes, it does exist.

Tuomisto, H. 2010. A consistent terminology for quantifying species diversity? Yes, it does exist. Oecologia 4: 853–860.

Biotropica, 612-619. This supports the hypothesis that in a natural forest, treefall gaps will promote species diversity.

Ecologists have used several slightly different definitions of alpha diversity. Whittaker himself used the term both for the species diversity in a single subunit and for the mean species diversity in a collection of subunits.Whittaker, R. H. (1960) Vegetation of the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon and California. Ecological Monographs, 30, 279–338.

Our interest is to investigate successional changes in vascular and nonvascular plant species diversity in the fragmented forest landscapes.

"Biodiversity" is most commonly used to replace the more clearly defined and long established terms, species diversity and species richness.

Barcoding snakeheads (Teleostei, Channidae) re-visited: Discovering greater species diversity and resolving perpetuated taxonomic confusions. PLoS ONE, 12 (9): e0184017.

The Biodiversity Monitoring Switzerland (BDM) is a Swiss Confederation programme for the long-term monitoring of species diversity in Switzerland.

In ecology, beta diversity (β-diversity or true beta diversity) is the ratio between regional and local species diversity. The term was introduced by R. H. Whittaker together with the terms alpha diversity (α-diversity) and gamma diversity (γ-diversity). The idea was that the total species diversity in a landscape (γ) is determined by two different things, the mean species diversity at the habitat level (α) and the differentiation among habitats (β). Other formulations for beta diversity include "absolute species turnover", "Whittaker's species turnover" and "proportional species turnover".

The highest species diversity is in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, home to 2,040 species 181 of which are endemic.

Forest factory approach: Forest gap models like FORMIND can be used to study the relationship between forest productivity and species diversity. Recent studies have shown that forest productivity often increases with increasing tree species diversity. However, several studies show unchanged or even inverse relationships between productivity and diversity. We studied a broader range of diversity-productivity relationships.

The genus is native to temperate regions of Europe, northern Africa and Asia, with the highest species diversity in the Mediterranean region.

There are three main hypotheses that are related to historical and evolutionary explanations for the increase of species diversity towards the equator.

The influence of species diversity on the productivity of marine ecosystems on a large scale is still unclear (Cardinale et al. 2004).

Syoziro Asahina, notable entomologist, was Asahina's son.Tsukané Yamasaki: In Memoriam: Syoziro Asahina (1913–2010). In: Species Diversity. Band 16, 2011, S. 81–83.

The species diversity of the Arthoniales is expected to be higher than currently reported from several areas worldwide like the tropical rain forests.

Tsering, P. L. B. (2010). Study on Species Diversity of Vertebrates in the National Reserve of Lhalu Wetland, Lhasa. Journal of Tibet University, 1.

The forest islands in the Bolivian Amazon not only increase the local plant species diversity, but also enhance subsistence possibilities for the local people.

Reading between the lines: revealing cryptic species diversity and colour patterns in Hypselodoris nudibranchs (Mollusca: Heterobranchia: Chromodorididae). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, zly048.

Thiollay, J. M. (1985). Species diversity and comparative ecology of rainforest falconiforms on three continents. Conservation studies on raptors. ICBP Technical Publication, (5), 167-174.

Wenying Zhuang (July 27, 1948) is a Chinese mycologist. She is known for her contributions to the study of species diversity and phylogeny of Ascomycetes.

In R.E. Ricklefs., D, Schluter (Ed.) Species diversity in ecological communities: historical and geographical perspectives (pp. 194 – 202). Chicago, USA: the university of Chicago press.

There are conflicting views on the effect of competition on species diversity. Some hold the view that an increase in interspecies competition leads to local extinctions and a decrease in diversity. Others view competition as a means of species specialization and niche partitioning, resulting in increase diversity.Menge, B. A. & Sutherland, J.P. (1976) Species diversity gradients: synthesis of the roles of predation, competition, and temporal heterogeneity.

The Biodiversity Monitoring Switzerland surveys the long-term development of species diversity in selected organism groups in Switzerland. The focus is on surveying common and widespread species in order to make informed statements about the development of species diversity in common landscapes.Die Biodiversität beobachten - Nach wie vor eine vielfältige Flora in der Schweiz. Neue Zürcher Zeitung. Article written by Gregor Klaus, published 2002-06-05.

A forest fire near Beaver Creek The role of wildfire is an important one for plant and animal species diversity. Many tree species have evolved to mainly germinate after a wildfire. Regions of the park that have experienced wildfire in historical times have greater species diversity after reestablishment than those regions that have not been influenced by fire. Though the Yellowstone fires of 1988 had minimal impact on Grand Teton National Park, studies conducted before and reaffirmed after that event concluded that the suppression of natural wildfires during the middle part of the 20th century decreased plant species diversity and natural regeneration of plant communities.

Applying different sampling methods will lead to different sets of individuals being observed for the same area of interest, and the species diversity of each set may be different. When a new individual is added to a dataset, it may introduce a species that was not yet represented. How much this increases species diversity depends on the value of q: when q = 0, each new actual species causes species diversity to increase by one effective species, but when q is large, adding a rare species to a dataset has little effect on its species diversity.Tuomisto, H. (2010) A diversity of beta diversities: straightening up a concept gone awry.

Michael Rosenzweig's idea of reconciliation ecology was developed based on existing research, which was conducted on the principle first suggested by Alexander von Humboldt stating that larger areas of land will have increased species diversity as compared to smaller areas. This research focused on species-area relationships (SPARs) and the different scales on which they exist, ranging from sample-area to interprovincial SPARs. Steady-state dynamics in diversity gave rise to these SPARs, which are now used to measure the reduction of species diversity on Earth. In response to this decline in diversity, Rosenzweig's reconciliation ecology was born.Rosenzweig, Michael L. “Reconciliation ecology and the future of species diversity.” Oryx, vol.

Yes, if we choose to use it. Oecologia, 167, 903-911. Definitions of alpha diversity can also differ in what they assume species diversity to be.

The reserve is managed by the Somerset Wildlife Trust who aim to maintain the existing wildlife rich areas and increase the species diversity of the reserve.

It uses constantly updated quantitative measurements of both species diversity and cover to define its types. It intended to be evolving and to continue to be refined.

On bird species diversity. Ecology. 42, 594-598. was one of the earliest to express dissatisfaction with purely statistical models, presenting instead 3 mechanistic niche apportionment models.

Rosenzweig, M.L. 1995. Species Diversity in Space and Time. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. These factors include the relative balance between immigration and extinction,MacArthur and Wilson. 1967.

Dinoflagellate blooms are generally unpredictable, short, with low species diversity, and with little species succession. The low species diversity can be due to multiple factors. One way a lack of diversity may occur in a bloom is through a reduction in predation and a decreased competition. The first may be achieved by having predators reject the dinoflagellate, by, for example, decreasing the amount of food it can eat.

His articles cover topics ranging from species diversity to predation dynamics and includes work on environmental issues and public policy. He has published three books on the origins and conservation of species diversity, both for technical and general audiences. He received the Eminent Ecologist Award from the Ecological Society of America in 2008 which is given to a senior ecologist for significant contributions to the field of ecology.

This has been put forward as a possible cause for the significant decline in Ursidae species diversity in the late Miocene, including the species of the genus Kretzoiarctos.

Yes, it does exist. Oecologia 4: 853–860. Tuomisto, H. (2011) Commentary: do we have a consistent terminology for species diversity? Yes, if we choose to use it.

The Thornthwaite system, in use since 1948, uses evapotranspiration as well as temperature and precipitation information to study animal species diversity and the potential impacts of climate changes.

The presence of eosimiid in Myanmar, as well as a high species diversity found in China leads to an apparent conclusion that they had a relatively wide distribution.

Lankau, R.A., S.Y. Strauss 2007. Mutual feedbacks maintain both genetic and species diversity in a plant community. Science 317:1561-1563.Johnson, M.T.J., M. Vellend, J.R. Stinchcombe. 2009.

Global mammal richness (2015) Global amphibian richness (2015) Species richness is the number of different species represented in an ecological community, landscape or region. Species richness is simply a count of species, and it does not take into account the abundances of the species or their relative abundance distributions. Species richness is sometime considered synonymous with species diversity, but the formal metric species diversity takes into account both species richness and species evenness.

This is due to relaxed competition; small-bodied species normally compete with large-bodied vertebrates for food and other resources. As an area becomes defaunated, dominant small-bodied species take over, crowding out other similar species and leading to an overall reduced species diversity. The loss of species diversity is reflective of a larger loss of biodiversity, which has consequences for the maintenance of ecosystem services. The quality of the physical habitat may also suffer.

For example, marine teleost fishes have the greatest latitudinal ranges at low latitudes.Rohde, K. (1992). Latitudinal gradients in species diversity: the search for the primary cause. Oikos 65, 514–527.

Rohde therefore concluded that the rule describes a local phenomenon.Rohde, K. (1996). Rapoport's Rule is a local phenomenon and cannot explainlatitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity Letters, 3, 10–13.

Reading between the lines: revealing cryptic species diversity and colour patterns in Hypselodoris nudibranchs (Mollusca: Heterobranchia: Chromodorididae). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 2018, XX, 1–74. With 40 figures.

Part 2. Quantifying beta diversity and related phenomena. Ecography, 33, 23-45. In general, sets with many individuals can be expected to have higher species diversity than sets with fewer individuals.

The species name refers to the country of origin.Park, K. T. (2003). "Two new species of the genus Tisis from Thailand and notes on Tistis elegans (Insecta: Lepidoptera: Lecithoceridae)". Species Diversity.

For example, plant community restoration seems to be one tool that could benefit the entire region by promoting native species diversity, re-establishing natural biological processes, and protecting endangered species habitats.

Gethyllis has an extensive distribution covering the winter- rainfall area of the southern portion of Namibia and throughout the Cape Province, with the Vanrhynsdorp-Nieuwoudtville region showing the greatest species diversity.

They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species diversity among all orders of organisms.Sebastin, P.A. & Peter, K.V. (eds.) (2009). Spiders of India. Universities Press/Orient Blackswan.

Ecography 33: 2-22. If results are extrapolated beyond the actual observations, it needs to be taken into account that the species diversity in the dataset generally gives an underestimation of the species diversity in a larger area. The smaller the available sample in relation to the area of interest, the more species that actually exist in the area are not found in the sample.Colwell, R. K. and Coddington, J. A. (1994) Estimating terrestrial biodiversity through extrapolation.

Species diversity is the number of different species that are represented in a given community (a dataset). The effective number of species refers to the number of equally abundant species needed to obtain the same mean proportional species abundance as that observed in the dataset of interest (where all species may not be equally abundant). Meanings of species diversity may include species richness, taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity, and/or species evenness. Species richness is a simple count of species.

Danilo S. Balete (born in 1960 in the Bicol Region of the Philippines—died July 1, 2017), also known as Danny Balete, is a Filipino zoologist and biologist. His is known for his work on the Philippines' endemic mammal species. He pursued the question of what determines species diversity. The research by Balete and his team overturned previously held notions that diversity decreased in mountainous regions, showing that harsh environments could generate, rather than suppress, species diversity.

Phallus hadriani Phallus mushrooms are found amongst leaf litter in damp woodland with the rhizomorphs attached to buried wood. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution, but with richer species diversity in tropical regions.

As large-bodied vertebrates are increasingly lost from seed-dispersal networks, small-bodied seed dispersers (i.e. bats, birds, dung beetles) and seed predators (i.e. rodents) are affected. Defaunation leads to reduced species diversity.

Ecography, 33, 2-22. The subunits can be, for example, sampling units that were already used in the field when carrying out the inventory, or grid cells that are delimited just for the purpose of analysis. If results are extrapolated beyond the actual observations, it needs to be taken into account that the species diversity in the subunits generally gives an underestimation of the species diversity in larger areas.Colwell, R. K. and Coddington, J. A. (1994) Estimating terrestrial biodiversity through extrapolation.

Stevens used the rule to "explain" greater species diversity in the tropics in the sense that latitudinal gradients in species diversity and the rule have identical exceptional data and so must have the same underlying cause. Narrower ranges in the tropics would facilitate more species to coexist. He later extended the rule to altitudinal gradients, claiming that altitudinal ranges are greatest at greater altitudes (Stevens 1992Stevens, G. C. (1992). The elevational gradient in altitudinal range: an extension of Rapoport's latitudinal rule to altitude.

Facilitation affects community diversity (defined in this context as the number of species in the community) by altering competitive interactions. For example, intertidal mussels increase total community species diversity by displacing competitive large sessile species such as seaweed and barnacles. Although the mussels decrease diversity of primary space holders (i.e., large sessile species), a larger number of invertebrate species are associated with mussel beds than with other primary space holders, so total species diversity is higher when mussels are present.

Compared with other continents, species diversity is low, and may be related to the climate of most of the Australian continent. There are two known invasive amphibians, the cane toad and the smooth newt.

56 (1): 121-131.De Souza, A. R.; Venancio, D. F. A.; Zanuncio, J. C. & Prezoto, F. (2011). "Sampling methods for assessing social wasps species diversity in a Eucalyptus plantation". Journal of Economic Entomology.

Most species are endemic to South Africa, with the greatest species diversity occurring in the south- western Cape. Some species do however extend into neighbouring territories, in Swaziland, southern Namibia and southern Mozambique (Maputaland).

Around it are the remnants of wet and peat bog meadows. The area also hosts some xerophilous biotopes and has a rich species diversity on a small area including a number of endangered species.

At a sampling site near the intersection of Green and Anderson Roads, only small numbers of fish were present, and many of these were infected with fungus or were dead. The east branch of Euclid Creek exhibited the most species diversity of any segment of the stream. Its lower , however, were grossly enriched due to flows from a sewage treatment plant. Species diversity was about as good in the stream segment encompassed by the Euclid Creek Reservation, although the number of animals was much lower.

Wagele, H., I. Burghardt, N. Anthes, J. Evertsen, A. Klussmann-Kolb & G. Brodie. 2006. Species diversity of opisthobranch mollusks on Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Records of the Western Australian Museum. Supplement 69:33–59.

Benavides,E; Baum, R.; Snell, H. M.; Snell, H. L.; and Sites, Jr., J.W. (2009). "Island Biogeography of Galápagos Lava Lizards (Tropiduridae: Microlophus): Species Diversity and Colonization of the Archipelago." (.pdf) Evolution, 63 (6): 1606–1626.

Terrestrial biomes lying within the Arctic or Antarctic Circles, at high altitudes or in extremely arid areas are relatively barren of plant and animal life; species diversity reaches a peak in humid lowlands at equatorial latitudes.

An abundance of plant species and numbers promote species diversity including those of parasitoids and hosts. Parasitoid wasps, although located in many places in the world, are rarely the dominating population in terms of influence or numbers.

In a 2012 study, the lake showed a microalgae density of 2.4 × 10^7/cm^2, with a high species diversity. The lake showed low total phosphorus and high organic carbon content, when compared to Lake Simcoe.

If all species are equally abundant in the dataset, changing the value of q has no effect, but species diversity at any value of q equals species richness. Negative values of q are not used, because then the effective number of species (diversity) would exceed the actual number of species (richness). As q approaches negative infinity, the generalized mean approaches the minimum p_{i} value. In many real datasets, the least abundant species is represented by a single individual, and then the effective number of species would equal the number of individuals in the dataset.

Coral reef communities located near carbon dioxide seeps are of particular interest because of the sensitivity of some corals species to acidification. In Papua New Guinea, declining pH caused by carbon dioxide seeps is associated with declines in coral species diversity. However, in Palau carbon dioxide seeps are not associated with reduced species diversity of corals, although bioerosion of coral skeletons is much higher at low pH sites. Ocean acidification may affect the ocean's biologically driven sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere to the ocean interior and seafloor sediment, weakening the so-called biological pump.

The Kenyan government is bankrupt and dump important partly because it is a limited resource but also because some of Kenya's water systems are recognised internationally for their importance to species diversity and bird migration. Water issues directly affect wildlife, since the availability of drinking water is a necessity for survival. Wildlife is also indirectly affected by the human population's use of water to support livestock and agriculture, which compete with wildlife for limited water resources. Kenya is known for its species diversity and richness; it is in the top 50 countries of species richness.

Princeton University Press. p.94.Benavides E, Baum R, Snell HM, Snell HL, Sites JW Jr (2009). "Island Biogeography of Galápagos Lava Lizards (Tropiduridae: Microlophus): Species Diversity and Colonization of the Archipelago". (.pdf) Evolution 63 (6): 1606–1626.

Because many people live off the sea, it is not feasible to have complete gillnet closures. Some areas may be designated as off-limits to gillnet fisheries. Eco-tourism may be implemented successfully because of high species diversity.

American Naturalist 142: 1-16.Rohde, K. 1999. Latitudinal gradients in species diversity and Rapoport's rule revisited: a review of recent work, and what can parasites teach us about the causes of the gradients? Ecography 22: 593-613.

Stylidium species are typically pollinated by small solitary bees and the nectar-feeding bee flies (Bombyliidae).Armbruster, W. S., and N. Muchhala. 2009. Associations between floral specialization and species diversity: cause, effect, or correlation? Evolutionary Ecology, 23: 159-179.

Estimates of the present global macroscopic species diversity vary from 2 million to 100 million, with a best estimate of somewhere near 9 million, the vast majority arthropods. Diversity appears to increase continually in the absence of natural selection.

Molecular Ecology, 5: 351–363Mort et al. (2002). Systematic Botany, 27: 271–288 On the Canary Islands, the center of species diversity seems to be the island of La Palma. Relationships within Aichryson were investigated by Fairfield et al.

In comparison with other areas in Ireland where surveys have been carried out, Broadhaven provides a high marine mammal species diversity, with sightings of 10 out of the 24 marine mammal species currently recorded in Irish waters occurring in the area.

Devi, N. L. and A. K. Das. (2010). Plant species diversity in the traditional homegardens of Meitei community: A case study from Barak Valley, Assam. Journal of Tropical Agriculture 48(1-2) 45-8. It is tolerant of sun and shade.

The implications of this model include a rapid increase in environmental ecologists' understanding of how spatial scales impact species diversity in a certain environment.Hart, Simon P., et al. “The spatial scales of species coexistence.” Nature Ecology & Evolution, vol. 1, no.

The genus was originally described by Carl Linnaeus. The type species is Myosotis scorpioides. Myosotis species are distributed in temperate areas of the northern hemisphere and southernhemisphere. The genus has two centres of species diversity in Europe and New Zealand.

Five species of Cyclosa occur in North America north of Mexico, and these species differ in how their webs are positioned within vegetation, and for that reason, species diversity is highest in habitats that have high architectural and botanic diversity.

Aquatic Biodiversity. A smaller number of other freshwater annelids is known: 30 species of leeches (Hirudinea),Kaygorodova, I.A.; and N.M. Pronin (2013). New Records of Lake Baikal Leech Fauna: Species Diversity and Spatial Distribution in Chivyrkuy Gulf. ScientificWorldJournal. 2013(2013): 206590.

The species name refers to the shape of the signum and is derived from Latin aster (meaning star).Park, K. T. (2003). "Two new species of the genus Tisis from Thailand and notes on Tistis elegans (Insecta: Lepidoptera: Lecithoceridae)". Species Diversity.

These open regions are caused by habitat destruction like logging for timber, livestock grazing, and firewood collection. Due to this destruction, butterfly species' diversity can decrease and it is known that there is a correlation in butterfly diversity and plant diversity.

Stephen Hubbell and Michael Rosenzweig combined theoretical and practical elements into works that extended MacArthur and Wilson's Island Biogeography Theory - Hubbell with his Unified Neutral Theory of Biodiversity and Biogeography and Rosenzweig with his Species Diversity in Space and Time.

Terrestrial slugs are considered to be especially dangerous because they alter plant species abundance, adult plant fecundity, and the production of plant defensive compounds. Black slugs are of special concern in fragmented ecosystems and areas with high shrub and tree cover. In Alaska, the black slug threatens seedling populations of lilies and orchids after already having diminished sensitive populations of deltoid balsamroot and yellow montane violet in BC Canada. There is much debate concerning black slug effect upon plant species diversity. Slug impacts change over successional stages, and Alaska conservationists observed the black slug’s impact on species diversity depends upon community composition.

When analysed in the context of the major species concepts, the majority of ITS2 sequence data provide a reasonable proxy for species diversity. Currently, ITS2 types number in the hundreds, but most communities of symbiotic cnidaria around the world still require comprehensive sampling. Furthermore, there appears to be a large number of unique species found in association with equally diverse species assemblages of soritid foraminifera, as well as many other Symbiodinium that are exclusively free- living and found in varied, often benthic, habitats. Given the potential species diversity of these ecologically cryptic Symbiodinium, the total species number may never be accurately assessed.

Today, rarefaction has grown as a technique not just for measuring species diversity, but of understanding diversity at higher taxonomic levels as well. Most commonly, the number of species is sampled to predict the number of genera in a particular community; similar techniques had been used to determine this level of diversity in studies several years before Sanders quantified his individual to species determination of rarefaction. Rarefaction techniques are used to quantify species diversity of newly studied ecosystems, including human microbiomes, as well as in applied studies in community ecology, such as understanding pollution impacts on communities and other management applications.

Relatively few studies have been undertaken on the benthic assemblages and species of mangrove forests in New Zealand. The benthic invertebrate fauna of New Zealand’s mangroves forests appear to be modest in both abundances and species diversity compared to other estuarine habitats.

The American Naturalist 151: 277-282.Stachowicz, J.J., R.B. Whitlatch and R.W. Osman. 1999. Species diversity and invasion resistance in a marine ecosystem. Science 286: 1577-1579.Elmqvist, T., C. Folke, M. Nyström, G. Peterson, J. Bengtsson, B. Walker and J. Norberg. 2003.

Over one-quarter of the recognized species diversity in Noturus remains undescribed. A number of madtom species are narrowly distributed and extremely rare, thus are at great risk of extinction. Noturus trautmani may even be extinct, having been last collected in 1957.

Her activities and the progress made to preserve 449 plant species, diversity of flora and fauna, coastal lagoons, rocky outcrops, swamps, mangroves, rocky shores, sandy beaches, and rainforest located in a coastal strip of 40 kilometers, were an obstacle to business projects.

Two marine sites in the bay have collectively been designated Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) 144 (formerly SSSI 26), to protect the bay's benthic communities, which have relatively high species diversity and biomass and have been subject to a long-term research program.

Biotropica 10:278-291. Similar to other insular dry forests species diversity is low; between 30 and 50 tree species are found per hectare.Murphy, P. G., and A. E. Lugo. (1986) Structure and biomass of a subtropical dry forest in Puerto Rico.

Siler CD, Diesmos AC, Alcala AC, Brown RM (2011). "Phylogeny of Philippine slender skinks (Scincidae: Brachymeles) reveals underestimated species diversity, complex biogeographical relationships, and cryptic patterns of lineage diversification". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 59 (1): 53-65. In 2015 Chan-ard et al.

A high forest can have one or more canopy layers. The understory of a high forest can be open (parklike, easy to see and walk through), or it can be dense. A high forest's understory can have high or low vegetation species diversity.

The genus Curcuma L. (Zingiberaceae): distribution and classification with reference to species diversity in Thailand. Gardens' Bulletin Singapore 59: 203-220.Leong-Skornicková, J., Sída, O., Wijesundara, S. & Marhold, K. (2008). On the identity of turmeric: the typification of Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae).

A latitudinal gradient of wood and litter production and its implications regarding competition and species diversity in trees. American Midland Naturalist 99:415-434. 11\. Stark, N. and C.F. Jordan. 1978. Nutrient retention by the root mat of an Amazonian rain forest.

The preferred habitat of V. dumerilii is dense evergreen forests with high humidity Lauprasert K, Thirakupt K (2001). "Species Diversity and Proposed Status of Monitor Lizards (Family Varanidae) in Southern Thailand". Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University 1 (1): 39-46. and mangrove swamps.

University of Florida IFAS. Published 2003, revised 2008. Many species of the genus are considered pests, both as larvae and as adults. The genus is native to the Americas, where it is distributed from Mexico to Argentina; the highest species diversity is in Brazil.

Erynnis is a genus in the skippers butterfly family Hesperiidae, known as the duskywings. Erynnis is found in the Neotropical realm and across the Palearctic, but the highest species diversity is in the Nearctic. The genus was erected by Franz von Paula Schrank in 1801.

It resemble a typical landscape projects of the late nineteenth century being rich in species diversity and quality as the redwoods or tulip trees, but also lime and honey locust, the saphoras Japan and acacias Mexico. The fountains were installed in the early 1960.

"Flowering Plants and Ferns" SNH. Retrieved 26 April 2008 In addition to the native varieties of vascular plants there are numerous non-native introductions, now believed to make up some 43% of the species in the country."Natural Heritage Trends. Species diversity: plant species" SNH.

The boundary between remaining undisturbed habitat and the newly cleared land itself forms a distinct habitat, creating new winners and losers and possibly hosting species that would not thrive outside the boundary habitat. In 1958, Charles S. Elton claimed that ecosystems with higher species diversity were less subject to invasive species because of fewer available niches. Other ecologists later pointed to highly diverse, but heavily invaded ecosystems and argued that ecosystems with high species diversity were more susceptible to invasion. This debate hinged on the spatial scale at which invasion studies were performed, and the issue of how diversity affects susceptibility remained unresolved as of 2011.

Low (warm) latitudes contain significantly more species than high (cold) latitudes. This has been shown for many animal and plant groups, although exceptions exist (see latitudinal gradients in species diversity). An example of an exception is helminths of marine mammals, which have the greatest diversity in northern temperate seas, possibly because of small population densities of hosts in tropical seas that prevented the evolution of a rich helminth fauna, or because they originated in temperate seas and had more time for speciations there. It has become more and more apparent that species diversity is best correlated with environmental temperature and more generally environmental energy.

Researchers suggested that this was due to an increase in open habitats from the loss of the hemlocks. The results of this hemlock study corroborated with those from the previous McKenzie Flats study discussed in that the loss of foundation species led to a proliferation of species diversity in the affected area. These results seem to contradict a long- standing belief that foundation species play a vital role in communities and ecosystems by creating habitats for organisms, suggesting that in some circumstances they bottleneck species diversity. Foundation species play a vital role in structuring a community; however, this can be in a variety of different ways.

Helicia glabriflora from New South Wales, Australia Helicia plants generally grow naturally as small trees, while some species grow as shrubs and some grow to medium-sized trees up to . They grow naturally across the Malesia region with the major centre of species diversity of about fifty species in New Guinea. They grow naturally in the south west Pacific ocean region, and in north and eastern Australia. They grow naturally across southern and eastern Asia, including Indonesia, Malaysia and another centre of species diversity of about twenty species in southern China, extending to parts of the Indian subcontinent, the Philippines, Taiwan, and southern Japan.

The investigation of Symbiodinium diversity, ecology, and evolution is enhanced by analysis of ribosomal and single copy nuclear, plastid, and mitochondrial DNA. The use of multiple markers, along with a hierarchical phylogenetic classification provides the genetic resolution necessary for investigating species diversity, biogeography, dispersal, natural selection, and adaptive radiations. The recognition of species diversity in this genus remained problematic for many decades due to the challenges of identifying morphological and biochemical traits useful for diagnosing species. Presently, phylogenetic, ecological, and population genetic data can be more rapidly acquired to resolve Symbiodinium into separate entities that are consistent with Biological, Evolutionary, and Ecological Species Concepts.

Recent data have shown that there is a direct correlation between the structural complexity of a coffee plantation and the number of species that can be found there. The forest-like structure of shade coffee farms provides habitat for a great number of migratory and resident birds, reptiles, ants, butterflies, bats, plants and other organisms. Of all agricultural land uses, shade-grown coffee is most likely the crop that supports the highest diversity of migratory birds, native flora and fauna. In all of the studies, a clear spectrum of species richness emerged ranging from high species diversity in "rustic" shaded polycultures to extremely low species diversity in unshaded monocultures.

The specific contribution of the Biodiversity Monitoring Switzerland to the analysis of species diversity in Switzerland is the fact that species lists can be drawn up that are as comprehensive as possible for all sampling areas, which increases the probability of detecting species absences. In addition, the Biodiversity Monitoring Switzerland is not restricted to well-known, highly species-rich areas or sites where rarities are found, but rather monitors randomly selected locations that would hardly ever be surveyed otherwise. Common and widespread species are thus also surveyed. Repeat surveys at exactly the same location using exactly the same method allow precise conclusions to be drawn regarding changes in species diversity.

They can be found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams (e.g., char and gudgeon) to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans (e.g., cusk-eel and snailfish). At 32,000 species, fish exhibit greater species diversity than any other group of vertebrates.

In ecology, alpha diversity (α-diversity) is the mean species diversity in sites or habitats at a local scale. The term was introduced by R. H. WhittakerWhittaker, R. H. (1960) Vegetation of the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon and California. Ecological Monographs, 30, 279–338. Whittaker, R. H. (1972).

Rhinanthus (rattle) is a genus of annual hemiparasitic herbaceous plants in the family Orobanchaceae, formerly classified in the family Scrophulariaceae. The genus consists of about 30 to 40 species found in Europe, northern Asia, and North America, with the greatest species diversity (28 species) in Europe.

The distribution of the ichneumonids was traditionally considered an exception to the common latitudinal gradient in species diversity, since the family was thought to be at its most species-rich in the temperate zone instead of the tropics, but numerous new tropical species have now been discovered.

The Helcomyzidae are a small family of flies in the Acalyptratae. The larvae feed on kelp and other organic matter washed up on shorelines. Species diversity is highest in New Zealand and south temperate South America. They are sometimes allied with the families Dryomyzidae or Coelopidae.

The plant family collection includes Maple, crab apple, birch and conifer among others. These collections put emphasis on species diversity. Rose, lilac, serviceberry and dwarf conifers are the full extent of the horticultural selection at the Arboretum. The rose collection is not sustained using insecticides or fungicides.

Finally, Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047, the Earth's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years, affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth.

Agent Orange has also caused enormous environmental damage in Vietnam. Over 3,100,000 hectares (31,000 km2 or 11,969 mi2) of forest were defoliated. Defoliants eroded tree cover and seedling forest stock, making reforestation difficult in numerous areas. Animal species diversity sharply reduced in contrast with unsprayed areas.

The vegetation in Banke National Park is composed of at least 113 tree species, 107 herbal species and 85 shrub and climber species. Common species include sal, axlewood, Semecarpus anacardium, khair, Terminalia alata.Napit, R. (2016). Species Diversity, Forest Community Structure and Regeneration in Banke National Park.

Recovery time can be rapid (5–7 meters per year) or much slower depending upon the vegetation present in the gap.Carson, W., Mascaro, J., & Schnitzer, S. (2008). TREEFALL GAPS AND THE MAINTENANCE OF PLANT SPECIES DIVERSITY IN TROPICAL FORESTS (CHAPTER 12). In Tropical forest community ecology.

32: 203–219. For example, regardless of which definition of species one uses, one can still quantitatively compare species diversity across regions or decades, as long as the definition is held constant within a study. This has practical importance in advancing biodiversity science and environmental science.

Gentry, A.H. (1988) Changes in plant community diversity and floristic composition on environmental and geographical gradients. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 75.1, 1-34. A mid elevation peak is usually seen in mean annual rainfall.Rosenzweig, M.L. (1992) Species diversity gradients: we know more and less than we thought.

RTR preserves much of that marine life and encourages further growth. The operator benefits by avoiding the substantial cost of removal. Cumulative costs of removal had reached an estimated $1 billion by the year 2000. The shape and complexity of the structure may lead to significant species diversity.

A lack of flooding has been shown to decrease the amount of habitat heterogeneity in riparian ecosystems as wetland depressions in the floodplain no longer fill and hold water. Because habitat heterogeneity is correlated with species diversity, levees can cause reductions in the overall biodiversity of riparian ecosystems.

These impacts result in decreases in species diversity and ecological changes towards more opportunistic organisms. The destruction has been likened to clear-cutting in forests. The primary dispute over trawling concerns the magnitude and duration of these impacts. Opponents argue that they are widespread, intense and long-lasting.

The broadly defined genus has about 100 species found in Africa, including Madagascar, the Mediterranean area and Asia. About half of all the species occur in southern Africa, where species diversity is greatest in semi-arid regions with winter rainfall. Drimia generally is found in regions with seasonal dryness.

English Nature felt the turnover of soil increased species diversity and with the use of soay sheep, maintained a desirable balance to ecosystems. It was this disagreement that was the main factor which led to the de-designation of the site as a national nature reserve in 1996.

Species diversity, on the other hand, is twice as big on the trench slope, probably because of a small number of opportunistic species in the trench. Figures for abundance and biomass are similar for the deeps of the Mariana Trench but considerably lower in the Peru–Chile Trench.

Similarly to the climate harshness hypothesis, climate stability is suggested to be the reason for the latitudinal diversity gradient. The mechanism for this hypothesis is that while a fluctuating environment may increase the extinction rate or preclude specialization, a constant environment can allow species to specialize on predictable resources, allowing them to have narrower niches and facilitating speciation. The fact that temperate regions are more variable both seasonally and over geological timescales (discussed in more detail below) suggests that temperate regions are thus expected to have less species diversity than the tropics. Critiques for this hypothesis include the fact that there are many exceptions to the assumption that climate stability means higher species diversity.

Additionally, a study done in the Virgin Islands National Park found that species diversity, in some locations, of shallow coral reefs increased after infrequent hurricane disturbance. In 1982, reefs in Kona, Hawaii were reported to have an increase in diversity after a moderate storm, although the effects of the storm varied with the reef zones. In 1980, Hurricane Allen increased species diversity in shallow zones of the Discovery Bay Reef in Jamaica because the more dominant corals were reduced; giving the other types a chance to propagate following the disturbance. Similar findings have been reported in shallow reefs in which dominant species of coral have suffered more damage than the less common species.

Results of this research found that 78 of the 114 species (68%) studied were found around the station, a nationally recognized protected area, while only 7.9% of the species observed were found outside of protected areas. These results stress the importance of national protection to the conservation of species diversity.

In ecology, gamma diversity (γ-diversity) is the total species diversity in a landscape. The term was introduced by R. H. WhittakerWhittaker, R. H. (1960) Vegetation of the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon and California. Ecological Monographs, 30, 279–338. together with the terms alpha diversity (α-diversity) and beta diversity (β-diversity).

Often researchers have used the values given by one or more diversity indices to quantify species diversity. Such indices include species richness, the Shannon index, the Simpson index, and the complement of the Simpson index (also known as the Gini-Simpson index).Krebs, C. J. (1999) Ecological Methodology. Second edition.

2008a, b). Biodiversity - Host species diversity and community structure have been suggested to influence disease dynamics through a hypothesis termed the ‘dilution effect’ (Ostfeld and Keesing 2000). For Ribeiroia ondatrae, host species differences in susceptibility can influence infection patterns in multi-species communities (Johnson et al. 2008, Johnson and Hartson 2009).

Pattern and Process in Macroecology. Blackwell Science. Macroecology examines how global development in climate change affect wildlife populations. Classic ecological questions amenable to study through the techniques of macroecology include questions of species richness, latitudinal gradients in species diversity, the species-area curve, range size, body size, and species abundance.

Parareptile species, namely captorhinids, the Younginiforme Youngina, and a variety of temnospondyl amphibians, fishes, and plant fossils such as Glossopteris are likewise found. The upper zones as the Permian-Triassic boundary approaches, there is a marked drop in species diversity as the Permian-Triassic extinction event began to take its course.

In accordance with Wertheim et al., the results showed coexistence can be explained by intraspecific aggregations despite the presence or absence of unequally distributed resources.Wertheim, B. et al. 2000. Species diversity in a mycophagous insect community: the case of spatial aggregation vs resource partitioning. J. Anim. Ecol. 69:335-351.

This led to a mistaken impression that the deep-sea bed lacked species diversity, as theorised by Forbes in his Azoic hypothesis. Later samplers devised by Howard L. Sanders and the Epibenthic sled designed by Robert Hessler showed that deep-sea bottoms are sometimes rich in soft-bottom benthic species.

The approximately 100 species of Dolomedes have a worldwide distribution. The largest number of species are found in Asia, with particularly high species diversity in South-east Asia, from China and Japan to New Guinea. The second largest number of species occur in tropical Africa. South America has only four species.

Over 800 described species are placed into 16 families. Broadly, the flatfishes are divided into two suborders, Psettodoidei and Pleuronectoidei, with > 99% of the species diversity found within the Pleuronectoidei. The largest families are Soleidae, Bothidae and Cynoglossidae with more than 150 species each. There also exist two monotypic families (Paralichthodidae and Oncopteridae).

The surface plant communities around this ecosystem can range from pasture land to woodlands. Exotic plants and animals are detrimental to native species because they compete for food and decrease overall species diversity. The surface community also serves as a buffer against temperature and moisture change and can filter out some pollutants.

Australian Museum, Sydney. Specimens from the Pacific Ocean are now thought to be other species, including Hypselodoris confetti and Hypselodoris roo.Epstein, H. E.; Hallas, J. M.; Johnson, R. F.; Lopez, A.; Gosliner, T. M. (2018). Reading between the lines: revealing cryptic species diversity and colour patterns in Hypselodoris nudibranchs (Mollusca: Heterobranchia: Chromodorididae).

This relationship would generate a positive O-A relationship. In a similar manner, a species' niche position,Hanski, I., J. Kouki, and A. Halkka. 1993. Three explanations of the positive relationship between distribution and abundance of species. In R.E. Ricklefs and D. Schulter (eds) Species Diversity in Ecological Communities: Historical and Geographical Perspectives.

Point Dume SMCA and Point Dume SMR are located in an area that encompasses some of the most diverse habitats in Los Angeles County, including an upwelling zone, submarine canyon habitat, unique spur and groove reef structures, extensive kelp, and diverse understory algal habitat. This is an area of high species diversity.

The area or landscape of interest may be of very different sizes in different situations, and no consensus has been reached on what spatial scales are appropriate to quantify gamma diversity.Whittaker, R. J. et al. (2001). Scale and species richness: towards a general, hierarchical theory of species diversity. Journal of Biogeography 28: 453-470.

Frequent disturbance often perturbs agricultural habitats and the response to disturbance varies among EPN species. In traditional agricultural systems, tilling disturbs the soil ecosystem, affecting biotic and abiotic factors. For example, tilled soils have lower microbial, arthropod, and nematode species diversity (Lupwayi et al. 1998). Tilled soil also has less moisture and higher temperatures.

It includes the mainstem Columbia below the Snake River and tributaries such as the Salmon, John Day, Deschutes, and lower Snake Rivers. Of the three ecoregions it is the richest in terms of freshwater species diversity. There are 35 species of fish, of which four are endemic. There are also high levels of mollusk endemism.

Amazon River System The river barrier hypothesis is a hypothesis seeking to partially explain the high species diversity in the Amazon Basin, first presented by Alfred Russel Wallace in his 1852 paper On Monkeys of the Amazon.Wallace, A. R. (1854). On the monkeys of the Amazon. Journal of Natural History, 14(84), 451-454.

Microlophus grayii, commonly known as the Floreana lava lizard, is a species of lava lizard in the family Tropiduridae. The species is endemic to the Galapagos island of Floreana.Benavides E, Baum R, Snell HM, Snell HL, Sites JW Jr. (2009). "Island Biogeography of Galápagos Lava Lizards (Tropiduridae: Microlophus): Species Diversity and Colonization of the Archipelago".

Microlophus pacificus, the common Pacific iguana, is a species of lava lizard endemic to the Galapagos island of Pinta.Benavides,E; Baum, R.; Snell, H. M.; Snell, H. L.; and Sites, Jr., J. W. (2009) "Island Biogeography of Galápagos Lava Lizards (Tropiduridae: Microlophus): Species Diversity and Colonization of the Archipelago." (.pdf) Evolution, 63 (6): 1606–1626.

Microlophus habelii, commonly known as the Marchena lava lizard, is a species of lava lizard endemic to the Galapagos island of Marchena.Benavides E, Baum R, Snell HM, Snell HL, Sites JW Jr (2009). "Island Biogeography of Galápagos Lava Lizards (Tropiduridae: Microlophus): Species Diversity and Colonization of the Archipelago". (pdf) Evolution 63 (6): 1606–1626.

Microlophus duncanensis, the Pinzón lava lizard, is a species of lava lizard endemic to the Galapagos Island of Pinzón.Benavides,E; Baum, R.; Snell, H. M.; Snell, H. L.; and Sites, Jr., J. W. (2009) "Island Biogeography of Galápagos Lava Lizards (Tropiduridae: Microlophus): Species Diversity and Colonization of the Archipelago." (.pdf) Evolution, 63 (6): 1606–1626.

Spatial heterogeneity of resources can influence plant community composition, diversity, and assembly trajectory. Baer et al. (2005) manipulated soil resource heterogeneity in a tallgrass prairie restoration project. They found increasing resource heterogeneity, which on its own was insufficient to ensure species diversity in situations where one species may dominate across the range of resource levels.

Branchiobdellida is an order of freshwater leech-like clitellates that are obligate ectosymbionts or ectoparasites, mostly of astacoidean crayfish. They are found in the Northern Hemisphere and have a holarctic distribution in East Asia, the Euro-Mediterranean region and North and Central America, with the greatest species diversity being in North and Central America.

The East Cactus Plain Wilderness area protects the eastern third of the Cactus Plain, managed by the BLM. It is north of Bouse. It is predominantly a complex crescent dune, with dense dune–scrub vegetation, known only from this area in Arizona. The plant community is unique in its denseness and flora species diversity.

A sampling of fungi collected during summer 2008 in Northern Saskatchewan mixed woods, near LaRonge, is an example regarding the species diversity of fungi. In this photo, there are also leaf lichens and mosses. Biodiversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is typically a measure of variation at the genetic, species, and ecosystem level.

Interest in food webs increased after Robert Paine's experimental and descriptive study of intertidal shores suggesting that food web complexity was key to maintaining species diversity and ecological stability. Many theoretical ecologists, including Sir Robert MayMay RM (1973) Stability and Complexity in Model Ecosystems. Princeton University Press. and Stuart Pimm,Pimm SL (1982) Food Webs, Chapman & Hall.

14 of 22 native tree species and six of seven native shrub species had successfully reproduced in restoration plots. 99% were native 'o'hia, Coprosma foliosa, Osteomeles anthyllidifolia, Chamaesyce celastoides, Nestegis sandwicensis and nonnative Bocconia frutescens. Stem counts had increased from 12.4 to 135.0/100 m2, and native species diversity increased from 2.4 to 6.6/100 m2.

7 which established a model for other marine laboratories subsequently set up around the world.Ward (1974) p.142 Their findings of unexpectedly high species diversity in places thought to be inhabitable stimulated much theorizing by population ecologists on how high diversification could be maintained in such a food-poor and seemingly hostile environment. oceanographic research vessel.

But other sites are equally interesting and beautiful, but more inaccessible. The nearby Bakossi National Park boasts of some of the most diverse rain forest, with exceptional species diversity of plants. Furthermore the park has chimpanzees and a large population of drills. Additionally, the nearby Bayang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary boasts of forest elephants, chimpanzees, pangolins and other interesting creatures.

The rowans ( or ) or mountain-ashes are shrubs or trees in the genus Sorbus of the rose family, Rosaceae. They are native throughout the cool temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the highest species diversity in the Himalaya, southern Tibet and parts of western China, where numerous apomictic microspecies occur.Rushforth, K. (1999). Trees of Britain and Europe.

Regarded as an ecological threat, goutweed is aggressive, invasive and forms dense patches reducing species diversity in the ground layer. On the other hand, because of this, it is often used as a low maintenance ground cover. Cultivation Frost hardy but drought tender, preferring moist well-drained soil in an open sunny position. Propagate from seed or rhizome.

Transferred to the genus Felimare according to the hypothesis that all Atlantic species which were formerly Hypselodoris belong in that genus.Epstein, H. E.; Hallas, J. M.; Johnson, R. F.; Lopez, A.; Gosliner, T. M. (2018). Reading between the lines: revealing cryptic species diversity and colour patterns in Hypselodoris nudibranchs (Mollusca: Heterobranchia: Chromodorididae). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society.

Critical approaches in animal studies have also considered representations of non-human animals in popular culture, including species diversity in animated films., eds. Hannah Stark and Jon Roffe. By highlighting these issues, animal studies strives to re-examine traditional ethical, political, and epistemological categories in the context of a renewed attention to and respect for animal life.

Models have predicted that empirical relationships between temporal variation of community productivity and species diversity are indeed real, and that they almost have to be. Some temporal stability data can be almost completely explained by the averaging effect by constructing null models to test the data against. Competition, which causes negative covariances, only serves to strengthen these relationships.

In addition, zooplankton's species diversity is affected by freshwater acidification. In most acidic freshwater reservoirs, there will be an increase in the development of mosses and algae. In particular, it is common to see an increase in the abundance of the moss Sphagnum. Sphagnum has a high capacity to exchange H+ for basic cations within freshwater.

Through this interplay, humans adapt to and shape the environment, continuously contributing to landscape transformation. Historical ecologists recognize that humans have had world-wide influences, impact landscape in dissimilar ways which increase or decrease species diversity, and that a holistic perspective is critical to be able to understand that system.Balée, W. (1998). "Historical ecology: Premises and postulates".

The species diversity of Streptaxidae reaches its maximum in sub-Saharan Africa. With 13 genera and about 130 nominal species, the second most diverse streptaxid fauna can be found in Southeast Asia. Streptaxidae are the most diverse among tropical Asian carnivorous snails. In Indochina, streptaxid diversity was thought to comprise only 10 genera and about 40 species in 1967.

Global distribution of over 100 psychoactive species of genus Psilocybe mushrooms. Approximate known range of Psilocybe cubensis Approximate known range of Psilocybe cyanescens Geographically, species in this genus are found throughout the world in most biomes.Guzmán (1983), pp. 22–32. The greatest species diversity seems to be in the neotropics, from Mesoamerica through Brazil and Chile.

English ecologist Charles Elton applied the term resistance to the ecosystem properties which limit the ability of introduced species to successfully invade communities. These properties include both abiotic factors like temperature and drought, and biotic factors including competition, parasitism, predation and the lack of necessary mutualists. Higher species diversity and lower resource availability can also contribute to resistance.

Aside from humans, mammals are rare on coral reefs, with visiting cetaceans such as dolphins the main exception. A few species feed directly on corals, while others graze on algae on the reef. Reef biomass is positively related to species diversity. The same hideouts in a reef may be regularly inhabited by different species at different times of day.

This species is similar in colouration to Hypselodoris pulchella. It is suggested that this is a case of mimicry because the two species are not closely related.Epstein, H. E.; Hallas, J. M.; Johnson, R. F.; Lopez, A.; Gosliner, T. M. (2018). Reading between the lines: revealing cryptic species diversity and colour patterns in Hypselodoris nudibranchs (Mollusca: Heterobranchia: Chromodorididae).

The role of sea otters in maintaining kelp forests has been observed to be more important in areas of open coast than in more protected bays and estuaries.VanBlaricom, p. 33 Sea otters affect rocky ecosystems that are dominated by mussel beds by removing mussels from rocks. This allows space for competing species and increases species diversity.

These anemones target ecosystems that are barren landscapes or with low species diversity. Appearing suddenly, populations quickly proliferate and colonize zones and alter natural balances. Within short durations, they are known to vanish from the area quickly with no warning (Stephenson 1953). It is a member of the fouling community, but does not cause significant economic impacts.

It indicated that fengshui woodland has much higher species diversity then the other types of woodlands and plantations. There are approximately 700 species in 30 samples of fengshui woodland in the Pearl River Delta. From vegetation structure perspective, fengshui woodland is climax vegetation structure of native woodland. The type of structure can effectively provide data of local species.

Utricularia aurea growing in a rice paddy in Thailand. Utricularia can survive almost anywhere where there is fresh water for at least part of the year; only Antarctica and some oceanic islands have no native species. The greatest species diversity for the genus is seen in South America, with Australia coming a close second.Salmon, Bruce (2001).

A specific study done in the UK in 2006 found substantially more butterflies on organic farms versus standard farming methods except for two pest species. The study also observed higher populations in uncropped field margins compared with cropland edges regardless of farm practice. Conversely, Weibull et al. (2000) found no significant differences in species diversity or population.

Ten studies have been conducted involving spider species and abundance on farm systems. All but three of the studies indicated that there was a higher diversity of spider species on organic farms, in addition to populations of species. Two of the studies indicated higher species diversity, but statistically insignificant populations between organic and standard farming methods.

The San Cristóbal lava lizard (Microlophus bivittatus) is a species of lava lizard endemic to San Cristóbal Island in the Galápagos Islands.Benavides,E; Baum, R.; Snell, H. M.; Snell, H. L.; and Sites, Jr., J. W. (2009) "Island Biogeography of Galápagos Lava Lizards (Tropiduridae: Microlophus): Species Diversity and Colonization of the Archipelago." (.pdf) Evolution, 63 (6): 1606–1626.

The backreef area has the least species diversity, which increases seaward towards the reef crest. Some of this difference is due to eutrophication from increased nutrients, sediments and toxicity due to domestic and industrial wastes.Tomascik, T. and Sander, F. 1987. Effects of eutrophication on reef- building corals: II. Structure of scleractinian coral communities on fringing reefs, Barbados, West Indies.

The numerous habitat types have resulted in high species diversity. Mapesu Private Game Reserve falls within the Savanna bioregion and more specifically the Musina Mopane Bushveld vegetation type according to Mucina & Rutherford (2006).Mucina, L., Rutherford, M.C. & Powrie, L.W. (eds) 2007. Vegetation Map of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland, edn 2, 1:1 000 000 scale sheet maps.

Additional long-term impacts of SOD may be inferred from regeneration patterns in areas that have experienced severe mortality. These patterns may indicate which tree species will replace tanoak in diseased areas. Such transitions will be of particular importance in forest types that were relatively poor in tree species diversity before the introduction of SOD, e.g., redwood forest.

The striated grasswren is one of 11 species in the genus Amytornis, commonly known as the grasswrens,Christidis, L., F. E. Rheindt, W. E. Boles & J. A. Norman, 2013. A re-appraisal of species diversity within the Australian grasswrens Amytornis (Aves: Maluridae). Austral. Zoologist 36 (4). found only in arid and semi-arid areas of Australia.

Barbarea (winter cress or yellow rocket) is a genus of about 22 species of flowering plants in the family Brassicaceae, native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with the highest species diversity in southern Europe and southwest Asia. They are small herbaceous biennial or perennial plants with dark green, deeply lobed leaves and yellow flowers with four petals.

Treefall gaps are important in maintenance of some plant species diversity. Disturbance is important in tropics as a mechanism for maintaining diversity. According to the intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH), some disturbance is critical and the maximum number of species will be found where the “frequency and intensity” of disturbances are at an intermediate scale.Connell, J. (1978).

Inland from the mangroves lie salt water and brackish lagoons, surrounded by grass and fern vegetation with low plant species diversity. The orange-winged amazon (parrot), creates it nest in the lagoons. Further inland, species rich freshwater and shrub swamps can be found. On the coastal plan, parallel to the shoreline, lie old sand and shell ridges.

Campus Point SMCA is designed to protect habitat and species diversity. This SMCA represents and protects a wide diversity of habitat types including eelgrass, surfgrass, kelp, rocky reefs, shallow subtidal, rocky intertidal, oil seeps, sand, and the estuarine inputs of Devereux Slough. It's also known as one of the best places for the Western snowy plover.

Spider behavior refers to the range of behaviors and activities performed by spiders. Spiders are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs and chelicerae with fangs that inject venom. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species diversity among all other groups of organismsSebastin, P.A. and Peter, K.V. (eds). (2009). Spiders of India.

Similarly, dead wood, the habitat of the corticioid Russulaceae, is rare in many exploited forests and needs special management. Recent studies have found some traditional Russulaceae species to comprise several cryptic species (see Systematics and taxonomy: Species diversity). This may imply that distribution range and population size for each of such distinct species are smaller than previously thought.

The greatest species diversity is in the Rift Valley lakes, with four endemic to Tanganyika (L. angustifrons shown), one to Albert and one to Turkana These fishes are native to freshwater and marine waters of Africa, Asia, the Indian Ocean, and the western Pacific Ocean. Several species are endemic to the Rift Valley lakes in Africa.

Sargocentron is a genus of squirrelfish (family Holocentridae) found in tropical parts of the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, with the greatest species diversity near reefs in the Indo-Pacific. Being largely or entirely nocturnal, they have relatively large eyes. Red and silvery colours dominate. The preopercle spines (near the gill-opening) are venomous and can give painful wounds.

Modern usage follows a more restricted view of which species belong in this genus so there are numerous genus transfers.Epstein, H. E.; Hallas, J. M.; Johnson, R. F.; Lopez, A.; Gosliner, T. M. (2018). Reading between the lines: revealing cryptic species diversity and colour patterns in Hypselodoris nudibranchs (Mollusca: Heterobranchia: Chromodorididae). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society.

Nectar robbers vary greatly in species diversity and include species of carpenter bees, bumblebees, stingless Trigona bees, solitary bees, wasps, ants, hummingbirds, passerine birds, and flowerpiercer birds. Nectar robbing mammals include a fruit batOlmos, F.; Boulhosa, R. (2000). A meeting of opportunists: birds and other visitors to Mabea fistulifera (Euphorbiaceae) in florescences. Ararajuba 8(2):93–98.

Their range extends through most of Africa to the Middle East, South Asia, South-east Asia and southern China, to Indonesia, New Guinea and northern Australia. Species diversity is highest in equatorial regions. There are 145 species in 16 genera. Most sunbirds feed largely on nectar, but will also eat insects and spiders, especially when feeding their young.

The Census of Diversity of Abyssal Marine Life (CeDAMar) is a field project of the Census of Marine Life that studies the species diversity of one of the largest and most inaccessible environments on the planet, the abyssal plain. CeDAMar uses data to create an estimation of global species diversity and provide a better understanding of the history of deep-sea fauna, including its present diversity and dependence on environmental parameters. CeDAMar initiatives aim to identify centers of high biodiversity useful for planning both commercial and conservation efforts, and are able to be used in future studies on the effects of climate change on the deep sea. As of May 2009, participation by upwards of 56 institutions in 17 countries has resulted in the publication of nearly 300 papers.

Often researchers use the values given by one or more diversity indices, such as species richness (which is simply a count of species), the Shannon index or the Simpson index (which take into account also species proportional abundances).Lande, R. (1996) Statistics and partitioning of species diversity, and similarity among multiple communities. Oikos, 76, 5-13.Veech, J. A. et al.

Both the area or landscape of interest and the sites or habitats within it may be of very different sizes in different situations, and no consensus has been reached on what spatial scales are appropriate to quantify alpha diversity.Whittaker, R. J. et al. (2001). Scale and species richness: towards a general, hierarchical theory of species diversity. Journal of Biogeography, 28, 453-470.

Researchers have used different ways to define diversity, which in practice has led to different definitions of gamma diversity as well. Often researchers use the values given by one or more diversity indices, such as species richness, the Shannon index or the Simpson index.Lande, R. (1996) Statistics and partitioning of species diversity, and similarity among multiple communities. Oikos, 76, 5-13.

Distribution of Harttia species primarily includes rivers draining the Guyana Shield, coastal rivers in northeastern Brazil, and the Amazon River basin. The greatest species diversity of Harttia, occurs in the Pre-Cambrian Brazilian Shield region. Only H. platystoma and H. merevari are known from Venezuela. These rheophilic fishes are found in the upper courses of rivers over rocky and sandy bottoms.

Limestone cliffs on Ba Bể Lake The vegetation in Ba Bể National Park mainly consists of limestone and evergreen forest. The former covers steep mountain slopes on which the soil cover is thin. The latter depends on thicker soil cover and has a higher species diversity. The dominating tree species of the limestone forest are Burretiodendron hsienmu (Tiliaceae) and Streblus tonkinensis (Moraceae).

Oonopidae, also known as goblin spiders, is a family of spiders consisting of over 1,600 described species in about 113 genera worldwide, with total species diversity estimated at 2000 to 2500 species. The type genus of the family is Oonops Keyserling, 1835. Goblin spiders are generally tiny, measuring about 1 to 3 millimeters. Some have scuta, hardened plates on their abdomens.

When species diversity values are compared among sets, sampling efforts need to be standardised in an appropriate way for the comparisons to yield ecologically meaningful results. Resampling methods can be used to bring samples of different sizes to a common footing.Colwell, R. K. and Coddington, J. A. (1994) Estimating terrestrial biodiversity through extrapolation. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, 345, 101-118.

If a system is composed of sensitive species, the black slug will likely have a negative impact by pressuring said species. If a system presents more evenness with less sensitive species, the black slug may promote species diversity and encourage healthy succession rates. Around the 1970s, the black slug came to Alaska via nursery plants, potting soil, or among shipments containing wood pallets.

Gene annotations provide the "what", while measurements of species diversity provide the "who". In order to connect community composition and function in metagenomes, sequences must be binned. Binning is the process of associating a particular sequence with an organism. In similarity-based binning, methods such as BLAST are used to rapidly search for phylogenetic markers or otherwise similar sequences in existing public databases.

Species diversity is higher above the site of the former power-plant dam, especially near Fossil Springs. In 1987, a plot above the dam was set aside as the Fossil Springs Botanical Area. Plant inventories taken between 2003 and 2005 identified 166 plant species in the botanical area and 314 species of flowering plants and ferns in the larger Fossil Creek area.

7(3), pp.828-843. Increasing temperatures may increase rates of forest fires, flooding and drought in these rarer habitats where species diversity may be low and therefore susceptible to change.Climate Change Impacts on Canada's Prairie Provinces: Summary of our State of Knowledge D. Sauchyn et al, 2007. Climate Change Impacts on Canada's Prairie Provinces: Summary of our State of Knowledge.

The areas surrounding the creek were developed without regard for that habitat and the riparian corridor; species' diversity declined, and the creek became a typical degraded urban watershed. Storm water retention, sites restoration, an Environmental Learning Center next to a school, and a fish ladder contributed to restoration and the return of native plants and wildlife.Seattle Public Utilities staff, "Thornton Creek".

Naupactini is a tribe of broad-nosed weevils (subfamily Entiminae). Primarily from the Neotropical realm, reaches highest genus and species diversity in South America. Their size varies from 3.5 to 35 mm long, and its colour patterns are diverse. As well many has colourful iridescent scales (bluish, greenish or golden), others show opaque scales or setae, and some are subglabrous.

The Herpetological Bulletin 101:27-31. Quantitative analysis of herpetofauna revealed that the differences in the environmental characteristics inside and outside the swamp play an important role in regulating the species diversity and abundance of both amphibians and reptiles. Amphibians were more susceptible to environmental changes. Patterns of diversity and abundance during day and night, across swamps and among months varied.

The Middleton Formation does not contain as many fossils as its western correlate, the Teekloof Formation. This is particularly true of vertebrate fossils. The end-Guadalupian extinction event caused a drop in species diversity in the Middleton Formation compared to the Abrahamskraal Formation. However, vertebrate fossils yielded from the Middleton Formation are the same as those associated with the Pristerognathus Assemblage Zone.

Past studies have suggested plant resistance to play the major role in species diversity within communities, but tolerance may also be an important factor (Stowe et al. 2000; Pejman et al. 2009). Herbivory may allow less competitive, but tolerant plants to survive in communities dominated by highly competitive but intolerant plant species, thereby increasing diversity (Mariotte et al. 2013). Pejman et al.

Dodonaea is a genus of about 70 species of flowering plants, often known as hop-bushes, in the soapberry family, Sapindaceae. It has a cosmopolitan distribution in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions of Africa, the Americas, southern Asia and Australasia. By far the highest species diversity is in Australia. The genus is named after Rembert Dodoens, traditionally known as 'Dodonaeus'.

Arum is a genus of flowering plants in the family Araceae, native to Europe, northern Africa, and western and central Asia, with the highest species diversity in the Mediterranean region.Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant FamiliesGovaerts, R. & Frodin, D.G. (2002). World Checklist and Bibliography of Araceae (and Acoraceae): 1-560. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

As governments and private firms seek to maximize carbon content for emissions markets, they invest preferably in tree plantations over complex forest ecosystems, eliminating species diversity, density and resulting in domino effects on processes such as water flow.Kosoy & Corbera 2010 (p. 1231); Prudham 2005; Prudham 2009 (p. 131) The neglect of relational aspects also ignores the emergent and embedded character of ecosystem functions.

Interspecific interactions such as predation are a key aspect of community ecology. Community ecology is the study of the interactions among a collections of species that inhabit the same geographic area. Community ecologists study the determinants of patterns and processes for two or more interacting species. Research in community ecology might measure species diversity in grasslands in relation to soil fertility.

Aphids are distributed worldwide, but are most common in temperate zones. In contrast to many taxa, aphid species diversity is much lower in the tropics than in the temperate zones. They can migrate great distances, mainly through passive dispersal by winds. Winged aphids may also rise up in the day as high as 600 m where they are transported by strong winds.

These grasses were later managed by mowing in combination with grazing by soay sheep and cattle. Grazing was viewed by the Christies Estates Trust as exacerbating erosion and hence damaging to species diversity. The trust therefore opposed the introduction of sheep and cattle to the site. However English Nature felt that this turnover was erosive but nevertheless was less invasive than mowing.

Thus the SBFS species diversity had been underestimated by more than tenfold. The number of species per orchard varied from 2 to 15, with a higher diversity the longer an orchard had not been sprayed with fungicide.with blotch and flyspeck signs, reported four species of Zygophiala (Schizothyriaceae, Capnodiales), three of them newly identified. Schizothyrium pomi, Peltaster fructicola, and Pseudocercosporella sp.

There was a decrease in species diversity, an increase in community dominants, and a decrease in the food web complexity. In 1980, the US Congress passed an Acid Deposition Act. This Act established an 18-year assessment and research program under the direction of the National Acidic Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP). NAPAP looked at the entire problem from a scientific perspective.

In the United States, estimates of environmental regulation total costs reach 2% of GDP. See Pizer & Kopp, Calculating the Costs of Environmental Regulation, 1 (2003 Resources for the Future) . Difficulties arise in performing cost-benefit analysis of environmental issues. It is difficult to quantify the value of an environmental value such as a healthy ecosystem, clean air, or species diversity.

Antennaria is a genus of herbaceous perennial plants in the family Asteraceae, native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with one species (A. chilensis) in temperate southern South America; the highest species diversity is in North America. Common names include catsfoot or cat's-foot, pussytoes and everlasting. Different Antennaria species reach between 10 cm and 50 cm in height.

Chondrina is a genus of small air-breathing land snails, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the family Chondrinidae. All species of Chondrina are restricted to the West Palaearctic. Centers of species diversity are found on the Iberian peninsula, in northern Italy and in the Balkans. The species are restricted to calcareous rocks, and occur only on vertical, exposed rock faces.

Metagenomics is the study of genomic content of samples from same habitat, which is designed to determine the role and the extent of species diversity. Targeted or random sequencing are widely used with comparisons against sequence databases. Recent developments in sequencing technology increased the number of metagenomics samples. MEGAN is an easy to use tool for analysing such metagenomics data.

The northern parula inhabits various habitats depending on season and location. This is primarily a forest-dwelling species, but the northern and southern breeding populations select different habitats. In general, abundance of this species has been found to be positively correlated with increased tree species diversity, canopy height, and percent canopy cover. Northern populations breed in mature, moist coniferous forests.

The theme for 2020 was "Time for Nature", and was hosted in Colombia in partnership with Germany. Colombia is one of the largest megadiverse countries in the world and holds close to 10% of the planet’s biodiversity. Since it is part of the Amazon rainforest, Colombia ranks first in bird and orchid species diversity and second in plants, butterflies, freshwater fish, and amphibians.

This results shows another example of how the ecological extinction of a keystone predator can reduce species diversity in an ecosystem. Unfortunately, the threshold of ecological extinction has long passed due to over fishing now that many local extinctions of the California spiny lobster are common.Robles, C. Predator foraging characteristics and prey population structure on a sheltered shore. Ecology. 65: 1502-1514. 1987.

Podocarpaceae shows great diversity, both morphologically and ecologically. Members occur mainly in the Southern Hemisphere, with most generic variety taking place in New Caledonia, New Zealand, and Tasmania. Species diversity of Podocarpus is found mainly in South America and the Indonesian islands, the latter also being rich in Dacrydium and Dacrycarpus species. Podocarpus (with 82 to 100 species)Christopher N. Page. 1990.

Data collected from nearby islands lacking brown tree snake populations depict a significant difference in vegetative species richness, that is, islands close to and similar to Guam in which the brown tree snake has not been introduced have greater vegetative species diversity. Overall, the vertebrate fauna and native flora of Guam have suffered tremendously because of the introduction of the brown tree snake.

IDH is a nonequilibrium model used to describe the relationship between disturbance and species diversity. IDH is based on the following premises: First, ecological disturbances have major effects on species richness within the area of disturbance. Second, interspecific competition results from one species driving a competitor to extinction and becoming dominant in the ecosystem. Third, moderate ecological scale disturbances prevent interspecific competition.

Kew Publications, London i.e. the end-stage of natural forest succession. Climax forests are relatively stable ecosystems that have developed the maximum biomass, structural complexity and species diversity that are possible within the limits imposed by climate and soil and without continued disturbance from humans (more explanation here). Climax forest is therefore the target ecosystem, which defines the ultimate aim of forest restoration.

Nearshore fishing areas consist of estuaries and coastal areas that lie within of the shoreline. These are under the control of the relevant coastal state rather than under federal or NMFS control. They vary widely in species diversity and abundance. Many species are highly prized game fish, while others are small forage fish used for bait, animal food, and industrial products.

Since 1977, Gunatilleke's main research focused in the Sinharaja rain forest. This forest is located in southwest Sri Lanka and the country's last area of primary tropical rain forest large enough to be sustainable. More than 60% of the tree species are endemic, as are many wildlife, especially birds. In this forest, she investigated the value of tree species diversity.

Also, marine autotrophs are more diverse than their terrestrial counterparts. Marine autotrophs are believed to stem from at least 8 ancient clades while terrestrial organisms mainly stem from one clade, Embyrophyta. Marine environments may contain over 80% of the world's plant and animal species. The diversity of coral reefs can be extraordinary with species diversity reaching 1000 species per meter squared.

It contains a plateau area with palm trees, human presence and livestock. The plateau areas have high species diversity. Law 2646 of 22 May 2001 prohibits activities in APAs that may damage the environment or biota including earth moving, mining and dredging. Existing agriculture and livestock activities may continue, but not in ways that may damage the environment such as use of pesticides or overgrazing.

The results from these measurements are used to produce an EC50. Both Blanck (1996) and Schmitt- Jansen and Altenburger (2005) photosynthesis as their endpoint. Community structure of the samples is analyzed to check for a correlation between species prevalence and long-term contaminant exposure. Samples are taxonomically classified to determine the composition and species diversity of the communities that established over the long term exposures.

Molecular phylogenetics has revolutionized the taxonomy of crustose lichens and revealed an extensive amount of cryptic species diversity. In Calvitimela there are some species that are morphologically identical, but are genetically distinct and have different chemotypes. In the C. melaleuca–complex at least two distinct chemical lineages are observed with no currently known morphological correlation. There have been few studies investigating Calvitimela from a molecular phylogenetics perspective.

Tetragondacnus spilotus is a species of pearlfish found in the Pacific waters off of Sumatra where it has been recovered at a depth of just over .Anderson, M. E. and Satria, F.: A New Subfamily, Genus, and Species of Pearlfish (Teleostei: Ophidiiformes: Carapidae) from Deep Water off Indonesia. Species Diversity, 2007, 12, 73–82 This species is the only known member of its genus.

It is also the only habitat of hundreds of endemic species, and hundreds of others which are severely restricted or threatened. This enormous species diversity is mainly because the city is uniquely located at the convergence point of several different soil types and micro-climates. Table Mountain has an unusually rich biodiversity. Its vegetation consists predominantly of several different types of the unique and rich Cape Fynbos.

Melanic B. betularia have been widely observed in North America. In 1959, 90% of B. betularia in Michigan and Pennsylvania were melanic. By 2001, melanism dropped to 6% of the population, following clean air legislation. The drop in melanism was correlated with an increase in species diversity of lichens, a decrease in the atmospheric pollutant sulphur dioxide, and an increase in the pale phenotype.

The lagoons provide valuable wetland habitat for many birds, reptiles, fish, and plant species. The waters off the coast are also very rich in species diversity, supporting large kelp forests and rocky reefs. Fish species included the tidewater goby, topsmelt, striped mullet, surfperch and Pacific staghorn sculpin. Leopard sharks forage near the lagoons, and their pups frequent the shallow rocky reefs off the coast.

Forest succession is the process by which species recover and regenerate after a disturbance. The type of disturbance, the climate and weather conditions, the presence of colonizing species, and the interactions among species all influence the path that succession will take. Species diversity and composition fluctuate throughout succession. The classic model of succession is known as relay floristics and refers to a relay of dominant species.

Hyloidea is the largest superfamily of anurans due to scientists placing frogs into this family when the relationships to others are unknown. Therefore, Hyloidea has the highest species diversity. Hyloidea are all tailless, have shortened bodies, large mouths and muscular hind legs. Most anurans in the superfamily have a lateral‐bender which is a type of pelvis morphology found in walking, hopping and burrowing frogs.

Pieris, the whites or garden whites, is a widespread now almost cosmopolitan genus of butterflies of the family Pieridae. The highest species diversity is in the Palearctic, with a higher diversity in Europe and eastern North America than the similar and closely related Pontia. The females of many Pieris butterflies are UV reflecting, while the male wings are strongly UV absorbing due to pigments in the scales.

They do not have so much impact on southern beech (Nothofagus), but their presence tends to reduce the species diversity of Nothofagus forest, since they eat many of the other species that would naturally be present. The predation of bird eggs and chicks has led them to be referred to as "reluctant folivores" in that they eat foliage to survive but prefer other foods.

Mycorrhizae–root associations play profound roles in land ecosystems by regulating nutrient and carbon cycles. Mycorrhizae are integral to plant health because they provide up to 80% of the nitrogen and phosphorus requirements. In return, the fungi obtain carbohydrates and lipids from host plants. Recent studies of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi using sequencing technologies show greater between-species and within-species diversity than previously known.

Due to the demand for seeds and ripe fruits, and to curb slash-and-burn activities in forests by local populations, cultivation of W. villosa and coplantings with rubber trees has been encouraged by the governments of Yunnan and Guangdong, China. However, the extensive cultivation of W. villosa in forests has resulted in the reduction of species diversity in the rainforests of Southwest China.

The high species diversity of the subtribe Pronophilina has inspired multiple theories about speciation and diversification processes. Páramo-dwellers might represent ancient or relictual taxa from open low-land biomes that were isolated by the up-lifting of the Andes, or they might be the result of recent radiation due to specialization and isolation.Adams, Michael J. (1985). "Speciation in the pronophiline butterflies (Satyridae) of the northern Andes".

Landscapes inhabiting smaller biodiversity counts are more susceptible to rapid disease spread. Areas with a larger species diversity are more capable of reducing disease dispersal due to the number of possible hosts. Logging patterns in Africa have grown exponentially over the years. Around 90% of the continent's individuals use wood as their primary energy source for preparing food and others use it for timber global trading purposes.

The area is classed as wilderness because of its remoteness and also due to the extensive wetland ecosystems involved. The flora and fauna associated with moist ecosystems, such as found in the Pepperbox, seem to exhibit more species diversity than any others in the Adirondacks. Birdlife and small mammals are especially abundant. There is very little human use of the area at present, except for light hunting.

Les, D.H., Cleland, M.A. and Waycott, M. (1997) "Phylogenetic studies in Alismatidae, II: evolution of marine angiosperms (seagrasses) and hydrophily". Systematic Botany 22(3): 443–463. Other plants that colonised the sea, such as salt marsh plants, mangroves, and marine algae, have more diverse evolutionary lineages. In spite of their low species diversity, seagrasses have succeeded in colonising the continental shelves of all continents except Antarctica.

Genetic diversity has shown to be as important as species diversity for restoring ecosystem processes. Hence ecological restorations are increasingly factoring genetic processes into management practices. Population genetic processes that are important to consider in restored populations include founder effects, inbreeding depression, outbreeding depression, genetic drift, and gene flow. Such processes can predict whether or not a species successfully establishes at a restoration site.

The exact role of fires in sand forests is not known and most studies disagree on the matter. However, evidence has shown that fires can help increase species diversity, particularly those that are specialized for such areas. For example, fire tolerant species may be more likely to colonize here. Historically speaking, some sand forests may have been the result of anthropogenic burning done by indigenous people.

A field of wild Siam tulips in Pa Hin Ngam National Park, Thailand Curcuma alismatifolia, Siam tulip or summer tulip (, ; , ; , ) is a tropical plant native to Laos, northern Thailand, and Cambodia.Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant FamiliesSirirugsa, P., Larsen, K. & Maknoi, C. (2007). The genus Curcuma L. (Zingiberaceae): distribution and classification with reference to species diversity in Thailand. Gardens' Bulletin Singapore 59: 203-220.

289 plots were designed with varying amounts of the three controlled factors. Each plot contained up to 32 perennial savannah-grassland species representing up to five plant functional groups. These species were not equal in their functional impact to the ecosystem. The statistical results show that functional diversity and species composition significantly affected the six response variables to a greater extent than species diversity.

Verbascum (Sunset Western Garden Book, 1995:606–607), common name mullein (sg. ), is a genus of about 360 species of flowering plants in the figwort family Scrophulariaceae. They are native to Europe and Asia, with the highest species diversity in the Mediterranean. Mullein or "mullein leaf" often refers to the leaves of Verbascum thapsus, the great or common mullein, which is frequently used in herbal medicine.

Barbed goatgrass is a fast-growing, rapidly spreading invasive species mainly in grasslands, pastures, and ranches. It is listed as a noxious weed by California Department of Food and Agriculture. Because of its fast, invasive growing patterns, barbed goatgrass creates a monoculture, killing the other plants in its area. The invasive nature of barbed goatgrass is causing a decrease in species diversity, and a decrease in forage.

The lake is unique with its geology, hydrology, possession of a fault and colluvium, as well as high aquatic species diversity. This combination of features is possessed by few if any other lakes in the world. The first recorded sighting of Mountain Lake by a westerner was by Christopher Gist in 1751. In 1884 W. B. Rogers conducted the first geological study of the lake.

At a pH of 5–6 algal species diversity and biomass decrease considerably, leading to an increase in water transparency – a characteristic feature of acidified lakes. As the pH continues lower, all fauna becomes less diverse. The most significant feature is the disruption of fish reproduction. Thus, the population is eventually composed of few, old individuals that eventually die and leave the systems without fishes.

Zootaxa 4299(4): 529-545. A genetic study published the same year showed that C. marulius consisted of three clearly separated lineages (not counting the already separated C. pseudomarulius).Conte-Grand, C., Britz, R., Dahanukar, N., Raghavan, R., Pethi-yagoda, R., Tan, H.H., Hadiaty, R.K., Yaakob, N.S. & Rüber, L. (2017). Barcoding snakeheads (Teleostei, Channidae) re-visited: Discovering greater species diversity and resolving perpetuated taxonomic confusions.

Species richness of Tyrannidae, when compared to habitat, is highly variable, although most every land habitat in the Americas has at least some of these birds. The habitats of tropical lowland evergreen forest and montane evergreen forest have the highest single site species diversity while many habitats including rivers, palm forest, white sand forest, tropical deciduous forest edge, southern temperate forest, southern temperate forest edge, semi-humid/humid montane scrub, and northern temperate grassland have the lowest single species diversity. The variation between the highest and the lowest is extreme; ninety species can be found in the tropical lowland evergreen forests while the number of species that can be found in the habitats listed above typically are in the single digits. This may be due in part to the fewer niches found in certain areas and therefore fewer places for the species to occupy.

Martin Zobel (2009) Martin Zobel (born 25 February 1957 in Tallinn) is an Estonian plant ecologist and professor at the University of Tartu. His name is particularly associated with the idea of an impact of regional species diversity on diversity at smaller spatial scales – known as the species pool effect. He has been professor since 1992. He has served as Editor-in-Chief of the scientific journal Ecography.

Beaver are herbivorous generalists with sophisticated foraging preferences. Beavers consume a mix of herbaceous and woody plants, which varies considerably in both composition and species diversity by region and season. They prefer aspen and poplar, but also take birch, maple, willow, alder, black cherry, red oak, beech, ash, hornbeam, and occasionally pine and spruce. They also eat cattails, water lilies, and other aquatic vegetation, especially in the early spring.

This hypothesis states that diversity increases with increasing rainfall, however the correlation between rainfall and plant diversity varies from region to region. The consistency of rainfall seems to correlate more with species richness than total annual rainfall. Species diversity appears to level off when annual rainfall reaches about 4,000mm, however this could be due to sampling limitations. Rainfall and soil richness affect productivity trends which are also believed to affect diversity.

Generally, there is an increase in biodiversity from the poles to the tropics. Thus localities at lower latitudes have more species than localities at higher latitudes. This is often referred to as the latitudinal gradient in species diversity. Several ecological factors may contribute to the gradient, but the ultimate factor behind many of them is the greater mean temperature at the equator compared to that of the poles.

The inconsistent results concerning Rapoport's rule suggest that certain characteristics of species may be responsible for their different latitudinal ranges. These characteristics may include, for example, their evolutionary age: species that have evolved recently in the tropics may have small latitudinal ranges because they have not had the time to spread far from their origin, whereas older species have extended their ranges.Rohde, K. (1998). Latitudinal gradients in species diversity.

FishBase, April 2015 update. That is more than the combined total of all other vertebrate species: mammals, amphibians, reptiles and birds. Fish species diversity is roughly divided equally between marine (oceanic) and freshwater ecosystems. Coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific constitute the centre of diversity for marine fishes, whereas continental freshwater fishes are most diverse in large river basins of tropical rainforests, especially the Amazon, Congo, and Mekong basins.

The intention of Skálanes is to create an experimental platform for scientific, social and cultural exploration focusing on practical solutions in sustainability and species diversity. Today, Skálanes is collaborating with educational institutions such as: Southern Connecticut State University, Earlham College, Liverpool John Moores University, Wellesley College and University of Glasgow, providing the foundation for a variety of research topics in the fields of natural history, biology, archaeology, anthropology, conservation and ecology.

A civet () is a small, lean, mostly nocturnal mammal native to tropical Asia and Africa, especially the tropical forests. The term civet applies to over a dozen different mammal species. Most of the species diversity is found in southeast Asia. The best-known civet species is the African civet, Civettictis civetta, which historically has been the main species from which a musky scent used in perfumery was obtained.

With that data, they are able to see how the population size increased or decreased. In some cases, it was found that the species richness was less downstream from a dam compared to further upstream. Inhibiting the volume of water was shown to be detrimental to species diversity and richness. Also, at the entrance of dams, there is less nutrients due to the high-water flow reducing the ecosystems reproduction standard.

These dispersal methods will lead to greater species diversity only when the terrestrial habitat stabilizes in response to abiotic and external forces. These few examples of learned patterns by monitoring how the ecosystem of Kasatochi returns to a new equilibrium and comparing the data to similar islands are helping further scientists' understanding of terrestrial-marine interactions and allowing for new knowledge of ecosystem reassembly after a devastating natural disaster.

The highly seasonal dry deciduous forest of Madagascar alternates between dry and wet seasons, making it uniquely suitable for lemurs. Lemur species diversity increases as the number of tree species in an area increase and is also higher in forests that have been disturbed over undisturbed areas. Evidence from the Subfossil records show that many of the now extinct lemurs actually lived in much drier climates than the currently extant lemurs.

Beaver and river otter are among 69 mammal species living in the watershed, also frequented by 154 bird species, such as the American dipper, osprey, and harlequin duck. Garter snakes are among the 15 species of reptiles found in the basin. Species diversity is greatest along the lower river and its tributaries. Threatened, endangered, or sensitive species include spring Chinook salmon, winter steelhead, chum salmon, Coho salmon and Oregon chub.

Price, T. D., J. Zee, K. Jamdar, and N. Jamdar. 2003. Bird species diversity along the Himalaya: a comparison of Himachal Pradesh with Kashmir J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 100:394–410 In Southeastern Asia, high mountain ranges form tongues of Palearctic flora and fauna in northern Myanmar and southern China. Isolated small outposts (sky islands) occur as far south as central Myanmar, northernmost Vietnam and the high mountains of Taiwan.

Buschmann, H., M. Keller, N. Porret, H. Dietz, and P. J. Edwards. "The Effect of Slug Grazing on Vegetation Development and Plant Species Diversity in an Experimental Grassland." Functional Ecology Functional Ecology 19.2 (2005): 291–98. Web. Additionally, slugs help disperse seeds and spores through their waste, and slugs facilitate nutrient cycling by being an omnivorous consumer (especially a decomposer) and by leaving behind their mucus, which also facilitates decomposition.

The tributary Stony Run is completely devoid of fish. Upstream from acid mine inflows, Drury Creek and its tributaries have healthy macroinvertebrate communities. They exhibit high species diversity, with mayflies (an acid-intolerant group) making up more than 40 percent of the macroinvertebrate population. Below the mouth of Sandy Run, the population of mayflies on Drury Run decreases significantly, with acid-resistant stoneflies the most significant macroinvertebrates in the stream.

A problem of aggregated analyses is that they often reduce different types of impacts into a small number of indicators. It can be argued that some impacts are not well-suited to this, e.g., the monetization of mortality and loss of species diversity. On the other hand, Pearce (2003:364) argued that where there are monetary costs of avoiding impacts, it is not possible to avoid monetary valuation of those impacts.

Many species are especially known for growing on rock walls around waterfalls and water seepage areas. The highest species diversity is in the Andes. Fairly high diversity also occurs in eastern Asia, with nearly 40 species in China. Species native to North America include A. pedatum (five-fingered fern) and the closely related A. aleuticum, which are distinctive in having a bifurcating frond that radiates pinnae on one side only.

Located on the edge of the Eastern Himalaya biodiversity hot-spot, the park combines high species diversity and visibility. It is a vast expanse of tall elephant grass, marshland, and dense tropical moist broadleaf forests, criss-crossed by four major rivers, including the Brahmaputra, and the park includes numerous small bodies of water. The park celebrated its centennial in 2005 after its establishment in 1905 as a reserve forest.

Flatfishes are found in oceans worldwide, ranging from the Arctic, through the tropics, to Antarctica. Species diversity is centered in the Indo-West Pacific and declines following both latitudinal and longitudinal gradients away from the Indo-West Pacific. Most species are found in depths between 0 and , but a few have been recorded from depths in excess of . None have been confirmed from the abyssal or hadal zones.

The basin is an area of great diversity, because it incorporates many transition zones - such as steppe to desert, fresh-water to salt-water, and low-altitude to high-altitude. Floral communities associated with all of these central Asian biomes are represented. Species diversity is also high because the area is relatively untouched by human development. It is an isolated area, with no history of extensive resource exploitation or intensive farming.

If absolute species turnover is divided by gamma diversity, a measure is obtained that quantifies what proportion of the species diversity in the dataset is not contained in an average subunit. It is calculated as βP = (γ - α)/γ = 1 - α/γ When there are two subunits, and presence-absence data are used, this measure as ranged to the interval [0, 1] equals the one-complement of the Jaccard similarity index.

For instance, Bushmen and Australian Aborigines have half as many intestinal parasites as African and Malaysian hunter-gatherers living in a species-rich tropical rainforest. Infectious diseases can be either chronic or acute, and epidemic or endemic, impacting the population in any given community to different extents. Thus, human-mediated disturbance can either increase or decrease species diversity in a landscape, causing a corresponding change in pathogenic diversity.

Columbia University Press, New York. Humans have practiced controlled burns of forests globally for thousands of years, shaping landscapes in order to better fit their needs. They burned vegetation and forests to create space for crops, sometimes resulting in higher levels of species diversity. Today, in the absence of indigenous populations who once practiced controlled burns (most notably in North America and Australia), naturally ignited wildfires have increased.

Besides the Pondo fig, another six species of Ficus occur. Bird species diversity and guild composition between the edge (5–10 m from the margin) of primary forest abutting grassland and the deep interior (above 500 m from the margin) in the Dngoye Forest Reserve were compared. Edge and interior sites were chosen that were homogeneous with respect to habitat physiognomy i.e. influences of habitat structure and complexity were insignificant.

Species diversity dropped off after the end- Guadalupian extinction, which is the reason that this biozone is lacking in species richness. Other taxa that have been found in this biozone include a couple pareiasaur species, namely Bradysaurus, the putative pantestudine Eunotosaurus africanus, and the varanopid pelycosaur Heleosaurus scholtzi. Fossils of the biarmosuchian Hipposaurus boonstrai are likewise found including some gorgonopsid species. Other dicynodont species found include Endothiodon uniseries and Pristerodon mackayi.

In the New Guinea and southern China centres of species diversity, many species grow in forests, up to as tall as the sub- canopy, especially diverse in rainforests. In Australia, they are generally components of rainforests, and prefer richer soils, especially in the farthest south region of Helicia's global distribution, the Illawarra, New South Wales, south of Sydney, where only one species H. glabriflora occurs, preferring richer basalt soils.

The north–south temperature gradient also seems to have moderated, or metazoan life simply became hardier, or both. At any event, the far southern continental margins of Antarctica and West Gondwana became increasingly less barren. The Devonian ended with a series of turnover pulses which killed off much of middle Paleozoic vertebrate life, without noticeably reducing species diversity overall. There are many unanswered questions about the late Paleozoic.

242x242px Vegetation structure and species diversity are the main target of many botanic studies of fengshui woodland. One scholar team compared 138 field samples with samples from large nature reserves after collection. The ecological information about the whole fengshui woodland which covers the ranges community structure, species richness, and average plot abundance can be obtained from the sample analysis. The sample analysis provides a statistical understanding of fengshui woodland.

Nitrification is also thought to contribute to the formation of photochemical smog, ground level ozone, acid rain, changes in species diversity, and other undesirable processes. In addition, nitrification inhibitors have also been shown to suppress the oxidation of methane (CH4), a potent greenhouse gas, to CO2. Both nitrapyrin and acetylene are shown to be especially strong suppressors of both processes, although the modes of action distinguishing them are unclear.

Animals also exhibit zonation patterns in concert with the vegetational zones described above. Invertebrates are more clearly defined into zones because they are typically less mobile than vertebrate species. Vertebrate animals often span across altitudinal zones according to the seasons and food availability. Typically animal species diversity and abundance decrease as a function of elevation above the montane zone because of the harsher environmental conditions experienced at higher elevations.

In contrast, the brachiopods lost 95% of their species diversity. The ability of some bivalves to burrow and thus avoid predators may have been a major factor in their success. Other new adaptations within various families allowed species to occupy previously unused evolutionary niches. These included increasing relative buoyancy in soft sediments by developing spines on the shell, gaining the ability to swim, and in a few cases, adopting predatory habits.

The Shannon index has been a popular diversity index in the ecological literature, where it is also known as Shannon's diversity index, the Shannon–Wiener index, the Shannon–Weaver index and the Shannon entropy.Spellerberg, Ian F., and Peter J. Fedor. (2003) A tribute to Claude Shannon (1916–2001) and a plea for more rigorous use of species richness, species diversity and the ‘Shannon–Wiener’Index. Global ecology and biogeography 12.3, 177-179.

The Rubiaceae are a family of flowering plants, commonly known as the coffee, madder, or bedstraw family. It consists of terrestrial trees, shrubs, lianas, or herbs that are recognizable by simple, opposite leaves with interpetiolar stipules. The family contains about 13,500 species in 611 genera, which makes it the fourth-largest angiosperm family. Rubiaceae has a cosmopolitan distribution; however, the largest species diversity is concentrated in the tropics and subtropics.

Speciation via polyploidy: A diploid cell undergoes failed meiosis, producing diploid gametes, which self- fertilize to produce a tetraploid zygote. Polyploidy is pervasive in plants and some estimates suggest that 30–80% of living plant species are polyploid, and many lineages show evidence of ancient polyploidy (paleopolyploidy) in their genomes. Huge explosions in angiosperm species diversity appear to have coincided with ancient genome duplications shared by many species.de Bodt et al.

Quite different communities are found even in the top of ocean floor, and species diversity decreases with depth. However, there are still some taxa that are widespread in the subsurface. In marine sediments, the main bacterial phyla are "Candidatus Atribacteria" (formerly OP9 and JS1), Proteobacteria, Chloroflexi and Planctomycetes. Members of Archaea were first identified using metagenomic analysis; some of them have since been cultured and they have acquired new names.

Traditional Polyculture involves the integration of beneficial plants, alongside intended coffee crops, which results in more species diversity than commercial polyculture. As with traditional rustic, traditional polyculture introduces coffee plants under the cover of the original canopy. These plants include those useful for home and market, those yielding food, fuel, and medicinal quality. This creates the highest level of "useful diversity" that can be reached in coffee farming.

The Mantellidae are Madagascar's most diverse frog family. It has been shown that there is a negative correlation between body size and species diversity in this family, which is probably related to the lower dispersal potential of smaller animals. This family is estimated to have colonized the island of Madagascar 76–87 million years ago. They are phylogenetically nested within Asian frogs, and therefore probably represent a dispersal event from Asia.

There have been studies that show a noticeable difference in the species diversity of butterflies in treefall gaps and those in the surrounding understory. The type of vegetation present in the gaps play a key role in determining which species of butterfly lived there.Pardonnet, S., Beck, H., Milberg, P., & Bergman, K. (2013). Effect of Tree-Fall Gaps on Fruit-Feeding Nymphalid Butterfly Assemblages in a Peruvian Rain Forest.

The first 27 miles and final 16 miles traverse the Coast Range (here defined as the Franciscan Complex). This geologic region also has its share of interesting botanical rarities. The geology of northwest California has helped foster the regions high plant species diversity. Complex soils of the Klamath Mountains have helped create a spectrum of subtle microclimates in which plant species have been able to "hide out" and evolve.

In association with this fen is wet base-rich grassland, created by winter flooding, where the common butterwort predominates. A number of orchid species have been recorded here, including early marsh orchid and fragrant orchid. A number of uncommon plant species occur in the fen and the surrounding wet meadows. The site also has a small area of limestone pavement and an old cut bog, adding to plant species diversity.

In Cantão, moist deciduous forest occurs wherever the ground is high enough to remain above peak flood levels in most years. It is lower in canopy height than the igapó forests, and its undergrowth is thicker and more entangled. It also displays high plant species diversity, including abundant epiphytes like orchids and bromeliads. Many of the plant species of this natural community are drawn from the nearby cerrado.

Some can grow in sand or even on rock, some in oxygen-poor, swampy, bog-like soils rich in organic material. Some are able to grow in full sun, some in full shade, and some in both. Some are salt tolerant (halophytes). Approximate world distribution of living Cycadales Species diversity of the extant cycads peaks at 17˚ 15"N and 28˚ 12"S, with a minor peak at the equator.

Juvenile stems, or saplings, do an exceptional job at increasing stem density which increases species diversity as a result. Species compete for resources in order to regenerate. Succession can begin when treefall occurs because the newly lit area provides an area for a new population to grow. Trees that will grow in a treefall gap are not necessarily the most suited for that particular environment, but rather, grow by chance.

The rhizosphere is the soil zone in the immediate vicinity of a root system. Arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis affects the community and diversity of other organisms in the soil. This can be directly seen by the release of exudates, or indirectly by a change in the plant species and plant exudates type and amount. Mycorrhizae diversity has been shown to increase plant species diversity as the potential number of associations increases.

Staphylea, called bladdernuts, is a small genus of 10 or 11 species of flowering plants in the family Staphyleaceae, native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The highest species diversity is in China, where four species occur. They are large shrubs, occasionally small trees, growing to 2–5 m tall. The leaves are deciduous, arranged in opposite pairs, and pinnate, usually with three leaflets, but S. pinnata and S. colchica.

The kagu represents not only an endemic species but also New Caledonia's only endemic bird family, the Rhynochetidae. The New Caledonia Great Barrier Reef is the second largest barrier reef in the world. Amedee island is a special marine reserve of coral reef lagoon, Ilot aux Goelands is a tiny lagoon island surrounded by a large shallow reef flat. The reef has great species diversity with a high level of endemism.

Stylidium graminifolium is available in cultivation with two cultivars: 'Tiny Trina' and 'Little Sapphire'. Most Stylidium species tend to be hardy species and can be easily cultivated in greenhouses or gardens. They are drought resistant, hardy to cold weather, and the species diversity in this genus gives gardeners a wide variety of choices. Most species that are native to Western Australia will be cold hardy to at least -1 to -2 °C.

Parents will dive at and harass intruders to drive them away from nest sites, including dogs, owls, goannas,Higgins, p. 604. and even a nankeen night-heron (Nycticorax caledonicus). A study published in 2004 of remnant patches of forest in central Queensland, an area largely cleared for agriculture, showed a reduced avian species diversity in areas frequented by blue-faced honeyeaters or noisy miners. This effect was more marked in smaller patches.

Based on the collection sites of the two known species, Ameliella is restricted to locations near oceans. Other than the Scottish Highlands, A. andreaeicola is known only from single collections in British Columbia and Norway, while A. grisea has only been collected once in Norway. The Norway collection location (Skibotn area in eastern Troms County, central Northern Norway) is known for a rich lichen species diversity, considered unusual for such northern latitudes (68–69°N).

Kakati's area of work includes wildlife conservation, species diversity, biodiversity monitoring and animal ecology. In 2011, Kakati authored a report critical of Indian government plans to build a highway through a wildlife sanctuary. Two years later, it was still "the only known impact study" for this 99 km road project connecting India to Burma. In 2014, Kakati filed a petition seeking legal protection for the elephant corridors under the Environment Protection Act.

Gauromydas heros is the largest fly in the world. Flies are often abundant and are found in almost all terrestrial habitats in the world apart from Antarctica. They include many familiar insects such as house flies, blow flies, mosquitoes, gnats, black flies, midges and fruit flies. More than 150,000 have been formally described and the actual species diversity is much greater, with the flies from many parts of the world yet to be studied intensively.

Also, these findings were not applied to evolutionary problems. The hypothesis of effective evolutionary time differs from these earlier approaches as follows. It proposes that species diversity is a direct consequence of temperature-dependent processes and the time ecosystems have existed under more or less equal conditions. Since vacant niches into which new species can be absorbed are available at all latitudes, the consequence is accumulation of more species at low latitudes.

This area holds the greatest species diversity for Banksia, with all species considered susceptible to infection. Consequently, a number of southwestern species are considered under threat from dieback. Nearly every known wild population of B. brownii shows some signs of dieback infection, and it is said that this species would be extinct within a decade if it were not protected. Other vulnerable species include B. cuneata, B. goodii, B. oligantha and B. verticillata.

Sloughs support a wide variety of plant life that is adapted to rapidly changing physical conditions such as salinity, oxygen levels and depth. In general, sloughs are microhabitats high in species diversity. Open water sloughs are characterized by submerged and floating vegetation which includes periphyton mats dominated by sawgrass typically. The topographical and vegetation heterogeneity of ridge and slough landscape influences the productivity and diversity of birds and fish adapted to that wetland.

Among the first clinical applications utilizing the HMP data, as reported in several PLoS papers, the researchers found a shift to less species diversity in vaginal microbiome of pregnant women in preparation for birth, and high viral DNA load in the nasal microbiome of children with unexplained fevers. Other studies using the HMP data and techniques include role of microbiome in various diseases in the digestive tract, skin, reproductive organs and childhood disorders.

Natural threats include hurricanes and other large storms, salinity changes, runoff, sedimentation, and grazing and predation. Hurricanes and other large storms can damage salt pond organisms as well as cause seawater overwash, leading to potentially detrimental salinity changes and physical damage. Salinity may also be reduced by precipitation, which can alter community composition by restricting the number and type of species adapted for these conditions. Furthermore, increased evapotranspiration can increase salinity and diminish species diversity.

Shade-grown coffee is an ecologically and economically important agroecosystem in which coffee plants are grown in the understory of a tree canopy. The shade of the canopy over the coffee shrubs encourages natural ecological processes and species diversity. These shade coffee plantations are in many Latin American countries including Brazil, Mexico, Belize and Guatemala. Shade coffee growers maintain complex coffee agroforests in which they produce coffee and manage the area's biota.

The numerous habitat types have resulted in high species diversity. There are at least 24 Acacia species and 8 Commiphora species, amongst others. Other vegetation of the area is a typically short fairly dense growth of shrubby Mopane trees, generally associated with a number of other trees and shrubs and a somewhat sparse and tufted grassveld. The riparian fringe of the Limpopo is of prime importance from the point of view of conservation.

More information on possible tourist destinations can be found online. Bangem area also is home to many species of interesting birds, reptiles, amphibians and fishes as well. Including the world's largest frog, the Goliath frog, the Mount Kupe Brush Shrike, various species of hornbills etc. Furthermore, the nearby Lake Bermin boasts of the highest species diversity of fishes as compared to the size of the lake, of any lake in the world.

Limited dumping of garden refuse continues. Feral animals, including rabbits, cats and dogs are present on the headland. Periodic fires occur in both sections of the headland, although there are no signs that species diversity has yet been affected. Increasing the frequency of fire events combined with unrestricted trail bike activity will, however, lead to further fragmentation of the vegetation and is a key threatening process to the long-term viability of the vegetation community.

They are the more nutrient poor than a comparable várzea forest. They also “carry less suspended inorganic elements and contain elevated concentrations of dissolved organic material such as humic and fulvic acids”. Therefore, igapó forests support comparatively less life and the environment found within these areas tend to lack species diversity and animal biomass. Várzea forest soils have high nutrient contents because they receive a transport of high sediment loads from the whitewater rivers.

Diglipur Tehsil is endowed with vast and varied fisheries resources in terms of species diversity of fish, ornamental fish, shellfish, and molluse. A large proportion of the population is involved in fishing and allied activities for their income. There are 514 registered fishing boats in operation which provide a livelihood for 1200 active fisherman families. Besides marine fishery, people of Diglipur are also involved in culturing freshwater fish with more than 700 available ponds.

William Morrow and Company, New York. 22-25. Diversity is low in harsh environments because of the intolerance of all but opportunistic and highly resistant species to such conditions. The interplay between disturbance and these biological processes seems to account for a major portion of the organization and spatial patterning of natural communities. Disturbance variability and species diversity are heavily linked, and as a result require adaptations that help increase plant fitness necessary for survival.

A beaver dam in Sonoma County. The western state's history and relationship with the North American Beaver have been difficult, especially in California where current Beaver policies focus more on them as a nuisance than a beneficial keystone species. Beavers create a habitat that benefits surrounding species as well as the environment around them. This ecosystem engineer helps improve habitat for fish, amphibians, mammals, and birds, including endangered species, ultimately increasing species diversity and richness.

The Lower section spans the South Padre Island and Brownsville areas up the Rio Grande to Laredo. The Lower Coast section which lies around the Rio Grande offers its own species diversity. South Padre Island and the Laguna Madre areas feature magnificent frigatebirds, bridled terns, and Cory’s shearwater. Further up the Rio Grande around Santa Ana and McAllen one can find elf owls, white-tipped doves, green jays, green kingfishers, and Mississippi kite.

Climate change, hydrologic engineering, shifting water needs, and newly introduced species will continue to alter the food web configuration of the estuary. This model provides a snapshot of the current state, with notes about recent changes or species introductions that have altered the configuration of the food web. Understanding the dynamics of the current food web may prove useful for restoration efforts to improve the functioning and species diversity of the estuary.

Diversification rates are the rates at which new species form (the Speciation rate, λ) and living species go extinct (the extinction rate, μ). Diversification rates can be estimated from fossils, data on the species diversity of clades and their ages, or phylogenetic trees. Diversification rates are typically reported on a per-lineage basis (e.g. speciation rate per lineage per unit of time), and refer to the diversification dynamics expected under a birth-death process.

The mantle is large (up to half the body length), containing a shell plate internally. The pneumostome lies in the posterior half of the mantle. Generally external appearance does not reliably distinguish one species from certain others, so species identification requires dissection to reveal the genitalia, unless the local species diversity is known to be low. The taxonomy, anatomy and other aspects of the biology of this genus were reviewed in 2000,Wiktor, A. (2000).

The role of herbivory by wood-boring insects in mangrove ecosystems in Belize. Oikos 97, 167-176. A classic example of top-down interactions dictating community structure and function comes from Bob Paine's work in Washington, which established that removal of the starfish Pisaster triggered a trophic cascade in which the blue mussel (Mytilus) populations exploded due to release from predation pressure (Paine 1966)Paine, R.T. 1966. Web complexity and species diversity.

Surrounding the area is a state forest with scrub and dry deciduous forest covering 27 km. The degraded forest, which is considered as shrub and tree savanna of the Anogeissus–Chloroxylon–Acacia series is highly diverse, recording over 59 tree and 119 shrub species. Some of the plant species recorded here include:K. S. Murali, A. Kavitha, and R. P. Harish (2003) Spatial patterns of tree and shrub species diversity in Savanadurga State Forest, Karnataka.

Global distribution and preliminary diversity estimate of common Symbiodinium species associated with cnidarians (rare “species” excluded). Internal transcribed spacer region 2 (ITS2) data (sensu LaJeunesse 2002) are used here as a proxy for species diversity. Symbiodinium are perhaps the best group for studying micro-eukaryote physiology and ecology for several reasons. Firstly, available phylogenetic and population genetic markers allow for detailed examination of their genetic diversity over broad spatial and temporal scales.

New York: Knopf; [distributed by Random House], 1974: 161 Another important expedition was undertaken by HMS Challenger, where findings were made of unexpectedly high species diversity among fauna stimulating much theorizing by population ecologists on how such varieties of life could be maintained in what was thought to be such a hostile environment.Gage, John D., and Paul A. Tyler. Deep-sea biology: a natural history of organisms at the deep-sea floor.

The reef slope is found at the outer edge of the fringing reef, closest to the open ocean. This area of the reef is often quite steep and descends either to a relatively shallow sand bottom or to depths too great to allow the growth of coral. Coral grows much more abundantly on this slope, both in numbers and in species diversity. This is mostly because runoff and sediments are less concentrated here.

Lopé and the Ogooué River. Forest elephants in park savannah Wasmannia auropunctata (fire ant) is an invasive alien species blamed for reducing species diversity, tree dwelling insects, and eliminating arachnid populations. Lopé National Park is a national park in central Gabon. Although the terrain is mostly monsoon forest, in the north the park contains the last remnants of grass savannas created in Central Africa during the last Ice Age, 15,000 years ago.

Amblyomma marmoreum C. L. Koch drawn by Oudemans Amblyomma is a genus of hard ticks. Some are disease vectors, for example for Rocky Mountain spotted fever in Brazil or ehrlichiosis in the United States. This genus is the third largest in the family Ixodidae, with its species primarily occupying the torrid zones of all the continents. The centre of species diversity is on the American continent, where half of all the species occur.

In an attempt to explain the unprecedented and rapid spread of vegetation over dry land surfaces during the middle Paleozoic, Mark and Dianna McMenamin proposed the Hypersea Theory. Their Hypersea is a geophysiological entity consisting of eukaryotic organisms on land and their symbionts. By means of a process known as hypermarine upwelling, the expansion of Hypersea led to a dramatic increase in global species diversity and a one hundred-fold increase in global biomass.

The striated grasswren (Amytornis striatus) is a Passeriform in the Maluridae Family, which is shared with the familiar Australian and New Guinean fairy-wrens. It is one of 13 species of grasswren currently recognised in the subfamily Amytornithae, all within the Genus Amytornis, and confined to mainland Australia.Christidis, L., F. E. Rheindt, W. E. Boles & J. A. Norman, 2013. A re-appraisal of species diversity within the Australian grasswrens Amytornis (Aves: Maluridae). Austral.

The flood pulse helps maintain genetic and species diversity in the floodplain ecosystem, and it brings in oxygen to help fauna and decomposition. The flood pulse also increases yields by increasing the surface area of water and showers the land with river biota. Flood plain systems also serve as migration routes, hibernation spots, and spawning locations for many species. For the red-bellied piranha, their two annual reproductive seasons are dependent on the flooding pulse.

Parachanna is a genus of snakeheads native to freshwater habitats in tropical Africa. Three recognized extant (living) species are in this genus, but a phylogenetic study from 2017 indicates that a fourth, currently undescribed species also exists.Conte-Grand, C., Britz, R., Dahanukar, N., Raghavan, R., Pethi-yagoda, R., Tan, H.H., Hadiaty, R.K., Yaakob, N.S. & Rüber, L. (2017). Barcoding snakeheads (Teleostei, Channidae) re-visited: Discovering greater species diversity and resolving perpetuated taxonomic confusions.

In the late 12th century, Ari the Wise described it in the Íslendingabók as "forested from mountain to sea shore". Permanent human settlement greatly disturbed the isolated ecosystem of thin, volcanic soils and limited species diversity. The forests were heavily exploited over the centuries for firewood and timber. Deforestation, climatic deterioration during the Little Ice Age, and overgrazing by sheep imported by settlers caused a loss of critical topsoil due to erosion.

Vankalai Sanctuary is located in the northwest of Sri Lanka in the District of Mannar. This site covers an area of 4,839 ha and consists of several ecosystems which range from arid-zone thorn scrubland, arid-zone pastures and maritime grasslands, sand dunes, mangroves, salt marshes, lagoons, tidal flats, sea-grass beds and shallow marine areas. Due to the integrated nature of shallow wetland and terrestrial coastal habitats, this sanctuary is highly productive, supporting high ecosystem and species diversity.

Thirty conifer species (or more, depending on where one delineates the region) inhabit the area, including two endemic species, the Brewer's spruce and the Port Orford cedar, making the Klamath Mountains one of the richest coniferous forest regions of the world in terms of concentrated species diversity. The region also has several edaphic plant communities, adapted to specific soil types, notably serpentine outcrops.Briles, et al., p. 590Axelrod, p. 51 Russian Peak and whitebark pine In 1969, Drs.

Some subsequent papers have found support for the rule, others, probably even more numerous, have found exceptions to it.Rohde, K. (1999). Latitudinal gradients in species diversity and Rapoport's rule revisited: a review of recent work, and what can parasites teach us about the causes of the gradients? Ecography, 22, 593–613 For most groups that have been shown to follow the rule, it is restricted to or at least most distinct above latitudes of about 40–50 degrees.

These effects then have consequences that reach even further. Conservation of species has implications for humans in the economic, social, and political realms. In the biological realm increased genotypic diversity has been shown to help ecosystem recovery, as seen in a community of grasses which was able to resist disturbance to grazing geese through greater genotypic diversity. Because species diversity increases ecosystem function, increasing biodiversity through new conservation genetic techniques has wider reaching effects than before.

The most productive and fertile ocean areas, upwelling regions are important sources of marine productivity. They attract hundreds of species throughout the trophic levels; these systems' diversity has been a focal point for marine research. While studying the trophic levels and patterns typical of upwelling regions, researchers have discovered that upwelling systems exhibit a wasp- waist richness pattern. In this type of pattern, the high and low trophic levels are well-represented by high species diversity.

Tilia is a genus of about 30 species of trees or bushes, native throughout most of the temperate Northern Hemisphere. In Britain and Ireland they are commonly called lime trees, or lime bushes, although they are not closely related to the tree that produces the lime fruit. Other names include linden for the European species, and basswood for North American species. The genus occurs in Europe and eastern North America, but the greatest species diversity is found in Asia.

1991), yet there is strong evidence that they affect the species diversity of other nematodes. In a golf course ecosystem, the application of H. bacteriophora, an introduced nematode, significantly reduced the abundance, species richness, maturity, and diversity of the nematode community (Somaseker et al. 2002). EPNs had no effect on free-living nematodes. However, there was a reduction in the number of genera and abundance of plant-parasitic nematodes, which often remain enclosed within growths on the plant root.

Tillodontia is an extinct suborder of eutherian mammals known from the Early Paleocene to Late Eocene of China, the Late Paleocene to Middle Eocene of North America where they display their maximum species diversity, the Middle Eocene of Pakistan, and the Early Eocene of Europe. Leaving no descendants, they are most closely related to the pantodonts, another extinct group. The tillodonts were medium- to large-sized animals that probably feed on roots and tubers in temperate to subtropical habitats.

Heceta Bank is considered a persistent biological hotspot, in terms of biomass and nekton species diversity, in the northern California Current. The most important environmental parameters provoking this feature are sea-surface temperature, salinity, and density, indicating that the mechanisms of the hotspot are related to the flow through the region and differing patterns of circulation. In addition to this, high abundances of prey (e.g., Euphausiids) favors the higher concentrations of nekton species, especially of higher trophic levels (e.g.

Pulveroboletus bembae is a species of fungus in the family Boletaceae that was first described in 2009. It is known only from the rainforest of northern Gabon, a region known for its high level of species diversity. Like all boletes, P. bembae has fleshy fruit bodies that form spores in tubes perpendicular to the ground on the underside of the cap. These yellowish tubes form a surface of pores, each about 1–2 mm in diameter.

Green roofs can help maintain species diversity in urban landscapes. Urban ecology can be included under the umbrella of reconciliation ecology and it tackles biodiversity in cities, the most extreme of human-dominated landscapes. Cities occupy less than 3% of global surface area, but are responsible for a majority of carbon emissions, residential water use, and wood use. Cities also have unique climatic conditions such as the urban heat island effect, which can greatly affect biodiversity.

There were no statistical differences in bird species diversity between the forest edge and interior. However, there was significantly greater species turnover at the edge. The difference in bird species composition between the forest edge and interior was due to various edge-effects: removal of dead wood for firewood, soil compaction by cattle, and generally greater levels of disturbance. We question the wisdom of the generally applied edge-effect principle in the conservation of forest biodiversity.

One single species isolate P. copri CB7 has been used for different studies that showed it can be beneficial or detrimental, depending on the context. Prevotella is a large genus with high species diversity and high genetic diversity between strains. A recent study on Prevotella derived from humans compared the gene repertoires of its species derived from different body sites of human. It also reported an open pan- genome showing a vast diversity of the gene pool.

"Disease and insect control are addressed through botanical species diversity, predator habitat, balanced crop nutrition, and attention to light penetration and airflow. Weed control emphasizes prevention, including timing of planting, mulching, and identifying and avoiding the spread of invasive weed species." Biodynamic agriculture differs from many forms of organic agriculture in its spiritual, mystical, and astrological orientation. It shares a spiritual focus, as well as its view toward improving humanity, with the "nature farming" movement in Japan.

They focused on how species' retention of ancestral traits may limit geographic range expansion."Niche Conservatism: Integrating Evolution, Ecology, and Conservation Biology", 2005, Retrieved 6 February 2015 In many of her papers, she has sought to unite ecology and evolutionary biology to derive a better understanding of the processes driving species diversity patterns. In particular, she and Paul Fine laid out a framework for interpreting community assembly processes from a phylogenetic approach to quantifying beta diversity.

The land is mostly used for maize, groundnuts, sweet potatoes, green vegetables, fruits, paprika, and flowers. This unsanctioned cultivation has a history of necessity: in colonial times, laborers wanted towns where they could cultivate crops like at their rural homes, and with very low income, needed to supplement their food supply. However, urban agriculture in Harare causes harm to the environment. The practice has reduced rainwater infiltration into the soil by 28.5 percent and lowered tree species diversity.

When compared with other protected areas in India, Kaziranga has achieved notable success in wildlife conservation. Located on the edge of the Eastern Himalaya biodiversity hotspot, the park combines high species diversity and visibility. Kaziranga is a vast expanse of tall elephant grass, marshland, and dense tropical moist broadleaf forests, criss-crossed by four major rivers, including the Brahmaputra, and the park includes numerous small bodies of water. Kaziranga has been the theme of several books, songs, and documentaries.

The main criterion for megadiverse countries is endemism at the level of species, genera and families. A megadiverse country must have at least 5,000 species of endemic plants and must border marine ecosystems. South Africa is one of the smaller megadiverse countries, with a terrestrial area of about 1.2 million km2 and is rated among the top 10 for plant species diversity. The EEZ is about 1.1 million km2 and is rated third for marine endemism.

The large intestine houses over 700 species of bacteria that perform a variety of functions, as well as fungi, protozoa, and archaea. Species diversity varies by geography and diet. The microbes in a human distal gut often number in the vicinity of 100 trillion, and can weigh around 200 grams (0.44 pounds). This mass of mostly symbiotic microbes has recently been called the latest human organ to be "discovered" or in other words, the "forgotten organ".

By harvesting these shellfish the nitrogen they retained is completely removed from the system. Raising and harvesting kelp and other macroalgae directly remove nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Repackaging these nutrients can relieve eutrophic, or nutrient-rich, conditions known for their low dissolved oxygen which can decimate species diversity and abundance of marine life. Removing algal cells from the water also increase light penetration, allowing plants such as eelgrass to reestablish themselves and further increase oxygen levels.

The family Amaranthaceae at APWebsite. Hernández- Ledesma P., Berendsohn W. G., Borsch Th., Mering S. von, Akhani H., Arias S., Castañeda-Noa I., Eggli U., Eriksson R., Flores-Olvera H., Fuentes-Bazán S., Kadereit G., Klak C., Korotkova N., Nyffeler R., Ocampo G., Ochoterena H., Oxelman B., Rabeler R. K., Sanchez A., Schlumpberger B. O. & Uotila P. 2015. "A taxonomic backbone for the global synthesis of species diversity in the angiosperm order Caryophyllales". — Willdenowia 45: 281–383.

Leucopogon is a genus of about 150-160 species of shrubs or small trees in the family Ericaceae, in the section of that family formerly treated as the separate family Epacridaceae. They are native to Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, the western Pacific Islands and Malaysia, with the greatest species diversity in southeastern Australia. Plants in this genus have leaves with a few more or less parallel veins, and tube-shaped flowers usually with a white beard inside.

Therefore, actual species diversity may be much higher than currently recognised in this and other dinosaur genera. As some species are known only from skull material, species of Psittacosaurus are primarily distinguished by features of the skull and teeth. Several species can be recognised by features of the pelvis as well. ;P. sinensis In the 1950s, a new Chinese species of Psittacosaurus was found in the Aptian-Albian Qingshan Formation of Shandong Province, southeast of Beijing.

The Ceylon snakehead (Channa orientalis) is a species of snakehead found in freshwater habitats, typically shaded streams, in southwestern Sri Lanka (although occasionally claimed to occur in other countries, this is misidentifications of relatives, usually C. gachua).Conte-Grand, C., Britz, R., Dahanukar, N., Raghavan, R., Pethi-yagoda, R., Tan, H.H., Hadiaty, R.K., Yaakob, N.S. & Rüber, L. (2017). Barcoding snakeheads (Teleostei, Channidae) re-visited: Discovering greater species diversity and resolving perpetuated taxonomic confusions. PLoS ONE, 12 (9): e0184017.

The grasslands can again be categorised into wet phase and dry phase grasslands based on the seasons. More than 500 plant species have been recorded from Madayipara. The midland hillocks of northern Kerala have its own characteristic floral composition supporting scrub jungles and cashew plantations on the hill slopes and grasslands and associated aquatic and semi-aquatic plants on the hilltops. Even though these hills are exposed directly to the sunlight and wind, they harbour rich species diversity.

Even though these hills are exposed directly to the sunlight and wind, they harbour rich species diversity. Recent plant explorations revealed more additions to the known plant species of the area some of which turned out to be new to science, and endemic to the locality. The vegetation of the hillocks may be classified mainly into grasslands and scrub jungles. The grasslands can again be categorised into wet phase and dry phase grasslands based on the seasons.

In addition, there are more species in the tropics than at higher latitudes. Classically, the latitudinal gradient in species diversity has been explained by factors such as higher productivity or reduced seasonality. In contrast, MTE explains this pattern as being driven by the kinetic constraints imposed by temperature on metabolism. The rate of molecular evolution scales with metabolic rate, such that organisms with higher metabolic rates show a higher rate of change at the molecular level.

This is a list of ecoregions in Colombia. Colombia is considered one of the world's 'megadiverse' countries, and is home to one in ten of the world's plant and animal species. It is ranked first in bird and orchid species diversity, and second in plants, butterflies, freshwater fishes and amphibians. Colombia's location in the tropics and its varied topography create a diverse range of habitats, including tropical rain forests, deserts, high mountains, coral reefs, and mangroves."Colombia".

Recolonization of the area appears to have occurred from one or a few southern glacial refugia. This is in contrast to the multiple glacial refugia present throughout the American West (Stone and Cook, 2000). As a consequence of both the recent uninhabitability and the few sources of recolonization, species diversity for some taxa in parts of New England are lower than in similar areas in other parts of North America. Chipmunks and ground squirrels are exemplars of this situation.

Journal of South Asian Natural History 4(1): 57-63. The easternmost population of C. gachua is often recognized as a separate species C. limbata (with synonym C. longistomata), while the isolated Sri Lankan population often is recognized as C. kelaartii.Conte-Grand, C., Britz, R., Dahanukar, N., Raghavan, R., Pethi- yagoda, R., Tan, H.H., Hadiaty, R.K., Yaakob, N.S. & Rüber, L. (2017). Barcoding snakeheads (Teleostei, Channidae) re-visited: Discovering greater species diversity and resolving perpetuated taxonomic confusions.

The son of a forestry ranger, Alain Gachet grew up in an isolated region of northern Madagascar. His father was responsible for recording the inventory of Madagascar's botanical species diversity, the discoveries of which he shared with his son after his explorations of the island. His father was also active in the protection of the environment of the Madagascar mangroves. Alain Gachet has said that his childhood experiences in Madagascar instilled in him a love and respect for nature.

Modeling the effect of ecological extinction on communities is the first step to applying this framework into conservation work.McConkey, K. R., & Drake, D. R. Flying foxes cease to function as seed dispersers long before they become rare. Ecology. 87(2): 271-276. 2006. While ecologists are just starting to get a grapple on the significant interactions within an ecosystem, they must continue to find an effective density threshold that can maintain the level of equilibrium species diversity.

Only with this knowledge of where and to what extent a specific species interacts with its environment will the proper and most efficient levels of conservation work take place. This work is especially important on the limited ecosystems of islands, where there are less likely to be replacement species for specific niches. With species diversity and available habitat decreasing rapidly worldwide, identifying the systems that are most crucial to the ecosystem will be the crux of conservation work.

The Arthoniales is distributed in most habitats worldwide, as it ranges at latitudes from arctic to tropical regions. They grow on different types of substrates like bark, wood, rocks, bryophytes and living leaves. The order has adapted to live in both humid forests and dry habitats like savannas and steppes, as well as varying altitudes from sea level to alpine regions. The highest species diversity are known from subtropical coastal areas with a Mediterranean or dry climate.

Many species of bees are attracted to shaded polycultures that have a variety of flowering plants in addition to coffee. This increase in bee abundance results in a direct increase in the pollination of shade trees as well the coffee plants themselves. A study in Indonesia showed that bee species diversity increases fruit set in coffee; coffee plants visited by 3 species of bees had 60% fruit set while those with 20 species or more had 90% fruit set.

Furthermore, its conclusions are marked by uncertainty: although species diversity and functional diversity are correlated, functional diversity may play a larger role in ecosystem processes than the total number of species. Some of the services provided by ecosystems include the components used in fabricating food, clothing, medicine, and energy production. Recreation and passive ecosystem services are significant as well. These include fishing, hunting, hiking, birding, camping, water filtration/purification, climate moderation, flood mitigation, erosion prevention, and pest management.

Much of the surrounding area is a mire type of wetland: characterized by living, peat-forming plants. The most common forms of mire are wet meadows and grass bogs. Underlying the area is a thick layer of clay that prevents drainage through the soil. Species diversity is high due to the favorable conditions; Endemism is high because the area was not glaciated in the Pleistocene, creating in the area both a refuge and a migratory route for species.

It is proposed that treefall gaps maintain plant species diversity in tropical forests in three main ways. First of all, they create habitats that have a lot of light. Being in an area that now contains a high amount of light allows species that cannot grow in total or partial shade to develop rapidly. Due to the new levels of light, competition between the shade intolerant species and the species that prefer low levels of light would be eliminated.

Lava flows from Newberry display varied vegetation cover, and there are variable levels of flora between flows, though the level of vegetation and species diversity generally increase with elevation. Dominant plant species on lava flows include oceanspray and wax currant, with rabbitbrush also common. Though forbs are not widespread on the lava flows, where they do occur Davidson's penstemon and hotrock penstemon dominate. Above elevations of , roundleaf alumroot is common, particularly near the edges of lava flows.

The nassellarians appear in the fossil record much later than their other polycystine relatives, the spumellarians. spumellarians can be seen as far back as the Precambrian, whereas nassellarians do not begin to appear until the Carboniferous. Nassellarians are believed to be have been increasing in species diversity since the beginning of the Cenozoic. Nassellarians have been and continue to be some of the most remarkable and aesthetically interesting protists both alive and in the fossil record.

The photic zone allows sufficient light for phytoplankton to photosynthesize. A vast habitat for most pelagic fish, the epipelagic zone is well lit so visual predators can use their eyesight, is usually well mixed and oxygenated from wave action, and can be a good habitat for algae to grow. However, it is an almost featureless habitat. This lack of habitat variation results in a lack of species diversity, so the zone supports less than 2% of the world's known fish species.

Two birds with radio tracking devices travelled back to their site of capture. Although noisy miners are protected across Australia, and a permit is required to cull them, culling has been proposed as the most humane and practical method of reducing their impact, particularly where combined with rehabilitation of the habitat to suit a wider variety of bird life. An unsanctioned cull took place on private rural property over 1991 and 1992, which reportedly resulted in an increase in species diversity.

About 375 fish species are known from the Mississippi basin, far exceeding other North Hemisphere river basin exclusively within temperate/subtropical regions, except the Yangtze. Within the Mississippi basin, streams that have their source in the Appalachian and Ozark highlands contain especially many species. Among the fish species in the basin are numerous endemics, as well as relicts such as paddlefish, sturgeon, gar and bowfin. Because of its size and high species diversity, the Mississippi basin is often divided into subregions.

Ecological fitting can influence species diversity either by promoting diversification through genetic drift, or by maintaining evolutionary stasis through gene flow. Research has shown that ecological fitting can result in parasite assemblages that are just as diverse as those created over evolutionary time, indicating the importance of ecological factors for biodiversity. Ecological fitting can contribute to 3 types of evolutionary transition. The first is simple ecological fitting, in which organisms track resources to form novel species interactions and increase individual fitness.

The Yapunyah waterhole’s remote and inaccessible location has limited the gathering of survey data and other information on the ecology of the area. Full surveys of flora, fauna and wetland habitats have not yet been fully documented. In a fact sheet developed by the Environmental Protection Agency, it says this wetland type is relatively well known in south-western Queensland in terms of ecology and species diversity; the fact sheet also contains a full list of commonly found flora and fauna (including birds).

The high rainfall on these first slopes creates a thick jungle that extends in a narrow strip along these ranges, creating an area of great species diversity. At higher altitudes on these slopes, the climate is cooler and more humid, with the vegetation consisting of deciduous and pine trees. Between the high altitudes to the west and the low plains to the east lie the valleys. The climate of these valleys is temperate, allowing for human settlement and agricultural activities.

Adults can be found from late April or May to the middle of June at the latest and live for only one month, with females living a bit longer. These zoo phytophagous bugs suck on buds, feed on pollen and on juices of oaks (Quercus robur), feed on nectar of Anthriscus sylvestris and occasionally hunt small insects, especially aphids.Karel Hradil, Václav Psota and Pavla Štastná Species Diversity of True Bugs on Apples in Terms of Plant Protection Plant Protect. Sci. - Vol.

Von Humboldt advocated a quantitative approach to phytogeography that has characterized modern plant geography. Gross patterns of the distribution of plants became apparent early on in the study of plant geography. For example, Alfred Russel Wallace, co-discoverer of the principle of natural selection, discussed the Latitudinal gradients in species diversity, a pattern observed in other organisms as well. Much research effort in plant geography has since then been devoted to understanding this pattern and describing it in more detail.

Chaparral, like most Mediterranean shrublands, is highly fire resilient and historically burned with high- severity, stand replacing events every 30 to 100 years. Historically, Native Americans burned chaparral to promote grasslands for textiles and food. Though adapted to infrequent fires, chaparral plant communities can be exterminated by frequent fires especially with climate change induced drought. Today, frequent accidental ignitions can convert chaparral from a native shrubland to nonnative annual grassland and drastically reduce species diversity, especially under global-change-type drought.

Colpoda irregularis has been found in the high desert region of Southwest Idaho. Colpoda aspera has been found in the Antarctic. Colpoda are also found in the arctic where warmer temperatures and longer summers lead to greater density and species diversity. Not only is the genus widespread, there are also several species that have nearly global distribution, and, indeed, it has been suggested this may be true of all species, a fact that could be borne out by better investigation.

Four of the eight rare plants are endemic and known to exist only in the Pine Hill area and nowhere else. Five of the eight species are listed as threatened species or endangered species under both the state and federal endangered species acts. The western portion of El Dorado County has almost 10% (740 species) of California's native plants growing here, making the site nationally significant for species diversity. Six of the eight rare plants grow in the Pine Hill Ecological Reserve unit.

A wide range of biologically diverse populations in natural ecosystems and in / near agricultural ecosystems maintain essential ecological functions that are critical for the production of food. Such populations contribute positively to, for example, nutrient cycling, decomposition of organic matter, crusted or degraded soil rehabilitation, pest and disease regulation, water quality maintenance, and pollination. Maintaining species diversity, while building on and enhancing ecosystem functions, reduces external input requirements by increasing nutrient availability, improving water use and soil structure, and controlling pests.

This genus of bacteria can form either specific or general symbioses; one species of Bradyrhizobium may only be able to nodulate one legume species, whereas other Bradyrhizobium species may be able to nodulate several legume species. Ribosomal RNA is highly conserved in this group of microbes, making Bradyrhizobium extremely difficult to use as an indicator of species diversity. DNA–DNA hybridizations have been used instead and show more diversity. However, few phenotypic differences are seen, so not many species have been named.

Agroforestry in Burkina Faso allows sorghum crop to be grown under native tree species, preserving biodiversity. Agroforestry provides many examples of reconciliation ecology at work. In tropical agroforestry systems, crops such as coffee or fruit trees are cultivated under a canopy of shade trees, providing habitat for tropical forest species outside of protected areas. For example, shade-grown coffee plantations typically have lower tree diversity than unmanaged forests, however they have much higher tree species diversity and richness than other agricultural methods.

The species diversity covers twenty times more land area, home to at least three endemic bird species and primate species in Andean forests. Wild animals in Peru are used for various reasons, including biomedical research, jewellery, and souvenirs. Pets are also products for sale involving live species such as parrots, monkeys, and tortoises found in Peru traded to Amazonas. The wild parrot trade in Peru, such as the Macaw, is localised in inter cities or cross-border trading between two countries.

Ramin is native to Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, the Philippines, and Papua New Guinea, with the highest species diversity on Borneo. It is related to Arnhemia, Deltaria, Lethedon and Solmsia.Beaumont, A. J., T. J. Edwards, J. Manning, O. Maurin, M. Rautenbach, M. C. Motsi, M. F. Fay, M. W. Chase, and M. Van Der Bank. (2009) Gnidia (Thymelaeaceae) Is Not Monophyletic: Taxonomic Implications for Thymelaeoideae and a Partial New Generic Taxonomy for Gnidia.” Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 160 (4): 402–17.

Semi-evergreen forests have a taller and multilayered forest structure than deciduous dipterocarp forests. While such forest to lowland evergreen rain forest, they grow in areas with lower and more seasonal rainfall and are characterized by lower species diversity. Bamboos are common in the semi-evergreen forests of Cambodia's Eastern Plains Landscape, especially along seasonal waterways and after disturbance. Within the Dry Forest Ecoregion, semi-evergreen forest patches are essential in providing shelter to large mammals and key resources to many species.

The majority of land at The Holden Arboretum is maintained in a natural state. Even though it gives the appearance of being untouched, crucial management decisions are always being made to maintain the diversity and health of these areas. The goal of natural areas management is to maintain and ultimately increase species diversity of both flora and fauna. In order to preserve our native habitats, plant community surveys are conducted by Holden staff to inventory the composition of the existing flora.

At least 3,042 species of Hymenoptera are known to occur in Ireland. The true number of species occurring in Ireland is thought to be significantly greater than this figure.O’Connor, J.P, Nash, R. and Broad, G. 2009 An Annotated Checklist of the Irish Hymenoptera The Irish Biogeographical Society and the National Museum of Ireland, Dublin pdf full textRegan, Eugenie; Nelson, Brian; McCormack, Stephen; Nash, Robert; O'Connor, James P. (2010). Countdown to 2010: Can we assess Ireland's insect species diversity and loss.

Purves, M. (2009) This tree is a dominant species in the moist semi-deciduous forests of Ghana along with Triplochiton scleroxylon and African Mahogany (Khaya ivorensis).Taylor, (1960) The trees were common in Ajenjua Bepo and Mamang River Forest Reserves in Ghana.Siaw, D.E.K.A and Dabo, J. Botanical Survey of Plant species Diversity in the Ajenjua Bepo and Mamang River Forest Reserves, Ghana. In Uganda the tree is used for timber and is a primate food source in Budongo Forest Reserve.

Malveae is a tribe of flowering plants in the mallow family Malvaceae, subfamily Malvoideae. The tribe circumscribes approximately 70 genera and 1040 species and has the greatest species diversity out the three tribes that make up Malvoideae (followed by Hibisceae and then Gossypieae). The flowers of Malveae are five-merous with a characteristic staminal column, a trait found throughout Malvoideae. Although there are not many economically important species within Malveae, the tribe includes Althaea officinalis, otherwise known as the Marsh Mallow.

Ecological studies indicate that dam and bridge construction poses barriers to dispersal and migration of fishes in the Ouachita Highlands. Construction is generally destructive to aquatic habitats of any kind, unless designed specifically to help species diversity, and even then it can cause harm. As stated before, Limited range makes this species vulnerable to habitat destruction/degradation from impoundment, pollution, and other factors. Robison and Buchanan (1988) stated that "this rare species should be considered threatened due to loss of habitat".

Numerous non-passerine birds are also taken, though seldom in great numbers and of low known species diversity. One exceptional family is the woodpeckers, which are probably so widely taken because of their generally overlapping habitat preferences with those of barred owls. Several species of woodpecker are preyed upon almost throughout the range, including at least a half dozen in Oregon alone, from the smallest North American species, the downy woodpecker, to the largest, the pileated woodpecker.Fisher, A. K. (1893).

The phylogenetic tree presented below is based on Panero & Funk (2002) updated in 2014, and now also includes the monotypic Famatinanthoideae. The diamond denotes a very poorly supported node (<50% bootstrap support), the dot a poorly supported node (<80%). The four subfamilies Asteroideae, Cichorioideae, Carduoideae and Mutisioideae contain 99% of the species diversity of the whole family (approximately 70%, 14%, 11% and 3% respectively). Because of the morphological complexity exhibited by this family, agreeing on generic circumscriptions has often been difficult for taxonomists.

While members of a given clade may be ubiquitous, the species diversity within each clade is potentially large, with each species often having different ecological and geographic distributions related to their dispersal ability, host biogeography, and external environmental conditions. A small number of species occur in temperate environments where few symbiotic animals occur. As a result, these high latitude associations tend to be highly species specific. The distributions of Symbiodinium species comprising different ecological guilds in a coral reef ecosystem.

The geological record of terrestrial plants is sparse and based mostly on pollen and spore studies. Plants are relatively immune to mass extinction, with the impact of all the major mass extinctions "insignificant" at a family level. Even the reduction observed in species diversity (of 50%) may be mostly due to taphonomic processes. However, a massive rearrangement of ecosystems does occur, with plant abundances and distributions changing profoundly and all the forests virtually disappearing; the Palaeozoic flora scarcely survived this extinction.

A habitat with high species diversity results in lower total resource availability thus decreasing the success of an invader. Diverse habitats also maintain stronger indirect interactions between species thus causing exclusion of non-native species that could out-compete a native species on a one-to-one level. A notable exception is diverse habitats with many pollinators. Pollinators significantly increase the invasion success of invasive plants thus habitats with a diverse set of pollinators have a greater chance of being invaded.

Stenocarpus is a genus of about 25 species of woody trees or shrubs, constituting part of the plant family Proteaceae. In Australia, 10 species are known growing naturally in rainforests of eastern New South Wales and Queensland and in the northern monsoonal forests of Queensland, Northern Territory, and Western Australia. Two of these eastern Australia species also grow naturally in New Guinea and one in the Aru Islands, Moluccas. The greatest species diversity occurs in New Caledonia, where 12 endemic species are known.

Research of their shade-grown coffee counterparts has shown that greater canopy cover in plots is significantly associated with greater mammal species diversity. The amount of diversity in tree species is fairly comparable between shade-grown cocoa plots and primary forests. Farmers can grow a variety of fruit-bearing shade trees to supplement their income to help cope with the volatile cocoa prices. Although cocoa has been adapted to grow under a dense rainforest canopy, agroforestry does not significantly further enhance cocoa productivity.

The volume of irrigation water (from surface runoff) applied is of the same order of magnitude as the direct rainfall on the site. Trees in the irrigated exclosure have greater species diversity and show better growth. Particularly during the peak rainy season when there is excess water in Dogu’a Tembien, that cannot be used for crop irrigation, spate irrigation towards woody vegetation can be an important buffer for peak runoff discharges and if largely applied, it can reduce floods in the downstream areas.

Fishes of Thailand Khmer language called it កញ្ជនជៃ (kanh chon chey), Indonesians named it kehung, while in Malaysia, they called it ikan bujuk in Malay Language A genetic study published in 2017 indicates that C. lucius is a species complex.Conte-Grand, C., Britz, R., Dahanukar, N., Raghavan, R., Pethi-yagoda, R., Tan, H.H., Hadiaty, R.K., Yaakob, N.S. & Rüber, L. (2017). Barcoding snakeheads (Teleostei, Channidae) re-visited: Discovering greater species diversity and resolving perpetuated taxonomic confusions. PLoS ONE, 12 (9): e0184017.

The development of chemical research during the war also lead to the postwar development of agricultural pesticides. The creation of pesticides was an upside for the years after the war. The environmental impacts of World War II were very drastic, which allowed them to be seen in the Cold War and be seen today. The impacts of conflict, chemical contaminations, and aerial warfare all contribute to reduction in the population of global flora and fauna, as well as a reduction in species diversity.

The riparian zone along the creek is dominated by coyote willow with some narrowleaf cottonwood and chokecherry intermixed. East of the creek are wet meadows followed by a ponderosa pine forest with an understory of Gambel oak. On the west side of the park is a conifer forest of Douglas fir, limber pine, blue spruce, Engelmann spruce, bristlecone pine, white fir, and quaking aspen, again with a Gambel oak understory. Species diversity is lower at the north and south ends of the park.

The limited species diversity of Madeira means that there are relatively few potential predators. Of the three birds of prey, the common buzzard and common kestrel take mainly mammalian prey; however, the dark Macaronesian subspecies of the Eurasian sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus granti, is a specialist predator of woodland birds. Other than bats, there are no native land mammals, although there are a number of introduced species, two of which will take birds or chicks. These are brown rats and feral domestic cats.

Conte-Grand, C., Britz, R., Dahanukar, N., Raghavan, R., Pethi-yagoda, R., Tan, H.H., Hadiaty, R.K., Yaakob, N.S. & Rüber, L. (2017). Barcoding snakeheads (Teleostei, Channidae) re-visited: Discovering greater species diversity and resolving perpetuated taxonomic confusions. PLoS ONE, 12 (9): e0184017. In 2011, the Malabar snakehead Channa diplogramma from peninsular India was shown to be a distinct species, 146 years after its initial description and 134 years after it was synonymised with C. micropeltes, establishing it is an endemic species of peninsular India.

Some 30 species have been recorded in Lavushi Manda to date. Although this number is thought to constitute only about half the number of fish species present. Species diversity in catches downstream from Mumbatuta Falls has been higher than further upstream, suggesting that these falls are a barrier for fish migration. The Bangweulu Killifish, a Zambian endemic with restricted range (from Mansa to Lavushi Manda), is listed as Endangered occurs in the park and Greenhead Tilapia is listed as Vulnerable.

The ecoregion harbors rich biodiversity, with several distinct plant communities, including temperate rain forests, moist inland forests, oak forests and savannas, high elevation forests, and alpine grasslands. Thirty conifer species inhabit the region, including seven endemic species, making the region one of the richest coniferous forest regions of the world in species diversity. The region also has several edaphic plant communities (adapted to specific soil types), notably those of the region's serpentine outcrops. Conifer species include Coast Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii subsp.

Again, this is not because species want to immigrate to such islands; after all, these islands are undesirable places to live. The reason that immigration occurs to these islands is because there is a lot of room for additional species. Whether or not the immigrating species can survive in its new home, and for how long, is another question. However, species diversity is correlated with HSI, so when more species arrive at a low HSI island, the island's HSI will tend to increase.

The tallow tree is a non-native species to many places around the world. Its introduced status in North America along with the harm it causes to ecosystems makes the tree considered an invasive species there. Tallow trees present a danger of expansion that can hurt local ecosystems by out-competing native vegetation and creating a monoculture. The monoculture lowers species diversity and overall resilience of the area. The tree’s tenacious nature, high growth rates, and high reproductive ability contribute to its invasive success.

Main physical aspects of desertification are reduction in woodland, mangrove biomass and in species diversity, and depletion in groundwater. A number of planning frameworks related to rural development and natural resource conservation were developed. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is determined to implement the convention's main objectives of combating desertification and mitigating the effects of drought in order to achieve sustainable development. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) has created many tools for the management, conservation, and sustainable development of natural resources.

Fallow deer were introduced to Motutapu in 1862 and spread to Rangitoto, but disappeared by the 1980s. The brush-tailed rock-wallaby was introduced to Motutapu in 1873, and was common on Rangitoto by 1912, and the brushtail possum was introduced in 1931 and again in 1946. Both were eradicated in a campaign from 1990 to 1996 using 1080 and cyanide poison and dogs. The eradication campaign did not have a significant effect on bird species diversity and abundance, due to the presence of other predators.

916 species and 18 genera are endemic to the island. Additionally, all but one of the island’s more than 55 dipterocarps are confined to Sri Lanka. Although not lately assessed, Sri Lanka’s ferns are estimated at about 350 species. Diversity, richness, and endemism across all taxa groups are much higher in the wet zone than in the dry zone. Wet zone, which accounts for only a quarter of Sri Lanka’s land area, harbours 88 percent of the flowering plants, and 95 percent of country's flowering plant endemics.

Dry strip of land on Kingman Reef with a coconut palm seedling; October 2003 Kingman Reef supports a vast variety of marine life. Giant clams are abundant in the shallows, and there are approximately 38 genera and 130 species of stony corals present on the reef. This is more than three times the species diversity of corals found in the main Hawaiian Islands. The ecosystem of the reef and its subsequent food chain are known for the distinct quality of being primarily predator-based.

Snottites are highly acidic biofilms (pH 0-1) that form on the walls and ceilings of hydrogen sulfide-rich caves where sulfide- rich springs gas H2S into the cave air. The snottite microbial communities have very low species diversity and are predominantly composed of sulfur- oxidizing microorganisms. Sulfide oxidation produces sulfuric acid, which dissolves the limestone walls of the cave. Microcrystalline gypsum precipitates as a corrosion residue that eventually limits pH buffering by the underlying limestone and enables the development of extremely acidic wall surfaces.

Reported distribution of the invasive Rasberry crazy ant (Nylanderia fulva) in the United States Nylanderia is a large, ecologically important ant genus with a nearly cosmopolitan distribution. The ants are found in all geographic regions (with the exception of high-latitude areas), but is notably absent from Europe. Species inhabit a wide array of habitats from deserts to rainforests, although they reach their highest species diversity in forested and warmer environments. Nylanderia species are among the most abundant ant species in many places where they occur.

Hentzia is a genus of the spider family Salticidae (jumping spiders) subfamily Dendryphantinae. The genus is widespread in North America and northern South America but the center of biodiversity seems to be primarily in the Caribbean and surrounding areas, with the greatest species diversity occurring in Cuba, which has seven species. Some outlier species, such as Hentzia poenitens and Hentzia fimbriata are found in western North America. It appears to be closely related to the genus Anicius from which it differs primarily in certain anatomical details.

One major function of perennial plants is to restore the land and ecosystem. Hordeum brachyantherum is used to restore the native perennial grasslands in California and to reduce the density of non-native annual plants. The perennial plants can rapidly recover the soil microbial biomass in the grasslands due to the carbon supply maintained by the perennial plants. The species diversity and composition is not affected by the restoration, however, the relative proportion of the native plant biomass increased in the restored perennial grassland.

Species complexes exist in all groups of organisms and are identified by the rigorous study of differences between individual species that uses minute morphological details, tests of reproductive isolation, or DNA-based methods, such as molecular phylogenetics and DNA barcoding. The existence of extremely similar species may cause local and global species diversity to be underestimated. The recognition of similar- but-distinct species is important for disease and pest control and in conservation biology although the drawing of dividing lines between species can be inherently difficult.

Climate change is the main force behind changes in species distribution and abundance. Repeated changes in climate throughout the Quaternary Period are thought to have had a significant impact on the current vegetation species diversity present today.Bennett, K.D., 1988, Post-glacial vegetation history: ecological considerations, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Handbook of Vegetation science, vol.7, pp.699-724 Functional and phylogenetic diversity are considered to be closely related to changing climatic conditions, this indicates that trait differences are extremely important in long term responses to climate change.

Lemurs share resemblance with other primates, but evolved independently from monkeys and apes. Due to Madagascar's highly seasonal climate, lemur evolution has produced a level of species diversity rivaling that of any other primate group. Until shortly after humans arrived on the island around 2,000 years ago, there were lemurs as large as a male gorilla. Most species have been discovered or promoted to full species status since the 1990s; however, lemur taxonomic classification is controversial and depends on which species concept is used.

Sayram-Ugam National Park (, Saıram-Ógem ulttyq parki), also Sairam-Ugam, is a mountainous region of the Western Tian Shan Mountains, on the border with Uzbekistan. Ugam-Chatkal National Park of Uzbekistan is across the border, and Aksu-Zhabagly Nature Reserve of Kazakhstan is directly to the northeast along the border. The area has high levels of species diversity, covering floral communities from steppe to high altitude zones. It is particularly known for stands of juniper forests, and stands of fruit and nut trees.

However, after this milestone in the urban forestry community, urban forestry faded to the background with few accounts of urban forestry being practiced. As urban forestry started gaining recognition globally and the importance of urban forestry was realized, Canada began creating Urban Forest Management Plans (UFMPs). These plans focus on maintenance, improving canopy cover, enhancing tree species diversity, and educational programs, without focus on economic or environmental services urban forests provide. Today, Canada is conducting studies to address the gaps within their urban forestry programs.

In a more exposed community this species showed the second highest dominance and high apothecia, indicating that it is a ruderal species. Arctoparmelia centrifuga dominated in the treed rock environment which has the greatest species diversity and was the most competitive environment. A. centrifuga had a high abundance and reproductive output in this environment, suggesting it is a competitor. Despite these differences in species richness the study shows that there is uniformity between the proportion of sexual and asexual propagules for macrolichens between communities.

Glyptodonts first evolved during the Miocene in South America, which remained their center of species diversity. For example, an Early Miocene glyptodont with many primitive features, when compared to other species, Parapropalaehoplophorus septentrionalis, was discovered at a now-elevated site in Chile and described in 2007. After the Isthmus of Panama formed about three million years ago, the genus Glyptotherium spread north as part of the Great American Interchange, as did pampatheres, armadillos and a number of other types of xenarthrans (e.g., ground sloths).

As succession proceeds, these species will tend to be replaced by more competitive (k-selected) species. Trends in ecosystem and community properties in succession have been suggested, but few appear to be general. For example, species diversity almost necessarily increases during early succession as new species arrive, but may decline in later succession as competition eliminates opportunistic species and leads to dominance by locally superior competitors. Net Primary Productivity, biomass, and trophic properties all show variable patterns over succession, depending on the particular system and site.

Basic bird counts are a good way to estimate population size, detect changes in population size or species diversity, and determine the cause of the changes if environmental or habitat data is collected as well. Basic bird counts can be completed fairly easily and inexpensively, and they provide general information about the status of a bird population. Birds can be directly counted on breeding colonies, and at roosts, flocks, or Leks. Large diurnal migrants, like many raptors, can be counted as they pass through migration bottlenecks.

The earliest ribosomal gene sequence data indicated that Symbiodinium had lineages whose genetic divergence was similar to that seen in other dinoflagellates from different genera, families, and even orders. This large phylogenetic disparity among clades A, B, C, etc. was confirmed by analyses of the sequences of the mitochondrial gene coding for cytochrome c oxidase subunit I among Dinophyceae. Most of these clade groupings comprise numerous reproductively isolated, genetically distinct lineages (see ‘Species diversity’), exhibiting different ecological and biogeographic distributions (see ‘Geographic distributions and patterns of ‘diversity’).

Kaziranga is one of the largest tracts of protected land in the sub-Himalayan belt, and due to its high species diversity and presence of high-visibility species, has been described as a "biodiversity hotspot". The park is located in the Indomalayan realm, and the region falls in two ecoregions, the Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests of the Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome, and a frequently flooded variant of the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands of the Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome.

The jaguar is a conspicuous inhabitant of Serra do Gandarela National Park. The Iron Quadrangle (Quadrilátero Ferrífero), where the park is located, is a transition region between the biomasses of the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado, which contributes to increase species diversity, the presence of typical species of the two biomasses. Among the animal species that live in the park areSerra do Gandarela: Possibilidade de Ampliação das Unidades de Conservação no Quadrilátero Ferrífero-MG. Wanderson Lopes Lamounier, Vilma Lúcia Macagnan Carvalho e André Augusto Rodrigues Salgado.

Ancient pollarded beech tree in Epping Forest, Essex, England An incidental effect of pollarding in woodland is the encouragement of underbrush growth due to increased light reaching the woodland floor. This can increase species diversity. However, in woodland where pollarding was once common but has now ceased, the opposite effect occurs, as the side and top shoots develop into trunk-sized branches. An example of this can be seen in Epping Forest in London/Essex, UK, the majority of which was pollarded until the late 19th century.

By the 20th century the growing population of settlers led to an increased demand for land, and páramo ecosystems suffered accordingly. As more land was needed for cattle, fire was used to clear land, and eventually páramos became excessively burned and overgrazed. Both burning and grazing have damaged vegetation, soils, species diversity, and water storage capacity of the páramos. In burned and disturbed sites that were studied in the Andes the pH and phosphorus concentration in the soil are higher than in non-burned sites.

Map of ecoregions of central Nevada The Central Nevada high valleys ecoregion contains sagebrush-covered rolling valleys that are generally over in elevation. Alluvial fans spilling from the surrounding mountain ranges fill the valleys, often leaving little intervening flat ground. Wyoming big sagebrush and associated grasses are common on the flatter areas, and black sagebrush dominates on the volcanic hills and alluvial fans. This ecoregion tends to have lower species diversity than other sagebrush ecoregions, because of its aridity and isolation from more species-rich areas.

Rainforest lining a river bank, Cameroon TSMF is generally found in large, discontinuous patches centered on the equatorial belt and between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, TSMF are characterized by low variability in annual temperature and high levels of rainfall (> annually). Forest composition is dominated by evergreen and semi-evergreen deciduous tree species. These trees number in the thousands and contribute to the highest levels of species diversity in any terrestrial major habitat type. In general, biodiversity is highest in the forest canopy.

Contaminants can modify or disturb microorganisms, thus modifying nutrient availability, causing a loss of vegetation in the area. Some tree roots divert away from deeper soil layers in order to avoid the contaminated zone, therefore lacking anchorage within the deep soil layers, resulting in the potential uprooting by the wind when their height and shoot weight increase. In general, root exploration is reduced in contaminated areas compared to non-polluted ones. Plant species diversity will remain lower in reclaimed habitats than in undisturbed areas.

Functional diversity, composition, and species richness affect the biogeochemical processes of ecosystems. However, the degree to which these factors influence ecosystems and whether that influence is significant is debated. In the article The Influence of Functional Diversity and Composition on Ecosystem Processes, scientists reported on an experiment in which they studied the effects of plant species diversity, functional diversity, and functional composition on ecosystem processes, as measured in six response variables (productivity, plant % N, plant tot. N, soil NH4, soil NO3, and light penetration).

However, no matter what the rate of disturbance is, the species with favored fitness will out-compete the rest of the species. Several alternative hypotheses have been proposed. One example is by Denslow, who states that the species diversity in a disturbance-mediated coexistence between species is maximized by the presence of a disturbance regime resembling the historic processes. This is because species generally adapt to the level of disturbance in their ecosystem through evolution (whether disturbance is of high, intermediate or low level).

Functional redundancy refers to the phenomenon that species in the same ecosystem fill similar roles, which results in a sort of "insurance" in the ecosystem. Redundant species can easily do the job of a similar species from the same functional niche. This is possible because similar species have adapted to fill the same niche overtime. Functional redundancy varies across ecosystems and can vary from year to year depending on multiple factors including habitat availability, overall species diversity, competition among species for resources, and anthropogenic influence.

The quarry is owned and operated by Tarmac, and a major part of the output is crushed stone for use either as coated stone (eg in roads) or within concrete. Quarrying began in the 1970s and by 2016 the excavated area covered which, at its deepest was below sea level, and some below the rim.Tarmac.com - About Mountsorrel Quarry Accessed 2 December 2016 Biologically, the whole site was unequivocal. It is (or at least was, before quarrying began) the richest site in Leicestershire for species diversity.

The area is becoming arid species diversity will drop as organisms adapted for dryer climates thrive. No current management plans are in place, a Species refugia to save struggling species that inhabit this region has been proposed by some. Forests similar to these are more resilient to such events due to the spatial arrangement, it would be possible to replicate this in the current forest and make it resilient to the fires that will increase in the near future. Humboldt lily (Lilium humboldtii), endemic to Southern California.

In fact, when scientists removed the leaf litter and monitored the species establishment within the pit, it was found that the diversity and number began to resemble that that occurred on mounds. Multiple studies have found that on the forest floor a high or dense amount of leaf litter or dead organic matter corresponds to a low amount of species diversity as well.Peterson, C. J., & Campbell, J. E. (1993). Microsite differences and temporal change in plant communities of treefall pits and mounds in an old-growth forest.

The Hindu - Search for a common past Sri Lanka's forests are amongst the most beautiful rich in Asia and for some faunal groups, it has the highest density of species diversity in the world. The southwest portion of the island, where the influence of the moisture-bearing southwest monsoon is strongest, is home to the Sri Lanka lowland rain forests. At higher elevations they make the transition to the Sri Lanka montane rain forests. Both these tropical moist forest ecoregions bear strong affinities to those of India's Western Ghats.

Shetland Creek flows out of the north end of the lake and into Little Traverse Lake, and from there Shalda Creek flows out of Little Traverse Lake and into Good Harbor Bay on Lake Michigan. Migratory fish from Lake Michigan have access to Lime Lake through this connection when there are no beaver dams or other natural obstructions. Chinook salmon have been observed spawning in Lime Creek. Lime Lake has a healthy fish community with abundant species diversity including brown trout, largemouth bass, northern pike, and smallmouth bass.

Coastal Strand is a plant community of flowering plants that form along the shore in loose sand just above the high tide line, on the West Coast of the United States. Many plants that grow in this area are endemic to the strand. The community has low species diversity because so few plants can tolerate the harsh conditions of high winds, battering salt spray, and extreme high temperatures in the summer. Plants must also be adapted to sandy saline soils, with extremely low nutrient loads, and low water holding capacity.

The mesopelagic zone is sometimes referred to as the twilight zone; it extends from 200m to around 1000m. In the deeper layers of the NPSG, species higher up on the food chain will migrate vertically or horizontally within or in and out of the gyre. Based on analyses of the zooplankton community, the Central North Pacific has a high species diversity (or high number of species) and high equitability (meaning relatively equal numbers of each exist). There is also a low degree of seasonal variability of densities of zooplankton.

Speciation via polyploidy: A diploid cell undergoes failed meiosis, producing diploid gametes, which self-fertilize to produce a tetraploid zygote. Polyploidy is frequent in plants, some estimates suggesting that 30–80% of living plant species are polyploid, and many lineages show evidence of ancient polyploidy (paleopolyploidy) in their genomes. Huge explosions in angiosperm species diversity appear to have coincided with the timing of ancient genome duplications shared by many species. It has been established that 15% of angiosperm and 31% of fern speciation events are accompanied by ploidy increase.

Schluter is the author of The Ecology of Adaptive Radiation, 2000, Oxford University Press, and The Analysis of Biological Data, 2009 (and 2015), with Michael Whitlock, and an editor with Robert E. Ricklefs of Species Diversity in Ecological Communities: Historical and Geographical Perspectives, 1993, Chicago University Press. In 1999, he was elected as a fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 2001, he was elected as a fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. In 2017, he was elected as a Foreign Fellow of the US National Academy of Sciences.

The park is a region of high species diversity, especially the upland swamps, which are considered to be the most species-rich in the world for shrub/sedge vegetation. They contain over 140 plant species. These upland swamps have experienced no significant changes in the last 17,000 years and thus, are of great scientific importance as well as being listed as an endangered ecological community. Additionally, Stokes and O’Hares Creeks are classified as protected waters and the waters connected to O’Hares Weir are classified as Specially Protected Waters.

Habitat diversity was as or more important than size in determining the number of species protected. Island biogeography theory also led to the development of wildlife corridors as a conservation tool to increase connectivity between habitat islands. Wildlife corridors can increase the movement of species between parks and reserves and therefore increase the number of species that can be supported, but they can also allow for the spread of disease and pathogens between populations, complicating the simple proscription of connectivity being good for biodiversity. In species diversity, island biogeography most describes allopatric speciation.

The highest species diversity is found in the Amazon basin, with up to 45 species being found in single locations in sites across Brazil, Colombia, Bolivia and Peru. The number of species drops dramatically towards the further reaches of the family's range; there are only seven species in Mexico, for example. Areas of lower thamnophilid diversity may contain localised endemics, however. The Yapacana antbird, for example, is restricted to the stunted woodlands that grow in areas of nutrient-poor white-sand soil (the so-called Amazonian caatinga) in Brazil, Venezuela and Colombia.

The museum's bee collection was primarily acquired in São Paulo state, and is considered among the three largest collections of its kind in the country. The collection of aculeate wasps is notable for its representation of groups such as Chrysididae (cuckoo wasps), Mutillidae (ant-witches), Vespidae and, in particular, Pompilidae (spider wasps), Sphecidae (thread-waisted wasps) and Crabronidae. The Formicidae (ant) collection is considered the most representative of the neotropical region for its number of type specimens, species diversity and geographical coverage. ;Isoptera The Isoptera collection consists of nearly 18,000 specimens from all Brazilian biomes.

However, the intermediate trophic level is only represented by one or two species. This trophic layer, which consists of small, pelagic fish usually makes up about only three to four percent of the species diversity of all fish species present. The lower trophic layers are very well-represented with about 500 species of copepods, 2500 species of gastropods, and 2500 species of crustaceans on average. At the apex and near-apex trophic levels, there are usually about 100 species of marine mammals and about 50 species of marine birds.

A color plate illustration from Ernst Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur (1899), showing a variety of hummingbirds In traditional taxonomy, hummingbirds are placed in the order Apodiformes, which also contains the swifts. However, some taxonomists have separated them into their own order, the Trochiliformes. Hummingbirds' wing bones are hollow and fragile, making fossilization difficult and leaving their evolutionary history poorly documented. Though scientists theorize that hummingbirds originated in South America, where species diversity is greatest, possible ancestors of extant hummingbirds may have lived in parts of Europe to what is southern Russia today.

Sepsis cynipsea dung flies are often found in regions with varying altitudes, such as the Swiss Alps. Out of the many different Sepsidae species that are found in these regions, Sepsis cynipsea flies prefer intermediate altitudes but are found at all altitudes where other species of dung flies are found. In the areas where these fly species are prevalent, there is more species diversity at higher altitudes. Higher altitude environments tend to be more variable, so species found at higher altitudes have to be better at adapting to environmental changes.

In metagenomics, the genetic materials (DNA, C) are extracted directly from samples taken from the environment (e.g. soil, sea water, human gut, A) after filtering (B), and are sequenced (E) after multiplication by cloning (D) in an approach called shotgun sequencing. These short sequences can then be put together again using assembly methods (F) to deduce the individual genomes or parts of genomes that constitute the original environmental sample. This information can then be used to study the species diversity and functional potential of the microbial community of the environment.

Larger organisms tend to exhibit latitudinal gradients in species diversity, with larger biodiversity existing in the tropics and decreasing toward more temperate polar regions. In contrast, a study on indoor fungal communities found microbial biodiversity to be significantly higher in temperate zones than in the tropics. The same study found that drastically different buildings exhibited the same indoor fungal composition in any given location, where similarity increased with proximity. Thus despite human efforts to control indoor climates, outside environments appear to be the strongest determinant of indoor fungal composition.

On the eastern edge of the park it erects a Rainforest Subalpine (SA-rf), mainly composed of tree and shrub species diversity of orchids, ferns and mosses. Stands the formation of forest Polylepis, qiwuña, "quinoa" or "árbol de papel", which has between 8 and 10 m high and it grows on the banks of lagoons or streams and rocky places and is the only species of tree above 4000 m. In the western boundary abound woodble species. Are whitetail deer, spectacled bear, puma, ocelots, páramo deer, páramo rabbits and andean tapir.

The species-area relationship for a contiguous habitat The need for reconciliation ecology was derived from patterns of species distribution and diversity. The most relevant of these patterns is the species-area curve which states that a larger geographic area will contain higher species diversity. This relationship has been supported by so large a body of research that some scholars consider it to be an ecological law. There are two main reasons for the relationship between number of species and area, both of which can be used as an argument for conservation of larger areas.

Birds, amphibians, and ferns are examples of the biodiversity in eastern Peru which help constitute floristic assemblage. Cocaine cultivation attributes to the deforestation, mainly in the Huallaga Valley, and therefore, large groups of plant species are threatened by deforestation, and remaining forests are likely to lose species diversity. Peru has one of the highest export of Swietenia macrophylla, driven by international demand. Lists of trees that do not actually need to be cut down or do not exist are given to authorities provided by criminal organisations, resulting in illegal loggers a permit by the authorities.

The plant family Proteaceae's 1,700 species (approximate) have their greatest diversity in the southern hemisphere and smaller centres of diversity including some Helicia, in the near northern hemisphere. The species diversity of the plant family Proteaceae decreases further northwards. H. cochinchinensis has the natural distribution reaching furthest north to Japan where it grows into trees in the mountains of warmer parts and where no other species nor other Proteaceae genera occur. The same Japanese name for this species, also means the whole genus and the entire Proteaceae plant family.

Salvage logging is of particular concern ecologically because disturbed landscapes tend to be under appreciated and undervalued, and therefore more imperiled than other successional stages on the landscape. Concerns include simplification of forest structure, degradation and destruction of wildlife habitat, little or no impact to future fire risk, changes in nutrient cycling, and increased erosion. Salvage logging operations generally take the largest snags and surviving trees, leaving lower density stands dominated by small-diameter snags. Bird species diversity is negatively impacted by this structural change because cavity nesters preferentially nest in larger trees.

Sorex ornatus sinuosus occurs in tidal marshes characterized in order of decreasing tolerance to inundation by California cordgrass, Spartina foliosa; glasswort, Salicornia ambigua; and hairy gumweed, Grindelia cuneifolia, as well as brackish marshes dominated by California bulrush, Scirpus californicus, and common cattail, Typha latifolia. This animal needs dense, low-lying cover where small invertebrates are abundant. Structure of the plant community, not species diversity, is the greatest determinant in shrew occupancy. Driftwood and other detritus above the mean high-tide line is required for nesting and foraging sites.

The city government of San Francisco mandated the development of management plans for all the "natural areas" under the city's control, and this process culminated in release of the Significant Natural Resources Areas Management Plan in February 2006. The plan favors the re-establishment of native species and species diversity in the city's parks. Some aspects of the plan have been controversial.Jones, Carolyn (2006). "Dog owners hope to bury parks proposal; Plant restoration may mean more bans, they fear", San Francisco Chronicle, July 1, 2005, p. F-1.

The Biodiversity of South Africa is the variety of living organisms within the boundaries of South Africa and its exclusive economic zone. South Africa is a region of high biodiversity in the terrestrial and marine realms. The country is ranked sixth out of the world's seventeen megadiverse countries, and is rated among the top 10 for plant species diversity and third for marine endemism. This biodiversity is monitored and reported in terms of the continental terrestrial, inland aquatic, coastal, marine and the sub-antarctic Prince Edward Islands components.

Thus the TRZ is now defined as the aggregate of the Geraldton Sandplains, Avon Wheatbelt and Mallee IBRA regions. The TRZ is widely recognised as having very high species diversity and endemism compared to the other zones. Some botanists have claimed that this is due to the species richness of the near-coastal heathlands at the north-western and south-eastern extremes of the zone, suggesting that the intervening Wheatbelt region is relatively species poor. Other botanists have refuted this, however, claiming that the entire TRZ is species rich compared to the other zones.

Biodiversity (an abbreviation of "biological diversity") describes the diversity of life from genes to ecosystems and spans every level of biological organization. The term has several interpretations, and there are many ways to index, measure, characterize, and represent its complex organization. Biodiversity includes species diversity, ecosystem diversity, and genetic diversity and scientists are interested in the way that this diversity affects the complex ecological processes operating at and among these respective levels. Biodiversity plays an important role in ecosystem services which by definition maintain and improve human quality of life.

Invasibility: The local mechanism driving community assembly and species diversity. Ecography,28(5), 696-704. doi:10.1111/j.2005.0906-7590.04205.x Central Californian Coastline, Big Sur, May 2013 The specific ecosystems in the United States that are among the most heavily invaded are located in Hawaii, Florida, and California. Specifically, the grasslands and valleys of California have been so heavily invaded by non-native species, that this habitat has been completely altered, and the original habitat composition and structure are not known because of how different it is now.

Decline in species diversity was exacerbated through the introduction of sea buckthorn Hippophae rhamnoides by the military. This attempt at dune stabilisation was implemented after preparations for the Normandy landings caused widespread erosion. Deep rooted species such as bramble, hawthorn and willow were also able to flourish and resulted in several sallow carr communities These species were maintained and species rich turf later established through a combination of management techniques. Braunton Burrows, August 2009 The burning of deep rooted species often made the soil more fertile but led to the spread of coarse grasses.

The Afrotemperate Forest is by far the rarest vegetation type at Tokai, and belongs to the Forest Biome. Afrotemperate Forest cannot cope with fire, consequently it is confined to a few fire-safe kloofs at Tokai, minute pockets compared to the larger expanses in Orangekloof and Kirstenbosch. As forests go, Afrotemperate is the richest forest in temperate regions, however, its species richness pales into insignificance compared to Fynbos: barely 20 species of tree occur naturally in these forests. Animals, mainly insects, abound in these forests and their species diversity is extraordinary given their area.

The midland hillocks of northern Kerala have its own characteristic floral composition supporting scrub jungles and cashew plantations on the hill slopes and grasslands and associated aquatic and semi-aquatic plants on the hilltops. Even though these hills are exposed directly to the sunlight and wind, they harbour rich species diversity. Recent plant explorations revealed more additions to the known plant species of the area some of which turned out to be new to science, and endemic to the locality. The vegetation of the hillocks may be classified mainly into grasslands and scrub jungles.

A moderate frequency of fire (less than ten years) will result in the loss of seeder plants such as Manzanita spp. This moderate frequency disallows seeder plants to reach their reproductive size before the next fire and the community shifts to a sprouter-dominance. High frequency fires (less than five years) can cause the additional loss of sprouters by exhausting their reserves below-ground. Today, frequent accidental ignitions can convert chaparral from a native shrubland to non- native annual grassland and drastically reduce species diversity, especially under drought brought about by climate change.

The vegetation of the region is mostly tropical but differences in topography, soil and climatic conditions increase species diversity. Where there are porous limestone terraced islands these are generally poor in nutrients. It is estimated that 13,000 species of plants grow in the Caribbean of which 6,500 are endemic. For example, guaiac wood (Guaiacum officinale), the flower of which is the national flower of Jamaica and the Bayahibe rose (Pereskia quisqueyana) which is the national flower of the Dominican Republic and the ceiba which is the national tree of both Puerto Rico and Guatemala.

Urban areas in Australia are a particularly fruitful habitat type for many wildlife species. Australian cities are hotspots for threatened species diversity and have been shown to support more threatened animal and plant species on a per unit-area basis than all other non-urban habitat types. An analysis of urban sensitive bird species (birds that are easily disturbed and displaced) found that revegetation was effective at encouraging birds back into urban greenspaces, but also found that weed control was not. Invasive plant species such as Lantana (L.

2003, Pimm and Brown 2004, Cardillo et al. 2005). The question "What determines patterns of species diversity?" was among the 25 key research themes for the future identified in 125th Anniversary issue of Science (July 2005). There is a lack of consensus among ecologists about the mechanisms underlying the pattern, and many hypotheses have been proposed and debated. A recent review noted that among the many conundrums associated with the LDG (or LBG, Latitudinal Biodiversity Gradient) the causal relationship between rates of molecular evolution and speciation has yet to be demonstrated.

Conservation work needs to focus on finding the density threshold that render the sea otters an effective population. It must then continue and artificially repopulate the historical range of the sea otter in order to allow kelp forest communities to re- establish. The California spiny lobster, or Panulirus interruptus, is another example of a keystone predator that has a distinct role in maintaining species diversity in its habitat. Robles (1987) demonstrated experimentally that the exclusion of spiny lobsters from the intertidal zone habitats led to the competitive dominance of mussels (Mytilus edulis and M. californianus).

Between August and February (to avoid the breeding season), non-Indigenous trees and shrubs may be cleared, and in some areas thinning may take place to maintain variety of woodland structure. Stump re-growth and natural seed regeneration is preferable to planting, because such natural processes contribute to all woodland life. Light grazing by deer, cattle and rabbits is conducive to species diversity, but sometimes the woodland will need protection from these if they over-graze. Himalayan balsam and rhododendron should be controlled to protect the integrity of the natural woodland.

The brown leaf chameleon occurs in eastern Madagascar (including the island of Nosy Boraha),Carpenter, A.I. and Robson, O. (2005) A review of the endemic chameleon genus Brookesia from Madagascar, and the rationale for its listing on CITES Appendix II. Oryx, 39(4): 345-380. from sea level up to altitudes of over .Andreone, F., Randrianirina, J.E., Jenkins, P.D. and Aprea, G. (2000) Species diversity of Amphibia, Reptilia and Lipotyphla (Mammalia) at Ambolokopatrika, a rainforest between the Anjanaharibe-Sud and Marojejy Massifs, NE Madagascar. Biodiversity and Conservation, 9: 1587-1622.

The high species diversity found in shaded polycultures allows for relatively complex food webs to form. Birds and mammals alike play a large role in pest control by eating many herbivorous insects. In a study in Jamaica, birds were excluded from one coffee plantation and resulted in a 70% increase in the proportion of coffee fruits infected by the Coffee Berry Borer, an insect pest species. Biological control by birds acting as predators on the Coffee Berry Borer in Jamaica was calculated to be worth $75/hectare in 2005, averaging $1004/farm studied.

The long, indented coastline includes many habitats. Some areas have cliffs and rocky headlands with narrow tidal inlets, while others have sheltered bays with inter-tidal mudflats and sandy beaches. The land was ice-covered until 10,000 years ago, and species diversity is still lower than other European biogeographic regions, but wildlife is abundant, including large flocks of migratory birds and many marine organisms fed by nutrients carried by the Gulf Stream from the Caribbean. The land has been drastically modified by humans with forests cleared to make way for farming and large urbanized areas.

Cowles Bog, a National Natural Landmark, is a wetland complex containing bog, fen, marsh, swamp, wet meadow, and pond habitats; named in honor of biologist and ecologist Henry Chandler Cowles. Located south and west of Dune Acres, Indiana, Cowles Bog is the sole remaining remnant of the "Central Dunes" where Cowles performed his pioneering field studies of ecological succession and species diversity. The complex is drained by Dunes Creek, which flows to Lake Michigan at the Indiana Dunes State Park swimming beach. A National Park trail runs from Mineral Springs Road into Cowles Bog.

The monocots form one of five major lineages of mesangiosperms (core angiosperms), which in themselves form 99.95% of all angiosperms. The monocots and the eudicots, are the largest and most diversified angiosperm radiations accounting for 22.8% and 74.2% of all angiosperm species respectively. Of these, the grass family (Poaceae) is the most economically important, which together with the orchids Orchidaceae account for half of the species diversity, accounting for 34% and 17% of all monocots respectively and are among the largest families of angiosperms. They are also among the dominant members of many plant communities.

Alyssum is a genus of about 100–170 species of flowering plants in the family Brassicaceae, native to Europe, Asia, and northern Africa, with the highest species diversity in the Mediterranean region. The genus comprises annual and perennial herbaceous plants or (rarely) small shrubs, growing to 10–100 cm tall, with oblong-oval leaves. Alyssum flowers are characteristically small and grouped in terminal clusters; they are often yellow or white colored but can be pink or purple. The genera Lobularia and Aurinia are closely related to Alyssum and were formerly included in it.

The Soutpansberg's immense floristic diversity can be attributed to several distinct floristic elements acting on it, namely Tropical, Moçambique coastal, Lowveld, Afromontane, Bushveld, Waterberg, Kalahari and Limpopo Valley. Approximately 10% of Soutpansberg plants can be considered succulent, and 32% of the endemic flora can be regarded as succulents. Of the mountain's endemic flora, the Asclepiadaceae with 5 genera and 6 species displays a high generic diversity. Aloe presents the highest species diversity among native genera with 5 endemic species, and the monotypic Zoutpansbergia is the only endemic genus.

Khanka is located in the Suiphun-Khanka meadows and forest meadows ecoregion, a forest-less area around Lake Khanka in the Russian Far East, on the Upper Ussuri River, and along the Suiphun River to the south. This ecoregion is characterized by fire tolerant meadows and Mongolian oak woodland, with high levels of species diversity and endemism. The climate of Khanka is Humid continental climate, warm summer (Köppen climate classification (Dfb)). This climate is characterized by large swings in temperature, both diurnally and seasonally, with mild summers and cold, snowy winters.

It suggests a certain small scale "nativeness" by virtue of originating or occurring naturally in a particular place or location. The landscape of Madagascar is a perfect example of "micro-endemism" for species of Pachypodium and other taxa. Three factors can be seen to attribute speciation, or the occurrence of species diversity, via adaptive mechanisms to accelerated evolution as it occurs within the xeric landscape and climate. (1) The variation of geology and topology in dry climates is thought to have a greater effect upon plants than in areas with high rainfall.

The intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH) suggests that local species diversity is maximized when ecological disturbance is neither too rare nor too frequent. At low levels of disturbance, more competitive organisms will push subordinate species to extinction and dominate the ecosystem. At high levels of disturbance, due to frequent forest fires or human impacts like deforestation, all species are at risk of going extinct. According to IDH theory, at intermediate levels of disturbance, diversity is thus maximized because species that thrive at both early and late successional stages can coexist.

A refugium is a geographical region that has remained unaltered by a climatic change affecting surrounding regions and that therefore forms a haven for remnant fauna and flora. Such refugia are centers of genetic, and sometimes species, diversity. Such strategies as these focus on retaining characteristics of landscapes and regions in order to allow ecological systems to respond on their own to accelerated climate change and other evolving stresses. The importance of the Peel River ecosystem is not limited to its role in harboring biodiversity and relics of the past.

Members of this family are found globally throughout the upper reaches of the water column, in the pelagic zone, most commonly the epipelagic zone. Following the trend of Pteropods in general, they tend to have the highest species diversity tropical and subtropical latitudes but are less abundant under these conditions. Conversely, they are more abundant but possess less variety in terms of species closer to the north and south poles. However, even in the tropics, they generally appear in high concentrations, resulting in them frequently playing important roles in major role in planktonic food webs.

Effective MPAs have the backing of local leadership and populations due to clearly defined benefits of conservation/ecosystem services. It has also been shown that effective MPAs have local stakeholders that have accurate perceptions of the environmental health of the region. When coastal residents believe that the ecosystem is healthier than indicators such as species diversity, population, and habitat distribution, they may be less likely to support the MPA. Due to this, effective blast fishing community control relies on education campaigns that bring awareness to the relationship between fish stock and fishing rates.

The warmer air temperatures also create more rain and less snow, something dangerous for many animal and tree species; with less snow pack comes more vulnerability for trees and insects. A large contributor to fire susceptible forests is past land use; the higher air temperatures make wildfires more common. Wildfires are extremely detrimental for species inhabiting the landscape; they destroy habitats and it takes many years to restore the land to how it used to be. These effects caused by climate change can destroy animal habitats and species diversity.

The aphid early-warning system has been extended into Europe—from Scandinavia to Italy and as far east as Poland. In the early 1970s Taylor started a collaboration with Rob Kempton on the measurement of species diversity. This collaboration provided an example of how statistical advice should be provided at Rothamsted and led directly to the system of assigning liaison statisticians to departments, which is still in operation today. Taylor obtained a DSc from the University of London in 1966, became the recipient of the Royal Agricultural Society of England's gold research medal in 1977.

Studies of European grasslands show evidence of extinction debt through both comparisons with the past and between present-day systems with different levels of human impacts. The species diversity of grasslands in Sweden appears to be a remnant of more connected landscapes present 50 to 100 years ago. In alvar grasslands in Estonia that have lost area since the 1930s, 17–70% of species are estimated to be committed to extinction. However, studies of similar grasslands in Belgium, where similar impacts have occurred, show no evidence of extinction debt.

However, when an ancient woodland is cleared and planted the result is not just a monoculture of the newly planted trees. The canopy is now a mix of the planted trees, self-sown trees and shrubs, and regrowth of coppice stools, some probably of more recent origin, other stools clearly dating back to antiquity.Peterken, G F, Trees and Shrubs, in Peterken & Welch, 1975, p.85 The species diversity that characterises the woods was thus retained, and oak, lime, large-leaved elm, hazel, ash, field maple, English elm, sycamore, chestnut and birch are all to be found in substantial quantities.

Tor tor, commonly known as the tor mahseer or tor barb, is a species of cyprinid fish found in fast-flowing rivers and streams with rocky bottoms in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, and Pakistan. It is a commercially important food and game fish. In the Himalayan rivers, the population is rapidly declining through its native range, including some evidence of catastrophic collapse, due to pollution, overfishing, the effects of dam building, climate change and introductions of other mahseer species. Until the 1980s, Tor tor was the most populous of the Himalayan mahseers in those rivers where robust species diversity monitoring had taken place.

Mt. Apo has 19 major rivers and 21 creeks draining its 8 major watersheds (PASAlist.1992). Out of the 19 major rivers, only two has studies as reported by SEA-BMB consultants for the Mt. Apo Geothermal Project Environmental Impact Assessment 1991. According to the report, there are two river ecosystems draining the geothermal site namely: (1) Marbel- Matingao river ecosystem- characterized by narrower river channels at highly elevated areas, much faster water flow, clearer water and rock boulder-rich water beds. The aquatic organisms in the area have expectedly lower biological productivity and species diversity.

This tenrec has a far-reaching habitat that stretches from the southern part of the island of Madagascar to the northern peninsula, making it one of the only rodent-like creatures to live in this particular part of the island where species diversity is reduced. It is restricted to intact forest areas for the most part and has an altitude range of between 100 and 1,990 m asl. Like most other tenrecs, the pygmy shrew tenrec is an insectivore, making its diet out of Madagascar's numerous bug and insect species. The terrestrial small mammals of the Parc National de Masoala, northeastern Madagascar.

The Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project (BDFFP), was born out of the SLOSS (single large or several small reserves of equal area) debate in the mid - 1970s about the application of the theory of island biogeography to conservation planning. The debate determined that the species richness and the rate of growth increase as the area of a reserve increases. It also determined that the shape of a reserve is very important to the species diversity. Reserves with a large surface area to volume ratio tend to be affected more by edge effects than reserves with a small surface area to volume ratio.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 91, 88.71–8874. In the original paper by Stevens, all species occurring in each band were counted, i.e., a species with a range of 50 degrees occurs in 10 or 11 bands. However, this may lead to an artificial inflation of latitudinal ranges of species occurring at high latitudes, because even a few tropical species with wide ranges will affect the means of ranges at high latitudes, whereas the opposite effect due to high latitude species extending into the tropics is negligible: species diversity is much smaller at high than low latitudes.

Work on the wider Ysbyty Estate aims to improve the quality of drinking water from the lake without the need for expensive treatment works, and to retain the Migneint as one of the largest carbon stores in Wales. Peatland restoration can help enhance wildlife habitats and restore species diversity. This area is very affected by acid rain and the thin peaty soil is best suited for sheep grazing.Environment Agency Catchment Abstraction Management document Blanket mire is particularly sensitive to climate change and this location has consequently been used on a number of occasions for scientific research.

The genus Calamaria has far more species (60) than all other genera in the subfamily combined, and its geographic range is more extensive than the combined ranges of the other genera. Consequently, more is known about it than about the other genera, although Calamariinae is still among the most poorly known groups of snakes in the world, especially for its relatively high species diversity. Calamariine snakes are small, burrowing, forest-dwelling snakes that eat worms. Very few species of colubrid snakes have as few dorsal scale rows (13) as Calamaria, and none have more extensive fusion of the head scales.

When hundreds of acres are deforested and covered with only one type of one plant, the farmer has elevated the potential for blights, insect infestations, and other disturbances to be disastrous. Nature knows that a diverse community of species not only act as biological controls for each other, but also stabilize the entire area because only some species will be affected by disturbances. Plantation agriculture taken the homes of many biota causing a huge shift in species diversity. One of the most venomous snakes in Costa Rica, the fer de lance, has actually benefited from this type of agriculture.

Plant species diversity is relatively low, since the flora must be tolerant of salt, complete or partial submersion, and anoxic mud substrate. The most common salt marsh plants are glassworts (Salicornia spp.) and the cordgrass (Spartina spp.), which have worldwide distribution. They are often the first plants to take hold in a mudflat and begin its ecological succession into a salt marsh. Their shoots lift the main flow of the tide above the mud surface while their roots spread into the substrate and stabilize the sticky mud and carry oxygen into it so that other plants can establish themselves as well.

The Tropical Forest Research Station was founded in 1940 and became a centre for ecosystem research. It was designated as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1976 with the objective of understanding "the long-term dynamics of tropical forest ecosystems characterized by large-scale, infrequent disturbance, rapid processing of organic material, and high habitat and species diversity". Although the experimental forest is located within the Caribbean National Forest, the two have different objectives. In a forest management plan drawn up in 1956, approximately were to be used for commercial timber production, mostly the lower, flatter part of the site.

The HERMIONE project focuses on deep-sea "hotspot" ecosystems including submarine canyons, open slopes and deep basins, chemosynthetic environments, deep water coral reefs, and seamounts. Hotspot ecosystems support high species diversity, numbers of individuals, or both, and are therefore important in maintaining margin-wide biodiversity and abundance. HERMIONE research ranges from investigation of the ecosystems' dimensions, distribution, interconnection and functioning, to understanding the potential impacts of climate change and anthropogenic disturbance. The ultimate objective is to provide stakeholders and policymakers with the scientific knowledge necessary to support deep-sea governance, sustainable management and conservation of these ecosystems.

Since 1987 Poa annua populations have increased in density and abundance within the original areas and have expanded beyond them. Expeditioner boot traffic during the Australian Antarctic program expedition in 1987 may be at least partly responsible for the spread, but it is probably mainly due to dispersal by wind and the movement of seabirds and seals around the island. The potential for introducing plant species (including invasive species not previously found on subantarctic islands) by both natural and human-induced means is high. This is due to the combination of low species diversity and climatic amelioration.

Through implementation of land and resource management plans, the agency ensures sustainable ecosystems by restoring and maintaining species diversity and ecological productivity that helps provide recreation, water, timber, minerals, fish, wildlife, wilderness, and aesthetic values for current and future generations of people. The everyday work of the Forest Service balances resource extraction, resource protection, and providing recreation. The work includes managing of national forest and grasslands, including of roadless areas; 14,077 recreation sites; of trails; of roads; and the harvesting of 1.5 billion trees per year. Further, the Forest Service fought fires on of land in 2007.

Chaparral comprises a considerable portion of the natural area within Kern County; the species diversity within these chaparral habitats, however, is considerably less than in many other regions of California.The Wasmann Journal of Biology (1967) University of San Francisco, San Francisco, California, v.25 Whitethorn is a prominent example of chaparral species on the rocky slopes of the Sierra Nevada as well as the Inner Coastal Ranges.Arthur Sampson (1963) California Range Brushlands and Browse Plants, ANR Publications, 162 pages California Buckeye is a notable tree found in both chaparral and forests and whose southern range terminates in Kern County.

Hydrangea ()Sunset Western Garden Book, 1995:606–607 common names hydrangea or hortensia, is a genus of 70–75 species of flowering plants native to Asia and the Americas. By far the greatest species diversity is in eastern Asia, notably Korea, China, and Japan. Most are shrubs 1 to 3 meters tall, but some are small trees, and others lianas reaching up to by climbing up trees. They can be either deciduous or evergreen, though the widely cultivated temperate species are all deciduous. Hydrangea is derived from Greek and means ‘water vessel’, in reference to the shape of its seed capsules.

Similarly, Bahkali and Parvez found C. keratinophilum to be widespread mold in house dust from homes in Saudi Arabia. In a study of 29 sandpits from kindergarten schools and public parks in the West Bank of Jordan, Shtayeh found that over half of the fungal isolates from these materials contained fungi known to cause disease. Amongst the non- pathogenic fungi found, Chrysosporium keratinophilum was the most common dermatophyte relative. A study looking at species diversity of keratin- degrading fungi in different soil types by Bohacz and Korniłłowicz-Kowalska, determined the most frequently isolated species was C. keratinophilum.

A striking example of a biogeographic border for freshwater fauna are the New Guinea Highlands, and the species diversity is higher south of the chain than north of it. Among strict freshwater fish, only two species (Chilatherina campsi and Oxyeleotris fimbriata) are found both north and south of these highlands. There are several large river systems in New Guinea, including the Fly, Sepik and Mamberamo, which all are rich in fishes. The Fly River Basin, the most species rich river of the island, has 105 fish species, while the Sepik River Basin has 57 species.Revenga, C., and Y. Kura (2003).

In order to understand the effects that changes in biodiversity will have on ecosystem functioning, it is important to define some terms. Biodiversity is not easily defined, but may be thought of as the number and/or evenness of genes, species, and ecosystems in a region. This definition includes genetic diversity, or the diversity of genes within a species, species diversity, or the diversity of species within a habitat or region, and ecosystem diversity, or the diversity of habitats within a region. Two things commonly measured in relation to changes in diversity are productivity and stability.

In order to correctly identify the consequences of diversity on productivity and other ecosystem processes, many things must happen. First, it is imperative that scientists stop looking for a single relationship. It is obvious now from the models, the data, and the theory that there is no one overarching effect of diversity on productivity. Scientists must try to quantify the differences between composition effect and diversity effects, as many experiments never quantify the final realized species diversity (instead only counting numbers of species of seeds planted) and confound a sampling effect for facilitators (a compositional factor) with diversity effects.

Historical ecology involves an understanding of multiple fields of study such as archaeology and cultural history as well as ecological processes, species diversity, natural variability, and the impact of human-mediated disturbances. Having a broad understanding of landscapes allows historical ecology to be applied to various disciplines. Studying past relationships between humans and landscapes can successfully aid land managers by helping develop holistic, environmentally rational, and historically accurate plans of action. As summarized in the postulates of historical ecology, humans play significant roles in the creation and destruction of landscapes as well as in ecosystem function.

In 1966, interest in food webs increased after Robert Paine's experimental and descriptive study of intertidal shores, suggesting that food web complexity was key to maintaining species diversity and ecological stability. Many theoretical ecologists, including Robert May and Stuart Pimm, were prompted by this discovery and others to examine the mathematical properties of food webs. According to their analyses, complex food webs should be less stable than simple food webs. The apparent paradox between the complexity of food webs observed in nature and the mathematical fragility of food web models is currently an area of intensive study and debate.

The introduction of A. breviligulata is believed to have been a part of the Warrenton Dunes stabilization project. Since then, A. breviligulata has gradually supplanted A. arenaria in Oregon and Washington; the precise reason for the relative success of A. breviligulata isn't known. The most recognizable aspect of the changeover between the beachgrass species is that the foredunes of A. breviligulata are shorter than the foredunes of A. arenaria; foredunes of A. breviligulata are about high in this region. The diversity of other species that co-exist with mature stands of A. arenaria is comparable to the species diversity with A. breviligulata.

Paleontological finds of the Clarens Formation are less common than the underlying Upper Elliot Formation (UEF), but this is likely not a true reflection of the species diversity that was present at the time of deposition. Fossils are more well known from its lower facies zones, however, no systematic biostratigraphic mapping of the Clarens Formation has been undertaken to date. This is partly due to the fact that the uppermost sections of the Clarens Formation are difficult and dangerous to access due to these deposits forming steep cliffs. Nevertheless, various vertebrate and invertebrate fossils have been recovered from its lower sections.

On December 29, 1993, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was signed and applied as a multilateral treaty. With the purpose of achieving: #Biodiversity #Sustainability of species diversity #Endorse genetic diversity (e.g. to maintain and endorses livestock, crops, and wildlife) Two years after the CBD was signed, during the second meeting of the Conference of the Parties (November 1995) the representatives of the signed treaty would agree upon employing a strategy to combat the intricate and actively changing ecosystem. The ecosystem approach would represent as the equalizer for obtaining knowledge and creating countermeasures in preventing the endangerment of any ecological environment.

The mating systems of horseshoe bats are poorly understood. A review in 2000 noted that only about 4% of species had published information about their mating systems; along with the free-tailed bats (Molossidae), they had received the least attention of any bat family relative to their species diversity. At least one species, the greater horseshoe bat, appears to have a polygynous mating system where males attempt to establish and defend territories, attracting multiple females. Rhinolophus sedulus, however, is among the few species of bat that are believed to be monogamous (only 17 bat species are recognized as such as of 2000).

Bwindi Impenetrable National Park profile on UNESCO's World Heritage websiteBwindi Impenetrable National Park, UNESCO World Heritage Site listing Species diversity is a feature of the park. It provides habitat for 120 species of mammals, 348 species of birds, 220 species of butterflies, 27 species of frogs, chameleons, geckos, and many endangered species. Floristically, the park is among the most diverse forests in East Africa, with more than 1,000 flowering plant species, including 163 species of trees and 104 species of ferns. The northern (low elevation) sector has many species of Guineo-Congolian flora, including two endangered species, the brown mahogany and Brazzeia longipedicellata.

The following qualities have been identified by the government agency managing the wilderness protection area: > While there are some relatively minor impacts of modern technology, the area > has distinctive wilderness attributes and warrants protection and > restoration in accordance with the provisions of the Act. In addition to its > rugged terrain and high coastal cliffs that are characteristic of the > northern coast of Kangaroo Island, Western River Wilderness Protection Area > is highly valued for the presence of habitat for the endangered Glossy > Black-cockatoo. Plant species diversity is high and the vegetation exhibits > a wide cross-section of Kangaroo Island vegetation.

Booth, S., Piper, C., Call, M., Buckardt, E., & Hand, M. (2016). First Place: Forest Bird Behavior in Response to the Calls of Native and Non- Native Owl Species at Cranberry Lake Biological Station in Clifton, NY. Ruffed grouse are known prey in extensive parts of the range. A wide diversity of bird prey may be occasionally hunted by barred owls in different circumstances. Smaller or mid-sized bird prey species known have including different species, though usually a relatively low species diversity and in low numbers, beyond swallows and thrushes of tyrant flycatchers, vireos, chickadees, wrens, mimids, tanagers, other cardinalids and finches.

The Farmington River Coordinating Committee oversees the implementation of management plans for the designated runs of the Farmington River and includes representatives from towns along the river, the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection, Metropolitan District Commission, National Park Service, Farmington River Watershed Association and Farmington River Anglers Association. The Farmington River and its tributaries are known to contain 11 species of freshwater mussels. The Farmington has the highest mussel species diversity of any tributary to the Connecticut, lacking only the Yellow lampmussel, which is found only in the mainstem of the Connecticut from Turners Falls, MA downriver to Windsor, CT.

In a study by Stokes et al., habitats suitable for the native bush rat, Rattus fuscipes, of Australia are often invaded by the black rat and are eventually occupied by only the black rat. When the abundances of these two rat species were compared in different micro-habitats, both were found to be affected by micro-habitat disturbances, but the black rat was most abundant in areas of high disturbance; this indicates it has a better dispersal ability. Despite the black rat's tendency to displace native species, it can also aid in increasing species population numbers and maintaining species diversity.

Seed dispersal has many consequences for the ecology and evolution of plants. Dispersal is necessary for species migrations, and in recent times dispersal ability is an important factor in whether or not a species transported to a new habitat by humans will become an invasive species. Dispersal is also predicted to play a major role in the origin and maintenance of species diversity. For example, myrmecochory increased the rate of diversification more than twofold in plant groups in which it has evolved because myrmecochorous lineages contain more than twice as many species as their non-myrmecochorous sister groups.

Acanthus is a genus of about 30 species of flowering plants in the family Acanthaceae, native to tropical and warm temperate regions, with the highest species diversity in the Mediterranean Basin and Asia. This flowering plant is nectar producing and is susceptible to predation by butterflies, such as Anartia fatima, and other nectar feeding organisms. Common names include Acanthus and Bear's breeches. The generic name derives from the Greek term (akanthos) for Acanthus mollis, a plant that was commonly imitated in Corinthian capitals.. The genus comprises herbaceous perennial plants, rarely subshrubs, with spiny leaves and flower spikes bearing white or purplish flowers.

Surviving organisms tolerant of hypoxic conditions often exhibit physiological adaptations appropriate for persisting within hypoxic environments. Examples of such adaptations include increased efficiency of oxygen intake and use, lowering required amount of oxygen intake through reduced growth rates or dormancy, and increasing the usage of anaerobic metabolic pathways. Community composition in benthic communities is dramatically disrupted by periodic oxygen depletion events, such as those of Seasonal Dead Zones and occurring as a result of Diel Cycles. The longterm effects of such hypoxic conditions result in a shift in communities, most commonly manifest as a decrease in species diversity through mass mortality events.

Cuscuta () (dodder) is a genus of over 201 species of yellow, orange, (rarely green) parasitic plants also known as Amar bail in India. Formerly treated as the only genus in the family Cuscutaceae, it now is accepted as belonging in the morning glory family, Convolvulaceae, on the basis of the work of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. The genus is found throughout the temperate and tropical regions of the world, with the greatest species diversity in subtropical and tropical regions; the genus becomes rare in cool temperate climates, with only four species native to northern Europe.Costea, M. 2007-onwards.

The pools contained a greater species diversity and abundance of animals than similar experiments using leaves of Ceiba pentandra, Dipteryx panamensis and Ficus yoponensis, species that also contain water pools in their trunks. Yanoviak suggested that this indicates that the leaves are a relatively higher-quality nutrient source than those of the other species. On BCI, Fincke found that trees had between 1 and 10 water-filled holes, more than any other tree species investigated, each containing on average 2 litres of water. Yanoviak found that the holes contained only 400 ml of water on average however.

Red-colored colonies of demosponge and related species predominant the ecosystem, which includes sea urchins, sponges, algae, anemones, and gastropods. While overall the species diversity on the seamount is lower than a comparable area on the surface, the species present have grown in greater numbers and have formed larger colonies, to the point that there was little to no bare rock surface on the seamount, and none has been found in expeditionary dives. Some endemism to the seamount has also been noted. The seamount's abundant sea life has made it a target for heavy fishing since the 1960s.

Berberis (), commonly known as barberry, is a large genus of deciduous and evergreen shrubs from tall, found throughout temperate and subtropical regions of the world (apart from Australia). Species diversity is greatest in South America and Asia; Europe, Africa and North America have native species as well. The best-known Berberis species is the European barberry, Berberis vulgaris, which is common in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and central Asia, and has been widely introduced in North America. Many of the species have spines on the shoots and all along the margins of the leaves.

Thus, anthropophony can have negative effects on local species diversity, but the species capable of coping with noise disturbance may actually benefit from the exclusion of negative species interactions in those areas. Other experiments suggest that noise pollution has the potential to affect avian mating systems by altering the strength of pair bonds. When exposed to high amplitude environmental noise in a laboratory setting, zebra finches, a monogamous species, show a decreased preference for their mated partners. Similarly, male reed buntings in quiet environments are more likely to be part of a mated pair than males in noisy locations.

Part of the high species diversity in the Kapuas is related to the many different habitats in the river basin. In the headwaters are fast- flowing highland streams, typically dominated by small loaches, and small —often acidic (blackwater)— forest streams and peat swamps with species such as the tiny Sundadanio rasboras and macropodusine gouramis. The main river itself also includes several habitats, ranging from the nearshore to open waters. In the deepest sections, no light exists and in one species, Lepidocephalus spectrum, this has resulted in a complete reduction of both eyes and pigmentation (similar to cavefish).

The western edge of Lawthorn Wood Nature Reserve This woodland is a Scottish Wildlife Trust nature reserve and is a small, mature deciduous woodland. The tall canopy is now dominated by ash trees, with some beech and sycamore. The elm trees that were once common have died through Dutch elm disease however they have been left and their trunks encourage fungus growth and also provide nesting sites for bats and birds, including great spotted woodpecker. Standing water in a hollow adds to the species diversity of the site, including a locally uncommon plant, the water figwort.

In 1966, interest in food webs increased after Robert Paine's experimental and descriptive study of intertidal shores, suggesting that food web complexity was key to maintaining species diversity and ecological stability. Many theoretical ecologists, including Sir Robert May and Stuart Pimm, were prompted by this discovery and others to examine the mathematical properties of food webs. According to their analyses, complex food webs should be less stable than simple food webs. The apparent paradox between the complexity of food webs observed in nature and the mathematical fragility of food web models is currently an area of intensive study and debate.

Polypodium is a genus of ferns in the family Polypodiaceae, subfamily Polypodioideae, according to the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I). The genus is widely distributed throughout the world, with the highest species diversity in the tropics. The name is derived from Ancient Greek poly (πολύ) "many" + podion (πόδιον) "little foot", on account of the foot-like appearance of the rhizome and its branches. They are commonly called polypodies or rockcap ferns, but for many species unique vernacular names exist. They are terrestrial or epiphytic ferns, with a creeping, densely hairy or scaly rhizome bearing fronds at intervals along its length.

Fisher, J., Loneragan, W., Dixon, K., and Veneklaas, E.,Soil seed bank compositional change constrains biodiversity in an invaded speciesrich woodland, Biol. Conserv., 2009, vol. 142, no. 2, pp. 256–269 as they provide memories of past vegetation and represent the structure of future population.Fisher, J., Loneragan, W., Dixon, K., and Veneklaas, E.,Soil seed bank compositional change constrains biodiversity in an invaded speciesrich woodland, Biol. Conserv., 2009, vol. 142, no. 2, pp. 256–269 Soil seed bank did not very differ in overall seed density or species diversity,Wang, Y., Jiang, D., Toshio, O., & Zhou, Q. (2013).

While species diversity may vary when the treefall gaps differ greatly in size, it has been argued that it is highly unlikely. This is due to the fact that the relationship between gap size and the microclimate is irregular because of the large spatial and temporal deviation in microclimate. Support for these three hypotheses is mixed, but there is evidence that supports the fact that some species of plants benefit from being in gaps more than others. In tropical forests, gaps maintain the diversity of some plant groups, which could possibly contain much of the vascular plant community in these areas.

Adult empidids are found in a variety of forest habitats, on the leaves of plants, on tree trunks, aquatic vegetation and also in stream beds and seepage habitats. Some species are associated with open areas such as grasslands, agricultural fields, marshes, coastal zones and beaches. Adults capture arthropod prey, including other Diptera (including other empidids), Hemiptera, Homoptera, Lepidoptera, Trichoptera, Thysanoptera, Hymenoptera, Neuroptera, Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera, Coleoptera, Collembola, and Acari. Because of their predation they are important natural and biological control agents of various pest insect species and as a group with a vast species diversity they occupy a wide range of habitats.

These plots were divided classified into three forest types: wet (446 plots), moist (1322 plots), and dry forest (736 plots). They found that diversity does peak at intermediate level of disturbance but little variation is explained outside dry forests. Therefore, disturbance is less important for species diversity patterns in wet tropical rain forests than previously thought. The number of species was about the same for each forest type, and wet forests had only slightly fewer pioneer species, slightly more shade-tolerant and an equal number of pioneer light-demanders compared with the moist and dry forests.

Each site also undergoes an ongoing in-person verification process, with trained personnel creating detailed field studies to record tree survival rates, growth rates, and species diversity. Eden Projects' monitoring and verification systems have revealed how dramatically the forest restoration sites are enhanced and augmented by the proliferation of natural regeneration. In-person surveys conducted several years after the original planting have demonstrated the challenge in identifying which trees were planted by Eden Projects and which trees naturally regenerated. In Madagascar, Indonesia, and Mozambique, the initial survival rate of mangrove trees planted at restoration projects exceeds 80%.

View of Loita Plains and Hills in Kenya The Loita Plains are a savanna and pastoral grazing ground in the southern Great Rift Valley in Kenya, just north of the Maasai Mara. The plains and nearby Loita Hills have been the territory of the Maasai peoples since the 19th century and now include ranches and fences. Extensive surveys of the Loita Plains ecosystem were carried out by Vershuren and Misonne, the later an experienced taxonomist, in 1962-3. Focusing on small rodents, they found that most specimens were African grass rats or Natal multimammate mice, but that overall species diversity was very high.

Cotehill Loch is a freshwater loch located in Scotland in the Aberdeenshire area, approximately one mile (1.5 km) northwest of the coastal town of Collieston and two miles (3 km) north east of the Ythan Estuary. The area the loch covers is 2.7ha. A survey carried out in 2002 by ecologists from the University of Glasgow found that the eutrophication of the water was leading to a "decline in plant species diversity". It was noted in the same study, that the loch's "marginal vegetation" of reedswamp grasses and other plants present around it were still "flourishing".

One of his first papers would also be his most cited: "An Approach Toward a Rational Classification of Climate" (1948)."An Approach Toward a Rational Classification of Climate", Geographical Review This paper would be used by scientists across North America and around the world. It incorporates evapotranspiration, temperature and precipitation information and is widely used in studying animal species diversity and potential impacts of climate change. Mather shared authorship with Thornthwaite in their 1955 monograph "The Water Balance","The water balance", Climatology, 8:1-104, 1955. which was Thornthwaite’s second major contribution to climatology, after Rational Classification.

Starting in 2009, the institute has hosted the Naturally Illinois Expo each March, concurrently with the Open House events of the College of Agriculture Environmental and Consumer Sciences, and College of Engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The target audience of Expo includes Illinois K-12 students and the public. The Illinois Natural History Survey's Traveling Science Center visits schools and communities throughout Illinois to offer education on habitats and species diversity in the state. The Illinois State Geological Survey hosts regular field trips to locations of geological note; field trip guidebooks summarize the features of the destinations.

Undisturbed sites near the pit and mounds had the highest amount of species diversity and biomass compared to either a pit or a mound. The undisturbed sites contained species of earthworm that were not present in either the pit or mound sample site. An explanation towards why there were less earthworms present in the pit or mound was that within the mound there was more dry, mineralized soil present and less organic matter due to the uprooting of the tree. The pits examined were found to generally only contain one species of earthworm that was known to inhabit very moist soils.

Oxalis (American English)Sunset Western Garden Book, 1995:606–607 or (British English)Lexico dictionary: "Oxalis" is a large genus of flowering plants in the wood-sorrel family Oxalidaceae comprising about 570 species. The genus occurs throughout most of the world, except for the polar areas; species diversity is particularly rich in tropical Brazil, Mexico and South Africa. Many of the species are known as wood sorrels (sometimes written "woodsorrels" or "wood-sorrels") as they have an acidic taste reminiscent of the sorrel proper (Rumex acetosa), which is only distantly related. Some species are called yellow sorrels or pink sorrels after the color of their flowers instead.

This subspecies produces a crystal composed of four main proteins encoded by four genes which are situated on a single plasmid within the bacterium. However, the use of Bti as a biological pesticide is limited due to its low survivability rate in natural water ponds. One of the ways to overcome the survivability hurdle is to clone the genes encoding for the toxin into other organisms which are more adapted to the harsh environments in question. Due to their large species diversity and high abundancy in natural ponds and rice fields, cyanobacteria have high potential to serve as carriers for the endotoxin genes for pest control of mosquito larvae.

Another hypothesis that is cited to explain the upper limit of the elevational diversity gradient is the area hypothesis, which states that larger areas are able to support more species. As elevation increases, total area decreases; thus, there are more species present at middle elevations than high elevations. However, this hypothesis does not account for differences between lowland areas and middle elevations, as lowlands tend to have more area than middle elevations and thus would be expected by this hypothesis to have higher species diversity, an assertion that runs counter to the EDG. Additionally, the area hypothesis does not take climatic conditions or resource availability into account.

The temperature hypothesis correlates increasing temperature with an increase in species diversity, mainly because of temperature's effect on productivity. However increasing temperatures due to climate change have begun to be linked to the spread of chytrid among frogs in the Tropics. Another concern is that higher-elevation species will become extinct as their ranges become more and more restricted with an increase in temperature.Pounds, J. A., Martín R. Bustamante, Luis A. Coloma, Jamie A. Consuegra, Michael P. L. Fogden, Pru N. Foster, Enrique La Marca, Karen L. Masters, Andrés Merino-Viteri, Robert Puschendorf, Santiago R. Ron, G. Arturo Sánchez-Azofeifa, Christopher J. Still, and Bruce E. Young.

The Daweishan ICCA, located in southeastern Yunnan province of China, has an intact rainforest which belongs to the Beibu-Gulf Center (one of the three biodiversity centers in China) and Indo-Burma hotspot (one of the 34 biodiversity hot-spots worldwide). To better protect this rainforest with unique and rich species diversity, the People’s Government of Yunnan Province expanded Daweishan Nature Reserve in 1996 to incorporate Huayudong Forest, Xiaoweishan Forest, Zuantianpo Forest, Dalaobaijing Forest and Honghe Cycas Reserve. In 2001, the Chinese State Council officially approved Daweishan as a National Nature Reserve. Daweishan National Nature Reserve crosses Pingbian, Hekou, Mengzi and Gejiu counties with the total area of 439 square kilometer.

He led an expedition to study the flora of a region known as the Maquipucuna Reserve in the Andes, publishing surveys and a book on the remarkable species diversity of its cloud forests. Webster was appointed at the University of California, Davis, as a professor in the department of botany and the director of the arboretum. The Grady L. Webster Award of the American Society of Plant Taxonomists (ASPT) and Botanical Society of America, named for their former president, is given annually and alternately to publications in either plant systematics or structural biology. During his lifetime he was awarded the Asa Gray and Merit awards of these societies.

The National Environmental Education Act of 1990 is an act of Congress of the United States of America to promote environmental education. In this act, Congress found that "threats to human health and environmental quality are increasingly complex, involving a wide range of conventional and toxic contaminants in the air and water and on the land" and that "there is growing evidence of international environmental problems, such as global warming, ocean pollution, and declines in species diversity, and that these problems pose serious threats to human health and the environment on a global scale" and declared several other problems that need to be fixed or addressed by improving environmental education.

Species diversity is an important ecological part of B.C.'s forests and the act of deforestation can reduce the diversity by taking away crucial environments for both the plant and animal species to live in. There are currently 116 species, which is approximately 10% of species in B.C., that are on the B.C. Conservation Data Centre's Red List which are endangered species associated with the forest. Deforestation events such as agriculture, introduction of exotic species and timber production threaten the species. After deforestation events, the replanting of trees also had a decrease in diversity of the number of tree species per area due to dominated by single tree species.

The Sultanate of Oman in the southern Arabian Peninsula is mainly characterised by arid habitats, with much of the region occupied by sand dunes or rock and gravel desert. However, and often in stark contrast to the deserts, the country also contains a seasonal cloud forest, open juniper woodlands and other habitats supporting high species diversity with many endemic plants. Oman lies in the transition zone between the Holarctic and Palaeotropical kingdoms, as well as between subtropical and tropical climate zones. This position is reflected by the presence of plant species from several biogeographical regions as demonstrated by the comparatively high number of vascular plants in Oman.

Encountered as a shrub or small tree up to in height, it has prickly dark green leaves and dome-shaped cream-yellow flowerheads. Flowering from winter through to late spring, it provides a key source of food—both the nectar and the insects it attracts—for honeyeaters in the cooler months, and species diversity is reduced in areas where there is little or no parrot bush occurring. Several species of honeyeater, some species of native bee, and the European honey bee seek out and consume the nectar, while the long-billed black cockatoo and Australian ringneck eat the seed. The life cycle of Banksia sessilis is adapted to regular bushfires.

She worked on wild resource surveys, collections, and study of species diversity of certain groups of Ascomycetes through tropical and northwest areas of China, including Henan, Hubei, Yunnan, Zhejiang, Hainan, Fujian provinces and Taiwan. She continues a phylogeny study on her own collections and Institute of Microbiology specimens. Another main contribution of her study is molecular phylogeny of Ascomycetes, between species or genera with similar anatomical structures in Otidea, Pyronemataceae, Penicillium, Nectriaceae and Helotiales, utilizing molecular bio-information methods such as ITS, 28S rDNA partial sequencing, and other nucleotide sequence analysis. She established 9 new genera, 152 new species, and 18 new sub-species and 257 species reports found in China.

It is one of the richest components of the ecosystem from the standpoint of biodiversity because of the large number of decomposers and predators present, mostly belonging to invertebrates, fungi, algae, bacteria, and archaea. Certain (adapted) plants may be more apparent in tropical forests, where rates of metabolism and species diversity are much higher than in colder climates. The major compartments for the storage of organic matter and nutrients within systems are the living vegetation, forest floor, and soil. The forest floor serves as a bridge between the above ground living vegetation and the soil, and it is a crucial component in nutrient transfer through the biogeochemical cycle.

Unlike the rest of the family, which is more widespread, the spiderhunters are confined to the Oriental zoogeographic region, occurring from India east to The Philippines and from the Himalayas south to Java; they reach their greatest species diversity in the Thai-Malay peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo. The spiderhunters are mostly forest birds, occupying a wide range of forest types including true rainforest, dipterocarp forest, swamp forest, bamboo forest, secondary forest, forest edge and other highly degraded forest. In addition several species occur in human-created habitat such as gardens or plantations. Most species are lowland species, but the Whitehead's spiderhunter is more of a montane species.

This serves both to reduce the large population of invasive carp and makes the impoundment a large mudflat, which renders it very attractive to migrating shorebirds. The water levels is raised later in the fall so waterfowl can use the impoundment. In addition, deer, opossums, red foxes, raccoons, coyotes, beavers, river otters, minks, woodchucks, and muskrats take refuge here along with a wide variety of wildflowers and plants. Bats are frequently observed by visitors on the refuge during warmer seasons and a formal species diversity and population survey would provide valuable information on recent declines of these important creatures due to white nose syndrome and habitat disturbances.

It can from a continuous layer from the ground to the canopy but some scattered emergents can occur. Species diversity is high for trees and shrubs in this community, but very low for ferns. Anopterus glandulosus, Anodopetalum biglandulosum, Cenarrhenes nitida, Telopea truncata, Agastachys odorata, Comprosma nitida, Archeria eriocarpa, Archeria serpyllifolia, Archeria hirtella, Olearia persoonioides, Trochocarpa cunninghamii, Trochocarpa gunnii, Richea pandanifolia, Richea scoparia, Dracophyllum milliganii and Prionotes cerinthoides are all typical shrubs or small trees that comprise these communities. The ferns are dominated by Parablechnum wattsii but small epiphytes do prevail: Hymenophyllum rarum, Hymenophyllum marginatum, Grammitis billardierei and Apteropteris applanata occurs in communities where Athrotaxis are present.

Both of the Skellig islands are known for their seabird colonies, and together comprise one of the most important seabird sites in Ireland, both for the population size and for the species diversity. Among the breeding birds are European storm petrel (Hydrobates pelagicus), northern gannet, northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus), black-legged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla), common guillemot (Uria aalge), razorbill (Alca torda) and Atlantic puffin (Fratercula arctica) (with 4,000 or more puffins on Great Skellig alone). Red-billed chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) and peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) can also be seen. The surrounding waters have abundant wildlife with many Grey seal (Halichoerus grypus).

It was estimated that only 25% of the species diversity of Gelechioidea had been described.Hodges (1999) If this estimate is accurate, Gelechioidea will be one of the largest superfamilies of Lepidoptera. The name "curved-horn moths" refers to one of the few conspicuous features found in (almost) all Gelechioidea, and, at least in the more extreme developments, unique to them: the labial palps are well-developed (though not thickened), and form more or less gently curved protrusions whose end has a drawn-out, pointed tip. Their proboscis is generally well-developed, allowing for long- lived imagines (adults); the proximal part of the proboscis is scaly.

Foliage of Diplotaxis tenuifolia Diplotaxis (wall-rocket) is a genus of 32–34 species of flowering plants in the family Brassicaceae (Cruciferae), native to Europe, the Mediterranean region and Macaronesia; the species diversity is highest in the Iberian Peninsula, North Africa and the Cape Verde archipelago. They are annual or perennial plants, either herbaceous or sub-shrubby with a woody base. The flowers are yellow in most species, but are white in Diplotaxis erucoides and violet in Diplotaxis acris. Some species, such as Diplotaxis tenuifolia and Diplotaxis muralis, have been historically used as leaf vegetables, are similar to Eruca sativa in their peppery flavour, and are used interchangeably with it.

Also, though the climate of the Arctic and Antarctic regions is similar, there are no penguins found in the Arctic. Several authors have suggested that penguins are a good example of Bergmann's Rule where larger bodied populations live at higher latitudes than smaller bodied populations. There is some disagreement about this, and several other authors have noted that there are fossil penguin species that contradict this hypothesis and that ocean currents and upwellings are likely to have had a greater effect on species diversity than latitude alone. Major populations of penguins are found in Angola, Antarctica, Argentina, Australia, Chile, Namibia, New Zealand, and South Africa.

The pygmy tarsier (Tarsius pumilus), also known as the mountain tarsier or the lesser spectral tarsier, is a nocturnal primate found in central Sulawesi, Indonesia, in an area with lower vegetative species diversity than the lowland tropical forests. The pygmy tarsier was believed to have become extinct in the early 20th century. Then, in 2000, Indonesian scientists accidentally killed one while trapping rats. The first pygmy tarsiers seen alive since the 1920s were found by a research team led by Dr. Sharon Gursky and Ph.D. student Nanda Grow from Texas A&M; University on Mount Rore Katimbo in Lore Lindu National Park in August 2008.

Scientific understanding of the process of extinction is insufficient to accurately make predictions about the impact of deforestation on biodiversity. Most predictions of forestry related biodiversity loss are based on species- area models, with an underlying assumption that as the forest declines species diversity will decline similarly. However, many such models have been proven to be wrong and loss of habitat does not necessarily lead to large scale loss of species. Species-area models are known to overpredict the number of species known to be threatened in areas where actual deforestation is ongoing, and greatly overpredict the number of threatened species that are widespread.

Animal species diversity was also impacted; in one study a Harvard biologist found 24 species of birds and 5 species of mammals in a sprayed forest, while in two adjacent sections of unsprayed forest there were 145 and 170 species of birds and 30 and 55 species of mammals. Dioxins from Agent Orange have persisted in the Vietnamese environment since the war, settling in the soil and sediment and entering the food chain through animals and fish which feed in the contaminated areas. The movement of dioxins through the food web has resulted in bioconcentration and biomagnification. The areas most heavily contaminated with dioxins are former U.S. air bases.

Core cacti, those with strongly succulent stems, are estimated to have evolved around 25 million years ago. A possible stimulus to their evolution may have been uplifting in the central Andes, some 25–20 million years ago, which was associated with increasing and varying aridity. However, the current species diversity of cacti is thought to have arisen only in the last 10–5 million years (from the late Miocene into the Pliocene). Other succulent plants, such as the Aizoaceae in South Africa, the Didiereaceae in Madagascar and the genus Agave in the Americas, appear to have diversified at the same time, which coincided with a global expansion of arid environments.

Skeletal restorations of various specimens It has been argued that all the specimens belong to the same species, A. lithographica. Differences do exist among the specimens, and while some researchers regard these as due to the different ages of the specimens, some may be related to actual species diversity. In particular, the Munich, Eichstätt, Solnhofen, and Thermopolis specimens differ from the London, Berlin, and Haarlem specimens in being smaller or much larger, having different finger proportions, having more slender snouts lined with forward- pointing teeth, and possible presence of a sternum. Due to these differences, most individual specimens have been given their own species name at one point or another.

The effectiveness of exclosures could be enhanced by supplementing additional water to the short and erratic rain. The effects of such spate irrigation on species diversity, stocking and ring width growth of trees was evaluated in two exclosures (Addi Qolqwal and May Be'ati) in the catchment of May Be’ati River. The runoff diversion from the gully channel towards the regenerating forest was done with trenches dug at different locations to enhance an even runoff water distribution over the exclosures. The exclosure in May Be’ati was irrigated in 2005 while the Addi Qolqwal exclosure was irrigated from 2012 onwards but monitored from 2014 to 2016.

For his dissertation he studied species diversity on intertidal boulders in Ellwood Beach, California. He organized his study by boulder size as well as frequency of being tumbled by the waves; boulders were put into groups of small, intermediate, and large depending on the force it would take a wave to move it. The study began in April 1975, and species richness was measured monthly on all three sizes of boulders, until May 1977. The surf overturns boulders of all shapes and sizes, but smaller boulders are overturned at a more frequent rate, allowing less time for plants and animals to use them as a resource.

That same year, the Osoyoos Indian Band of the Okanagan Nation Alliance constructed the Nk'Mip Desert Cultural Centre with the goal of showcasing the cultural heritage of the Okanagan people and promoting conservation efforts in the region.Nk'Mip Desert Cultural Centre - Our Sustainable Building. Retrieved 2014-01-23 In 2010, the proposed park was revised down to with a greater emphasis placed on protecting lower elevation grasslands where species diversity is highest and most at risk. On 3 July 2019, Parks Canada and the Okanagan Nation Alliance signed a memorandum of understanding to formally work toward establishing a national park reserve in the South Okanagan-Similkameen.

This process is typically limited in areas affected by environmental toxicants. Harmful effects of such chemical and biological agents as toxicants from pollutants, insecticides, pesticides, and fertilizers can affect an organism and its community by reducing its species diversity and abundance. Such changes in population dynamics affect the ecosystem by reducing its productivity and stability. Although legislation implemented since the early 1970s had intended to minimize harmful effects of environmental toxicants upon all species, McCarty (2013) has warned that "longstanding limitations in the implementation of the simple conceptual model that is the basis of current aquatic toxicity testing protocols" may lead to an impending environmental toxicology "dark age".

It is thought that the evolution of endothermia was crucial in the development of eutherian mammalian species diversity in the Mesozoic period. Endothermia gave the early mammals the capacity to be active during night time while maintaining small body sizes. Adaptations in photoreception and the loss of UV protection characterizing modern eutherian mammals are understood as adaptations for an originally nocturnal lifestyle, suggesting that the group went through an evolutionary bottle neck (the nocturnal bottleneck hypothesis). This could have avoided predator pressure from diurnal reptiles and dinosaurs, although some predatory dinosaurs, being equally endothermic, might have adapted a nocturnal lifestyle in order to prey on those mammals.

Sapo National Park is a national park in Sinoe County, Liberia. It is the country's largest protected area of rainforest and its only national park, and contains the second-largest area of primary tropical rainforest in West Africa after Taï National Park in neighbouring Côte d'Ivoire. Agriculture, construction, fishing, hunting, human settlement, and logging are prohibited in the park. Sapo National Park is located in the Upper Guinean forest ecosystem, a biodiversity hotspot that has "the highest mammal species diversity of any region in the world", according to Conservation International, and in the Western Guinean lowland forests ecoregion, according to the World Wide Fund for Nature's ecoregions classification scheme.

In ecology, the competition–colonization trade-off is a stabilizing mechanism that has been proposed to explain species diversity in some biological systems, especially those that are not in equilibrium. In which case some species are particularly good at colonizing and others have well-established survival abilities. The concept of the competition-colonization trade-off was originally proposed by Levins and Culver, the model indicated that two species could coexist if one had impeccable competition skill and the other was excellent at colonizing. The model indicates that there is typically a trade- off, in which a species is typically better at either competing or colonizing.

Hydatellaceae are a family of small, aquatic flowering plants. The family consists of tiny, relatively simple, plants occurring in Australasia and India. It was formerly considered to be related to the grasses and sedges (order Poales), but has been reassigned to the order Nymphaeales as a result of DNA and morphological analyses showing that it represents one of the earliest groups to split off in flowering-plant phylogeny, rather than having a close relationship to monocots, which it bears a superficial resemblance to due to convergent evolution. The family includes only the genus Trithuria, which has at least 13 species, although species diversity in the family has probably been substantially underestimated.

The study conducted also showed direct relationships between the growth of the population and the number of species that were threatened in the area. Expansion will break up the contiguous landscape and move humans closer to the native flora and fauna which will over pressure species that need large open tracts of land to thrive and harm the species diversity of the region. Prevailing winds coming from the west off of the Pacific Ocean all of the pollution created gets carried up to these higher inland sites and causes the species there to suffer with the pollution generated. The region is also plagued by wildfires.

As per a study conducted in 2003–04, the lake had 36 genera of zooplankton including of 8 genera of protozoa and 6 genera of Rotifera with increased eutrophication of the lake. Species Diversity Index of zooplankton population ranged from 1.74 to 3.63 across the year with maximum before the beginning of the summer and end of South-west monsoon. As per a study on bird diversity conducted in 2013, about 48 species of avifauna belonging to 20 families were recorded. Most species were recorded in March before the start of summer and was the least in the winter months of November and December.

The surface of the mound also contains very little organic matter because it is mainly soil that was uprooted from the mineral horizons of the soil layer. This coupled with the observation that seed deposition rates are lower for mounds than pits, makes plant establishment on mounds unlikely and problematic for the plant. Conversely, many studies have found that species richness and overall number of established plants is found to be statistically higher on mounds than in pits. It was experimentally determined that the leaf litter accumulation that occurs within a pit has a large effect on the lack of species diversity or establishment that occurs there.

Although Dunbar Cave only has a small bat population, it is still closed from September through April to allow the bats undisrupted hibernation. In March 2010, a bat with White nose syndrome was discovered by researchers from Austin Peay State University doing assessments of species diversity and roosting patterns. Based on finding the infected bat, the State of Tennessee announced on March 24, 2010 that Dunbar Cave was closed to all visitors and tours were discontinued. Since 2006 when the disease was first discovered in New York, it has spread to Ontario, New Jersey, New Hampshire, and Tennessee, causing the death of over a million bats.

Variegated golden frog (Mantella baroni) in the Ranomafana National Park of Madagascar A frog is any member of a diverse and largely carnivorous group of short-bodied, tailless amphibians composing the order Anura (literally without tail in Ancient Greek). The oldest fossil "proto-frog" appeared in the early Triassic of Madagascar, but molecular clock dating suggests their origins may extend further back to the Permian, 265 million years ago. Frogs are widely distributed, ranging from the tropics to subarctic regions, but the greatest concentration of species diversity is in tropical rainforest. There are over 6,300 recorded species, accounting for around 88% of extant amphibian species.

The lack of natural predators to control the lionfish population allows the lionfish population to grow to disruptive numbers. Lionfish are predators of juvenile fish, such as commercially important grouper and snapper, as well as juvenile parrotfish, which graze on algae in coral reefs, preventing the algae from overgrowing and killing corals. The lionfish’s dietary consumption of native species of the Florida Keys not only affects the species diversity of the Florida Keys, but also causes detriment to the environment due to a decrease in fish who help maintain the coral reefs. The regular spawning of the lionfish further impacts the environment of the Florida Keys; which therefore always maintains a stable reproductive population.

The first recorded observation of the elevational diversity gradient was by Carl Linnaeus in his treatise On the growth of the habitable earth. In this document, Linnaeus based his predictions on flood geology, assuming most of the world was at one point inundated, leaving only the highest elevations available for terrestrial life. Since, by Linnaeus’ hypothesis, all life was concentrated at high elevations, a higher species diversity would be observed there even as life re-populated lower elevations. In 1799, Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland described elevational changes along the Andean slopes, noting how climatic changes impacted plant and animal communities. These observations contributed to Leslie R. Holdridge’s "life zone concept" (1947).

He argues that with the rapid extinction of the megafauna, virtually all of which were herbivorous, a great deal of vegetation was left uneaten, increasing the standing crop of fuel. As a consequence, fires became larger and hotter than before, causing the reduction of fire-sensitive plants to the advantage of those that were fire-resistant or fire-dependent. Flannery suggests that Aboriginal people then began to burn more frequently to maintain a high species diversity and to reduce the effect of high intensity fires on medium-sized animals and perhaps some plants. He argues that twentieth-century Australian mammal extinctions are largely the result of the cessation of Aboriginal "firestick farming".

The Ginkgophyta declined in diversity as the Cretaceous progressed, and by the Paleocene, Ginkgo adiantoides was the only Ginkgo species left in the Northern Hemisphere, while a markedly different (and poorly documented) form persisted in the Southern Hemisphere. Along with that of ferns, cycads, and cycadeoids, the species diversity in the genus Ginkgo drops through the Cretaceous, at the same time the flowering plants were on the rise; this supports the hypothesis that, over time, flowering plants with better adaptations to disturbance displaced Ginkgo and its associates. At the end of the Pliocene, Ginkgo fossils disappeared from the fossil record everywhere except in a small area of central China, where the modern species survived.

Sub-Saharan Africa has many species of owl, although there is less species diversity than in some areas of similar latitude in the neotropics and south Asia. It also hosts the most species of eagle-owl with approximately eight "typical" Bubo species and all three fishing owl species as well. Due to the diversity here, there are a number of distinctions between habitat preference, primary prey types and body size among the eagle-owls of Africa. The three smallest species of this genus reside solely in Africa, the akun eagle-owl (Bubo leucostictus), the greyish eagle-owl (Bubo cinerascens) and the spotted eagle-owl (Bubo africanus), in rough order of increasing size.

The Lacandon is the best known of Mexico's rainforest areas because of the attention it has received in the press and efforts by international organizations to protect what is left of it. The Lacandon is one of the most biodiverse rainforests in the world, with as much as 25% of Mexico's total species diversity. The predominant native vegetation is perennial high rainforest with trees that can grow to an average height of thirty meters and often to fifty or sixty including Guatteria anomala, Ceiba pentandra, Swietenia macrophylla, Terminalia amazonia and Ulmus mexicana. Mammoth Guanacaste trees shrouded in vines and bromeliads among clear running streams, enormous ferns, palms and wild elephant's ear plants can still be seen.

Pale-crested woodpecker (Celeus lugubris) The ringed woodpecker (Celeus torquatus), the chestnut woodpecker (Celeus elegans) and the cream-colored woodpecker (Celeus flavus) are distributed widely throughout northern South America with remaining species having smaller ranges from Central, Southern and Eastern America to West Panama. The Amazon basin contains the greatest species diversity of the Celeus genus. Celeus species inhabit diverse environmental regions and conditions from moist lowland forests and forest edges, swamps, heavily degraded woodlands and some species are found in Savannas. Of note the pale-crested woodpecker (Celeus lugubris) prefers dry Chaco woodland, semi decayed forests and Cerrado woodlands whilst the rufous-headed woodpecker (Celeus spectabilis) and Kaempfer's woodpecker (Celeus obrieni) favour bamboo forests.

The Florida Reef lies close to the northern limit for tropical corals, but the species diversity on the reef is comparable to that of reef systems in the Caribbean Sea.U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1134 - Florida Reef Tract Accessed December 16, 2010 The Florida Museum of Natural History defines three communities on the Florida reefs. The hardbottom community lies closest to the Florida Keys and consists primarily of algae, sea fans (gorgonians) and stony corals growing on limestone rock that has a thin covering of sand. The stony corals in hardbottom communities include smooth starlet coral (Siderastrea radians), mustard hill coral (Porites astreoides), golfball coral (Favia fragum), elliptical star coral (Dichocoenia stokesii) and common brain coral (Diploria strigosa).

They occupied a variety of niches despite relatively low species diversity, including both demersal (bottom-dwelling) species like hupehsuchians and nasorostrans, and pelagic (open-water) species like ichthyopterygians. Taxonomic diversity of Triassic marine reptiles; note the two peaks in diversity and the bottleneck between Many ichthyosauriforms from the Early and Middle Triassic had molariform teeth (shown in the phylogenetic tree above), including Cartorhynchus; such teeth indicate a diet at least partially based on hard-shelled animals. In 2020, Huang and colleagues performed an ancestral state reconstruction of teeth among ichthyosauromorphs. Probabilistic methods suggested that rounded or flat teeth most likely evolved independently five times, while methods based on parsimony suggested that they evolved independently three to five times.

Within the site ten main vegetation associations have been identified: mudflats, mangroves, dune systems, grassland, low woodland, sandstone range open woodland, riverine woodland, rainforest (aquifer forest) and spring vegetation, major rivers and lagoons (permanent and ephemeral), and savanna woodland. Some 335 native vascular plants from 89 families have been recorded from the site, with 16 introduced species. The eastern coast of the Cambridge Gulf is one of the richest places for mangroves in the Kimberley region in terms of species diversity, structural complexity, and area, with 14 species occurring within the site. Zonation is evident; mangrove species in the seaward zone form a woodland about 8 m high, dominated by Sonneratia alba, Avicennia marina and Aegiceras corniculatum.

Some researchers have preferred to partition gamma diversity into additive rather than multiplicative components. Then the beta component of diversity becomes βA = γ - α This quantifies how much more species diversity the entire dataset contains than an average subunit within the dataset. This can also be interpreted as the total amount of species turnover among the subunits in the dataset. When there are two subunits, and presence-absence data are used, this can be calculated with the following equation: \beta_A=(S_1-c)+(S_2-c) where, S1= the total number of species recorded in the first community, S2= the total number of species recorded in the second community, and c= the number of species common to both communities.

The park area is equally split between Costa Rica and Panama, as part of the former La Amistad Reserves of the Talamanca mountain range. It covers 401,000 ha of tropical forest and is the largest nature reserve in Central America; together with a 15 km buffer zone, it represents a major biodiversity resource at a regional (ca 20% of the region's species diversity) and global level. Forest in the Park This is recognized in its strategic position in the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor and its designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Its cross-frontier position gives it unique potential to improve bioregional planning. The park’s buffer zone includes coffee and beef producers and indigenous subsistence farmers.

Lifemapper is building a species diversity map of the world. It is similar to the SETI@Home client, in that it uses a distributed computing client running primarily on home user's computers to correlate georeferenced biological samples with environmental models of the Earth. It is an experimental GIS, or Geographic Information System, that uses a special genetic algorithm to see if predicted rules about where a species lives match up with the species' observed natural settings. It is hoped that this technique will be able to both represent a current "map" of all organisms habitats on Earth as well as predict where organisms may possibly thrive or face extinction due to climate change and other ecological transformations.

There has been a general decline in plant and palynivore species diversity which is predicted to continue with the current trends in the release of greenhouse gasses and climate change. Given the extent of current research and evidence depicting the correlation between palynivore decline and a decline in pollinating plants' reproductive success, below are proposed steps that could potentially mitigate the loss of palynivore species. # Restoring and protecting palynivore habitat in the form of the floral reserves of threatened migratory palynivores #Planting more native plants to attract native palynivoresStudents at the Simi Valley Adventist School planting native plants in their schoolyard habitat project. This will help benefit native pollinators and native wildlife.

The Niagara Escarpment represents the largest contiguous stretch of primarily forested land in south-central Ontario. The biosphere reserve includes the greatest topographic variability in southern Ontario, with habitats ranging over more than in elevations and including Great Lakes coastlines, cliff edges, talus slopes, wetlands, woodlands, limestone alvar pavements, oak savannahs, conifer swamps and many others. These habitats collectively boast the highest level of species diversity among Canadian biosphere reserves, including more than 300 bird species, 55 mammals, 36 reptiles and amphibians, 90 fish and 100 varieties of special interest flora. The Niagara Escarpment stretches along the entire eastern edge of the Bruce Peninsula, a globally significant area covering at the tip of which lies Bruce Peninsula National Park.

Upon completing her PhD, Strauss became a Professor of Evolution and Ecology at the University of California, Davis. In 2001, she co-directed UC Davis Center for Population Biology project titled "Biological Invasions from Genes to Ecosystems, from Science to Society," with Kevin Rice, Holly Doremus, Susan Ustin, and Richard Grosberg. She also co-created EVE 180, an undergraduate course in the Division of Biological Sciences which guided 20 juniors and seniors through a typical research experience, from hypothesis to results written for publication. Two years later, Strauss and doctoral student Richard Lankau co-published the Strauss-Lankau paper, which studied how genetic diversity and species diversity depended on each other for survival.

After the barrier dissolved around 75.7 million years ago, the Kosmoceratops lineage (represented by Vagaceratops) that had been restricted to southern Laramidia dispersed to the north, giving rise to all later chasmosaurines, such as Anchiceratops and Triceratops. Though late Campanian dinosaurs on Laramidia were larger than most large modern animals (which require large species ranges due to heightened dietary needs), Sampson and colleagues found that they appeared to have had relatively small species ranges, which is more perplexing due to the high species-diversity of Laramidian dinosaurs. Though they apparently inhabited at least two semi-isolated regions, there is no evidence of a dispersal barrier, and there was less of a temperature gradient than today.

Plenary speaker at the Oxford Food Symposium Colin Hiram Tudge (born 22 April 1943) is a British science writer and broadcaster.‘TUDGE, Colin Hiram’, Who's Who 2013, A & C Black, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing plc, 2013; online edn, Oxford University Press, Dec 2012 ; online edn, Nov 2012 accessed 23 Oct 2013 A biologist by training, he is the author of numerous works on food, agriculture, genetics, and species diversity. Tudge was born and brought up in south London and attended Dulwich College, from where he won a scholarship to Peterhouse, Cambridge, studying zoology and English. In his career, he has worked for World Medicine, Farmers' Weekly and New Scientist, before becoming a freelance writer.

Using a numerical wave model to estimate the forces caused by waves, researchers were able to determine that there was a significant relationship between species diversity and disturbance index; this is consistent with the intermediate disturbance hypothesis. Furthermore, diversity was lower at exposed offshore sites where disturbance from waves was highest, and at extremely sheltered site where disturbance from waves was minimized. The study provided evidence that biodiversity in microalgal reef communities possess some relationship with their proximity to the outer edge of lagoon systems typical of the Western Australian coast. While this study may have been localized to the Western Australian coast, it still provides some evidence to support the validity of the IDH.

Koricheva has carried out research in forests throughout her career and she established a long term experiment in the Satakunta forest in south west Finland in 1999. The experiment looks at the effects of trees species diversity, tree species composition and intraspecific genetic diversity on ecosystem services. Her work has shown that forests with a high diversity of tree species are able to better provide ecosystem services, such as carbon storage, than forests with few different tree species. She is an expert in meta-analysis, in 2013 she co-edited the Handbook of meta-analysis in ecology and evolution published by Princeton University Press and she has used meta-analysis techniques to show the harmful effects of neonicotinoid insecticides on bees.

McDowell stated "species diversity is greatest in Africa, but the Asiatic Bungarus and Ophiophagus are each so peculiar in anatomy as to suggest an ancient divergence". Others, including Slowinski, believed that the kraits (Bungarus), are part of a clade that clusters with a group including the king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) and oddly enough, with the African mambas (Dendroaspis) on the most-parsimonious tree or with Elapsoidea on the maximum- likelihood tree. This result calls into question the monophyly of cobras and underscores the uncertainty of the homology of the hood spreading behavior in cobras and mambas. The relationships of Dendroaspis, Ophiophagus, and Bungarus differed between the parsimony and likelihood analyses, suggesting that more work is necessary to resolve the relationships of these problematic taxa.

During 1994-1997 both Fivebough and Tuckerbil Wetlands using set methodology were surveyed as part of the RAOU (Birds Australia) Murray-Darling Basin Waterbird Project. The results from the project identifying the wetlands as qualifying under five of the nine Ramsar Convention criteria as Wetlands of International Importance, based on waterbird species diversity, populations, and nationally threatened species. From September 1997 to January 1998 the wetlands were managed by a sub committee of the Murrumbidgee Field Naturalists under the direction of the NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation after which time, a formal management committee was appointed by the NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation. This management committee in 2000 became the Fivebough and Tuckerbil Wetlands Management Trust.

This can lead to a decreasing population, especially in species that do not breed often under normal circumstances or become reproductively mature late in life. Another problem is that the decrease in the population of a species due to fisheries can lead to a decrease in genetic diversity, resulting in a decrease in bio-diversity of a species. If the species diversity is decreased significantly, this could cause problems for the species in an environment that is so variable and quick- changing; they may not be able to adapt, which could result in a collapse of the population or ecosystem. Another threat to the productivity and ecosystems of upwelling regions is El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) system, or more specifically El Niño events.

For many of these, ancestral ORFs were identified but were not expressed. Highlighting the differences between inter- and intra-species comparisons, a study in natural Saccharomyces paradoxus populations found that the number of de novo polypeptides identified more than doubled when considering intra-species diversity. In primates, one early study identified 270 orphan genes (unique to humans, chimpanzees, and macaques), of which 15 were thought to have originated de novo, while a later report identified 60 de novo genes in humans alone that are supported by transcriptional and proteomic evidence. Studies in other lineages/organisms have also reached different conclusions with respect to the number of de novo genes present in each organism, as well as the specific sets of genes identified.

On a shortgrass prairie near Fort Collins, Colorado, plant species diversity was greater inside black-tailed prairie dog colonies than outside of colonies, and perennial grasses such as buffalo grass and forbs increased. While black- tailed prairie dog colonies at Wind Cave National Park typically had lower levels of plant biomass and were dominated by forbs, plants growing on prairie dog colonies had higher leaf nitrogen concentrations than plants in mixed- grass prairie outside colonies. Foraging by black-tailed prairie dogs does not significantly affect steer weights. While forage availability and use by cattle decreased in black-tailed prairie dog foraging areas, steer weight was not reduced significantly in either of two years of study at the USDA's Southern Great Plains Experimental Range near Woodward, Oklahoma.

This equation has frequently been used for designing reserve size and placement (see SLOSS debate). The most common version of the equation used in reserve design is the formula for inter-island diversity, which has a z-value between 0.25-0.55, meaning protecting 5% of the available habitat will preserve 40% of the species present. However, inter-provincial species area relationships have z-values closer to 1, meaning protecting 5% of habitat will only protect 5% of species diversity. Taken together, proponents of reconciliation ecology see the species-area relationship and human domination of a large percentage of the earth's area as a sign that we will not be able to set aside enough land to protect all of life's biodiversity.

Only in the Strait, using various techniques, it is possible to capture Tuna throughout the year and in all age classes (from juveniles to adults) as the population moves between the Tyrrhenian and the Ionian Seas. The Strait of Messina is also an established route for the migration of Cetacea, and it is probably the most important in the Mediterranean Sea in terms of whale species diversity. Worthy of note, besides the several species of dolphins are the fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) and particularly the sperm whales which migrate through the Strait to their breeding area, probably the Aeolian Islands. Sharks migrate through the Strait of Messina, including the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) and the bluntnose sixgill shark (Hexanchus griseus).

A greater number or variety of species or biological diversity of an ecosystem may contribute to greater resilience of an ecosystem, because there are more species present at a location to respond to change and thus "absorb" or reduce its effects. This reduces the effect before the ecosystem's structure is fundamentally changed to a different state. This is not universally the case and there is no proven relationship between the species diversity of an ecosystem and its ability to provide goods and services on a sustainable level. The term ecosystem can also pertain to human-made environments, such as human ecosystems and human- influenced ecosystems, and can describe any situation where there is relationship between living organisms and their environment.

The sanctuary is described in promotional material as an 'outdoor laboratory',ACT Government & ACT Parks and Conservation, Mulligans Flat and Goorooyarroo Nature Reserves brochure, and seeks to achieve ecosystem recovery and restoration through increasing species diversity and available habitat. It is estimated that 30% remains of the site's original eucalyptus woodland. Despite this, Mulligans Flat and Goorooyarroo together provide the country's largest remaining contiguous area of White Box-Yellow Box-Blakely's Red Gum grassy woodland and derived native grassland, which is listed as critically endangered under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and as endangered in the New South Wales Threatened Species Conservation Act 1990. In 2011, Mulligans Flat received classification as an IUCN Category IV protected area.

The high level of species diversity in the genus Lutzomyia, coupled with its high adaptability is leading to increasing risk of Leishmania transmission in the New World in response to global change. Lutzomyia sand flies transmit the disease in the tropics and subtropics, regions which are subject to high levels of deforestation associated with continual development. Deforestation, with the establishment of settlements at the periphery of primary or secondary forest, increases the risk of Leishmania transmission by creating a selection pressure for the adaptation of sand flies to these new peridomestic environments. In southern Brazil, for example, levels of cutaneous leishmaniasis are increasing as a result of the adaptation of three, formerly forest-inhabiting species (Lutzomyia intermedia, Lutzomyia whitmani and Lutzomyi migonei) following deforestation.

Brighton and Lewes Downs Biosphere Reserve is found within the temperate broadleaf forests biome of the Palearctic realm's British Island province and includes the following habitats: coastal chalk cliffs, sub-tidal chalk reef, freshwater wetland, shingle beaches, deciduous woodland, river estuaries and chalk grassland. Three distinct but interrelated environments make up the biosphere reserve area; rural, coastal and marine, and urban. The rural environment contains lowland chalk grassland which is one of the richest wildlife habitats in the country and particularly important for its high botanical species diversity with up to 40-50 vascular plant species per square meter. It also supports the invertebrate communities, notably butterflies with 20 species having a substantial proportion of their breeding populations within this habitat.

However, given the estuary's importance, there have been few comprehensive scientific studies conducted in the bay. Species diversity as measured through richness and total biomass is generally low with 16 macro invertebrate species encountered in a 2007 field study, including teleost fishes, isopods, amphipods, and crangon shrimps. During the summer 2007, Nushagak Bay was found to have a Shannon Diversity (H’) value of 1.54, ranking it below similar subarctic estuaries such as Ungava Bay, near Labrador (60°34’N, 67°35’W) and Lower Herring Bay in Price William Sound (60°30’N, 147°13’W) where the Shannon Diversity values are H’=2.11 and H’=2.5, respectively. This lower diversity of Nushagak Bay is most likely due to its low salinity, high turbidity, and silty sediments.

While Edge was not formally trained in the natural sciences, she was educated by top forest and wildlife professionals, such as Robert Marshall, William Temple Hornaday, J. "Ding" Darling, Aldo Leopold, and others. Willard Gibbs Van Name, a zoologist with the American Museum of Natural History in New York and nephew of the mathematician Josiah Willard Gibbs, was a key mentor who wrote Emergency Conservation Committee (ECC) pamphlets, which Edge signed and distributed nationwide. Edge became expert enough to write and advocate knowledgeably on a wide variety of conservation topics. Among them were the importance of preserving birds of prey and maintaining species diversity, the dangers of toxins and pesticides up to DDT, and the necessity of protecting virgin forests.

The nestlings diet consists almost entirely of half-ripe and ripe seeds, in addition to green plant material. There are two main reasons why grass seeds are the dietary staple of the zebra finch: they are an abundant and relatively stable food source in this finch's preferred climate, and they are convenient to, for example, dehusk. In some areas, such as the eastern arid zone in Australia, the seeds taken are consistent, whereas in others, like northern Victoria, there are annual changes in the diet, as different species become abundant. The diet of this finch is generally low in species diversity; at Sandringham, Queensland 74% of the seeds eaten over a 15-month period were from Panicum decompositum, for example.

Bladen protects species diversity across a great range of elevations, which according to recent evidence includes several potential new and endemic species.Nicholas Wicks N., Pizii B., Walker P., Matamoros W., Medina M., Miller N., Bonilla V., Rapid Ecological Assessment of Central River (2010) Ya'axche Conservation Trust Within the Maya Mountains, Bladen forms a crucial link between Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary to the northeast and Columbia River Forest Reserve to the southwest. Chiquibul National Park and Forest Reserve lie to the northwest, connecting to the protected areas system in Guatemala. With the rapid clearance of forested areas throughout Central America, this is part of the last remaining large, relatively intact block of forest within the region – the Selva Maya - stretching from Belize through to Guatemala and Mexico.

The Southern Oregon Coastal Mountains ecoregion is a geologically and botanically diverse ecoregion that is a transition zone between the Coast Range and the Siskiyou Mountains, which form part of the Klamath Mountains ecoregion to the east. Rising to an elevation of approximately , this region has the climate of the Coast Range but the varied lithology of the higher, more dissected Siskiyou Mountains, underlain by Jurassic sandstone, metamorphosed sediments, granite, and serpentinite. Distributions of northern and southern vegetation blend together here and species diversity is high. Douglas-fir, western hemlock, tanoak, Port Orford cedar, and western redcedar are present, along with salal, sword fern, vine maple, Oregon grape, rhododendron, California bay-laurel, bigleaf maple, grand fir, red alder, salmonberry, and oxalis.

This would certainly have been useful in taking advantage of the extensive continental waterways and swamps of what would become the Amazon basin. Gryposuchus can be observed far and wide, from coastally adjacent and inclusive formations, such as the Urumaco Formation of Venezuela, to even beyond the northern drainage basins, into Argentina. This is in contrast with almost all the other species within the subfamily, which are limited to certain time periods near or on coast, with only Hesperogavialis penetrating into Brazil in the Late Miocene. Although Gryposuchus had already reached Argentina by the Middle Miocene, known species diversity reached its peak by the Late Miocene, with four of the five species present, three of which were also overlapping in the Urumaco Formation.

Approximate world distribution of living Cycadales Overall species diversity peaks at 17˚ 15"N and 28˚ 12"S, with a minor peak at the equator. There is therefore not a latitudinal diversity gradient towards the equator but towards the tropics. However, the peak in the northern tropics is largely due to Cycas in Asia and Zamia in the New World, whereas the peak in the southern tropics is due to Cycas again, and also to the diverse genus Encephalartos in southern and central Africa and Macrozamia in Australia. Thus, the distribution pattern of cycad species with latitude appears to be an artifact of the geographical isolation of cycad genera, and is dependent on the remaining species in each genus that did not follow the extinction pattern of their ancestors.

For most types of plants and animals, species diversity increases towards the equator. This is called the latitudinal gradient of diversity (LGD). In contrast, there is evidence that EcM fungi may be at maximum diversity in the temperate zone. If this is the case, it might be explained by one or more of the following hypotheses: 1) EcM fungi may have evolved at higher latitudes with Pinaceae hosts, and be less able to compete in tropical climates; 2) the plants EcMs use as hosts might be more diverse in temperate conditions, and the structure of the soil in temperate regions may allow for higher niche differentiation and species accumulation; and 3) tropical EcM hosts are spread out more sparsely in small isolated forest islands that may reduce the population sizes and diversity of EcM fungi.

5: 185-225. Based on Weymer (1911)'s classification, Forster (1964) introduced 33 euptychiine genera and his classification is largely retained in Lamas (2004), a work considered as a vital foundation regarding Neotropical butterfly classification. The recent years have seen an explosion of interest in euptychiine systematics, resulting in many changes in generic classification of the group as well as improvement in our understanding of its species diversity. Although the subtribal name was first introduced by L. D. Miller when he treated Euptychiina as a tribal level taxon "Euptychiini", the genus Euptychia Hübner, 1818 was historically used to place many euptychiine species now no longer classified in that genus, perhaps explaining why the generic name Euptychia was used in a much broader sense to include many other euptychiine species.

More generally, the growth of complexity may be driven by the co-evolution between an organism and the ecosystem of predators, prey and parasites to which it tries to stay adapted: as any of these become more complex in order to cope better with the diversity of threats offered by the ecosystem formed by the others, the others too will have to adapt by becoming more complex, thus triggering an ongoing evolutionary arms race towards more complexity.Heylighen, F. (1999a) "The Growth of Structural and Functional Complexity during Evolution", in F. Heylighen, J. Bollen & A. Riegler (eds.) The Evolution of Complexity Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 17–44. This trend may be reinforced by the fact that ecosystems themselves tend to become more complex over time, as species diversity increases, together with the linkages or dependencies between species.

Cremastosperma is a genus of flowering plants in the family Annonaceae, subfamily Malmeoideae, tribe Malmeae. In 2018 there were 34 recognised species distributed in Central and South America. Cremastosperma was described by Robert Elias Fries in 1930, based on Aberemoa pedunculata Diels, originally described by Ludwig Diels (1906), which thus became the type species Cremastosperma pedunculatum (Diels) R.E.Fr.. Species of Cremastosperma are found in lowland to pre-montane tropical forest in the Neotropics. The greatest species diversity is distributed in the narrow tropical zone to the west of the Andean mountain chain on the Pacific Ocean side of north-western South America, north into Central America as far as Costa Rica; and on the eastern side of the Andes extending from Colombia through eastern Ecuador and Peru as far south as Bolivia.

Antarctic hairgrass, the world's southernmost flowering plant Charles Darwin, 23 years old as he started his biological research in neighbouring Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego and the Falklands in 1832, noted (with some inaccuracy in his distances): The coastal areas of Livingston Island are home to a selection of vegetation and animal life typical for the northern Antarctic Peninsula region, including fur, elephant, Weddell, and leopard seals, and chinstrap, gentoo, Adélie and macaroni penguins. Several other seabirds, including skuas, southern giant petrel and Antarctic terns, nest on the island during the summer months. Spanish biological research has identified 110 species of lichens and 50 of mosses on a territory of just at the Spanish base on Hurd Peninsula, the highest species diversity recorded from any single Antarctic locality.L. Sancho, F. Schulz, B. Schroeter and L. Kappen.

Early scientific theories of transmutation of species such as Lamarckism perceived species diversity as a result of a purposeful internal drive or tendency to form improved adaptations to the environment. In contrast, Darwinian evolution and its elaboration in the light of subsequent advances in biological research, have shown that adaptation through natural selection comes about when particular heritable attributes in a population happen to give a better chance of successful reproduction in the reigning environment than rival attributes do. By the same process less advantageous attributes are less "successful"; they decrease in frequency or are lost completely. Since Darwin's time it has been shown how these changes in the frequencies of attributes occur according to the mechanisms of genetics and the laws of inheritance originally investigated by Gregor Mendel.

Grootvadersbosch N.R. Barrydale and the surrounding area is rich in species diversity with abundant wildlife such as baboons, genets, mongooses, klipspringer (small khaki-coloured antelope often seen perched on rocks), and rock hyraxes, known locally as dassies (smaller relatives of the elephant). More elusive animals, such as porcupines, aardvarks, jackals, otters and the reclusive leopards, are occasionally seen in the mountains. Reptiles are common, especially snakes, with a few poisonous species such as puff adder, boomslang (tree snake) and Cape cobra. The area is also home to numerous bird species such as the Cape eagle-owl, hadeda ibis, grey heron, sunbird (these often have iridescent plumage), fiscal shrike which impales its prey on acacia thorns or barbed wire, and black eagles often seen soaring high overhead on the thermals.

The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, designated in 1990, is the ninth national marine sanctuary to be established in a system that comprises 13 sanctuaries and two marine national monuments. The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary protects approximately of coastal and ocean waters from the estuarine waters of south Florida along the Florida Keys archipelago, encompassing more than 1,700 islands, out to the Dry Tortugas National Park, reaching into the Atlantic Ocean, Florida Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. The mission of the sanctuary is to protect the marine resources of the Florida Keys while facilitating human uses that are consistent with the primary objective of resource protection. Sanctuary waters and habitats support high species diversity due to the presence of both tropical and subtropical species, including the largest documented contiguous seagrass community in the northern hemisphere and extensive coral reef habitat.

Surviving marine invertebrate groups included articulate brachiopods (those with a hinge), which had undergone a slow decline in numbers since the P–Tr extinction; the Ceratitida order of ammonites; and crinoids ("sea lilies"), which very nearly became extinct but later became abundant and diverse. The groups with the highest survival rates generally had active control of circulation, elaborate gas exchange mechanisms, and light calcification; more heavily calcified organisms with simpler breathing apparatuses suffered the greatest loss of species diversity. In the case of the brachiopods, at least, surviving taxa were generally small, rare members of a formerly diverse community. The ammonoids, which had been in a long-term decline for the 30 million years since the Roadian (middle Permian), suffered a selective extinction pulse 10 million years before the main event, at the end of the Capitanian stage.

An account on the flora of Madayipara is given here to provide a picture of the kind of vegetation found on the laterite hill system with which the fauna frequenting the area are associated with, and also to stress upon the importance of the uniqueness of the flora supported by such laterite hill systems, often ignored by many. The midland hillocks of northern Kerala have its own characteristic floral composition supporting scrub jungles and cashew plantations on the hill slopes and grasslands and associated aquatic and semi- aquatic plants on the hilltops. Even though these hills are exposed directly to the sunlight and wind, they harbour rich species diversity. Recent plant explorations revealed more additions to the known plant species of the area some of which turned out to be new to science, and endemic to the locality.

To explain this, Rosenzweig (1992) suggested that if species with partly tropical distributions were excluded, the richness gradient north of the tropics should disappear. Blackburn and Gaston 1997 tested the effect of removing tropical species on latitudinal patterns in avian species richness in the New World and found there is indeed a relationship between the land area and the species richness of a biome once predominantly tropical species are excluded. Perhaps a more serious flaw in this hypothesis is some biogeographers suggest that the terrestrial tropics are not, in fact, the largest biome, and thus this hypothesis is not a valid explanation for the latitudinal species diversity gradient (Rohde 1997, Hawkins and Porter 2001). In any event, it would be difficult to defend the tropics as a "biome" rather than the geographically diverse and disjunct regions that they truly include.

Shrews have sharp, spike-like teeth, not the familiar gnawing front incisor teeth of rodents. Shrews are distributed almost worldwide; of the major tropical and temperate land masses, only New Guinea, Australia, and New Zealand have no native shrews; in South America shrews appeared only relatively recently, as a result of the Great American Interchange, and are present only in the northern Andes. In terms of species diversity, the shrew family with its 385 known species is the fourth-most successful mammal family, being exceeded only by the muroid rodent families Muridae and Cricetidae and the bat family Vespertilionidae. In terms of population size, it is probably the most successful mammal family, with a typical population of a few shrews per forest acre, adding up to an order of magnitude of 100 billion shrews in the world.

Conservation policy has historically lagged behind current science all over the world, but at this critical juncture politicians must make the effort to catch up before massive extinctions occur on our planet. For example, the pinnacle of American conservation policy, the Endangered Species Act of 1973, fails to acknowledge any benefit for protecting highly interactive species that may help maintain overall species diversity. Policy must first assess whether the species in question is considered highly interactive by asking the questions "does the absence or loss of this species, either directly or indirectly, incur a loss of overall diversity, effect the reproduction or recruitment of other species, lead to a change in habitat structure, lead to a change in productivity or nutrient dynamics between ecosystems, change important ecological processes, or reduce the resilience of the ecosystem to disturbances?".Soulé et al.

Overall the red salamander is common and widespread, but locally it has declined because of habitat loss and it is listed as an endangered species in Indiana. The red salamander is arguably one of the most primitive plethodontids, so is extremely valuable in understanding the links to ancestors and the evolutionary processes that have occurred. Maintaining species diversity is an important part of conservation, and to prevent the loss of salamander diversity as a whole, it is important to have some type of management plan in place to prevent P. ruber from escalating from a low conservation status to a higher level of concern. Since the red salamander prefers streams that are relatively pure, it is important to monitor human waste and pollution, since debris and silt could have adverse effects on their habitat, potentially causing a threat to survival.

In general, taiga grows to the south of the July isotherm, occasionally as far north as the July isotherm, Arno & Hammerly 1984, Arno et al. 1995 with the southern limit more variable. Depending on rainfall, and taiga may be replaced by forest steppe south of the July isotherm where rainfall is very low, but more typically extends south to the July isotherm, and locally where rainfall is higher (notably in eastern Siberia and adjacent Outer Manchuria) south to the July isotherm. In these warmer areas the taiga has higher species diversity, with more warmth-loving species such as Korean pine, Jezo spruce, and Manchurian fir, and merges gradually into mixed temperate forest or, more locally (on the Pacific Ocean coasts of North America and Asia), into coniferous temperate rainforests where oak and hornbeam appear and join the conifers, birch and Populus tremula.

Mount Wood Homestead complex is today within Sturt National Park. The national park is representative of the shrub rangeland in western New South Wales, it provides one of the best examples of this land type in conjunction with wattle (Acacia spp.) dominated fluviatile and aeolian land types. The area, due to its size, is an important wildlife refuge, and has a significant species diversity including 246 native species, as well as a high diversity of landforms including Aeolian dune systems, Mitchell Grass Plains, the Jump Ups and Gibber Desert. The national park lies in the south-west of a vast bowl shaped depression which covers eastern central Australia, and is mainly covered by low undulating plains of Gibber Desert in the east or sand dunes in the west except for where it contains the south-western end of the Grey Range.

Cortes J, Guzman, Hector (1998) Organsimos de los arrecifes coralinos de Costa Rica: descripcion, distribucion geografica e historia natural de los corales zooxantelados (Anthozoa: Sleractinia) del Pacifico. Revista de Biología Tropical 46 The Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) is a biotope known for intrinsically low coral species diversity which unfortunately enhances the potential threats to these coral reef systems. Besides the direct effects of overfishing, anchor damage, and coral mining, terrestrial land use affects coral reef habitats in more indirect ways. Panamá experiences high seasonal rainfall (3000 mm/yr.) and reefs can be severely impacted if corals are chronically exposed to the runoff of nutrients originating from deforestation and soil erosion, fertilizers, pesticidesGlynn PW, L.S. Howard, Eugene Corcoran, Ana D. Freay (1984) The occurrence and toxicity of herbicides in reef building corals. Mar Poll Bulletin 15:370-374 or untreated sewage.

Today, there is much more species diversity exhibited. The first annual Harrow Fair took place in 1878. The list of entries had expanded to include home arts exhibits such as crafts and cooking, as well as more diverse agricultural exhibits. In 1880, Colchester Township purchased of land in order to create establish a permanent fairground.The Colchester South and Harrow Agriculture Society Continual success, lead to further expansion in 1902, as well as developments to the grounds including perimeter fencing, planting trees, building a half mile track, and more. In 1907, the duration of the fair extended over three days. Further land expansion was limited in the 1950s when the high school board purchased the adjacent property. As a result, the livestock barns had to be relocated to a more isolated area. On its 115th anniversary in 1969, the Harrow Fair welcomed the Lieutenant Governor of Ontario, William Ross MacDonald.

PROTECTED SITE APPLICATION PART C, SECTION VII ZONING RULES AND REGULATIONS for Syracuse Landmark Preservation Board In Revisioning an Historic Landscape the author states that only a portion of the plants in the original plan were planted and that it was not clear from the photographs how many of the shrub species had been established.REVISIONING AN HISTORIC LANDSCAPE THE JAMES PASS ARBORETUM Syracuse, New York. Typed and bound project report, 279 pages, 7 tables, 97 figures, 1994 Aida A. Khalil p49 In the Protected Site Application, the author notes, that planting had been complete by the time of the 1938 photograph. He notes that there had been a dramatic loss in species diversity by 1994 estimating that there was at least 200 trees of over 70 species and that approximately 65% of the trees present at the time of his study date back to the original planting circa 1927.

North Fork Mountain's fine-grained Tuscarora quartzite erodes into sand, which either quickly disperses or persists in cracks and crevices, sometimes even forming tiny dunelets on wide, nearly flat open outcrops, as on Panther Knob. On the other hand, the various mountains along the Allegheny Front immediately west of North Fork Mountain are capped instead by the coarse Pottsville sandstone conglomerate, which erodes instead primarily into gravel rather than sand. While many widespread Appalachian rock-outcrop species are shared between the two areas, openings on Dolly Sods lack the silvery nailwort, the white alumroot, and table-mountain pine, and instead support a greater species diversity, even including such wetland plants as the small cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccos). Bristly rose (Rosa acicularis), has its southernmost known occurrence at Pike Knob on North Fork Mountain Paper birch (Betula papyrifera) groves thrive along Little Creek and on Pike Knob.

The Western Ghats are a chain of hills that run along the western edge of peninsular India. Their proximity to the ocean and through orographic effect, they receive high rainfall. These regions have moist deciduous forest and rain forest. The region shows high species diversity as well as high levels of endemism. Nearly 77% of the amphibians and 62% of the reptile species found here are found nowhere else.Daniels, R. J. R. (2001) Endemic fishes of the Western Ghats and the Satpura hypothesis. Current Science 81(3):240-244 The region shows biogeographical affinities to the Malayan region, and the Satpura hypothesis proposed by Sunder Lal Hora suggests that the hill chains of Central India may have once formed a connection with the forests of northeastern India and into the Indo-Malayan region. Hora used torrent stream fishes to support the theory, but it was also suggested to hold for birds.

The reef systems of New Caledonia are considered to be the second largest in the world after the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, the longest continuous barrier reef in the world with a length of 1,600 km and its lagoon, the largest in the world with an area of 24,000 square kilometers. This ecosystem hosts along with Fiji, the world's most diverse concentration of reef structures, 146 types based on a global classification system, and they equal or even surpass the much larger Great Barrier Reef in coral and fish diversity. The reef has great species diversity with a high level of endemism, and is home to endangered dugongs (Dugong dugon) with the third largest population, and is an important nesting site for green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas). In the lagoons of New Caledonia there are many water species ranging from plankton to larger fish and even sharks.

' The large degree of variation expressed in the Dmanisi fossils led Lordkipanidze and colleagues to suggest that the variation seen in other Pliocene and Pleistocene hominid fossils, typically used to justify several distinct fossil species, might have been misinterpreted as species diversity. Thus, the morphological diversity in contemporary African hominins, typically used to justify H. ergaster as a species distinct from H. erectus, might thus instead be due to regional variation in a single evolving lineage of hominins (H. erectus). With this in mind, the classification of the African material as H. erectus ergaster (a chronosubspecies rather than a distinct species) was suggested and since the Dmanisi hominins are believed to have originated from an early migration by the H. erectus lineage out of Africa, it was determined that they be best placed within H. e. ergaster with a quadrinomial (4-part) name; H. e. e. georgicus.

If the site has a high diversity of species a RI20 can be calculated using twenty species. For sites with limited data or low species diversity, a RI5 with only five species can be calculated. A Rucker Girth Index or RGI10 can also be calculated using the girth of the largest girth individual in each of the ten fattest species on a site. The Rucker Height Index or Rucker Index has numerous merits that make it a useful measurement when comparing various tall tree sites: # The formula is straight forward, unambiguous, and easy to apply; # The index can be applied to forests in any area with any make-up of trees; # The index requires a fairly diverse mix of trees in order to generate a high index value; and # To get a sufficient diversity of trees of great height requires at least a modest size or larger plot of forest and a reasonably thorough examination to generate a high RI value.

The San Francisco Bay has lost more than 90% of its wetland acreage since the mid-1800s due to land modifications such as shoreline expansion and development, which has led to the decline in coastal habitat, connectivity, species diversity, and water quality. In 1994, vision of the restoration plan of Crissy Field began under the Presidio General Management Plan (GMPA). The goals of the restoration project were to restore the area to a sustainable tidal wetland as a habitat for plants and wildlife increase the recreational opportunities for residents and visitors to the Presidio. The restoration of Crissy Marsh began in 1997. Since then, almost 90,000 tons of hazardous materials had been removed from the area. Between 1997 and 2000, 40 acres of natural habitat has been restored. This included 18 acres of tidal marsh and 22 acres of dune and dune swale habitat. The expected amount of hazardous waste to be removed was 15,000 tons.

The electric ant (Wasmannia auropunctata), also known as the little fire ant, is a small (approx 1.5 mm long), light to golden brown (ginger) social ant native to Central and South America, now spread to parts of Africa (including Gabon and Cameroon), North America, Puerto Rico, Israel, Cuba, and six Pacific Island groups (including the Galápagos Islands, Hawaii, New Caledonia and the Solomon Islands) plus north-eastern Australia (Cairns).Electric ant (Wasmannia auropunctata) webpage Accessed 7 March 2009Global Invasive Species Database – No. 100 – Wasmannia auropunctata The name, electric ant (or little fire ant), derives from the ant's painful sting relative to its size.Queensland Government Electric Ant: Warning Accessed 7 March 2009 This ant's impact in those environments and countries outside of its place of origin has been described as follows: > Wasmannia auropunctata .. is blamed for reducing species diversity, reducing > overall abundance of flying and tree-dwelling insects, and eliminating > arachnid populations. It is also known for its painful stings.

These rainforests contain one of the most complete and diverse living records of the major stages in the evolution of land plants, from the very first land plants to higher plants (Gymnosperms and Angiosperms). The TTA and surrounding Walter Hill Range area has in general maintained high habitat values due to the fact that it is located in a protected area (Wet Tropics of Queensland World Heritage Area), has maintained reasonable habitat integrity with suitable structural and species diversity, has good connectivity with other suitable habitat including lowland-highland connectivity, and contains lowland habitats that are locally rare. The most extensive remnant of Complex Mesophyll Vine Forest (Type 1A) now remaining in virgin condition in the wet tropics is found on the plateau adjacent to the junction of Downey Creek with the South Johnstone River at altitudes of between . It is assumed that the Downey Creek area lies near the upper altitudinal limits of Type 1A.

Reconstructed skeleton of the closely related Ophthalmosaurus, Natural History Museum, London Ichthyosaurs were traditionally thought to have been affected by three extinction events: one at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary, one at the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary, and a final extinction in the Cretaceous at the boundary of the Cenomanian and Turonian ages that left no survivors. Some researchers suggested that their species diversity declined after the mid-Jurassic, with the ichthyosaurs lingering on until they disappeared at the end of the Cenomanian. This decline was thought to have been associated with a transition in the dominant ichthyosaur lineage: the large-eyed, thunniform (tuna-shaped) ophthalmosaurines, which were successful and widespread notwithstanding their hyperspecialization, would have been replaced by the more generalized platypterygiines, which had smaller eyes and longer bodies. Acamptonectes is a significant find in that it is an ophthalmosaurine from the Early Cretaceous, demonstrating that the ophthalmosaurines were not entirely wiped out at the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary.

There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing through time, but will be likely to slow in the future. Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions. More than 99.9 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, amounting to over five billion species, are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described. The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037 and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC (trillion tons of carbon). In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth. The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years.

A scientific study indicates that the open drains feeding the lake introduce toxic substances from the catchment of the lake, particularly heavy metals which get adsorbed onto the suspended sediments, which in turn settle down in the bottom of the lake. A study of the risk assessment code has revealed that 4–13% of manganese, 4–8% of copper, 17–24% of nickel, 3–5% of chromium, 13–26% of lead, 14–23% of cadmium and 2–3% of zinc exist in exchangeable fraction which puts the lake under the low to medium risk category and infers that it could enter into food chain and also cause deleterious effects to aquatic life. This study provides the basic database to formulate guidelines for the dredging operations and/or restoration programmes in the lake.Metal fractionation study on bed sediments of Lake Nainital, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, Uttaranchal, India The water quality studies carried out by the National Institute of Hydrology during 1999–2001 on physico-chemical parameters (pH, temperature profile, Secchi's transparency, dissolved oxygen, BOD, COD and nutrients), biological profile (density of population, biomass and species diversity of phyto, zooplankton and macrobenthos) and bacteriological characteristics have led to the conclusion that long-term limnological changes have occurred in the lake.