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"rearmament" Definitions
  1. the act or process of obtaining, or supplying somebody with, new or better weapons, armies, etc.
"rearmament" Synonyms
arming armament equipment provision sale supply trade mobilization(US) buildup preparation deployment disarmament mobilisation(UK) weaponry hardware ammunition ordnance arms heat gun fortification reequipment reequipping reinforcement securement upgrade More
"rearmament" Antonyms
disarmament demilitarisation(UK) demilitarization(US) demobilisation(UK) demobilization(US) de-escalation arms reduction arms limitation decommissioning weapons reduction decommissioning of weapons arms control decommissioning of arms weapons limitation deactivation of arms deactivation of weapons weapons control laying down of arms laying down of weapons

857 Sentences With "rearmament"

How to use rearmament in a sentence? Find typical usage patterns (collocations)/phrases/context for "rearmament" and check conjugation/comparative form for "rearmament". Mastering all the usages of "rearmament" from sentence examples published by news publications.

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Imagine full Japanese and German rearmament, alongside rapid-fire proliferation of nuclear weapons.
Yet, German rearmament already has started, sotto voce, albeit from a very low baseline.
For his part, Hitler took advantage of the year after Munich to accelerate his country's rearmament.
The FARC, now a legal political party, has condemned the rearmament of some of its former members.
The contract forms one small part of Russia's 10-year, $660 billion rearmament program that began in 2010.
To strengthen a Christian democratic West against a godless Soviet East, he cast his weight behind German rearmament.
Venezuela's foreign ministry on Friday blamed the rearmament on Duque's failure to follow through on the peace accords.
Venezuela's foreign ministry has blamed the dissident rearmament on Duque's failure to follow through on a 2016 peace accord.
As chancellor of the Exchequer for most of the 1930s, he oversaw the government's strict budgetary limits on rearmament.
In August 2019, after accusing the Colombian government of violating the agreement, ex-FARC commander Ivan Marquez announced rearmament.
Continued rearmament depends on money, and Russia's economy is dependent on oil that is now selling for bargain-basement prices.
He called for rearmament before both world wars against the hopes and convictions of the pacifists and appeasers in power.
Venezuela's foreign ministry has blamed the dissident rearmament on Colombia President Ivan Duque's failure to follow through on the peace accords.
With visits to these camps continuing into the present, Ríos has documented this rearmament, creating a contemporary, changing archive of the conflict.
In Japan, Prime Minister Shinzō Abe antagonizes neighbors in the region with war revisionism, offerings to the controversial Yasukuni Shrine, and proposals of Japanese rearmament.
Ryabkov said Russian rearmament and "promising models of military equipment" meant the U.S. warheads were not a direct threat to Russian security but were concerning nevertheless.
"There must be a legal rearmament in Europe, so we fight on equal terms with the United States in the field of economic competition," Berger said.
Until the Lebanese government is willing and able to confront Hezbollah, the Security Council should at the very least expand UNIFIL's mandate to actively combat Hezbollah's rearmament.
The 1935 award given to Carl von Ossietzky, a German journalist and pacifist imprisoned for exposing Germany's clandestine rearmament, was widely viewed as a condemnation of Nazism.
"Mutual assured destruction is still keeping the peace," Felgenhauer noted, "but it also may be threatened in the coming years as the Russian rearmament program steams ahead."
Take, for instance, a proposal in 1950 to create a European army as an alternative to West German rearmament under NATO (which had been created the previous year).
Built in violation of U.N. Security Council Resolution 1701 prohibiting Hezbollah's rearmament in this area, they are reportedly wide enough to move heavy military equipment and large troop units.
Yet Hezbollah has evaded oversight of its rearmament efforts, by hindering and intimidating the work of peacekeepers operating as part of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL).
They then used the country's military deficiencies as an excuse to turn a blind eye to Germany's increasing aggression and explosive rearmament, a flagrant violation of the 803 Versailles Treaty.
It's named after a famous German pacifist who exposed the country's illegal rearmament and faced charges of high treason — so he and Snowden would have had a lot to talk about.
Venezuela's foreign ministry on Friday blamed the dissident rearmament on Duque's failure to follow through on the peace accords, and Maduro tweeted his government was committed to promoting peace in Colombia.
So I work at UNDATA now, and our role is twofold: we enforce disarmament, and we watch for rearmament, on the basis of treaties signed by every extant government in the world.
By contrast, a new generation of French thinkers blamed the old do-nothing liberal school of economics both for sluggish growth and for the industrial failure to organize rearmament in the 1930s.
Instead of engaging in unbridled rearmament we should combat the causes of conflicts, as well as invest in better equipment and strive for more efficiency in military cooperation within both Europe and NATO.
The rearmament of former FARC fighters threatens not only to stoke armed conflict in Colombia, but also to fuel violence in Venezuela's border region that for years has been a haven of smuggling and delinquency.
Russia, which is in the midst of a major rearmament program, has embarked upon its biggest military push in the Arctic since the 1991 fall of the Soviet Union, beefing up its military presence and capabilities.
Former FARC guerillas on Thursday announced a rearmament in a video that Colombian authorities believe was filmed in Venezuela, spurring concern of a worsening of the Colombian armed conflict and expansion of armed groups in Venezuela.
BERLIN (Reuters) - Germany stands on the front line of a new Cold War, Foreign Minister Sigmar Gabriel said, and Chancellor Angela Merkel was making a grave error by following U.S. President Donald Trump down the rearmament path.
A majority of former guerrillas have remained committed to the peace process, despite the killings of dozens of ex-combatants, the rearmament of some former commanders and doubts that President Ivan Duque is committed to helping former fighters.
In the 1930s, economies got out of their traps when a change in governance led to a abandonment of usual gold-standard monetary-policy practice and/or when the demands of rearmament led to a change in macroeconomic policy.
But despite the theatrical flaunting of new missiles, and NATO's impressive rearmament to the west, SIPRI calculates that Russia's defence budget actually shrank by 3.5% in 2018—putting it outside the top five for the first time in over a decade.
Early attempts to expand Japan's arms export business have produced tepid results; and in anticipation of rearmament, the branches of Japan's military have engaged in a wasteful struggle for funding — U.S. arms dealers have responded by price- gouging the Japanese government.
CARACAS (Reuters) - Venezuelan President Nicolas Maduro on Tuesday ordered the armed forces to be on alert for a potential attack by Colombia's government and announced military exercises on the border amid the rearmament of a group of former guerrilla commanders.
Former Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) guerillas last week announced a rearmament in a video that Colombian authorities believe was filmed in Venezuela, spurring concern of a worsening of the Colombian armed conflict and expansion of armed groups in Venezuela.
After 60 days, full access to the entirety of the occupied territories would be established, including presence along the international border in Donetsk and Luhansk regions, and control over all crossing points (including inspections of cross-border traffic), thereby ensuring an end to further rearmament of the illegal Russian-led militias.
Thinking that they could ultimately control Hitler while enjoying the benefits of his popular support, the conservatives were initially gratified by the fulfillment of their agenda: intensified rearmament, the outlawing of the Communist Party, the suspension first of freedom of speech, the press, and assembly and then of parliamentary government itself, a purge of the civil service, and the abolition of independent labor unions.
The Labour Party strongly opposed the rearmament programme. Clement Attlee said on 21 December 1933: "For our part, we are unalterably opposed to anything in the nature of rearmament".Barnett, p. 422.
He opposed the appeasement of Nazi Germany and supported rearmament.
He was initially reassured when Bevin told him that he too was opposed to West German rearmament. In September 1950, the United States announced it favored West German rearmament, and what Massigli saw as a personal betrayal, Bevin endorsed the concept. Massigli was especially opposed to the West German rearmament as the American proposal called for former Wehrmacht officers to lead the West German Army, and because he noted that there was always the possibility that the United States could return to isolationism while there was no undoing West German rearmament.
I had to take all the > important speeches. The moment he went, I prepared for a general election > and got a bigger majority for rearmament. No power on earth could have got > rearmament without a general election except by a big split. Simon was > inefficient.
Germany's post-1918 rearmament began at the time of the Weimar Republic, when the Chancellor of Germany Hermann Müller, who belonged to the Social Democratic Party (SPD), passed cabinet laws that allowed secret and illegal rearmament efforts.Wilhelm Deist, Wehrmacht and the German Rearmament (1981) During its early years (1918–1933), the rearmament was relatively small, secret, and supported by a cross-section of Germans motivated by a mixture of patriotism-based nationalism and economics-based nationalism. The latter motive viewed the Treaty of Versailles, which was ostensibly about war reparations and peace enforcement. France wanted to make sure Germany would never again be a military threat.
In 1935, before rearmament began, Vickers-Armstrongs was the third-largest manufacturing employer in Britain, behind Unilever and ICI.
The beginning of a national rearmament programme in 1936 prompted the re- commissioning of the works to make gun mountings.
126 Moreover, the increased taxes to pay for rearmament hampered economic growth, and heavy borrowing to pay for rearmament damaged perceptions of British credit, leading to strong pressure being put on the pound sterling. By 1939, Chamberlain's government was devoting well over half of its revenues to defence.Overy, Richard and Wheatcroft, Andrew, The Road To War, London: Macmillan 1989, p. 99 Chamberlain's policy of rearmament faced much domestic opposition from the Labour Party, which favoured a policy of disarmament and, until late 1938, always voted against increases in the defence budget.
Levy published his dissertation as The Royal Navy’s Home Fleet in World War II (Palgrave, 2003). He followed this with a more popular work discussing the last years of peace titled Appeasement and Rearmament: Britain, 1936–1939. Historian Andrew Gordon wrote of Appeasement and Rearmament that: Given Britain’s strategic, political, and economic situation, diplomacy make both pragmatic and ethical sense in the late 1930s. James P. Levy’s succinct and beautifully written synthesis of the case for the tandem policies of appeasement and rearmament places them in their proper context and relationship.
Rearmament and the threat of global conflict attracted the attention of Clement Attlee in 1937 for whom he worked as PPS.
In 1954, opponents of the rearmament prevented him from speaking to public assemblies by yelling and shouting, and lightly wounded him in one instance. After the rearmament was official, he served as the first postwar Defence Minister of Germany from 1955 to 1956 and as Minister of Labour and Social Affairs from 1957 to 1965. Blank died in Bonn.
However, France forced a deadlock, opposing the threat of naval rearmament. especially as it had perceived links to the Nazi regime. To resolve the issue, the Wagner Paper was sent to the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE), which was in favor of naval rearmament. France compromised, offering some escort ships and accepting the naval buildup.
Accessed April 28,2015. doi: jstor.org German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer was determined to use offers of rearmament to regain sovereignty for West Germany.
Kennan, although "father" of the containment policy, also disagreed with the document, particularly its call for massive rearmament (FRUS, 1950, Vol. I).
After the Nazi takeover of power in January 1933, the Nazis pursued a greatly enlarged and more aggressive version of rearmament. During its struggle for power, the National Socialist party (NSDAP) promised to recover Germany's lost national pride. It proposed military rearmament claiming that the Treaty of Versailles and the acquiescence of the Weimar Republic were an embarrassment for all Germans.Hakim, Joy (1995).
The rearmament was completed in December 1994.Composition of the Strategic Missile Forces As of 2013, the division commander was Colonel Sergey Andreyevich Talatynnik.
Negotiations over rearmament failed at the 1932 Geneva Conference shortly before his resignation, but in December the "Five powers agreement" accepted Germany's military equality.
By May 1939, Simon was warning the Cabinet that under the economic strain of rearmament, "We shall find ourselves in a position, when we should be unable to wage any war other than a brief one".Overy, & Wheatcroft, p. 99 Given the economic strains caused by rearmament, Chamberlain greatly wanted an end to the endless crises gripping Europe before the arms race bankrupted Britain.
Moral Rearmament. Rasmussen's request that the council ask Mayor Fletcher Bowron to proclaim a Moral Rearmament Week failed in April 1940. with Councilman Arthur E. Briggs declaring that the program was "not a governmental matter, but one of personal interest and entirely outside the sphere" of the council."M.R.A. Appeal Lost in Council," Los Angeles Times, April 18, 1940, page A-2 Negro council district.
As long as the French continued to occupy the Rhineland, it functioned as a form of "collateral" under which the French could respond to any German attempt at overt rearmament by annexing the Rhineland. Once the last French soldiers left the Rhineland in June 1930, it could no longer play its "collateral" role, which opened the door for German rearmament. The French decision to build the Maginot Line in 1929 was a tacit French admission that it was only a matter of time before German rearmament on a massive scale would begin sometime in the 1930s and that the Rhineland was going to be remilitarised sooner or later.Emmerson, p. 25.
The Advocacy of War and Rearmament 1896-1914 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984) backflap. Morris has contributed 39 articles to the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
The Conference ended with no agreement reached. The Second Geneva Naval Conference in 1932 similarly ended without an agreement, after nations deadlocked over rearmament of Germany.
The Heinkel He 111, one of the technologically advanced aircraft that were designed and produced illegally in the 1930s as part of the clandestine German rearmament German rearmament (Aufrüstung, ) was a policy and practice of rearmament carried out in Germany during the interwar period (1918–1939), in violation of the Treaty of Versailles. It began on a small, secret, and informal basis shortly after the treaty was signed,but it was openly and massively expanded after the Nazi Party came to power in 1933. Despite its scale, German re-armament remained a largely covert operation, carried out using front organizations such as glider clubs for training pilots and sporting clubs, and Nazi SA militia groups for teaching infantry combat techniques. Front companies like MEFO were set up to finance the rearmament by placing massive orders with Krupp, Siemens, Gutehofnungshütte, and Rheinmetall for weapons forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles.
At this time, he began working on the first volume of the official history of Second World War in the Grand Strategy series , to be entitled Rearmament Policy.
As Minister of Economics Walther Funk assisted the pace of rearmament, and subsequently as Reichsbank President accepted from the SS the gold rings of Nazi concentration camp victims.
Taylor also stipulated that the meeting was most likely a piece of internal politics, and he pointed out that Hitler could have been trying to encourage the gathering's members to put pressure on Reich Minister of Economics and President of the Reichsbank, Hjalmar Schacht, to release more funding for rearmament. In fact, Schacht soon resigned in protest at the pre- eminence of rearmament in Nazi economics. Contending historians have also pointed out that rearmament is an integral part of a preparation for conflict. In response, Taylor argued that Hitler's policy was a bluff (he wished to rearm Germany to frighten and intimidate other states) to allow him to achieve his foreign policy goals without going to war.
Baldwin (1955) argues that his father Stanley Baldwin planned a rearmament programme as early as 1934, but had to do so quietly to avoid antagonizing the pacifistic public revealed by the Peace Ballot and endorsed by both the Labour and the Liberal oppositions. His thorough presentation of the case for rearmament in 1935, the son argues, defeated pacificism and secured a victory that allowed rearmament to move ahead.A W. Baldwin, My Father: The True Story (1955) Taylor argues that with international disarmament a dead letter, only question five-B mattered. The Peace Ballot had become a ringing endorsement of collective security by all means short of war, along with a hesitant support for war.
Hitler completely rejected the idea of controlled rearmament under foreign supervision. Mussolini did not trust Hitler's intentions regarding Anschluss nor Hitler's promise of no territorial claims on South Tyrol.
With MacDonald's health in decline, he and Baldwin changed places in June 1935: Baldwin was now prime minister, MacDonald Lord President of the Council.Taylor, p. 378. In October that year, Baldwin called a general election. Neville Chamberlain advised Baldwin to make rearmament the leading issue in the election campaign against Labour and said that if a rearmament programme was not announced until after the election, his government would be seen as having deceived the people.
As the rearmament plans met with harsh opposition by a wide circle within the West German population and contradicted the occupation statute, the government office responsible for the rearmament acted secretly, unofficially known as Amt Blank. By 1955, the number of employees had surpassed 1,300. On 7 June 1955 the office became the Ministry of Defence, or Bundesministerium für Verteidigung in German. The Bundeswehr was established and Germany joined the NATO the same year.
In the spring of 1954, opposition to the Pleven plan grew within the French National Assembly. The British Prime Minister Winston Churchill told Adenauer that Britain would ensure that West German rearmament would happen, regardless if the National Assembly ratified the EDC treaty or not. In August 1954, the Pleven plan died when an alliance of conservatives and Communists in the National Assembly joined forces to reject the EDC treaty under the grounds that West German rearmament in any form was an unacceptable danger to France. Signing the North Atlantic Treaty in Paris, 1954 (Adenauer at the left) British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden used the failure of the EDC to advocate for independent West German rearmament and West German NATO membership.
This made the ordinary German citizen the financier of the German rearmament.”Martin Kitchen, A History of Modern Germany 1800–2000, Maden, MA, Blackwell Publishing, 2006, p. 284 Eventually, the government had to resort to the printing press to help mitigate the cash shortage. It was one of the key components of Germany's rearmament program and was invented by Hjalmar Schacht, who then was head of the Ministry of Economics, and Plenipotentiary for the War Economy.
One of the better-known attempts to win West Germany the right to re- arm was the European Defense Community (EDC). A modification of the 1950 Pleven Plan, it proposed the raising of West German forces integrated into a European Defense Force. When West Germany embraced an edited plan and the push for rearmament seemed to be assured, France vetoed the attempt in August 1954.David K Large, Germans to the Front: West German Rearmament in the Adenauer Era.
The Treaty of Versailles still prohibited Germany from building heavy cruisers, but the rise of Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party to power in 1933 led to the formal rejection of the Treaty of Versailles. After pulling out of the Geneva Conference in 1933, Hitler argued that if the other European powers did not disarm to parity with Germany, they should accept German rearmament. The German navy, renamed the Kriegsmarine on 21 May 1935, was now free to pursue rearmament.
Baldwin's defenders argued that with pacifist appeasement the dominant political view in Britain, France and the United States, he felt he could not start a programme of rearmament without a national consensus on the matter. Williamson argued that Baldwin had helped create "a moral basis for rearmament in the mid 1930s" that contributed greatly to "the national spirit of defiance after Munich".Philip Williamson, Stanley Baldwin. Conservative Leadership and National Values (Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 361.
As part of a rearmament program of the late 1930s, Romania sought to obtain a license for the local manufacture of two hundred French Renault R35 infantry tanks. By early 1938, negotiations for establishing a factory for the production of R35 tanks had reached an advanced state. By this time France's own demands for rearmament prohibited further development, however. In August and September 1939, as a stopgap measure, forty-one R35s were supplied to the Royal Romanian Army.
In October 1933, following the rise of Adolf Hitler and the founding of Nazi regime, Germany withdrew from League of Nations and the World Disarmament Conference. In March 1935, Germany reintroduced conscription followed by an open rearmament programme, the official unveiling of the Luftwaffe (air force), and signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement that allowed a surface fleet the size of the Royal Navy. The resulting rearmament programs was allotted 35 billion Reichsmarks over an eight-year period.
The German rearmament program faced difficulties acquiring raw materials. Germany imported most of its essential materials for rebuilding the Luftwaffe, in particular rubber and aluminium. Petroleum imports were particularly vulnerable to blockade.
Hoare vigorously endorsed Britain's naval rearmament, including ordering the first three King George V-class battleships, and worked to reverse the subordination of the British naval aviation to the Royal Air Force.
Chamberlain told him to tone down his criticisms of Hitler. Cooper urged rearmament, not then a fashionable view, and briefed Churchill, then on the backbenches, that Hitler was serious and wanted war.
Baldwin's younger son A. Windham Baldwin, writing in 1955, argued that his father, Stanley, had planned a rearmament programme as early as 1934 but had to do so quietly to avoid antagonising the public, whose pacifism was revealed by the Peace Ballot of 1934–35 and endorsed by both the Labour and the Liberal oppositions. His thorough presentation of the case for rearmament in 1935, his son argued, defeated pacifism and secured a victory that allowed rearmament to move ahead.A. Windham Baldwin, My Father: The True Story (1955) On 31 July 1934, the Cabinet approved a report that called for expansion of the Royal Air Force to the 1923 standard by creating 40 new squadrons over the next five years.Correlli Barnett, The Collapse of British Power (London: Methuen, 1972), p. 412. On 26 November 1934, six days after receiving the news that the German air force would be as large as the RAF within one year, the Cabinet decided to speed up air rearmament from four years to two.
Ultimately, the Nazis faced a conflict between their rearmament program, which by necessity would require material sacrifices from workers (longer hours and a lower standard of living), versus a need to maintain the confidence of the working class in the regime. Hitler was sympathetic to the view that stressed taking further measures for rearmament but he did not fully implement the measures required for it in order to avoid alienating the working class.Spielvogel, Jackson J. Hitler and Nazi Germany: A History. Routledge, 2016.
Henry Burt Wright (1877–1923) was an American professor from Yale University whose writings influenced, among others, Frank Buchman, and subsequently the work he developed under the name of Oxford Group, later Moral Rearmament.
After his acquittal, Foertsch collaborated with Hans Speidel in the development of concepts for Germany's rearmament many years before the official foundation of the Bundeswehr, the German army, in 1955.Critchfield, James H. Partners at the Creation: The Men Behind Postwar Germany's Defense and Intelligence Establishments. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, 2003. p.220. In 1950, Foertsch was the leading member of the select group of former Wehrmacht high- ranking officers invited by Chancellor Konrad Adenauer to take part in the conference to discuss West Germany's rearmament (Wiederbewaffnung).
During the September 1950 NATO meeting, France decided to become isolated for the rearmament operation because they did not want Germany to join NATO. West Germany wanted to join NATO because of Adenauer's desire to appease the fears of its neighbors and show a willingness to cooperate.Hans Speier, German Rearmament and Atomic War. Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peterson and Company, 1957. 198 Initial skepticism by the US was set aside after Dwight D Eisenhower endorsed the deal, and West Germany agreed to support the operation.
Plan of gun deck, after rearmament in 1882 Fylla's first voyage was to the Danish West Indies in 1863, but she was called back in 1864 because of the second Schleswig war. During most of her career Fylla served as inspection ship and coast guard around the Faroes, Iceland and Greenland, but also as fisheries inspection ship in the North Sea in 1880-81. Major repairs and rearmament with more, but smaller cannons, in 1881-82. Fylla was decommissioned in 1894 and broken up in 1903.
The outbreak of the war convinced Western leaders of the growing threat of international communism. The United States began to encourage Western European countries, including West Germany, to contribute to their own defense, though this was perceived as a threat by its neighbors, especially France. West Germany had not fought in the Korean war, as it had been demilitarized. As the war continued, however, opposition to rearmament lessened and China's entry in the war caused France to revise its position towards Bundeswehr German rearmament.
The main issue of discussion related not to local concerns, but national concerns of rearmament. There had been much debate within the Labour Movement, including the Labour Party and the Trades Union Congress, about the National Government's reaction to the emerging situation in Europe. This led eventually to a commitment not to reverse the rearmament program until the international situation had changed. The Conservative candidate, Colonel McInnes Shaw, was unable to speak at all for eight days during the campaign due to a throat illness and Mrs.
Croft was also associated with Churchill in urging greater rearmament in face of the German threat.Croft, p. 285. In June 1938 Croft wrote a series of articles for the Weekly Review, arguing for rearmament.Croft, p. 277.
Following the Wiederbewaffnung (rearmament) of the Federal Republic of Germany, Lütje joined the German Air Force in July 1957. He retired holding the rank of Oberst (colonel) and died on 18 January 1967 in Cologne-Wahn.
Rosa Aschenbrenner (born Rosa Lierl: 27 April 1885 – 9 February 1967) was a German politician (KPD / SPD). After the Second World War, she became increasingly marginalised from the political mainstream because of her opposition to rearmament.
During this period, Germany came under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi party, which set upon a rearmament and an aggressive foreign policy that led to the outbreak of World War II in September 1939.
Shaw 1958 pp. 46–47 German rearmament activity reopened the mines from 1936 until the South African government closed the mine as enemy property in 1940.Shaw 1958 pp. 43–45 Tsumeb mines reopened again in 1946.
The four worked together to ensure voices in the party opposing British rearmament were heard.David Howell, Dictionary of Labour Biography, vol.XII, pp.72-76 He was also elected to the party's executive, representing the party's left-wing.
Retrieved 4 August 2012. Above all, Hitler's priority was rearmament and the buildup of the German military in preparation for an eventual war to conquer Lebensraum in the East. The policies of Schacht created a scheme for deficit financing, in which capital projects were paid for with the issuance of promissory notes called Mefo bills, which could be traded by companies with each other. This was particularly useful in allowing Germany to rearm because the Mefo bills were not Reichsmarks and did not appear in the federal budget, so they helped conceal rearmament.
The officially pursued German rearmament began in 1935 under Adolf Hitler, contrary to the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles the foundation of the post-World War I international order. Unable to prevent Hitler's remilitarization of the Rhineland, the United Kingdom and France also pursued rearmament. Meanwhile, the German territorial expansion into central Europe began in earnest with the Anschluss of Austria in March 1938. Poland dispatched special diversionary groups to the disputed Zaolzie (Czech Silesia) area in hope of expediting the breakup of Czechoslovakia and regaining the territory.
When he was appointed Chancellor in 1933, Hitler initiated a huge wave of public works and secret rearmament. Fascism and Nazism shared similar principles and Hitler and Mussolini met on several state and private occasions in the 1930s.
The "continental hypothesis" came fourth and the main role of the army was to protect the empire, which included the anti-aircraft defence of the United Kingdom (with the assistance of the TA). In 1938, "limited liability" reached its apogee, just as rearmament was maturing and the army was considering the "new conspectus", a much more ambitious rearmament plan. In February 1938, the CID ruled that planning should be based on "limited liability"; between late 1937 and early 1939, equipment for the five-division field army was reduced to that necessary for colonial warfare in the Far East.
Ralph Follett Wigram CMG (; 23 October 1890 – 31 December 1936) was a British government official in the Foreign Office. He helped raise the alarm about German rearmament under Hitler during the period prior to World War II. In part, he did this by providing intelligence information about German rearmament to Winston Churchill at a time when Churchill did not hold a position in the government of Stanley Baldwin. Churchill used the information to publicly attack the policies of Baldwin. Churchill's magisterial six-volume history of World War II, The Second World War, described Wigram as a "great unsung hero".
Wigram helped raise the alarm about German rearmament under Adolf Hitler during the period prior to the Second World War. In part, he did this by providing intelligence information about German rearmament to Winston Churchill, at a time when Churchill did not hold any position in the government of Stanley Baldwin. Churchill used the information to publicly attack the policies of Baldwin. Wigram's superior in the Foreign Office, Permanent Under-Secretary Sir Robert Vansittart had been quite alarmed about the German situation for several years, and when Wigram came on board, they soon came to share deep concern about the situation.
More generally, while there was unanimity between Nuding and the German Communist Party in opposing German rearmament in respect of West Germany, Nuding also held that rearmament of East Germany was similarly unacceptable: this was at variance with the strategy of the Ulbricht government and their Soviet backers. Despite his exclusion from his party posts, Hermann Nuding continued to be listed as a party official till May 1955. He was excluded from party membership only on 17 August 1956, although even after this he continued to be consulted by party officials on political and trades union matters.
Bevan was readmitted to the party on 20 December 1939, after agreeing "to refrain from conducting or taking part in campaigns in opposition to the declared policy of the Party". He strongly criticised the British government's rearmament plans in the face of the rise of Hitler's Germany, saying to the Labour conference in autumn 1937: > If the immediate international situation is used as an excuse to get us to > drop our opposition to the rearmament programme of the Government, the next > phase must be that we must desist from any industrial or political action > that may disturb national unity in the face of Fascist aggression. Along > that road is endless retreat, and at the end of it a voluntary totalitarian > State with ourselves erecting the barbed wire around. You cannot > collaborate, you cannot accept the logic of collaboration on a first class > issue like rearmament, and at the same time evade the implications of > collaboration all along the line when the occasion demands it.
Massigli's vision of a European defense depended on two strands, securing the "continental commitment" from Britain and keeping very strict controls on any military force that West Germany might possess. Massigli told Bevin that to avoid the impression in France that Britain was "still governed by the spirit of Dunkirk" that the British should station military forces on French soil and open regular staff talks. Massigli urged that Britain, France and the other western European states should increase their own defense spending in response to fears of a Soviet invasion, and argued that West German rearmament would be counterproductive as it would create a rival for raw materials that West Germany would have to import that would hinder rearmament in both Britain and France. Finally, Massigli warned that French public opinion would not like the idea of West German rearmament only five years after 1945, and if the Western powers allowed it, it was bound to cause a reaction that would only benefit the Soviets.
P. Agrawal and J.C. Aggarwal,Information India : 1993–94. Global View. New Delhi : Concept, 1997. (p. 379). His parliamentary questions mainly concerned the Soviet Union and the threat of Hitler as well as the rearmament of Britain during the inter-war period.
The 11th Infantry Division (11. Infanterie-Division) was a formation of Nazi Germany's Wehrmacht during World War II. Formed 1 October 1934 as Infanterieführer I in Allenstein it was renamed 11. Infanterie-Division on 15. October 1935 with the disclosure of German rearmament.
After assuming power in 1933, the National Socialists realized that rearming Germany would require funds that were not likely to be generated from taxes or public loans. In addition, the need to keep the rearmament effort secret led to the creation of this dummy company.
German light cruiser Köln uses the original dual float configuration. German rearmament in the 1930s included Heinkel He 60, Heinkel He 114 and Arado Ar 196 float planes for launch from the catapults of the Kriegsmarines capital ships. A few later operated aboard merchant raiders.
Krampnitz Kaserne was a military complex, in Fahrland, Potsdam, created by the Germans during the rearmament period. It was used by the Germans until the end of the Second World War. After the war it was used by Soviet troops until its abandonment in 1992.
Recognition drawing of an Admiral Hipper-class cruiser The of heavy cruisers was ordered in the context of German naval rearmament after the Nazi Party came to power in 1933 and repudiated the disarmament clauses of the Treaty of Versailles. In 1935, Germany signed the Anglo–German Naval Agreement with Great Britain, which provided a legal basis for German naval rearmament; the treaty specified that Germany would be able to build five "treaty cruisers". The Admiral Hippers were nominally within the 10,000-ton limit, though they significantly exceeded the figure. Admiral Hipper was long overall and had a beam of and a maximum draft of .
In August 1936, in response to a growing economic crisis caused by his rearmament efforts, Hitler ordered Göring to implement a Four Year Plan to prepare Germany for war within the next four years. The plan envisaged an all- out struggle between "Judeo-Bolshevism" and German national socialism, which in Hitler's view required a committed effort of rearmament regardless of the economic costs. Count Galeazzo Ciano, foreign minister of Mussolini's government, declared an axis between Germany and Italy, and on 25 November, Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. Britain, China, Italy, and Poland were also invited to join the Anti-Comintern Pact, but only Italy signed in 1937.
Recognition drawing of an Admiral Hipper-class cruiser The of heavy cruisers was ordered in the context of German naval rearmament after the Nazi Party came to power in 1933 and repudiated the disarmament clauses of the Treaty of Versailles. In 1935, Germany signed the Anglo–German Naval Agreement with Great Britain, which provided a legal basis for German naval rearmament; the treaty specified that Germany would be able to build five "treaty cruisers". The Admiral Hippers were nominally within the 10,000-ton limit, though they significantly exceeded the figure. Lützow was long overall and had a beam of and a maximum draft of .
Recognition drawing of an Admiral Hipper-class cruiser The of heavy cruisers was ordered in the context of German naval rearmament after the Nazi Party came to power in 1933 and repudiated the disarmament clauses of the Treaty of Versailles. In 1935, Germany signed the Anglo–German Naval Agreement with Great Britain, which provided a legal basis for German naval rearmament; the treaty specified that Germany would be able to build five "treaty cruisers". The Admiral Hippers were nominally within the 10,000-ton limit, though they significantly exceeded the figure. As launched, Blücher was long overall, had a beam of and a maximum draft of .
According to American and German correspondents, the French retreated, while the French commander claimed that the Israelis had turned back. French commander of UNIFIL Alain Pellegrini stated that France would not intervene to disarm Hezbollah. Following the war, Hezbollah was widely reported to be rearming with the help of Iran and Syria, which were reportedly smuggling weaponry and munitions into Lebanon to replenish Hezbollah's depleted stocks. Israel accused UNIFIL of failing to prevent Hezbollah's rearmament and thus failing to implement Resolution 1701. The Israeli Air Force began flying reconnaissance sorties over Lebanon to monitor Hezbollah's rearmament, with Israel announcing they would continue until Resolution 1701 was fully implemented.
Recognition drawing of an Admiral Hipper-class cruiser The of heavy cruisers was ordered in the context of German naval rearmament after the Nazi Party came to power in 1933 and repudiated the disarmament clauses of the Treaty of Versailles. In 1935, Germany signed the Anglo–German Naval Agreement with Great Britain, which provided a legal basis for German naval rearmament; the treaty specified that Germany would be able to build five "treaty cruisers". The Admiral Hippers were nominally within the 10,000-ton limit, though they significantly exceeded the figure. Prinz Eugen was long overall, and had a beam of and a maximum draft of .
Recognition drawing of an Admiral Hipper-class cruiser The of heavy cruisers was ordered in the context of German naval rearmament after the Nazi Party came to power in 1933 and repudiated the disarmament clauses of the Treaty of Versailles. In 1935, Germany signed the Anglo–German Naval Agreement with Great Britain, which provided a legal basis for German naval rearmament; the treaty specified that Germany would be able to build five "treaty cruisers". The Admiral Hippers were nominally within the 10,000-ton limit, though they significantly exceeded the figure. Seydlitz was long overall and had a beam of and a maximum draft of .
Germany was stripped of its U-boats by the Treaty of Versailles at the end of World War I, but in the late 1920s and early 1930s began to rebuild its armed forces. The pace of rearmament accelerated under Adolf Hitler, and the first Type II U-boat was laid down on 11 February 1935. Knowing that the world would see this step towards rearmament, Hitler reached an agreement with Britain to build a navy up to 35% of the size of the Royal Navy in surface vessels, but equal to the British in number of submarines. This agreement was signed on 18 June 1935, and was commissioned 11 days later.
Paul Gottfried (fall 2007). "The Rise and Fall of Christian Democracy in Europe". Orbis. The party was split over issues of rearmament within the Western alliance and German unification as a neutral state. Adenauer staunchly defended his pro-Western position and outmanoeuvred some of his opponents.
After his release he became director of the German staff of the Dutch airline KLM in Frankfurt. From 1949 he acted at times as an adviser to the Foreign Office. He was involved in the rearmament of West Germany. Bürkner died on 15 July 1975 in Frankfurt.
Getgood retired from active trade unionism in 1947. He resigned as Chairman of the NILP in 1948, after it came close to declaring in favour of the partition of Ireland. In 1952, he acted as a delegate to the Moral Rearmament World Assembly held at Caux.
With the Neptune-class scrapped, the suspended ships were the only cruiser hull option viable past 1965 and worth considering for rearmament. By 1946, nine Mk 24 turrets were 75–80% percent complete with three further turrets partially complete for either the Tiger or Neptune-class cruisers.
A committee was formed, containing Plowden and Averell Harriman, to investigate the way in which US rearmament was absorbing and pushing up the prices of world raw materials. Gaitskell was horrified by Attlee's calling an election (19 September 1951) when he and Morrison were in North America.
A small faction of FARC leaders announced a return to armed activity on 29 August 2019, stating that the Colombian government did not respect peace agreements, a position Colombian officials disagreed with. The Colombian government responded with offensive strikes, killing FARC members destined to lead rearmament activities.
A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 100–104. . The rearmament became the topmost priority of the German government. Hitler would then spearhead one of the greatest expansions of industrial production and civil improvement Germany had ever seen.
Milward's theory was contrary to Hitler's and German planners' intentions. The Germans, aware of the errors of the First World War, rejected the concept of organising its economy to fight only a short war. Therefore, focus was given to the development of armament in depth for a long war, instead of armament in breadth for a short war. Hitler claimed that relying on surprise alone was "criminal" and that "we have to prepare for a long war along with surprise attack". During the winter of 1939–40, Hitler demobilised many troops from the army to return as skilled workers to factories because the war would be decided by production, not a quick "Panzer operation". In the 1930s, Hitler had ordered rearmament programs that cannot be considered limited. In November 1937 Hitler had indicated that most of the armament projects would be completed by 1943–45. The rearmament of the Kriegsmarine was to have been completed in 1949 and the Luftwaffe rearmament program was to have matured in 1942, with a force capable of strategic bombing with heavy bombers.
The Statement relating to Defence was a United Kingdom government white paper published 4 March 1935 that started the rearmament of the UK during the 1930s. The paper, released by the War Office noted that, despite the creation of the League of Nations, "adequate defences are still required".
In February 1939 on a ski trip to Arosa with his friend and business associate H. Riggenbach from the Berlin office, they reviewed the political situation in Germany. They agreed that the situation was desperate. Muller signed a declaration of moral rearmament. Shortly thereafter, Hitler's troops marched into Czechoslovakia.
"German Rearmament", The Times, 6 October 1952, p. 2. In 1953 Hutchison initiated a reorganisation of British Anti-Aircraft Command, which reduced the number of heavy anti-aircraft units, and transferred some Territorial Army anti-aircraft units to the field force."Parliament", The Times, 18 November 1953, p. 3.
Pearce and Stewart, p. 359. According to Vernon, it planted the idea of social justice into the minds of the middle classes. "Ironically and tragically," Vernon says, "it was not peaceful crusading, but the impetus of rearmament which brought industrial activity back to Jarrow".Vernon, pp. 146–47.
The Stockholm campaign marked the apogee of the Movement in France. The Movement subsequently became radicalised, and lost some of its popular influence. Several campaigns followed, against the Korean War (1950, the demonstration against Matthew Ridgway), or against German rearmament under the European Defence Community (from 1952 onwards).
Rearmament has been a important goal of reform. With the goal of 70% modernization by 2020 This was one of the main goals of these reforms. From 1998 to 2001 The Russian Army received almost no new equipment. Sergey Shoygu took a less confrontational approach with the defense industry.
The 2nd Light Division (sometimes described as a Light Mechanized division) was a motorized division created in 1938 during the German rearmament. It participated in the invasion of Poland. After the end of the Polish campaign the division was converted into a panzer division, forming the 7th Panzer Division.
The breaking point for Thyssen was the violent pogrom against the Jews in November 1938, known as Kristallnacht, which caused him to resign from the Council of State. By 1939 he was also bitterly criticising the regime's economic policies, which were subordinating everything to rearmament in preparation for war.
However, G.C. Peden was not impressed, while David French represented Appeasement and Rearmament as primarily a stimulating work for undergraduates. In addition, Levy has published articles in The Mariner’s Mirror, The Naval War College Review, Journal of Strategic Studies, War in History, and Global War Studies (see bibliography below).
Sweden was not a signatory of the Treaty of Versailles, which brought the war to an end, but the Swedish diplomat Marcus Wallenberg (senior), the half-brother of Knut Wallenberg, took part in negotiations at Versailles in relation to Swedish assets in Germany. However, in 1920, Sweden joined the League of Nations, which was formed as a result of the treaty, and so was bound by its restriction of German rearmament. However, Swedish firms also provided assistance to German counterparts that helped them avoid the restrictions of the treaty, ultimately aiding the rearmament efforts of Nazi Germany before the Second World War. The assistance included assembling Junkers military aircraft and manufacturing artillery weapons for Rheinmetall.
Throughout his life, Taylor took public stands on the great issues of his time. In the early 1930s, he was in a left-wing pacifist group called the Manchester Peace Council, for which he frequently spoke in public. Until 1936, Taylor was an opponent of British rearmament as he felt that a re-armed Britain would ally itself with Germany against the Soviet Union. However, after 1936, he resigned from the Manchester Peace Council, urged British rearmament in the face of what Taylor considered to be the Nazi menace, and advocated an Anglo-Soviet alliance to contain Germany. After 1936, he also fervently criticised appeasement, a stance that he would disavow in 1961.
Commercial prospects for the company improved when the product base was broadened to include the manufacture of power cables, high frequency cables and magnetic alloys. Clarke was largely responsible for the decision in 1935 to lay the first transatlantic telephone cable. In the same year, the Company's submarine interests were amalgamated with Siemens Brothers on an equal basis by the formation of Submarine Cables Ltd. As president of the Association of British Chambers of Commerce from 1936, Clarke made an analysis of the effect of the newly started rearmament program on the structure of British Industry. In 1938, he became a member of the Commonwealth Economic Committee, and of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain's Advisory Panel of Industrialists on Rearmament.
" The Foreign Ministry labeled the incident a "severe violation of UN Security Council Resolution 1701" and only "one of many violations of Resolution 1701, the most severe of which is the massive rearmament of Hizbullah, including the rearmament of Hizbullah units in southern Lebanon." It declared, "Israel holds the Lebanese government responsible for the grave incident, and warns of the consequences should these continue." Foreign Minister Avigdor Lieberman "instructed the Israeli diplomatic delegation to the United Nations to file a protest with the UN Secretary General and the Security Council." Major General Gadi Eisenkot said "It was a planned ambush by a sniper unit ... this was a provocation by the Lebanese army.
The EAK was founded in 1952 at the instigation of Hermann Ehlers in Siegen. The actual trigger for the formation of the EAK was the dispute between Konrad Adenauer and Gustav Heinemann, a leading Protestant-evangelical member of the Christian-democrats (CDU) at that time, on the issue of rearmament. Heinemann, who opposed the rearmament of (western) Germany for religious and conscience reasons, had resigned as interior minister, and finally formed the All-German People's Party (Gesamtdeutsche Volkspartei, (GVP)) which was seen as a serious challenge to the CDU. Heinemann was also provost of the Synod of the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD), and thus one of the leading Protestant representatives in Germany.
British public opinion had been strongly opposed to war and rearmament at the beginning of the 1930s, although this began to shift by mid-decade. At a debate at Oxford Union Society in 1933, a group of undergraduates passed a motion saying that they would not fight for King and country, which persuaded some in Germany that Britain would never go to war. Baldwin told the House of Commons that in 1933 he had been unable to pursue a policy of rearmament because of the strong pacifist sentiment in the country. In 1935, eleven million responded to the League of Nations "Peace Ballot" by pledging support for the reduction of armaments by international agreement.
He abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massive rearmament campaign. Meanwhile, France, to secure its alliance, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions.
The Nazi leadership's rearmament priorities were fundamentally geared to land and aerial warfare. From 1933–1936, the navy was granted only 13 percent of total armament expenditure. The production of U-boats, despite the existing Z Plan, remained low. In 1935 shipyards produced 14 submarines, 21 in 1936, one 1937.
In 1937 he joined with others including Admiral Roger Keyes and Brendan Bracken in urging rejection of the Finance Bill because of its proposal for a 'National Defence Contribution', a separate tax on the most profitable businesses to pay for rearmament. He backed Neville Chamberlain in the Norway Debate of 1940.
In opposition after 1929, Churchill became isolated, opposing Indian independence, advocating the unpopular policy of rearmament in the face of a resurgent Germany, and supporting King Edward VIII in the abdication crisis. By 1939, he had been out of Cabinet for ten years, and his career seemed all but over.
J. Lord Lloyd and the decline of the British Empire pp. 1, 2, 213ff Churchill also tried to portray himself as warning against German rearmament as early as 1930 and as opposing what he saw as British disarmament at and before that time.'Hitler' in Great Contemporaries 1939 edition pp.
Convertibility was suspended on 20 August 1947. However by 1950, American rearmament and heavy spending on the Korean War and Cold War finally ended the dollar shortage.C. C. S. Newton, "The sterling crisis of 1947 and the British response to the Marshall plan." Economic History Review (1984): 391-408 online.
The group's companies remained independent under their previous name (e. g. Heddernheimer Kupferwerk GmbH), but the production program was redistributed by material group to the individual plants. In March 1934, VDM moved its headquarters to Frankfurt am Main. The incipient rearmament of the Wehrmacht skyrocketed the demand for light metal products.
This speech was often used against Baldwin as allegedly demonstrating the futility of rearmament or disarmament, depending on the critic.Middlemas and Barnes, p. 736. With the second part of the Disarmament Conference starting in January 1933, Baldwin attempted to see through his hope of air disarmament.Middlemas and Barnes, pp. 736–7.
In April 1939, peacetime conscription was ordered for the first time in British history, the first conscripts being called up in the summer. Chamberlain's reluctant embrace of the "continental commitment" in February 1939 meant the end of the "limited liability" doctrine, and it massively increased the economic problems of British rearmament.
In 1937, with Hugh Dalton and Hastings Bertram Lees-Smith, he persuaded the PLP to put aside its mistrust of the Baldwin government and support the Service Estimates Bill which began rearmament. In October 1938, he closed the debate on the Munich Pact, attacking the government's abandonment of the Sudeten Germans.
He also hoped that she would introduce him to Nazi inner circles. As war approached, Rothermere pushed for British rearmament, their association deteriorated and Rothermere stopped paying her. Princess Stephanie took him to court, alleging in a lawsuit that he had promised the retainer for life. She lost the case.
The new ICBM force grew from 63 intercontinental ballistic missiles to 424. He authorized 23 new Polaris submarines, each of which carried 16 nuclear missiles. He called on cities to prepare fallout shelters for nuclear war. In contrast to Eisenhower's warning about the perils of the military-industrial complex, Kennedy focused on rearmament.
Georges Leygues (; 29 October 1856 – 2 September 1933) was a French politician of the Third Republic. During his time as Minister of Marine he worked with the navy's chief of staff Henri Salaun in unsuccessful attempts to gain naval re-armament priority for government funding over army rearmament such as the Maginot Line.
What more can one expect of a sub-Class B picture? If the first half of the film is endurable, credit it to Mr. Herbert. If the second half is a bore, debit the Warners' recourse to the Old Familiars of Picture-Making. What Miss Pacific Fleet needs is rearmament in all departments.
Still, the fear that war might come before Germany was prepared for it served to create a sense of urgency and reinforced the rearmament program. The army and the navy prepared to quickly expand their capacity and manpower. Plans were made to secretly build an air force (forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles), and the army prepared to introduce conscription within two years and grow to 300,000 soldiers by 1937 (also in violation of the Treaty of Versailles). At first, the navy did not benefit much from these rearmament plans, because Hitler wished to fight a land war in Europe and even hoped to make an alliance with the British Empire whereby the British would retain control of the seas.
He was suspicious of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi movement, which he saw as a threat to Britain.Michael Bloch, biography of James Lees-Milne, page 57, 2009 He was agitating for rearmament against Germany as early as 1930, before Churchill did.Lord Lloyd and the decline of the British Empire J Charmley, pp. 1, 2, 213ff.
The crisis was averted by the Munich Agreement on 30 September 1938. Although he was privately critical of the Nazis, Kluge believed in the principle of Lebensraum and took pride in the rearmament of the Wehrmacht. He had the nickname der kluge Hans ("Clever Hans") after a German horse that could supposedly do arithmetic.
Bloch, p. 52. During their meeting, Ribbentrop suggested for Barthou to meet Hitler at once to sign a Franco- German non-aggression pact. Ribbentrop wanted to buy time to complete German rearmament by removing preventive war as a French policy option. The Barthou- Ribbentrop meeting infuriated Neurath, since the Foreign Office had not been informed.
The first article outlined an agreement including both French and Belgian soldiers in the occupation of the Rhineland. It also stated, that in the event of German rearmament, both countries would mobilise their reserves. The second article discussed greater integration of frontier defenses, while the third article announced greater co-operation between General Staffs.
95, 103.Stommer, p. 73. Another factor in this change in style was the shortage of steel caused by the policy of autarky and by rearmament and war; there was also a near failure of a continuously welded bridge, which had to be quietly reinforced and led to mistrust of steel construction.Stommer, p. 63.
McCrea had a small role in All Hands on Deck (1961) and could be seen in the episode, "The Wrestler" on the ABC situation comedy, Guestward Ho!, starring Joanne Dru. He toured the country with The Tiger a production from Moral Rearmament. He did The Moon is Blue and Look Homeward Angel in stock.
Dealers in Death is a 1934 documentary film on the defense industry. It implied that the First World War was fought for the benefit of arms dealers such as Basil Zaharoff and claims that moves toward rearmament and war in the mid-1930s were prompted by the same interests. It was narrated by Basil Ruysdael.
Daladier had been made aware in 1932 by German rivals to Hitler that Krupp manufactured heavy artillery, and the Deuxième Bureau had a grasp of the scale of German military preparations but lacked hard intelligence of hostile intentions.Bennett, Edward W. (1979). German Rearmament and the West, 1932-1933. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 85.
Before battle, Ndebele men would have sex with each other, typically intercrural sex. Effeminate men in Ndebele society would often become healers and spiritual leaders. Among both the Shona and Ndebele peoples, same-sex sexual activity was historically viewed as a form of spiritual rearmament (i.e. as a source of fresh power for their territories).
Upon becoming ambassador in Paris in 1910, Izvolsky devoted his energies to strengthening Russia's bonds with France and Britain and encouraging Russian rearmament. When World War I broke out, he is reputed to have remarked, C'est ma guerre! ("This is my war!"). After the February Revolution, Izvolsky resigned but remained in Paris, where he was succeeded by Vasily Maklakov.
She graduated in sociology in 1971, and gained a PhD in sociology and social psychology in 1976. Haug's magazine Das Argument grew out of her opposition to nuclear rearmament. She joined the Socialist German Student Union (SDS) in protest at the Vietnam War, and also developed a feminist perspective. In 1988 she founded the book imprint Adiadne.
Finland's concessions in the Winter War. The period of peace following the Winter War was widely regarded in Finland as temporary, even when peace was announced in March 1940. A period of frantic diplomatic efforts and rearmament followed. The Soviet Union kept up intense pressure on Finland, thereby hastening the Finnish efforts to improve the security of the country.
Painting (1892) by Gustaf Cederström. After receiving Leijonkloo's reports of Danish rearmament, Stenbock summoned a meeting with several dignitaries from Malmö. He urged that the city's defenses must be strengthened and food and reinforcements acquired in preparation for a siege, since Malmö formed a strategic key point for the dominion of Scania and the defense of the Swedish mainland.
He agreed with the Conservative government that federation would lead to economic development and would make Central Africa the Ruhr Valley of Africa."Parliament", The Times, 25 March 1953, p. 3. He was a cautious supporter of German rearmament, because it would assist in the defence against Soviet expansionism."Parliament", The Times, 25 February 1954, p. 3.
The Soviet Union had started an intensive rearmament near the Finnish border in 1938–1939. Finnish students and volunteers had spent the late summer 1939 improving the defensive structures across the Karelian Isthmus. On the Soviet side of the border, penal labour worked hard in order to add some density to sparse road and rail networks.Edwards 2006, p.
A few months later it delivered a sample of its harvest technology. Labor shortages caused by German rearmament pushes also slowed Germany's ability to export material. By the end of June, Germany had only delivered 82 million Reichsmarks in goods (including 25 million for the Lutzow) of the 600 million Reichsmarks in Soviet orders place by that time.
Westminster then served in the Baltic and was damaged in action with Russian warships. She then served in the 6th Flotilla, Atlantic Fleet in 1921, before being reduced to the Reserve. By 1939 an extensive rearmament programme was underway. A number of old V and W-class destroyers were selected for refitting into anti-aircraft escorts.
Attlee became the longest serving party leader, and one of its most successful. The far left rallied to the support of the Republican forces during the Spanish Civil War and against the threat from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in 1936 to 38. Spain discredited the once-dominant pacifist element. The Party came out in favour of rearmament.
From now on the UKErevy became a more professional revue. During the 1930s the revues were coloured by the social and political disturbances in Europe. The 1939 revue Tempora criticized largely the rearmament and racial discrimination seen on the continent. The revue's poster, where a threatening giant lizard arises behind partying students, proved an omen of what to come.
He was appointed Geschwaderkommodore (wing commander) of NJG 6 in October 1944. On 17 April 1945, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves. Following the rearmament of the Federal Republic of Germany, Lütje joined the German Air Force in July 1957. He died on 18 January 1967 in Cologne-Wahn.
American political figures, such as Senator Elmer Thomas, argued that West Germany needed to be included in a defensive system, stating "several divisions of German troops should be armed by the United States without Germany herself being permitted to manufacture arms."C.D.G. Onslow, "West German Rearmament". World Politics, Vol. 3, No. 3. (July, 1951), 450-485.
Kampfgeschwader 3 "Blitz" (KG 3) was a Luftwaffe bomber wing during World War II . KG 3 was created in 1939 as the Luftwaffe reorganised and expanded to meet Adolf Hitler's rearmament demands. It was founded in May 1939 and by December 1939, had three active Gruppen (Groups). 3 operated the Dornier Do 17 and Junkers Ju 88 medium bombers.
His pacifism and his opposition to rearmament in the face of rising European fascism put him at odds with his party, and when his position was rejected at the 1935 Labour Party conference, he resigned the leadership. He spent his final years travelling through the United States and Europe in the cause of peace and disarmament.
Lovett's efforts to meet rearmament and preparedness goals suffered in 1952 from a major dispute between the federal government and the steel industry. Truman tried to avert a threatened strike, caused mainly by a wage dispute, by taking over the steel mills in April 1952. The strike occurred after the Supreme Court held that Truman's seizure order was unconstitutional.
By 1939 the Redman operation alone employed 300 people, compared to around 30 in 1920. Motor industry expansion assisted in this growth, with Ford becoming a customer and Gabriel setting up a new machine tool division at Coventry Road, South Yardley, Birmingham, in 1938 to give easy access for the industry's centre, but rearmament was the most significant factor.
His editorials stressed the decline in world trade, rearmament and arms trafficking. In one article, he insisted: "England is in the throes of a capitalist crisis....If the analysis in the Editorial: A Personal is correct, there is an excellent reason why everyone of military age should start thinking about politics."Cecil, A Divided Life (1989), pp. 27–30.
He was senior prefect in his last year and his chosen sixth-form subjects were history and English literature.Burns, pp. 367–68. He represented Worcester Grammar at the 1937 Empire Rally and was impressed with Stanley Baldwin's speech. However, he was opposed to appeasement, regarded Nazism as barbarism and treated left-wing opposition to rearmament with contempt.
Rommel has become a larger-than-life figure in both Allied and Nazi propaganda, and in postwar popular culture, with numerous authors considering him an apolitical, brilliant commander and a victim of the Third Reich, although this assessment is contested by other authors as the Rommel myth. Rommel's reputation for conducting a clean war was used in the interest of the West German rearmament and reconciliation between the former enemies – the United Kingdom and the United States on one side and the new Federal Republic of Germany on the other. Several of Rommel's former subordinates, notably his chief of staff Hans Speidel, played key roles in German rearmament and integration into NATO in the postwar era. The German Army's largest military base, the Field Marshal Rommel Barracks, Augustdorf, is named in his honour.
The Labour Party opposed the Fascist dictators on principle, but until the late 1930s it also opposed rearmament and it had a significant pacifist wing.Rhiannon Vickers, The Labour Party and the World: The evolution of Labour's foreign policy, Manchester University Press, 2003, Chapter 5 In 1935 its pacifist leader George Lansbury resigned following a party resolution in favour of sanctions against Italy, which he opposed. He was replaced by Clement Attlee, who at first opposed rearmament, advocating the abolition of national armaments and a world peace-keeping force under the direction of the League of Nations. However, with the rising threat from Nazi Germany, and the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations, this policy eventually lost credibility, and in 1937 Ernest Bevin and Hugh Dalton persuaded the party to support rearmamentA.
Trieste flag with the UN blue rather than the traditional red. The Marshall Plan was originally scheduled to end in 1953. Any effort to extend it was halted by the growing cost of the Korean War and rearmament. American Republicans hostile to the plan had also gained seats in the 1950 Congressional elections, and conservative opposition to the plan was revived.
He seems to have moved further to the right after the triumph of the Popular Front in 1936. Police reports said he tried to buy François de La Rocque's Parti social français and bought Jacques Doriot's Parti populaire français. In 1938 Peyerimhoff and Louis Renault supported Georges Bonnet in opposing an intensive rearmament policy, which they thought would harm the economy.
However, Downing miscalculated. De Witt managed to strengthen his position and to start a program of naval rearmament in the summer of 1662. Nevertheless, in the autumn of the same year the Netherlands actually signed a treaty of alliance with England. But relations between the two countries had become so strained that it probably was not worth the parchment it was written on.
As Prime Minister, Tătărescu showed particular concern for the modernization of the Romanian Armed Forces. Almost immediately after becoming Prime Minister, he established the Ministry of Armaments, chaired by himself. This ministry lasted for over three years before being dissolved on 23 February 1937, during his third cabinet. Under Tătărăscu's premiership, Romania launched a ten-year rearmament program on 27 April 1935.
Originally formed as the beginning of Germany's first wave of rearmament, the division was first given the title of Artillerieführer I and only later called Wehrgauleitung Königsberg. These names were an effort to cover Germany's expansion of infantry divisions from seven to twenty-one. The division's infantry regiments were built up from the 1.(Preussisches) Infanterie-Regiment of the 1.
Six days after being sworn in as Chancellor in 1933, Hitler met with the German military leaders, declaring that his first priority was rearmament. The new Defense Minister, General Werner von Blomberg, introduced Nazi principles into the armed forces, emphasizing the concept of Volksgemeinschaft (national community), in which Germans were united in a classless society.Messerschmidt, M. (1969). Die Wehrmacht im NS-staat.
From Hitler's vantage point, Bolsheviks existed to serve "Jewish international finance".Hitler (1939). Mein Kampf, p. 475. When the British tried negotiating with Hitler in 1935 by including Germany in the extension of the Locarno Pact, he rejected their offer and instead assured them that German rearmament was important in safeguarding Europe against communism,Bullock (1962). Hitler: A Study in Tyranny, p. 334.
It also diverted large sums of money to rearmament, which violated that treaty. This had the support of the generals and the business community since their profits were guaranteed on these orders. Big business developed an increasingly close partnership with the Nazi government as it became increasingly organized.Arthur Schweitzer, "Big Business in the Third Reich", Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1964, p.
Maurice Cowling, The Impact of Hitler. British Politics and British Policy, 1933–1940 (Chicago University Press, 1977), p. 92. However, Baldwin did not make rearmament the central issue in the election. He said that he would support the League of Nations, modernise Britain's defences and remedy deficiencies, but he also said: "I give you my word that there will be no great armaments".
In 1938, Europe was rearming militarily. Frank Buchman, who had been the driving force behind the Oxford Group, was convinced that military rearmament alone would not resolve the crisis. At a meeting of 3,000 in East Ham Town Hall, London, on 29 May 1938, he launched a campaign for Moral Re-Armament. "The crisis is fundamentally a moral one," he said.
Following his release, he worked in private industry. Following the rearmament of the Federal Republic of Germany, Josten joined the Air Force of the Bundeswehr in 1956. In 1962, he was appointed wing commander of Jagdgeschwader 71 "Richthofen" (JG 71—71st Fighter Wing). From 1967 to 1970, he was made deputy commander of NATOs System Operations Center in Brockzetel, in Aurich.
The election was seen as a test of the developing mood of pacifism in the country at the time, so much so that it became known as the 'Peace by-election'. The heavy defeat for the National Government candidate, a strong supporter of rearmament, helped, along with the Peace Ballot of 1935, to bring about a rethink in the government's agenda.
Campbell 2010, p210 Gaitskell defended his budget at the party meeting on 24 April. He said it was still too early to tell if the rearmament programme was actually achievable. Benn commented after the meeting on how Gaitskell's greatness arose from his combination of "intellectual ability and political forcefulness". Bevan then made an angry speech which did not impress many of the PLP.
In West Germany, the film was regarded by the government as communist sedition, and it was banned - although many closed screenings took place in the FRG.Lindenberger, p. 33. Der Spiegel claimed it was "a supposedly a-political film, that is actually intended to raise public opinion in the West against the Federal Republic, in order to disrupt its rearmament."Des Müllers Lust.
The program was approved on March 25, 1910 by Emperor Nicholas II, but until 1911 was not considered by the State Duma . Rearmament also included a large participation of foreign partners - the cruiser Rurik and the equipment of other ships were ordered to foreign shipyards. After the outbreak of World War I, ships and equipment ordered in Germany were confiscated.
In 1954 he moved back to Stuttgart- Rohr. He campaigned against the rearmament of Germany by, for example, adding his signature to the 'German Manifesto' of the Paul's Church Movement (along with, among others, Gustav Heinemann). In 1958 he was inaugurated into the Berlin Academy of Arts. Goes's first volumes of poetry were Verse in 1932 and Der Hirte (The Herdsman) in 1934.
Serbia and JNA used this discovery of Croatian rearmament for propaganda purposes. Guns were also fired from army bases through Croatia. Elsewhere, tensions were running high. In the same month, the Army leaders met with the Presidency of Yugoslavia in an attempt to get them to declare a state of emergency which would allow for the army to take control of the country.
Though the EDC treaty was signed (May 1952), it never entered into force. France's Gaullists rejected it on the grounds that it threatened national sovereignty, and when the French National Assembly refused to ratify it (August 1954), the treaty died. The French Gaullists and communists had killed the French government's proposal. Then other means had to be found to allow West German rearmament.
Bennett, Edward German Rearmament and the West, 1932–1933, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015 page 109 France's economic and demographic weaknesses in the face of Germany's strengths such a much-larger population and economy, together with the fact that much of France had been devastated by World War I while Germany had escaped mostly undamaged, were little appreciated in Whitehall.
Lord Vansittart, The Mist Procession (London: Hutchinson, 1958), p. 276. General J. H. Morgan also called D'Abernon "the apostle of ′appeasement′" and claimed D'Abernon "did not believe in the possibility, much less the probability, of a German military revival".J. H. Morgan, Assize of Arms. Being the Story of the Disarmament of Germany and Her Rearmament (1919–1939) (London: Methuen, 1945), p. 334.
Frei, p. 383. Internet Archive reproduction of Frei, p. 383 Ramcke and his supporters argued that the intent of his actions following the war was to again seek to protect his men, both in their reputations and their future, such as in cautioning against their being used as "cannon fodder" in the speech to ex-paratroopers during the rearmament debate.Searle 2003, p. 164.
The re-armament began a sudden change in fortune for many factories in Germany. Many industries were taken out of a deep crisis that had been induced by the Great Depression. By 1935, Hitler was open about rejecting the military restrictions set forth by the Treaty of Versailles. Rearmament was announced on 16 March, as was the reintroduction of conscription.
To soothe French fears of German rearmament, the French Premier René Pleven suggested the so-called Pleven plan in October 1950 under which the Federal Republic would have its military forces function as part of the armed wing of the multinational European Defense Community (EDC). Adenauer deeply disliked the "Pleven plan", but was forced to support it when it became clear that this plan was the only way the French would agree to German rearmament. Adenauer in 1950 at the Ermekeil barracks in Bonn with Adolf Heusinger (right), one of the authors of the Himmerod memorandum In 1950, a major controversy broke out when it emerged that Adenauer's State Secretary Hans Globke had played a major role in drafting anti-semitic Nuremberg Race Laws in Nazi Germany.Tetens, T.H. The New Germany and the Old Nazis, New York: Random House, 1961 pages 37–40.
In Paris, Ogrodziński was keen to capitalise on the weakening relations between France and the United States. His opportunity came with the proposed European Defence Community (EDC) which would permit West German rearmament, a subject arousing fierce opposition in France at the time. Working closely with Sergei Vinogradov, the Soviet ambassador in Paris, Ogrodziński sought to maximise the traditional French sympathy for Poland to make the case that the EDC was a reckless move, endangering the peace of Europe. Ogrodziński also stated that the United States, by forcefully supporting West German rearmament, was a danger to all of Europe. As part of his diplomacy, Ogrodziński cultivated French politicians, reminding them of the historical Franco-Polish friendship going back centuries, and in December 1953 arranged for the visit of a group of National Assembly members to Poland.
When Lovett became Secretary of Defense, the end of the Korean War was not yet in sight. His main concern continued to be the long-range rearmament program. Like Marshall, Lovett believed that the United States erred seriously at the end of World War II by disintegrating the military. He had also joined Marshall in opposing the recognition of the new state of Israel in 1948 because he thought it was contrary to long-term US strategic interests in the region.Truman Adviser Recalls May 14, 1948 Decision to Recognize Israel, Richard H. Curtiss, Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, May, June 1991 When the Korean War unexpectedly broke out, he designed a massive rearmament program intended both to meet the demands of the limited war and to serve as a deterrent and mobilization base in future military emergencies.
Command Magagzine. Hitler's Army: The Evolution and Structure of German Forces 1933–1945. P. 175. From 1936 to 1938, Germany's top four military leaders, Ludwig Beck, Werner von Blomberg, Werner von Fritsch and Walther von Reichenau, were all in opposition to the rearmament strategy and foreign policy.Command Magagzine. Hitler's Army: The Evolution and Structure of German Forces 1933–1945. Da Capo Press, 1996. P. 175.
Jeffreys, pp. 135-136 In September 1932 Gattineau, along with Heinrich Bütefisch, had held a meeting with Hitler at which they discussed the issue of producing synthetic oil, something Hitler felt crucial to end German energy dependence and to ensure his plans for secret rearmament would remain secret were he to be elected. By this time Carl Bosch was already providing the Nazi Party with funding.Jeffreys, p.
His work would cover post-war issues such as the Sanrizuka Struggle, environmental pollution, Zainichi Korean slums, and military rearmament as well as Middle Eastern and Soviet politics. His work would span across 17 exhibitions and 12 photobooks. In 1961, he began a year-long report on the Defense Ministry's arms manufacturing. After being granted access to a factory he covertly photographed crucial components.
In 1863, Otto Furuhjelm was promoted to the rank of mayor- general and commanded the Litovsky Regiment. In 1867, he was promoted to chief of the inspector's headquarters of rifle battalions (начальник штаба инспектора стрелковых батальонов). In this position, Otto W. Furuhjelm contributed to the rearmament of the Imperial Russian Army and earned the rank of lieutenant-general in 1871. He retired in late 1882.
The level of training, especially for strategic mobility, was considered weak. It was expected that both the Soviets and Chinese would avoid general war, unless critical interests were at stake. They will, however, put great emphasis on weakening and destabilizing non-Communist nations, and reducing those states' commitment to the West. Slowing German and Japanese rearmament is a priority, while they rearm the satellites.
January 7 : The League of Nations approves the results of the Saar plebiscite, which allows Saar to be incorporated into German borders. June 18 : The Anglo- German Naval Agreement is signed by Germany and the United Kingdom. The agreement allows Germany to build a fleet that's 35% the tonnage of the British fleet. In this way, the British hope to limit German naval rearmament.
The Heer was one of two ground forces of the Third Reich during World War II but, unlike the Heer, the Waffen-SS was not a branch of the Wehrmacht but was a combat force under the Nazi Party's own Schutzstaffel forces. The Heer was formally disbanded in August 1946.Large, David Clay (1996). Germans to the Front: West German Rearmament in the Adenauer Era, p.
153–4, . Generals objected because it interfered with rearmament, and Junkers because it would prevent their exploiting their estates for the international market.Grunberger, The 12-Year Reich, p. 154. When Hjalmar Schacht took office as head of the Ministry of Economic Affairs on August 2, 1934, one of his first actions was to fire Feder, whom Hitler had appointed Secretary of State in the ministry.
He was the commander of the 30th Military Region in Nancy from 1919 to 1931, when he was named head of the general staff of the French Army. In 1932 he knew the Reichswehr mobilization plan was to at least treble their force, but lacked intelligence on the armament plan, the militia plan, or the Manstein Plan.Bennett, Edward W. (1979). German Rearmament and the West, 1932–1933.
The total amount of Mefo bills issued was kept secret. Essentially, Mefo bills enabled the German Reich to run a greater deficit than it would normally have been able to. By 1938, there were 12 billion Reichsmark of Mefo bills, compared to 19 billion of normal government bonds. This enabled the German government to re-inflate their economy, which culminated in its eventual rearmament.
The Balkan crisis that started with the Serbo-Bulgarian War, coupled with Ottoman naval expansion in the 1860s and 1870s, prompted the Greek Navy to begin a rearmament program. In addition, the Greek fleet had proved to be too weak to effectively challenge Ottoman naval power during the 1866 Cretan Revolt. In 1885, Greece ordered three new ironclads of the Hydra class.Gardiner & Gray, p.
In 1978, a second squadron was rearmed with the MiG-21FMM (second hand donated by the USSR). For a year (from autumn 1983 to September 1984), the regiment was again with a three-layer structure - the third squadron was again set up with the idea of being disarmed with instant-25PD interceptors, but soon this idea was abandoned. the interest of Gabrovnitsa's rearmament with the MiG-23MDD.
Here > was an old stupid politician who had tricked the nation into complacency > about rearmament for fear of losing an election.... Here is the very shrine > of stupidity.... This National Park of Failure....Middlemas and Barnes, pp. > 1056–7. There were fears that if the gates were not taken by the proper authorities, "others without authority might".Baldwin, My Father: The True Story, p. 321.
The resurgence of German power after 1933 had gradually undermined French influence in the Little Entente countries.Gordon Wright, "The Ordeal of Total War: 1939-1945", Harper Torchbooks 1968, pp. 12 In 1938, France betrayed the alliance and signed the Munich Agreement and gave part of Czechoslovakia to Nazi Germany. Besides that betrayal, rearmament by Hungary was permitted in the Bled agreement of 22 August 1938.
This was the first step of its postwar rearmament. In 1952, , the waterborne counterpart of NPR, was also founded. The Allied occupation of Japan ended after the signing of the Treaty of San Francisco on September 8, 1951, which became effective on April 28, 1952, thus restoring the sovereignty of Japan. On 8 September 1951 the Security Treaty Between the United States and Japan was signed.
Plans to introduce capital gains tax were postponed until 1952.Dell 1997, p.147, 150 Prime Minister Attlee's initial reaction to the draft budget was that there were not likely to be many votes in it – Gaitskell replied that he could not expect votes in a rearmament year. Ernest Bevin did not like the idea of health charges and tried in vain to negotiate a compromise.
The ships were designed as follow-ons to the Deutschland-class cruisers. In 1933, the rise of the Nazi Party brought Adolf Hitler to power in Germany. At the time, he opposed a large-scale naval rearmament program, but decided to allow limited construction to counter French naval expansion. He therefore authorized the Kriegsmarine to build two additional panzerschiffe (armored ships) to supplement the three Deutschlands.
The secret rearmament was not stopped, but extended, but subject to independent and secret control by the Court of Auditors. The naval intelligence service was merged into the defense of the army in 1928.Gert Buchheit: The German Secret Service. Munich; List Publisher 1966 The Severa was taken over by the Lufthansa as a coastal flight, although it already had a sea-flight department.
Mitchener is in favour of the plan, offering Balsquith his usual advice: "shoot them down". Balsquith says events are getting out of control. Already a pro-suffrage curate has been flogged by an army lieutenant, who fails to realise that the curate has aunts in the peerage. Britain needs to concentrate on the threat of German rearmament, but is distracted by these domestic issues.
Nevertheless, the Italian economy suffered. The League considered closing off the Suez Canal also, which would have stopped arms to Abyssinia, but, thinking it would be too harsh a measure, they did not do so. Earlier, in April 1935, Italy had joined Britain and France in protest against Germany's rearmament. France was anxious to placate Mussolini so as to keep him away from an alliance with Germany.
She served as the flagship for Rear Admirals George Hancock and Lord John Hay. Northumberland received her own refit and rearmament from 1875–79 and rejoined the Channel Squadron upon its completion. The ship was paid off in 1885 for another refit and became the flagship of Vice Admirals Sir William Hewett and John Baird, successive commanders of the Channel Squadron, upon her completion in 1887.
In opposition, Taylor continued to take up issues such as workers' compensation for industrial injuries and improved welfare benefits. He often spoke on mining issues. During the Labour Party split in the early 1950s, Taylor sided with the left and Aneurin Bevan, opposing German rearmament and the development of the Hydrogen bomb. However, he was critical of the Soviet action in Hungary in 1956 and thereafter.
Only a week later, the Joint Chiefs of Staff recommended rearmament and a restoration of the draft.Matthias, p. 62. In fact, Clay's warning had more to do with a request by Army director of intelligence Lt. Gen. Stephen Chamberlain for material that would persuade Congress to spend more on military readiness than with any hard evidence of Soviet intent to launch a war in Europe.
However by 1950, American rearmament and heavy spending on the Korean War and Cold War finally ended the dollar shortage. C. C. S. Newton, "The sterling crisis of 1947 and the British response to the Marshall plan." Economic History Review (1984): 391-408 online. the balance of payment problems the trouble the postwar government was caused less by economic decline and more by political overreach, according to Jim Tomlinson.
26 In the late 1930s, Italy enacted manufacturing cartels, tariff barriers, currency restrictions and massive regulation of the economy to attempt to balance payments. Italy's policy of autarky failed to achieve effective economic autonomy. Nazi Germany similarly pursued an economic agenda with the aims of autarky and rearmament and imposed protectionist policies, including forcing the German steel industry to use lower-quality German iron ore rather than superior-quality imported iron.
Even at its high point, Die Weltbühne had a relatively low printing of 15,000 copies. It still had several journalistic coups, including the discovery of the Veim murders in the Schwarze Reichswehr paramilitary groups as well as reports about the secret rearmament of the military, which later led to the so-called Weltbühne-Prozess. The printing of Tucholsky's famous sentence "Soldiers are murderers" also led to charges against the publisher Ossietzky.
The GEFU founded factories in the Soviet Union for the production of aircraft, tanks, artillery shells and poison gas.Wheeler-Bennett, 1967, p, 184. The arms contracts of GEFU in the Soviet Union ensured that Germany did not fall behind in military technology in the 1920s despite being disarmed by Versailles, and laid the covert foundations in the 1920s for the overt rearmament of the 1930s.Wheeler- Bennett, 1967, p. 130.
He was released from the Reichsmarine on 30 April 1935 and transferred to the newly formed Luftwaffe. Prior to this assignment on 30 January 1933, the Nazi Party, under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, came to power in Germany, ushering in a period of rearmament. In 1935, the Reichsmarine was renamed the Kriegsmarine. On 1 May 1935 his naval rank was re-designated to Oberleutnant of the Luftwaffe.
Gross national product and GNP deflator, year on year change in %, 1926 to 1939, in Germany. Via google to Pdf-file of German publication. The Nazis rose to power while unemployment was very high, but achieved full employment later thanks to massive public works programs such as the Reichsbahn, Reichspost and the Reichsautobahn projects. In 1935 rearmament in contravention of the Treaty of Versailles added to the economy.
Dirks, an advocate for socialism, was an opponent of nuclear weapons and rearmament. With other writers such as Eugen Kogon in Die Frankfurter Hefte, he articulated these positions.Alice Holmes Cooper, Paradoxes of Peace: German Peace Movements Since 1945, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1996, , pp. 67-69 From the 1960s until the end of his life, Dirks' political orientation and point of view was in the minority among German Catholics.
However, crushing defeats at the Battle of Stalingrad and the Battle of Kursk devastated the German armed forces. This, combined with Western Allied landings in France and Italy, led to a three-front war that depleted Germany's armed forces and resulted in Germany's defeat in 1945. There was substantial internal opposition within the German military to the Nazi regime's aggressive strategy of rearmament and foreign policy in the 1930s.
Göring created a new organisation to administer the Plan and drew the ministries of labour and agriculture under its umbrella. He bypassed the economics ministry in his policy-making decisions, to the chagrin of Hjalmar Schacht, the minister in charge. Huge expenditures were made on rearmament, in spite of growing deficits. Schacht resigned on 8 December 1937, and Walther Funk took over the position, as well as control of the Reichsbank.
There, following his 118th aerial victory, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves on 25 November 1943. In October 1944 Hrabak, returned to JG 54, serving as its last Geschwaderkommodore until the end of the war. Following World War II, Hrabak initially worked in the private industry. During the Wiederbewaffnung (rearmament) of West Germany, Hrabak joined the newly established German Air Force in 1955.
Hanns Maaßen came from a working-class family. He completed a lesson as a stonemason and worked subsequently in the profession. He was a member of the Young Communist League of Germany and from 1928 the Communist Party of Germany. He participated in a strike of the Stone Mason Union against the beginning rearmament in Kiel in 1931 caused by the launching of the German pocket battleship Deutschland.
This shift largely came about due to the efforts of Ernest Bevin and Hugh Dalton who by 1937 also persuaded the party to oppose Neville Chamberlain's policy of appeasement.Richard Toye, "The Labour Party and the Economics of Rearmament, 1935–39." Twentieth Century British History 12#3 (2001): 303–326. Labour achieved a number of by-election upsets in the later part of the 1930s despite the depression ending and unemployment falling.
Hoover went to Germany from 1932–1933 and witnessed the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazis. He found that Hitler's rearmament was revitalizing the German economy; reducing unemployment, improving standard of living, and stemming inflation. This was contrary to conventional thought of the day that insisted that a leader must choose between "guns and butter." He published his second book Germany Enters the Third Reich in 1933.
Massigli was a prominent player at the World Disarmament Conference in Geneva and helped to write famous "Barthou note" of 17 April 1934 issued by the foreign minister, Louis Barthou, which helped to terminate the conference. Massigli was especially opposed to the prime minister, Édouard Herriot, who accepted in December 1932 Gleichberechtigung"in principle", as Massigli correctly predicted that it would lead to opening the door for German rearmament.
He married Edith Beatrice M'Mahon, daughter of Lieutenant-General C. A. M'Mahon. They had three sons, Roger (who became a well-known BBC journalist), Patrick and Michael, and two daughters, Rosemary and Lavender. Keyes was a committed Christian and a supporter of the Oxford Group and its principles of "moral rearmament", as well as an active freemason. He died in hospital in Hastings on 26 February 1939 after a long illness.
James W. Long, From Privileged to Dispossessed: The Volga Germans, 1860-1917, p. 207. The Kadets' liberal economic program favored the workers' right to an eight-hour dayPeter Gatrell, Government, Industry and Rearmament in Russia, 1900-1914: The Last Argument of Tsarism, p. 81. and the right to take strike action. The Kadets "were unwaveringly committed to full citizenship for all of Russia's minorities" and supported Jewish emancipation.
On 22 May 1935, the day after Hitler had made a speech claiming that German rearmament offered no threat to peace, Attlee asserted that Hitler's speech gave "a chance to call a halt in the armaments race".Middlemas and Barnes, p. 819. Attlee also denounced the Defence White Paper of 1937: "I do not believe the Government are going to get any safety through these armaments".Middlemas and Barnes, p. 1030.
He then became a freelance contributor to many magazines such as ', ' and '. In his articles the "" or "top ranked fouler of his own nest" (according to Heinrich Böll) occupied a political position between parties and was an important opponent of German rearmament. Kuby was considered to be one of the most important chroniclers of the German Federal Republic. In the 1960s he became involved in the student uprisings.
During Germany's rearmament prior to the Second World War, several sidings were converted to military depots (Scheuen, Bergen). Traffic levels rose sharply as a result. From 1940 the railway no longer ran as a Kleinbahn, but was treated as a public railway; that resulted in a new company Eisenbahn Celle-Soltau, Celle-Munster being set up. Between 1989 and 1992 large sections of the line were upgraded with Y sleepers superstructure.
The French-built , flagship of the Imperial Japanese Navy at the Battle of the Yalu River (1894), used a Canet gun. Following the Meiji Restoration, Japan would pursue a policy of "Rich country, strong army" (富国強兵), which led to a general rearmament of the country. During the 1877 Satsuma rebellion artillery was widely deployed, and an average of 1,000 artillery shells were fired every day.Perrin, p.
Brauchitsch welcomed the Nazi policy of rearmament. The relationship between Hitler and Brauchitsch improved during Brauchitsch's confusion about whether to leave his wife for his mistress, in the middle of the Munich Crisis; Hitler set aside his usual anti-divorce sentiments and encouraged Brauchitsch to divorce and remarry. Hitler even lent him 80,000 Reichsmarks so he could afford the divorce. Over time, Brauchitsch became largely reliant on Hitler for financial help.
He implemented the rearmament of New Zealand in the lead up to the war. He expanded the navy, created the air force and bolstered the territorial force. He was a key attendee of the Pacific Defence Conference held in Wellington in 1939 and served on the Council of Defence recruiting committee where he increased the number of volunteers. In 1935, Jones was awarded the King George V Silver Jubilee Medal.
Baldwin did not advocate total disarmament but believed that "great armaments lead inevitably to war".. However he came to believe that, as he put it on 9 November 1932, "the time has now come to an end when Great Britain can proceed with unilateral disarmament".. On 10 November 1932 Baldwin said: This speech was often used against Baldwin as allegedly demonstrating the futility of rearmament or disarmament, depending on the critic.
Development of the MG 30 took place under the direction of Louis Stange at Rheinmetall's Sömmerda office. However actual production of machine guns was prohibited in Germany under the Versailles Treaty. Rheinmetall circumvented the provisions by acquiring the majority shareholding of the Swiss manufacturer Waffenfabrik Solothurn AG and relocating production there. The goal was to acquire orders for the rearmament of the Reichswehr, which was modernizing its arsenal.
During the early 1950s, Casasola was a prominent opponent of German rearmament, moving an unsuccessful resolution on the subject at the Labour Party conference. In 1954, he was elected as chairman of the Foundry Workers, and in 1956 was elected to the National Executive Committee of the Labour Party. He retired from his posts in 1958, and resigned from the Labour Party in 1961 to join the CPGB.
New taxes were raised and voluntary contributions were requested to provide for the rearmament of the state. Finally, the Republic's ambassador at Paris was ordered to protest to the Directory of the violation of its neutrality. At the same time, Venetian diplomats in Vienna remonstrated at the Habsburg forces' bringing war to the Terraferma. On 5 June, the representatives of the Kingdom of Naples signed an armistice with Napoleon.
In 1919/20, the villages were repopulated with displaced Germans from Alsace-Lorraine and with injured World War I veterans from nearby villages. In 1935, the villages were once again evacuated as a result of the rearmament efforts of the Nazis. Lettgenbrunn was used as a bombing target for Luftwaffe dive-bomber (Stuka) training. The military area also included what later became Stalag IX-B near Bad Orb.
Lit, Münster 2003, S. 37f. The SED saw in the BdD a chance, similar to the concept of the National Front in the GDR, bourgeois and "national-minded" forces as a coalition partner to win. The core program of the BdD was a neutrality policy, which turned against the rearmament and the Westintegration of Germany. In contrast to the Federal Government, an agreement was reached with the Soviet Union.
Dwight D. Eisenhower, who had previously described the Wehrmacht as Nazis, changed his mind to facilitate rearmament. The British became reluctant to pursue further trials and released already convicted criminals early. As Adenauer courted the votes of veterans and enacted amnesty laws, Halder began working for the US Army Historical Division. His role was to assemble and supervise former Wehrmacht officers to write a multi-volume history of the Eastern Front.
From 1948 to 1956 he worked in managerial roles for the companies Bürkle and Bahlsen. Following West German rearmament he joined the Bundeswehr as one of its first general officers in 1956. He commanded the Military Academy of the German Armed Forces from 1957 to 1959 and the Bundeswehr's 11th Panzergrenadier Division from 1959 to 1960. From 1961 to 1965 he was Commanding General of the 3rd Corps in Koblenz.
After the Second World War she was active politically again. In 1949 she was one of the Center part's representatives in the Bundestag and also was elected chairwoman of the party, the first woman ever to lead a German party. A Lutheran pacifist, the left- wing Catholic vocally opposed in 1951. Adenauer's policy of German rearmament and joined forces with the CDU's Gustav Heinemann, the former Minister of the Interior.
Simone was to capture the British positions at Tug Argan and make straight for Berbera, ending the campaign with a decisive battle. The Italians captured Hargeisa on 6 August, forcing British camel soldiers to withdraw completely. A few days of rest and rearmament ensued before the march was resumed on 8 August. The delay was extended by administrative inertia, as Italian officers complained of heavy rains and impassable roads.
Another notable success was the sinking of the Turkish river monitor "Podgoriçe" (Podgorica) by the Romanian coastal artillery on 7 November 1877. After the war, the navy transported the Romanian troops back across the Danube. The small, but successful navy had demonstrated the need for a strong Danube flotilla in order to secure the southern border of Romania. Three rearmament plans were implemented: during 1883–1885, 1886–1888 and 1906–1908.
Armstrong After the War of Independence, two naval rearmament programs were proposed for the Black Sea flotilla. The 1899 program called for six coastal battleships, four destroyers and twelve torpedo boats. None of these ships were ever built,Halpern, p. 276 while the battleship Potemkin was returned 1 day after being acquired. The 1912 naval program envisioned six 3,500-ton light cruisers, twelve 1,500-ton destroyers and a submarine.
Since 1926, when the secret German-Soviet co-operation had become public knowledge following an exposé by The Manchester Guardian, the subject was a contentious one that had strained relations with France, which did not appreciate Germany breaking Versailles to develop forbidden weapons that would one day be used against it. Dirksen wanted the development of weapons in the Soviet Union to be handled by private German companies, working for the German state as much as possible. He feared that more revelations of German covert rearmament in the Soviet Union would cause too many difficulties with the French and hinder German efforts to have Versailles revised in its favour. From the German view, convincing France that Germany did not plan to start another world war was the key to the efforts to revise Versailles, and the fact that covert rearmament went on in the Soviet Union was not helpful to that campaign.
Kaillis, Aristotle Fascist Ideology, London: Routledge, 2000 page 165 According to Mason, by 1939, the "overheating" of the German economy caused by rearmament, the failure of various rearmament plans caused by the shortages of skilled workers, industrial unrest caused by the breakdown of German social policies, and a sharp drop in living standards for the German working class forced Hitler into going to war at a time and place not of his choosing.Kaillis, Aristotle Fascist Ideology, London: Routledge, 2000 pages 165-166 Mason contended that, when faced with the deep socio-economic crisis, the Nazi leadership had decided to embark upon a ruthless "smash and grab" foreign policy of seizing territory in Eastern Europe which could be pitilessly plundered to support living standards in Germany.Kaillis, Aristotle Fascist Ideology, London: Routledge, 2000 page 166 Mason described German foreign policy as driven by an opportunistic "next victim" syndrome after the Anschluss, in which the "promiscuity of aggressive intentions" was nurtured by every successful foreign policy move.
Third Reich Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick, one of the most influential Nazi figures of the time,Wilhelm Frick (1877–1946) and Hjalmar Schacht, who (while never a member of the NSDAP) was an initially sympathetic economist, introduced a wide variety of schemes in order to tackle the effects that the Great Depression had on Germany, were the main key players of German rearmament policies (see Reichsbank § Nazi period). Dummy companies like MEFO were set up to finance the rearmament; MEFO obtained the large amount of money needed for the effort through the Mefo bills, a certain series of credit notes issued by the Government of Nazi Germany.Nuremberg Trials discussion of the Mefo bill Covert organizations like the Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule were established under a civilian guise in order to train pilots for the future Luftwaffe.Ernst Sagebiel 1892–1970 Although available statistics do not include non-citizens or women, the massive Nazi re-armament policy almost led to full employment during the 1930s.
Effective rearmament for this and air raid precautions to protect the people were immediately necessary. Skeffington's eve-of-poll message to the electorate said that Britain had lost the international prestige it held under Labour's Foreign Secretary, Arthur Henderson, through seven years of National Government and was now engaged in a diplomatic retreat with the threat of war. Skeffington said Labour would increase old age pensions, improve education and extend social services.
After losing federal elections in 1953 and 1957, the SPD moved toward an American-style image-driven electoral strategy that stressed personalities, specifically Berlin mayor Willy Brandt. As it prepared for the 1961 federal election, it proved necessary as well in 1960 to drop opposition to rearmament and to accept NATO. The Godesberg Program was superseded in 1989 by the Berlin Program, resolved at the party congress held on 20 December 1989 in Berlin.
Under the Nazi regime, Weikersthal supported Adolf Hitler's opposition to the Treaty of Versailles and his promises of military rearmament. His family later recounted that his first impressions of the Nazis were "very positive." Shortly before the 1938 annexation of Austria, Weikersthal was promoted to the rank of general. In October 1940, Weikersthal was appointed commander of the 35th Infantry Division, which was earmarked for Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union.
In pursuing this military build-up, Kennedy shifted away from Eisenhower's deep concern for budget deficits caused by military spending. In contrast to Eisenhower’s warning about the perils of the military-industrial complex, Kennedy focused on rearmament. From 1961 to 1964 the number of nuclear weapons increased by 50 percent, as did the number of B-52 bombers to deliver them. The new ICBM force grew from 63 intercontinental ballistic missiles to 424.
Feinberg criticized the Cold War, writing that tensions with the Western powers, especially the support for West German rearmament given by the United States, hindered the case for liberalization in the Soviet Union. Feinberg wrote that a nuclear war between the United States vs. the Soviet Union or between China vs. the Soviet Union would be a disaster for humanity and world leaders needed to do more to reduce Cold War tensions.
This was the first step of its post-war rearmament. Shigeru Yoshida was elected as Prime Minister of Japan from 1946 to 1947 and from 1948 to 1954. His policy, known as the "Yoshida Doctrine", emphasized military reliance on the United States and promoted unrestrained economic growth. On 8 September 1951, the US-led Allied Occupation of Japan ended after the signing of the Treaty of San Francisco, which became effective on April 28, 1952.
Suffering from a chronic lack of funds, the Air Corps' struggle for better aircraft continued until the 1938 crisis over Czechoslovakia. Adolf Hitler and the Luftwaffe (the German Air Force) demonstrated that air power had become an important factor in international relations. President Franklin D. Roosevelt recognized the significance of the Luftwaffe's role and took the first steps toward United States rearmament. In 1939, Congress authorized $300 million for the Air Corps.
He was known for his tight fiscal policies, aimed at keeping the German currency stable. In this role, he strongly resisted any reparation claims to victims of the Nazi reign. Paying for the Past google book review, author: Christian Pross, Belinda Cooper, publisher: JHU Press, accessed: 8 May 2008 After German rearmament, Schäffer was engaged in many arguments about defense spending, often irritating his NATO partners by his refusals to allocate more money to it.
In 1950, as part of expansive rebuilding and reorganization of the army, the General Command was revived as the Western Regional Command. In the beginning there was large focus on having a larger defence in Jutland and the 2nd General Command. However, after the West German rearmament, focus was sifted to the Eastern Regional Command. In case of war, the command would be placed under the control of the Allied Forces Northern Europe.
The money was not a loan and there was no repayment. Washington spent such vast sums because it was believed to be cheaper than the rearmament that isolationism or rollback would entail. In the long run, the logic went, a prosperous Europe would be more peaceful, and would make its main trading partner, the US, more prosperous. Stalin refused to allow any of his satellites to participate, the plan became exclusive to western Europe.
This Defence Ministry forerunner was known somewhat euphemistically as the Blank Office (Amt Blank), but explicitly used to prepare for the rearmament of West Germany (Wiederbewaffnung).See Frederick Zilian Jr., 'From Confrontation to Cooperation: The Takeover of the National People's (East German) Army by the Bundeswehr,' Praeger, Westport, Conn., 1999, , p.40–41, for a discussion of this period By March 1954 the Blank Office had finished plans for a new German army.
The Vickers design was for a smaller ship armed with nine guns, while Armstrong-Whitworth proposed a larger ship armed with guns. The Greek government did not pursue these proposals. Later in the year, Vickers issued several proposals for smaller vessels like those it had designed in 1908.Friedman (2015), pp. 157–158 The initial step in the Greek rearmament program was completed with the purchase of the Italian-built armored cruiser in October 1909.
Upon graduation, Despres went to work for the Federal Reserve Bank of New York as a special foreign exchange analyst. He established a system for monitoring the volatile international flows of short-term capital during the Great Depression. He supported expansionary policy. He was among the advisors who early warned that Hjalmar Schacht's system of exchange controls would help Germany carry through economic recovery and military rearmament without suffering a balance of payments collapse.
He intended to accelerate construction to the maximum capacity of the shipyards, but the Treasury soon became alarmed at the potential cost of the program, which was costed at between £88 and £104 million. By 1938, the Treasury was losing its fight to stop rearmament; politicians and the public were more afraid of being caught unprepared for war with Germany and Japan than of a major financial crisis in the more distant future.
The German government needed to spend a large amount of money to fund the Depression-era reconstruction of its heavy industry based economy and, ultimately, its re-armament industry. However, it faced two problems. First, rearmament was illegal under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, and secondly there was a legal interest rate limit of 4.5%. The government would normally borrow extra funds on the money market by offering a higher interest rate.
The same year the British tennis star H. W. Austin edited the book Moral Rearmament (The Battle for Peace), which sold half a million copies. Gradually the former Oxford Group developed into Moral Re-Armament. A number of Oxford Groups as well as individuals dissociated themselves from Buchman as a result of his launching of Moral Re-Armament. Some Oxford Group members disapproved Buchman's attention to matters not purely personal, or his 'going into politics.
The new honorific title did not come with new weapons. On the eve of the Moscow counter-offensive, Belov made a personal appeal, with Marshal Zhukov's support, directly to Stalin for the rearmament of his corps. Belov's men were armed primarily with rifles, giving the German infantry a clear advantage. After Belov's meeting with Stalin, he was promised 1,500 automatic weapons and two new batteries of new 76mm guns to replace his worn-out guns.
The Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler, took power in Germany in 1933. Hitler at first ostentatiously pursued a policy of rapprochement with Poland,Aristotle A. Kallis, Fascist Ideology: Territory and Expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922-1945, Routledge, 2000, p.144, culminating in the ten-year Polish-German Non- Aggression Pact of 1934. In the years that followed, Germany placed an emphasis on rearmament, as did Poland and other European powers.
Children, Mother, and the General (, and also released as Sons, Mothers, and a General) is a 1955 West German war film directed by László Benedek and starring Hilde Krahl, Therese Giehse and Ewald Balser. The film was not a popular success, possibly because its anti-war perspective clashed with support for German rearmament and membership of NATO.Hake .105 The film's sets were designed by the art director Erich Kettelhut and Johannes Ott.
However, after 1929 the German economy was very badly hit by the Great Depression, and its political scene descended into chaos and violence. The Nazis under Hitler took control in early 1933 and aggressively rearmed. Paris was bitterly divided between pacifism and rearmament, so it supported London's efforts to appease Hitler. French domestic politics became increasingly chaotic and grim after 1932, moving back and forth between right and left, without clear goals in mind.
On 21 June 1933 Seely was raised to the peerage as Baron Mottistone, of Mottistone in the County of Southampton. In 1933 Mottistone visited Berlin in his capacity as Chairman of the Air League, as a guest of Joachim von Ribbentrop. In 1935 he visited Germany again in his boat “Mayflower”. In May 1935 Adolf Hitler made a well publicised speech in which he proclaimed that German rearmament offered no threat to world peace.
Dutton, David, Simon, p. 242 Because of a lack of indigenous sources, much of the steel, instruments, aircraft and machine tools that were needed for rearmament had to be purchased abroad, but increased military production reduced the number of factories devoted to exports, which would lead to a serious balance of payments problem.Kennedy, Paul and Imlay, Talbot, "Appeasement", from The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered by Gordon Martel, Routledge: London, 1999, p.
Defence spending had been heavily cut in Chamberlain's early budgets. By 1935, faced with a resurgent Germany under Hitler's leadership (see German re- armament), he was convinced of the need for rearmament. Chamberlain especially urged the strengthening of the Royal Air Force, realising that Britain's historical bulwark, the English Channel, was no defence against air power. In 1935, MacDonald stood down as Prime Minister, and Baldwin became Prime Minister for the third time.
The Wenkel articles were removed from publication under threat of prosecution for treason. The remote economic activities were portrayed as the authority of a subordinate official, and the Phoebus scandal became the Lohmann affair. The secret rearmament activities, and thus the breach of the Treaty of Versailles, could be hushed up. Although the KPD deputy Ernst Schneller in the Reichstag asked very precisely for details of the upgrade program, he was ignored.
Fraser's Education Amendment Act 1938 was to endorse and implement most of Atmore's recommendations. Atmore read and thought widely. He was one New Zealander who was looking for solutions to problems within the altered economic, social and political context of inter-war New Zealand. He believed it was important to be informed on the issues of the day including monetary reform, international rearmament and the pivotal role of the USSR in any crisis.
Meiyappan, not wanting to be an obstacle to his sons' enthusiasm, approved Prakash Rao's salary. Despite Saravanan's desire, the credit of producing the film was given to Meiyappan, Kumaran, and Arun Veerappan. The story by Seetharaman was loosely adapted from two sources: the play The Forgotten Factor by the Moral Rearmament Army, and the film Nobody's Child. Cinematography was handled by T. Muthuswamy, editing by S. Surya, and art direction by H. Shantaram.
The treaty allowed Allied troops to remain in the country. An agreement expanded the Brussels Treaty of 1948 to include West Germany and Italy, creating the Western European Union. This agreement allowed West Germany to start a limited rearmament program though it banned development of certain weapons, such as large warships. It was signed by the Brussels Treaty countries (Belgium, France, Great Britain, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands) and by West Germany and Italy.
Ratification of the EDC was delayed but the US representatives made it clear to Adenauer that the EDC would have to become a part of NATO. Memories of the Nazi occupation were still strong, and the rearmament of Germany was feared by France too. On 30 August 1954 French Parliament rejected the EDC, thus ensuring its failure and blocking a major objective of US policy towards Europe: to associate Germany militarily with the West.
Patrick Cosgrave wrote that "Butler did not merely go along with appeasement, he waxed hard, long and enthusiastic for it, and there is very little evidence in public records at the time that he took the slightest contemporary interest in the rearmament programme to which he devotes such emphasis in his memoirs".Cosgrave 1981, p43 Halifax made not one reference to Butler, who was by then a leading member of the government, in his 1957 autobiography Fullness of Days.
Bf 109E, advanced German fighter The German Air Force, or Luftwaffe, was also the best force of its kind in 1939. It was designed to support the army, but in air combat the German planes were superior to most designs fielded by the Allies. In the rearmament period from 1935 to 1939, the production of German combat aircraft steadily mounted, and the standardization of engines and airframes gave the Luftwaffe a repair and production advantage over its opponents.
Martin Kitchen, A History of Modern Germany 1800–2000, Maden, MA, Blackwell Publishing, 2006, p. 284 Soon afterwards, the Nazis discounted these notes (known in German as Mefo- Wechsel), basically turning them into a type of currency. Between 1934 and 1938, Mefo bills worth a total of 12 billion Reichsmark were issued to pay for rearmament. To put that into context, Germany's national debt in 1932, the year before Hitler took power, was only 10 billion Reichsmark.
She felt that Sackville-West was unable to critique the system she was both a part of and, to a certain extent, a victim of. In the 1930s they clashed over Nicolson's "unfortunate" involvement with Oswald Mosley and the New Party (later renamed the British Union of Fascists), and they were at odds over the imminent war. Sackville-West supported rearmament while Woolf remained loyal to her pacifism, leading to the end of their relationship in 1935.
Hitler sought Lebensraum ("living space") for the German people in Eastern Europe, and his aggressive foreign policy is considered the primary cause of World War II in Europe. He directed large- scale rearmament and, on 1 September 1939, invaded Poland, resulting in Britain and France declaring war on Germany. In June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. By the end of 1941, German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe and North Africa.
In the mid-1930s, Johnson's influence continued, but other officials gained ascendancy as policy became more oriented to Japan. He grew increasingly impatient with Japanese aggression and began suggesting a reappraisal of American policy toward Japan. While not yet recommending that the U.S. assume any responsibility for the Chinese, he still advocated rearmament and reconsideration of its intention to grant independence to the Philippines. By the end of the decade, Johnson openly advocated material support for China.
Kampfgeschwader 1 (KG 1) (Battle Wing 1) was a German medium bomber wing that operated in the Luftwaffe during World War II. KG 1 was created in 1939 as the Luftwaffe reorganised and expanded to meet Adolf Hitler's rearmament demands. It was founded in May 1939 and by December 1939, had three active Gruppen (Groups). In August 1940 a fourth Gruppe was added. 1 operated the Heinkel He 111 medium bomber and later the Heinkel He 177 heavy bomber.
The history of the S class represents a turn in warship development. It was a result of international collaboration between Soviet and German engineers that resulted in two different (but nevertheless related) classes of submarines often pitted against each other in the war. In the early 1930s the Soviet government started a massive program of general rearmament, including naval expansion. Submarines were one key point of this program, but currently available types did not completely satisfy naval authorities.
Talus, p. 37. However, with the rising threat from Nazi Germany, and the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations, this policy eventually lost credibility. By 1937, Labour had jettisoned its pacifist position and came to support rearmament and oppose Neville Chamberlain's policy of appeasement. In 1938, Attlee opposed the Munich Agreement, in which Chamberlain negotiated with Hitler to give Germany the German-speaking parts of Czechoslovakia, the Sudetenland: > We all feel relief that war has not come this time.
In June 1950, Kirkpatrick was appointed by King George VI as British High Commissioner for Germany. As one of the three joint sovereigns of western Germany, Kirkpatrick carried immense responsibility particularly with respect to the negotiation of the Bonn conventions during 1951–2, which terminated the occupation regime and (in parallel) prepared the way for the rearmament of West Germany. In November 1953, Kirkpatrick was brought back to London to succeed Sir William Strang as Permanent Under-Secretary.
The German Army (, , ) was the land forces component of the Wehrmacht, the regular German Armed Forces, from 1935 until it ceased to exist in 1945 and then formally dissolved in August 1946. During World War II, a total of about 13.6 million soldiers served in the German Army. Army personnel were made up of volunteers and conscripts. Only 17 months after Adolf Hitler announced the German rearmament program in 1935, the army reached its projected goal of 36 divisions.
The extension of this railway between Montreux and Glion would wait 27 more years. The road to Caux was also opened at the same time by public works contractor Pierre Botelli. The immediate success of the Grand Hotel, which attracted many prominent people to Caux, led other entrepreneurs to conceive the Caux Palace Hotel.The informations in this section are drawn from Philippe Mottu’s historic book: Caux from Belle Epoque to Moral Rearmament, published by La Baconnière, Neuchâtel, Switzerland, 1969.
In later life, he would comment that this era was the low point in the history of Dutch defense. In 1936, he published a widely read book on the German rearmament --an early warning against Nazi militarism. By the late 1930s, Dutch politicians finally realized that their country would not be able to remain neutral in the looming conflict with Nazi Germany. During the hasty and belated military preparations, Godfried firmly rejected the ideas of general Izaak Reijnders.
In the early 1930s, Adolf Hitler began a rearmament program in Germany. He signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, which allowed Germany to build up its navy to 35 percent of the strength of the British Royal Navy and effectively repudiated the restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles on the German fleet. This led to a decision in 1937 to build ships to an improved design. Design work on the new class of armored ships began that year.
On 28 July 1938, the district was reformed from the headquarters of the 10th Rifle Corps, as part of a pre-World War II buildup of the Soviet Armed Forces. It included Voronezh Oblast, Kursk Oblast, and Orel Oblast. Tambov Oblast was added to the district in October 1939. The district was tasked with maintaining the military and mobilization readiness of the troops, their rearmament with new equipment, and pre-conscription training of youths for military service.
Chamberlain is best known for his appeasement policy, and in particular for his signing of the Munich Agreement in 1938, conceding the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia to Germany. He said it brought "peace in our time" and was widely applauded. He also stepped up Britain's rearmament program, and worked closely with France. When in 1939 Hitler continued his aggression, taking over the rest of Czechoslovakia and threatening Poland, Chamberlain pledged to defend Poland's independence if the latter were attacked.
Tenders from Vickers, of Britain, for small, battleships were not taken up.Friedman (2015), p. 157 In 1911, a constitutional change in Greece allowed the government to hire naval experts from other countries, which led to the invitation of a British naval mission to advise the navy on its rearmament program. The British officers recommended a program of two battleships and a large armored cruiser; offers from Vickers and Armstrong-Whitworth were submitted for the proposed battleships.
191, states that by 1936 direct employment on Reichsautobahn construction was 130,000, plus 270,000 in ancillary occupations such as materials, and credits the project with significant contributions to alleviating unemployment. Rearmament was responsible for a far greater share of unemployment reduction,Schütz and Gruber, pp. 38–39. and the peak years of autobahn employment came long after the first two years of Nazi rule, when the need for jobs was most urgent.Schütz and Gruber, p. 57.
An exhibition of military uniforms and equipment over the course of history at the Rommel Barracks The base was established in 1937. It was originally known as Nordlager ("Northern Camp") from 1937. Following rearmament, the old buildings were demolished and replaced with new buildings in the 1950s, and the base was known as Neues Lager ("New Camp") for a few years. Since 1961 the base has been named Field Marshal Rommel Barracks in honour of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel.
In 1949 Leo Bauer became editor- in-chief of Deutschlandsender, a radio station transmitting from the eastern (i.e. Soviet-occupied) part of central Berlin. A new long wave transmitter had been installed in 1947 in order to extend the reach of a service committed to the "ideological rearmament" ("ideologische Aufrüstung") of the western occupation zones. There are indications that Bauer's approach was sometimes out of line with the culturally dour preconceptions of the Ulbricht party establishment.
There was a major reduction in unemployment over the following years, while price controls prevented the recurrence of inflation. The Nazis outlawed independent trade unions and banned strikes, creating the German Labor Front (DAF), which became one of the largest organizations in Germany, comprising over 35,000 full-time employees by 1939.Richard Bessel, Nazism and the War, New York: NY, Modern Library, 2006, p. 67 They also directed Schacht to place more emphasis on military production and rearmament.
Régime change hit Germany in January 1933 and the Hitler government lost little time in imposing one-party government. The same year Stieler von Heydekampf became a Nazi Party member. He was then, in 1935, appointed a Wehrwirtschaftsführer (literally "military economic leader"), a quasi-military honour given by government to senior industry figures expected to be supportive in any future military rearmament programme. In 1942 he left Opel where he was succeeded at the Brandenburg plant by Heinrich Nordhoff.
Churchill and Eden visited Washington in January 1952. At the time, Truman's administration was supporting plans for a European Defence Community in hopes that it would allow West Germany to undergo rearmament, consequentially enabling the U.S. to decrease the number of American troops stationed in Germany. Churchill opposed the EDC, feeling that it could not work. He also asked, unsuccessfully, for the US to commit its forces to supporting Britain in Egypt and the Middle East.
The seizure of power by the Nazi Party in January 1933 triggered an era of military rearmament in Germany. Hermann Göring, one of leader Adolf Hitler's closest paladins, was appointed commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe, the aerial warfare branch of the Wehrmacht. The Nazi leadership wanted to forge a link with Germany's military past to ensure continuity between the German Empire and the Third Reich. The air base at Döberitz (Fliegerruppe Döberitz) was renamed Jagdgeschwader Richthofen.
Smith's lifestyle continued to be exuberant and this did not impress his conservative, church-going parents. However, at no time did they disown him. In 1972, Smith claimed to have become a born-again Christian, declaring that God had freed him from his past debauchery and helped him see the injustice of racial discrimination. He aligned himself with the Moral Rearmament group, held public meetings promoting majority rule, and befriended a number of Black nationalist leaders.
In the coming years, Germany placed an emphasis on rearmament, to which Poland and other European powers reacted. Initially Nazis were able to achieve their immediate goals of territorial expansion without provoking armed resistance; in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria and the Sudetenland after the Munich Agreement. In October 1938, Germany tried to get Poland to join the Anti-Comintern Pact. Poland refused, as the alliance was quickly becoming a sphere of influence for an increasingly powerful Germany.
Afterwards he spent two and a half years in British captivity at Bridgend Island Farm (Special Camp XI) among high- ranking German prisoners. He was released in September 1947. After the war Vietinghoff was a member of the expert group dealing with the question of German rearmament. In October 1950 he wrote the Himmerod memorandum, named after the Himmerod Abbey where it was written, on behalf of the Adenauer government, on West German contributions to European defence.
Preparations for creation of the air defence forces started in 1932, and by the start of the war there were 13 PVO zones located within the military districts. At the outbreak of war, air defence forces were in the midst of rearmament. Anti-aircraft artillery teams had few of the latest 37 mm automatic and 85 mm guns. Moreover, the troops were deficient in Yak-1s and MiG-3s; 46 percent of the fleet were obsolete aircraft.
444 Like the rest of his party, Pittoni issued protests against Rudolf Montecuccoli's plan to modernize and increase the Austro-Hungarian Navy.Sondhaus, p. 196 Together with Adler and with members of the PSI, he co- founded an anti-war congress that would report on any rearmament on either side of the Italian–Austrian conflict. During October 1912, he participated in the mass rallies opposing Austria-Hungary's involvement in the First Balkan War, and petitioned the government on that subject.
He faced a number of foreign-policy challenges, but accelerated Australia's transition towards an independent foreign policy. In the lead-up to World War II his government pursued a policy of appeasement and rearmament. Lyons died of a heart attack in April 1939, becoming the first Australian prime minister to die in office. He is the only prime minister from Tasmania and one of two state premiers who have become prime minister, along with George Reid.
In Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler (Hjalmar Schacht finance-minister and banker) applied a kind of labour-voucher named MEFO-bond, whose aim was to hide the rearmament program's expenditures before the Western world as the big trusts did not pay by money-transfer to each other, but bought MEFO bonds from the state and changed these bonds in closed circuit. More modern implementations as time-based currencies were implemented in the United States starting in the 1970s.
As part of the 1922 Defence Agreement, 1st and 2nd General Command were merged to create the unified General Command. In 1950, as part of expansive rebuilding and reorganization of the army, the regional General Commands were revived as the Eastern and Western Regional Command. In the beginning there was large focus on having a larger defence in Jutland and the Western Regional Command. However, after the West German rearmament, focus was sifted back towards Zealand.
The Lohmann affair or Phoebus affair was a scandal in the Weimar Republic in Germany in 1927, that was the uncovering of a secret rearmament program in the course of the bankruptcy of the production company Phoebus Film AG. In addition to the dismissal of Walter Lohmann on 19 January 1928 and the dismissal of the Chief of the Reichsmarine Hans Zenker, on 30 September 1928, it also led to the resignation of the Reichswehr Minister Otto Gessler.
The military history of Norway commences before the Viking Age with the internal wars fought between regional kings to obtain the supreme kingship of the whole of Norway. The most famous period of Norwegian history and thus military history is the Viking Age, but the early Middle Ages was the era when Norwegian military power in Europe reached its peak. Since then the Norwegian military has experienced long periods of neglect, but also rearmament and victories.
The decision was taken by the Air Minister, Viscount Swinton, without consulting Ellington for advice.Wright, pp. 60–63 A 1940 portrait of Newall by Reginald Grenville Eves. During 1936 and 1937, the Air Staff had been fighting with the Cabinet over the rearmament plans; the Air Staff wanted a substantial bomber force and only minor increases in fighters, whilst the Minister for Defence Co-ordination, Sir Thomas Inskip, successfully pushed for a greater role for the fighter force.
The Nazi regime is frequently credited with "curing unemployment," but this was done mainly by conscription and rearmament—the civilian economy remained weak throughout the Nazi period. Although prices were fixed by law, wages remained low and there were acute shortages, particularly once the war started. To this after 1942 was added the acute misery caused by Allied air attacks on German cities. The high living and venality of Nazi officials such as Hermann Göring aroused increasing anger.
In response to protest from the French government in 1920, the national level security police units were dissolved were either sent to perform local policing. France feared a clandestine rearmament and saw the new para-military police force as a threat to its security. The planned airborne component of some security police had to be abandoned and their use of artillery and tanks were prohibited. France demanded the abolition of the green uniform, which they viewed as camouflage clothing.
In 1929, German Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann negotiated the withdrawal of Allied forces. The last soldiers left the Rhineland in June 1930. Following the Nazis', taking power in 1933, Germany began working towards rearmament and the remilitarisation of the Rhineland. On 7 March 1936, using the Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance as a pretext, Chancellor and Führer Adolf Hitler ordered the Wehrmacht to march 3,000 German troops into the Rhineland, to joyous celebrations across Germany.
The conscription law introduced the name "Wehrmacht"; the Reichswehr was officially renamed the Wehrmacht on 21 May 1935. Hitler's proclamation of the Wehrmacht's existence included a total of no less than 36 divisions in its original projection, contravening the Treaty of Versailles in grandiose fashion. In December 1935, General Ludwig Beck added 48 tank battalions to the planned rearmament program. Hitler originally set a time frame of 10 years for remilitarization, but soon shortened it to four years.
Russell's political views changed over time, mostly about war. He opposed rearmament against Nazi Germany. In 1937, he wrote in a personal letter: "If the Germans succeed in sending an invading army to England we should do best to treat them as visitors, give them quarters and invite the commander and chief to dine with the prime minister." In 1940, he changed his appeasement view that avoiding a full-scale world war was more important than defeating Hitler.
Both formed the "Notgemeinschaft zur Rettung des Friedens in Europa" ("Emergency Community to Save Peace in Europe"), an initiative intended to prevent rearmament. Wessel resigned from her post and in November 1952 and left the party. Immediately afterwards, Wessel and Heinemann turned the "Notgemeinschaft" into a political party, the "Gesamtdeutsche Volkspartei" ("Whole-German People's Party" aka GVP), which failed badly in the elections of 1953. In 1957, the GVP dissolved and most members joined the SPD.
"I wish Stanley Baldwin no ill," Churchill said in declining to send him 80th birthday greetings in 1947, "but it would have been much better had he never lived." Churchill also believed that Baldwin, rather than Chamberlain, would be most blamed by subsequent generations for the policies that led to "the most unnecessary war in history". An index entry in the first volume of Churchill's "History of the Second World War" (The Gathering Storm) records Baldwin "admitting to putting party before country" for his alleged admission that he would not have won the 1935 election if he had pursued a more aggressive policy of rearmament. Churchill selectively quoted a speech in the Commons by Baldwin that gave the false impression that Baldwin was speaking of the general election, instead of the Fulham by-election in 1933, and omitted Baldwin's actual comments about the 1935 election: "We got from the country, a mandate for doing a thing [a substantial rearmament programme] that no one, twelve months before, would have believed possible".
After the US Congress passed the Johnson Act, forbidding loans to nations in default on their debts, Chamberlain felt that Britain could not pay the entire debt, and, as the Act made no distinction between a partial and complete default, the Chancellor entirely suspended Britain's war debt payments to the US. In 1934, Chamberlain was able to declare a budget surplus, and restore many of the cuts in unemployment compensation and civil servant's salaries he had made after taking office. He told the Commons, "We have now finished the story of Bleak House and are sitting down this afternoon to enjoy the first chapter of Great Expectations." With MacDonald in physical and mental decline and Conservative Party leader Baldwin exhibiting ever greater lethargy, Chamberlain increasingly became the workhorse of the National Government. Defence spending had been heavily cut in Chamberlain's early budgets. By 1935, faced with a resurgent Germany under Hitler's leadership, he was convinced of the need for rearmament, and was the driving force behind Defence White Papers advocating rearmament in 1936 and 1937.
The onset of World War II, with the cost of national rearmament, deprived Florine of a budget.Alphonse Dumoulin, La Belgique à l'avant-garde de la giraviation, Ed. FNAR et AELB, Bruxelles 1991 Robert Collin went to the Belgian Congo in 1938 to work in civil engineering until his retirement in 1967. Florine worked on a quadrirotor project until 1949 and remained attached to the Service technique de l'aéronautique (STAé) until his retirement In 1956. He died in Brussels in 1972, aged 81 years.
However the Labour conference voted to drop its opposition to rearmament. When Winston Churchill said that the Labour Party should refrain from giving Hitler the impression that Britain was divided, Bevan rejected this as sinister: > The fear of Hitler is to be used to frighten the workers of Britain into > silence. In short Hitler is to rule Britain by proxy. If we accept the > contention that the common enemy is Hitler and not the British capitalist > class, then certainly Churchill is right.
Local Conservatives were keen to have a local candidate and feared that the Wallasey Conservative Association would have an outsider foisted on them. They persuaded local Councillor and former Mayor, George Reakes to put his name forward, which he did, as an Independent. Reakes had been a member of the Labour Party but had left it when the mainstream parliamentary Labour party failed to call for rearmament, to face Nazi Germany. Though not an appeaser, he had publicly backed Neville Chamberlain's Munich Agreement.
The Army Medical Service has been a separate branch within the military since the German Empire. The first Army Medical Service was established in Prussia and Germany between 1868 and 1873, and was regulated by the Kriegssanitätsordnung für das deutsche Heer from 1878.Hubert Fischer, Der deutsche Sanitätsdienst 1921–1945, 5 vols., Osnabrück, Biblio- Verlag, 1982–1988 Following German rearmament in the 1950s, the medical service was reestablished based on the traditional structure, with a medical service for each military branch.
In October 1950, Baudissin worked on the secret Himmeroder Denkschrift ("Himmerod Memorandum"), a paper advocating German rearmament. In 1956 he helped to create the new German armed forces, the Bundeswehr, receiving the rank of colonel, and soon headed a tank brigade. In 1963, he was promoted to lieutenant general and was appointed Commandant of the NATO Defence College in Paris, serving until 1965. Baudissin then served as Deputy Chief of Staff at Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE), the headquarters of NATO.
The Nazi government took the stance that enterprises should be in private hands wherever possible. State ownership was to be avoided unless it was absolutely necessary for rearmament or the war effort, and even in those cases “the Reich often insisted on the inclusion in the contract of an option clause according to which the private firm operating the plant was entitled to purchase it.”Christoph Buchheim, and Jonas Scherner. The Role of Private Property in the Nazi Economy: The Case of Industry.
He spent a lengthy period unemployed, before finding work as a machine maker. After World War II, Fette was a leading founder of the Printing and Paper Union, serving as its first president, and also on the first board of the International Graphical Federation. In 1951, he was elected as president of the German Trade Union Confederation. A supporter of Konrad Adenauer and of German rearmament, his leadership was unpopular, and he lost a bid for re-election in 1952.
The economy rebounded sharply during the rearmament of 1940–41, and grew very rapidly during the war years. Jobs were plentiful in most urban areas, and farmers flocked to the cities. During World War II, racial tension increased in both rural and urban Missouri; in early 1942 in Sikeston, a white mob lynched Cleo Wright in public. The United States Department of Justice investigated the lynching, the first time since Reconstruction that the federal government had tried to prosecute such a case.
On October 1, 1955, one air squadron of the regiment moved to a new full-time organization in connection with its forthcoming rearmament on Yak-25 aircraft. From 1 January 1958 the regiment assigned to the first line and is called the 763rd Fighter Aviation Regiment of the first line. Its task was protecting the northern borders of the country. In 1962, the village Komsomol (now known as Yugorsk as of July 1992) was founded nearby the place of dislocation Regiment – Yugorsk 2.
As Petroff's English improved, he began speaking on behalf of the SDF, and writing regularly for party newspapers. However, he became a leading opponent of the party's leadership, which he felt was ineffective, undemocratic, and nationalistic. The SDF reformed as the British Socialist Party (BSP) in 1912, and Petroff was elected to its first standing orders committee, alongside Duncan Carmichael, E. C. Fairchild and C. T. Douthwaite. The four worked together to ensure voices in the party opposing British rearmament were heard.
Establishment of Communist China as the predominant power in the Far East, including the seating of Communist China in the United Nations. :c.Reduction of Western control over Japan as a step toward its eventual elimination. :d. Prevention of West German rearmament. > It can be anticipated that irrespective of any Western moves looking toward > negotiations, assuming virtual Western surrender is not involved, the > Kremlin plans a continuation of Chinese Communist pressure in Korea until > the military defeat of the UN is complete.
After the end of the war Grigorovich was appointed chief of staff of the Black Sea Fleet. He was appointed commander of the naval base at Libau in 1908 awarded the Order of St Anna, 1st class, and became commander of the naval base at Kronstadt in 1909. In 1909 he was appointed Deputy Navy Minister and promoted to admiral in 1911. From 1911 until the onset of revolution in 1917 he served as Russia's Naval Minister, overseeing a huge rearmament programme.
On 28 May 1941, the German ambassador in France Otto Abetz concluded an agreement with the French government, the Protocols of Paris. These included the intention to produce eight hundred SOMUA S40s, two hundred for France itself and six hundred for Germany and Italy. However, Hitler, suspicious of a French rearmament, declined ratifying the agreement.Stéphane Ferrard (2010). "Les SOMUA de l'Ombre (I) — Le S 40 à tourelle FCM, char de la défense de l'Empire", Histoire de Guerre, Blindés & Matériel N° 89, p.
Rearmament was in direct violation of the strict terms set by the allies of World War I at the Treaty of Versailles. The German army was to be restricted to 100,000 men, and there were to be no conscription, tanks or heavy artillery or general staff. The German navy was restricted to 15,000 men and no submarines while the fleet was limited to 6 battleships (of less than 10,000 tonnes), 6 cruisers and 12 destroyers. Germany was not permitted an air force.
Afterwards, Massigli went with Mendès France to Chartwell to meet Churchill and Eden to discuss the crisis. During the Chartwell meeting, Massigli made clear his opposition to supranational defense plans and that he favored having Britain becoming more involved in the defense of western Europe as the price of French acceptance of West German rearmament. On 30 August 1954, the National Assembly rejected the EDC treaty. To replace the Pleven plan, the British government opened a conference in London on 28 September 1954.
Massigli, attending the conference wept tears of joy at Eden's speech, saying that the France "had been waiting fifty years for such an announcement!" (a reference to the Entente cordiale of 1904). The historian Rogelia Pastor-Castro wrote that the resolution of the West German rearmament question was a "personal success" for Massigli as the crisis was ended along the lines that he had suggested at the Chartwell summit. In 1955–1956, Massigli served as the Secretary-General of the Quai d'Orsay.
It also was the source of the first 500,000 production Model 1891 Mosin–Nagant rifles, as the Russian armament industry could not tool up quickly enough to produce them for the rearmament of the Imperial Russian Army. The facility has now been transformed into the central repository (Centre des Archives de l'Armement et du Personnel) of all the French military archives related to armament matters. Archived and declassified MAC records are open to bona fide scholars and researchers upon written request.
On 30 January 1933, the Nazi Party, under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, came to power in Germany, ushering in a period of naval rearmament. In 1935, the Reichsmarine was renamed the Kriegsmarine. Between 22 September 1931 and 22 September 1934, Lindemann was a senior lecturer at the Naval Gunnery School in Kiel. He was then posted to the under the command of Captain Hermann Boehm and served as first gunnery officer from 23 September 1933 to 8 April 1934.
All defendants were indicted on counts 1, 2, 3, and 5. Only Schneider, Bütefisch, and von der Heyde were charged on count 4, "Membership in the SS". The SS had been declared a criminal organization previously by the IMT. Despite the extensive evidence presented by the prosecution that showed that the company had been deeply involved in Germany's rearmament after World War I from the onset, the tribunal rejected the charges for preparing an aggressive war and for conspiracy to that end.
In the wake of Germany's rearmament prior to the Second World War, production was restarted in 1935, underpinned by a national production programme. The main shaft reached a depth of 82.5 metres in 1938. In addition to the iron ore and manganese needed as raw materials for the production of steel, pyrite was also mined. In this period efforts were made to carry out a comprehensive survey of the area around the pit in order to uncover further deposits of pyrite.
Rising costs and delays mean that the first aircraft (the Oxford University Air Squadron) did not arrive until October 1927. No. 99 Squadron RAF arrived from RAF Bircham Newton in January 1928. The rearmament of Germany in the 1930s led to a change in role for Upper Heyford, as German targets were beyond the range of RAF bombers then in service. As a result, Upper Heyford became a base to train newly formed squadrons or for squadrons re-equipping with new aircraft types.
The king's last resort is the appointment of Bismarck as his Prime Minister. Bismarck's first political act is to dissolve the Prussian parliament following the refusal of an opposition leader, Virchow, to finance military reform and rearmament plans. From 1864 to 1871, Bismarck wages several wars against Denmark, Austria, and France. According to his main political principle; the most decisive political questions are not solved by parliamentary discussions and resolutions but by "Eisen und Blut", Iron (weaponry) and blood alone.
All power was centralised in Hitler's person and his word became the highest law. The government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitler's favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending and a mixed economy. Using deficit spending, the regime undertook a massive secret rearmament program and the construction of extensive public works projects, including the construction of Autobahnen (motorways).
Although Russia was already aiding Germany's secret rearmament programme, right-wing nationalist groups branded Rathenau a revolutionary (he was in fact a moderate liberal who openly condemned Soviet methods). They also resented his background as a successful Jewish businessman. Two months after the signing of the treaty, the right-wing militant group Organisation Consul assassinated Rathenau in Berlin. Some members of the public viewed Rathenau as a democratic martyr; after the Nazis came to power in 1933 they banned all commemoration of him.
Speer wrote numerous sermons, articles, pamphlets, and books among which biographies, biblical commentaries and Christian living. Most deal with missionary principles and practices but some tackle controversial social problems. He coined the famous four principes of Jesus which became embedded in Moral Rearmament and in the Alcoholic Anonymous as the "Four Absolutes" or the "Four Standards". Basing his views on his own biblical research, Speer regarded these four principles as one of Jesus' key teachings: Purity, Honesty, Unselfishness and Love.
A. J. A. Morris, The Scaremongers. The Advocacy of War and Rearmament 1896–1914 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984), p. 320. It was much criticised by the Liberal and Radical press. The Manchester Guardian was disgusted at the > insinuation that the German Government's views of international policy are > less scrupulous and more cynical than those of other Governments...Prussia's > character among nations is, in fact, not very different from the character > which Lancashire men give to themselves as compared with other Englishmen.
After the announcement, President Iván Duque authorized the Joint Special Operations Command to start an offensive operation. Government forces conducted a bombing raid in San Vicente del Caguán in which twelve people identified as FARC dissidents were killed. According to Duque, one of them, Gildardo Cucho, was the leader of the group which would be joining Iván Márquez in the rearmament. Duque also accused Venezuelan president Nicolás Maduro of assisting FARC and providing a safe haven for militants in Venezuela.
In 1931 she helped to organise the defeat of a proposal to abolish the university seats in the parliament and won re-election in 1935. Blue plaque on her house in Tufton Street, Westminster Rathbone realised the nature of Nazi Germany and in the 1930s joined the British Non-Sectarian Anti- Nazi Council to support human rights. In 1936 she began to warn about a Nazi threat to Czechoslovakia. She also favoured rearmament and argued for its necessity in the Manchester Guardian.
They also recommended that merchant ship owners should be encouraged to observe construction regulations by ensuring that their ships were ready for naval gun-mounting; this would enable them to be converted into auxiliary cruisers in wartime. The Reports urged that naval rearmament was vital and that the cost should be shouldered by the Australian colonies as well as Britain. They noted that whereas defence expenditure per head in 1879 was 15s. 7½d. in the United Kingdom, it was only 2s. 4d.
Mantoux says that the 1925 German national savings figure was estimated at 6.4 billion marks, rising to 7.6 billion marks by 1927. Mantoux calculated that Germany borrowed between 8 billion and 35 billion marks in the period 1920–1931, while only paying 21 billion in reparations. This, he says, allowed Germany to re-equip, expand, and modernize her industry. Highlighting the rearmament under Hitler, Mantoux said Germany "had been in a stronger position to pay reparations than Keynes had made out".
This period of innovation in weapon design continued in the inter-war period (between WW I and WW II) with continuous evolution of weapon systems by all major industrial powers. The major armament firms were the Schneider-Creusot (based in France), the Škoda Works (Czechoslovakia), and Vickers (Great Britain). The 1920s were committed to disarmament and outlawing of war and poison gas, but rearmament picked up rapidly in the 1930s. The munitions makers responded nimbly to the rapidly shifting strategic and economic landscape.
In September 1950, Howe tabled a bill allowing him to reallocate scarce materials such as steel from the civilian sector to military use. The bill passed, but not before the Opposition had charged that Howe had "an enormous appetite for power". Late in the year, the Government decided on a massive rearmament program. As the Canadian Commercial Corporation, the Crown Corporation which handled government purchases, was felt to be inadequate for the task, the Cabinet decided on a new department to handle procurement.
Although the possibility of German bombing attacks against British cities increased the importance of having a friendly power on the other side of the English Channel, many British decision-makers were cool, if not downright hostile, towards the idea of the "continental commitment".Bond, pp. 198–199. When British rearmament began in 1934, the army received the lowest priority in terms of funding after the air force and the navy, in part to rule out the "continental commitment" as an option.Bond, p. 199.
Kampfgeschwader 76 (KG 76) (Battle Wing) was a Luftwaffe bomber Group during World War II. It was one of the few bomber groups that operated throughout the war. In 1933 Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power in Germany. To meet the expansionist aims of their Führer, the German state began an enormous rearmament programme to build the Wehrmacht (German armed forces). 76 was created in May 1939 as the Luftwaffe sought to reorganise and increase its strength.
The cost of wartime efforts had a major effect on the Danish economy. In an effort to subsidise the cost of rearmament, the Danish government issued a substantial amount of banknotes. As it stood, the national currency was silver and as a result of excessive issue of banknotes, the former value of silver was lost. The Danish government could not ensure loans from the population were paid, leading to an excessive printing of more money to account for wartime expenditure.
Carl von Ossietzky exposed the reality of the German rearmament in 1931 and his disclosures won him the 1935 Nobel Peace Prize but he was imprisoned and tortured by the Nazis, dying of tuberculosis in 1938.Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich in Power 1933–1939. Penguin Books. . Pg. 153 Von Ossietzky's disclosures also triggered the re- armament policy in Great Britain, which escalated after Adolf Hitler withdrew Germany from the League of Nations and the World Disarmament Conference in 1933.
However, tensions arose when Austria—which never joined NATO—was ineligible for the American shift toward rearmament in military spending.Günter Bischof, Hans Petschar, The Marshall Plan: Saving Europe, Rebuilding Austria (2017) ch 1-3. The US was also successful in helping Austrian popular culture adopt American models. In journalism, for example, it sent in hundreds of experts (and controlled the newsprint), closed down the old party-line newspapers, introduced advertising and wire services, and trained reporters and editors, as well as production workers.
The resulting Dawes Plan provided for restructuring of the German debt, and the United States loaned money to Germany to help it repay its debt other countries. The Dawes Plan led to a boom in the German economy, as well as a sentiment of international cooperation. Building on the success of the Dawes Plan, U.S. ambassador Alanson B. Houghton helped organize the Locarno Conference in October 1925. The conference was designed to ease tensions between Germany and France, the latter of which feared a German rearmament.
Rudolf Meister (1 August 1897 – 11 September 1958) was a German general (General der Flieger) in the Luftwaffe during World War II who commanded the 4th Air Corps. He was a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross of Nazi Germany. Meister surrendered to the American troops in May 1945 and was interned until 1948. In 1950, Meister was one of the authors of the Himmerod memorandum which addressed the issue of rearmament (Wiederbewaffnung) of the Federal Republic of Germany after World War II.
Between these appointments he was posted to Japan with the British Commonwealth Occupation Force. Promoted to major general, he took charge of Western Command in August 1951, and became Deputy Chief of the General Staff in January 1953. He took over Southern Command as a lieutenant general in October 1954, and was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1957. As CGS from March 1958, Garrett focused on rearmament and reorganisation, initiating the Army's short-lived restructure into a "pentropic" formation.
Also observations during the war of eye injuries to RAF personnel had shown that Perspex appeared inert within body tissues. Perspex was registered in 1934 by ICI as the trademark for their polymethylmethacrylate acrylic sheet. In the late 1930s, as a result of Britain's rearmament programme, ICI's total production of Perspex was reserved for the aircraft industry and the material was specifically developed for the use of fighter aircraft. The required properties of transparency, strength and resistance to heat demanded a high degree of purity and polymerisation.
However, the sum of money was first reduced by a poor rate of exchange in Hamburg, then Vellingk used some of the money for Wismar's rearmament, on the orders of the Privy Council. The remaining amount was not enough to free the prisoners, and on 18 August Vellingk was told that the Privy Council had given up hope of procuring the prisoners' release, and that Sweden's remaining resources must be used for the defense of the kingdom's borders.Marklund (2008), pp. 259−262, 275Eriksson (2007), pp.
German aircraft production difficulties in equipping and expanding the air force arose since the mobilization in 1936. Production in the 5 years of rearmament for more combat aircraft began to rise sharply in the plans for a long-term air-force expansion, while the general aircraft production output worsened faster and by a greater margin. During the period from 1936 to 1938 actual aircraft production plans remained unchanged or went into reverse. By 1939, only 33% of the production totals set in August 1938 had been reached.
There was opposition to the idea from many in the scientific community and from some government officials, but Truman believed that the Soviet Union would likely develop the weapon itself and was unwilling to allow the Soviets to have such an advantage. Thus in early 1950, Truman made the decision to go forward with the H-bomb.Paul Y. Hammond, NSC-68: Prologue to Rearmament, pp. 290–292, in Warner R. Schilling, Paul Y. Hammond, and Glenn H. Snyder, Strategy, Politics, and Defense Budgets (Columbia University Press, 1962).
Following the July 17 Revolution, the Ba'ath Party assumed power in Iraq and turned to the Soviet Union as its principal supplier of arms. Between 1968 and 1970 the Iraqi Army underwent a second major rearmament programme with Soviet assistance. However, the Soviet government used this relationship to exert political pressure on the Ba'athist regime. Iraqi officials also believed the Soviets were withholding their most sophisticated weapons from export and therefore embarked on a diversification effort to find secondary suppliers of arms, preferably in the West.
The Vasilefs Georgios-class ships were ordered on 29 January 1937 as part of a naval rearmament plan that was intended to include one light cruiser and at least four destroyers, one pair of which were to be built in Britain and the other pair in Greece.Freivogel, p. 351 Vasilefs Georgios was laid down at Yarrow & Company's shipyard in Scotstoun, Scotland, in February 1937, launched on 3 March 1938, and commissioned on 15 February 1939 after she had her armament installed in Greece.Whitley 1991, p.
Krupp's had a Great Krupp Building with an exhibition of guns at the Columbian Exposition in 1893. An assortment of naval guns and field artillery pieces from the Krupp works in Essen, Germany. (Circa 1905) In the 20th century the company was headed by Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach (1870–1950), who assumed the surname of Krupp when he married the Krupp heiress, Bertha Krupp. After Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933, the Krupp works became the center for German rearmament.
As the pace of rearmament increased in the late 1930s, Amiot scored another success, this time with the elegant Amiot 354 bomber. With the fall of Paris in June 1940, Amiot and 3000 of his workers headed south, to the unoccupied zone, where he established a new factory at Marseilles. During the war, Amiot co-operated with the German occupiers to protect his interests, and those of the exiled Wertheimers, then working in the United States. Amiot became a subcontractor for the Junkers company, building 370 aircraft.
In 1951, she was let go from her job as a doctor, also for political reasons. She spoke out against the rearmament of Germany and although she was not a member of any political party, she was defamed as a Communist, a severe charge in the Cold War era. As former Nazis returned to their old jobs, they made her life difficult. She was unable to get a passport until the 1960s, out of fear of what she might say about Germany while abroad.
Instead, the Hungarian Regent, Admiral Miklós Horthy, made an alliance with German dictator Adolf Hitler's Third Reich. In exchange for this alliance and via the First and Second Vienna Awards, Hungary received back parts of its lost territories from Yugoslavia, Romania, and Czechoslovakia. Hungary was to pay dearly during and after World War II for these temporary gains. On 5 March 1938, Prime Minister Kálmán Darányi announced a rearmament program (the so-called Győr Programme, named after the city where it was announced to the public).
A war in Europe would be preceded by worsened international relations and thus give time for necessary rearmament. The Social Democrats believed that Sweden only needed to maintain neutrality in order to deflect foreign aggression. The proposition on a future defence encountered multiple setbacks during its discussion in the Riksdag, but in 1925, the Social Democratic Sandler Cabinet agreed to a mainly Freeminder-backed proposal which involved a further decreased expenditure cap of 107 million crowns per year, equivalent to roughly 1,3 % of the Swedish GDP.
Nazi Germany increased its military spending faster than any other state in peacetime, with the share of military spending rising from 1 percent to 10 percent of national income in the first two years of the regime alone. Eventually, it reached as high as 75 percent by 1944. The first financial package for rearmament was adopted by the Nazi government in June 1933, and it was extremely ambitious. Schacht approved a figure of 35 billion Reichsmarks to be spent on military buildup over eight years.
He became opposed to the government's foreign policy. He refused to support German rearmament in 1954 and had the Labour Party Whip withdrawn from November 1954 to April 1955. He was one of the founders of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. In 1961, as a protest against bipartisan support for British nuclear weapons, he voted against the Royal Air Force, Royal Navy and British Army estimates in the House of Commons, and was suspended from the Labour Party Whip from March 1961 until May 1963.
Building on the success of the Dawes Plan, U.S. ambassador Alanson B. Houghton helped organize the Locarno Conference in October 1925. The conference was designed to ease tensions between Germany and France, the latter of which feared a German rearmament. In the Locarno Treaties, France, Belgium, and Germany each agreed to respect the borders established by the Treaty of Versailles and pledged not to attack each other. Germany also agreed to arbitrate its eastern boundaries with the states created in the Treaty of Versailles.
The arrival in Japan of the United States Navy led by Matthew C. Perry in 1854 started a period of rearmament. The tanegashima was an antiquated weapon by the 1800s and various samurai factions acquired advanced firearms including the minié rifle, breech-loading and repeating rifles. The samurai era ended in 1868 with the Meiji; Japan turned to a national conscription army with modern weapons and uniforms. Some gunsmiths did replace their matchlock-type tanegashimas into percussion cap mechanisms while retaining its design as a musket.
Except for France, no other country gave as great a proportion of its population as volunteers in Spain than Canada.Jean, Michaëlle, Governor General of Canada, Speech on the Occasion of the Unveiling of the MacKenzie- Papineau Battalion Monument, Ottawa, October 20, 2001, Despite its expressed neutrality, in 1936, Canada began a modest program of rearmament and in 1937, King let Britain know that Canada would support the Empire in case of a war in Europe. He visited Germany in June 1937 and met with Adolf Hitler.
However, in 1921, the 6th and 7th battalions were amalgamated as the 6th/7th Battalion and later converted to become the 65th (The Manchester Regiment) Anti-Aircraft Brigade, Royal Artillery. On 31 October 1938, during the period of rearmament preceding the Second World War, the 10th (Territorial Army) Battalion was converted to armour, becoming the 41st Battalion, Royal Tank Corps, later 41st (Oldham) Royal Tank Regiment. A 'second line' battalion, which was formed at Oldham in 1939, became the 47th (Oldham) Royal Tank Regiment.
During World War I, Altenburg–Nobitz was mainly used as a production centre for German military aircraft, with Albatros, DFW, Rumpler and Fokker types all being assembled there. A military flying school was also located on the airfield. Following the defeat of Germany, the airfield infrastructure was dismantled in accordance with the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles. The site lay derelict until the 1930s, but after the Nazi Party came to power a decision was made to reactivate Altenburg–Nobitz as part of German rearmament plans.
This independence was later curtailed via amendments to the original nationalisation act. During 1937, the French Government, recognising the looming threat of another World War with neighbouring Nazi Germany, launched a rearmament programme. Accordingly, the production of large numbers of capable combat aircraft to meet the challenge of the rapidly-expanding Luftwaffe was therefore a major national priority. The company's designs, such as the MB.150 single-engined fighter and the MB.170 twin-engined bomber, were amongst those aircraft produced to meet this demand.
The Metaxas Line (, Grammi Metaxa) was a chain of fortifications constructed along the line of the Greco-Bulgarian border, designed to protect Greece in case of a Bulgarian invasion after the rearmament of Bulgaria. It was named after Ioannis Metaxas, then Prime Minister of Greece, and chiefly consists of tunnels that led to observatories, emplacements and machine-gun nests. The constructions are so sturdy that they survive to this day, some of which are still in active service. Some of them are open to the public.
The Himmerod memorandum () was a 40-page document produced after a 1950 secret meeting of former Wehrmacht high-ranking officers invited by Chancellor Konrad Adenauer to the Himmerod Abbey to discuss West Germany's Wiederbewaffnung (rearmament). The resulting document laid the foundation for the establishment of the new military force (Bundeswehr) of the Federal Republic. The memorandum, along with the public declaration of Wehrmacht's "honour" by the Allied military commanders and West Germany's politicians, contributed to the creation of the myth of the clean Wehrmacht.
The National Defence Companies of the Territorial Army were a voluntary military reserve force of the British Army, for the purpose of home defence in the event of war. Enlistment was limited to former members of the British Armed Forces between the ages of 45 and 60. The scheme was established in 1936, during rearmament prior to World War II. On the outbreak of war in September 1939, the National Defence Companies were called up for service and became the basis of the Home Service Battalions.
Eisenhower, who served as Supreme Allied Commander Europe, depicted on 8 October 1951 in front of the flag of NATO's Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE). WUDO's plans, structures and responsibility of defending Western Europe were transferred to SHAPE. When the division of Europe into two opposing camps became considered unavoidable, the threat of the USSR became much more important than the threat of German rearmament. Western Europe, therefore, sought a new mutual defence pact involving the United States, a powerful military force for such an alliance.
A new group of left wing writers deeply critical of the Soviet Union began to write for the publication, including James Burnham and Sidney Hook. The new period of independence had begun. Effective with the Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939, the magazine began to divorce itself from the Communist movement altogether, including its dissident Trotskyist wing. Rahv and Phillips gave qualified support to the campaign for American rearmament and the country's preparation for war, opposed by Macdonald and another editor at the time, Clement Greenberg.
Unlike the United States, where Franklin Roosevelt's inflationary New Deal attempted to stimulate the American economy, New Zealand where Michael Savage's pioneering welfare state tried to reduce hardship, or the United Kingdom where rearmament (from 1936) increased deficit spending, there was no significant mechanism for inflationary Keynesian economic policy responses in Australia. Australia's recovery during the 1930s was led by the manufacturing sector. Federation in 1901 had granted only limited power to the federal government. For example, income taxes were collected by the State governments.
He lived for her honour, and she will cherish his memory." In 1889 Gladstone recounted a story of when "a Frenchman, thinking to be highly complimentary, said to Palmerston: 'If I were not a Frenchman, I should wish to be an Englishman'; to which Pam coolly replied: 'If I were not an Englishman, I should wish to be an Englishman.Ridley, p. 589. When Winston Churchill campaigned for rearmament in the 1930s, he was compared to Palmerston in warning the nation to look to its defences.
By 1936, he was disappointed with Labour's opposition to rearmament, and defected to the National Labour Organisation. He continued to regard himself as a supporter of Trotsky, and wrote in opposition to the Moscow Trials. He was adopted as the party's Prospective Parliamentary Candidate for Bristol East, but no election was held until 1945, by which time he had left politics. In 1940, Reade joined the British Army, and the following year was appointed to the Special Operations Executive, becoming its head of administration.
The Roaring Lion, a portrait by Yousuf Karsh at the Canadian Parliament, 30 December 1941. Winston Churchill was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty on 3 September 1939, the day that the United Kingdom declared war on Nazi Germany. He succeeded Neville Chamberlain as Prime Minister on 10 May 1940 and held the post until 26 July 1945. Out of office during the 1930s, Churchill had taken the lead in calling for British rearmament to counter the growing threat of militarism in Nazi Germany.
Brazil did send a naval contribution against German submarines. Following the war, France was again occupied with European and colonial matters, and especially with the threat of German rearmament. Following the Fall of France in 1940, France was represented by two rival governments that attempted to gain international recognition, and maintain relations with the New World. The conflict between the Free French movement and the Vichy regime came to the Americas with the 1941 capture of the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon by the Free French.
95 In response to the withdrawal of Nazi Germany from the League in 1933, he began a program of rearmament, focusing initially on the Navy and the Air Force. Universal Newsreel's film about the assassination. Barthou was a lover of the arts, and in power worked with leaders of the arts to publicize their fields. He felt that world-class leadership in the arts made Paris a mecca for tourists and collectors, and enhanced the nation's stature worldwide as the exemplar of truth and beauty.
Emma Sachse reacted by firmly positioning herself in opposition to antisemitism. During the increasingly frenzied final years of the Weimar period she spoke out against national rearmament and the dismantling of social welfare structures. At the AWO regional conference of 1930 the movement adopted a resolution protesting in the sharpest terms against the threatened institutional destruction in the areas of social and welfare policy which the fascist structures proposed for Thüringia incorporated. The political backdrop changed completely in January 1933 with the Nazi take-over.
Much of the economy had recovered by 1936, but persistent, long-term unemployment lasted until rearmament began for World War II in 1940.Broadus Mitchell, Decade: From New Era through New Deal, 1929–1941 (1964) The New Deal was, and still is, sharply debated.Parker, ed. Reflections on the Great Depression (2002) The business community, with considerable support from such conservative Democrats as Al Smith, launched a crusade against the New Deal, warning that a dangerous man had seized control of the economy and threatened America's conservative traditions.
At the end of 1971, Messerschmidt took over the scientific management of the MGFA. He launched the ten-volume history Germany and the Second World War, which focused on the interdependent relationship between military events and society. The first four volumes were set against the backdrop of the Cold War, and the German debate on rearmament in view of the catastrophic military past. The studies, which were designed and conceived in the Messerschmid era, continue to set the trend for a society-oriented military history.
He returned to Washington, D.C., as a specialist on Germany in the U.S. Army military intelligence division, and as a personal adviser to General George C. Marshall (1939–1945). From Berlin in the late 1930s, he reported on German rearmament, Luftwaffe capabilities, and the increasing extent of the Germans' organization for war. He was friendly with important officers such as Werner von Blomberg (Minister of War). He arranged (May 1936) the first of Colonel Charles Lindbergh's five inspection trips to the German aircraft industry and the Luftwaffe.
He outlined three main military points for Belgium's increased rearmament: > a) German rearmament, following upon the complete re-militarisation of Italy > and Russia (the Soviet Union), caused most other states, even those that > were deliberately pacifistic, like Switzerland and the Netherlands, to take > exceptional precautions. > b) There has been such a vast change in the methods of warfare as a result > of technical progress, particularly in aviation and mechanization, that the > initial operations of armed conflict could now be of such force, speed and > magnitude as to be particularly alarming to small countries like Belgium. > c) Our anxieties have been increased by the lightning reoccupation of the > Rhineland and the fact that bases for the start of a possible German > invasion have been moved near to our frontier. On 24 April 1937, the French and British delivered a public declaration that Belgium's security was paramount to the Western Allies and that they would defend their frontiers accordingly against aggression of any sort, whether this aggression was directed solely at Belgium, or as a means of obtaining bases from which to wage war against "other states".
Mason argued that the Nazi leaders were so deeply haunted by the 1918 November Revolution that they were most unwilling to see any fall in working-class living standards out of the fear that it might provoke a repetition. According to Mason, by 1939, the "overheating" of the German economy caused by rearmament, the failure of various rearmament plans produced by the shortages of skilled workers, industrial unrest caused by the breakdown of German social policies, and the sharp drop in living standards for the German working class forced Hitler into going to war at a time and place that were not of his choosing.Kaillis, Aristotle Fascist Ideology, London: Routledge, 2000 pages 165–166 Mason contended that when faced with the deep socio-economic crisis, the Nazi leadership had decided to embark upon a ruthless "smash and grab" foreign policy of seizing territory in Eastern Europe that could be pitilessly plundered to support living standards in Germany.Kaillis, Aristotle Fascist Ideology, London: Routledge, 2000 page 166 Mason described German foreign policy as driven by an opportunistic "next victim" syndrome after the Anschluss in which the "promiscuity of aggressive intentions" was nurtured by every successful foreign policy move.
Appeasement was accepted by most of those responsible for British foreign policy in the 1930s, by leading journalists and academics and by members of the royal family, such as King Edward VIII and his successor, George VI. Anti-communism was sometimes acknowledged as a deciding factor, as mass labour unrest resurfaced in Britain, and news of Stalin's bloody purges disturbed the West. A common upper-class slogan was "better Hitlerism than Communism"."An evaluation of the reasons for the British policy of appeasement, 1936–1938" BBC History (In France, right- wingers were sometimes heard to chant "Better Hitler than Blum," referring to their Socialist Prime Minister Léon Blum at the time.)Christopher Hitchens, "Imagining Hitler" Vanity Fair, February 15, 1999 Most Conservative MPs were also in favour, though Churchill said their supporters were divided and in 1936 he led a delegation of leading Conservative politicians to express to Baldwin their alarm about the speed of German rearmament and the fact that Britain was falling behind. Amongst Conservatives, Churchill was unusual in believing that Germany menaced freedom and democracy, that British rearmament should proceed more rapidly and that Germany should be resisted over Czechoslovakia.
In the 1960s, it became clear that the legal rehabilitation of the Waffen-SS was out of HIAG's reach. At the same time, attitudes in Germany were beginning to change. Waffen-SS veterans' activities were increasingly greeted by suspicion from the community, while the government and military planners came to the realisation that they could meet their goals of rearmament without the former Waffen-SS men. HIAG was thus increasingly marginalised and ignored by political parties, while any pretence of moderation no longer served a purpose as no further benefits were forthcoming from the government.
Henderson later promoted the Fleet Air Arm and the construction of aircraft carriers. He was given command of the aircraft carrier in 1926 and became Naval Aide-de-Camp to King George V in 1928. He was appointed Rear Admiral commanding aircraft carriers in 1931 and Third Sea Lord and Controller of the Navy in 1934. As such he played a significant role in all of the major warship procurements for the Royal Navy in the rearmament period running up to the Second World War, in particular the new aircraft carrier, escort and cruiser forces.
Vansittart thought that in either case time should be "bought for rearmament" by an economic agreement with Germany and by appeasing every "genuine grievance" about colonies. Vansittart wanted to detach Benito Mussolini from Hitler and thought that the British Empire was an "Incubus" and that Continental Europe was the central British national interest, but he doubted whether agreement could be had there.Cowling, pp. 158-159. That was because he feared that German attention, if turned eastwards, would result in a military empire between the Baltic Sea, the Adriatic Sea and the Black Sea.
After being warned by the Auswärtiges Amt that trade with the Soviet Union provided Germany with raw materials needed for rearmament, Hitler took certain steps to reduce tension with the Soviet Union and did not break off diplomatic relations with Moscow, as he had considering, but at the same time, he made it clear that "a restoration of the German-Russian relationship would be impossible". As Dirksen continued to press Hitler for a rapprochement with the Soviet Union, Hitler decided to make him his new ambassador in Japan.
Hasso Eccard von Manteuffel (14 January 1897 – 24 September 1978) was a German general during World War II who commanded the 5th Panzer Army. He was a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds of Nazi Germany. After the war, he was elected to the Bundestag (West German legislature) and was the spokesman for defense of the Liberal Party. A proponent of rearmament, he was responsible for coining the new name for the post-World War II German armed forces, the Bundeswehr.
Barfleur at anchor, after 1904 On 22 January 1902, she paid off at HM Dockyard, Devonport to begin a reconstruction at Portsmouth that included a partial rearmament that lasted until May 1904 when she was placed in reserve because she was already obsolete. Barfleur was temporarily recommissioned on 18 July 1904 to participate in that year's annual maneuvers. During them she was slightly damaged when she accidentally collided with the battleship in Mount's Bay on 5 August 1904. After their conclusion, she was paid off again on 8 September 1904.
First edition (publ. Faber and Faber) The Left Was Never Right was a book published in June 1945 by Quintin Hogg, the Conservative MP for Oxford, which examined the speeches and policies of politicians from the Labour Party and the Liberal Party concerning armaments and appeasement. These were contrasted to quotes by Conservative MPs such as Winston Churchill and Sir Austen Chamberlain supporting British rearmament and against appeasement of Germany. The books dust-jacket quoted Jesus' remark: "Out of thine own mouth will I judge thee" from Luke 19:22.
Bevan was instead appointed Minister of Labour in January 1951 in place of George Isaacs. The move was seen by some as a sideways or backwards step, although a potential rearmament program was expected to make the post of future importance. During his tenure, he helped to secure a deal for railwaymen which provided them with a significant pay increase. However, three months after his appointment, Hugh Gaitskell introduced a proposal of prescription charges for dental care and spectacles—created to save a potential £25m to meet the financial demands imposed by the Korean War.
As a result, the Dutch government used the succession of William III by a female regent as an opportunity to make a power play and establish government authority over royal authority. Queen Wilhelmina was not happy with the new situation and made several half-hearted attempts during her reign to reassert authority. She was partly successful in certain areas (being able to push for military rearmament before World War I) but she never succeeded in restoring royal power. She did introduce a new concept to Dutch royalty though: the popular monarch.
So the long process of industrial rearmament and "island hopping" begins with each element being scorned by a "Japanese" man with a radio speaker in silhouette behind a curtain. And then the island is taken. Surprisingly little is actually shown of the battle, but Tweed is shown talking to some of his superiors about the experience of the Chamorros on the island, the brutality and torture that the Japanese inflicted on them, and several photographs of Chamorro severed heads are shown, with the narrator explaining why each was decapitated.
She worked as a doctor in Charlottenburg in the city's health department and suffered attempts to interfere with her ability to be paid through national health insurance and calls for a boycott of her practice. She spoke out against the rearmament of Germany and she was defamed as a Communist, a severe charge in the Cold War era. In 1951, she was let go, without notice, from her job as a doctor. Until the 1960s, she was denied a passport, for fear of what she might say about Germany while abroad.
TG 38.1 was detached and sent to Ulithi for replenishment and rearmament after two weeks of continuous operations against Okinawa and the Ryukyus Islands. USS Bunker Hill and Hancock were also detached from TG 38.2 at this time, leaving Intrepid the sole Essex-class aircraft carrier in its group. When Admiral Takeo Kurita's Center Force was sighted entering the Sibuyan Sea on October 24, the only task group readily available to strike was the shorthanded TG 38.2. Pilots of Air Group 18 recalled the day being their toughest yet.
The Druid in Bonavista Bay, Newfoundland Druid was laid down in 1868 and launched on 13 March 1869 in the presence of Princess Louise and Prince Arthur. She was completed in February 1872 and was the last ship to be built at Deptford Dockyard. The ship was initially assigned to the Cape of Good Hope Station, commanded by Captain the Honorable Maurice Nelson, where she remained for two years before being transferred to the North America and West Indies Station. Druid was refitted upon her return home in December 1876, which included rearmament.
Hitler visited Gustav just before the Röhm purge in 1934, which among other things eliminated many of those who actually believed in the "socialism" of "National Socialism." Gustav supported the "Adolf Hitler Endowment Fund of German Industry", administrated by Bormann, who used it to collect millions of Marks from German businessmen. As part of Hitler's secret rearmament program, Krupp expanded from 35,000 to 112,000 employees. Gustav was alarmed at Hitler's aggressive foreign policy after the Munich Agreement, but by then he was fast succumbing to senility and was effectively displaced by his son Alfried.
Simultaneously, the Iranian armed forces had to learn to maintain and keep operational, their large stocks of US-built equipment and weaponry without outside help, due to the American-led sanctions. However, Iran was able to obtain limited amounts of American-made armaments, when it was able to buy American spare parts and weaponry for its armed forces, during the Iran–Contra affair. At first, deliveries came via Israel and later, from the US. The Iranian government established a five-year rearmament program in 1989 to replace worn-out weaponry from the Iran–Iraq War.
New York: Macmillan, 1955; pg. 251. Along with many on the American left, Tyler was a vigorous opponent of rearmament for a new World War, authoring a resolution which declared the Socialist Party would support no war except a war for socialism.Shannon, The Socialist Party, pg. 252. In making this pronouncement Tyler reasoned that the distinction between democratic-capitalist and fascist countries would be essentially meaningless in the event of war since the militarization of society inherent in the act of going to war would reduce the democratic nations themselves to reactionary dictatorships.
She was energetically committed to women's rights. Mention should also be made of less eulogistic assessments, indicating that towards the end of her life she was not always accommodating to younger colleagues whose approach or tactics might not align unquestioningly with her own, however. There are suggestions of an excessive tendency to promote those colleagues who agreed with her. She was also vociferous in campaigning against West German rearmament, participating effectively in the SPD's successful campaign during the late 1950s to resist the provision of nuclear weapons to the West German army.
In 1925, the Lindener Zündhütchen- und Thoonwaarenfabrik of Empelde was taken over by the Chemische Werke Lothringen GmbH, which itself belonged to BASF. Production was stopped in 1928 and did not restart until the rearmament which occurred in 1938. During the 1920s, the company collaborated closely with the Siegener Dynamitfabrik AG and the Rheinisch-Westfälischen Sprengstoff-AG which belonged to I.G. Farben since 1931. In 1926, as a result of the fusion with Köln- Rottweil AG which belonged to I.G. Farben, Dynamit Nobel was taken over by I.G. Farben.
Yoshida shared and implemented MacArthur's goals was to democratize Japanese political, social and economic institutions, while completely de-militarizing the nation and renouncing its militaristic heritage. MacArthur ordered a limited rearmament of Japan the week after the war broke out in June 1950, calling for a national police reserve of 75,000 men, which would be organized separately from the 125,000 police force that already existed. The Coast Guard grew from 10,000 to 18,000. The argument that these were police forces for domestic internal use carried the day over the objections of the anti-militarists.
Rearmament, and later war brought these resources to life, which combined with rising investment and an intact infrastructure kept American industry buoyant, although considerable residual unemployment remained. Much the same situation existed in Canada, whose economy was closely tied to America, and who also suffered no fighting within its territory. The war changed the pattern of the international economy, leaving the US in a very strong bargaining position, having managed to free up international trade to its benefit as a consequence of Lend–Lease, and forcing the British to agree to currency convertibility.
Later in November Viana Rebelo was replaced as minister of Defense by Silva Cunha, who was able to obtain additional funding for the rearmament of the armed forces. Following new funding, a new plan was made in February 1974 to acquire new aircraft for the Air Force, which included 32 Dassault Mirage 5 fighters along with 239 other airplanes and helicopters.Secretaria de Estado da Aeronáutica [State Secretary of Aeronautics] Memorandum, Subject: "Programa de Forças – Aquisições Previstas (1a revisão)" [Forces Program – Predicted Acquisitions (1st revision)], February 4, 1974. Arquivo Histórico da Força Aérea.
443 . and included representatives from all founding NATO countries. At the meeting, the United States put forth that it was committed to the defense of Western Europe by increasing U.S. forces on the contingent that (West) Germany would also make a substantial armed contribution to the defense.Trachtenberg, Marc et al. “America, Europe and German Rearmament, August – September 1950,” UCLA, p.9. Secretary of State Dean Acheson outlined the U.S. position on the defense of Western Europe in a series of initiatives that embodied the “One Package” proposal submitted to President Truman on September 5th, 1950.
Hans Hackmack, who died in the first flight of the M 20, was a close friend of Erhard Milch, the head of Luft Hansa and the German civil aviation authorities. Milch was upset by the lack of response from Messerschmitt and this led to a lifelong hatred towards him. Milch eventually cancelled all contracts with Messerschmitt and forced BFW into bankruptcy in 1931. However, the German rearmament programs and Messerschmitt's friendship with Hugo Junkers prevented a stagnation of the careers of himself and BFW, which was started again in 1933.
The Heidmark The Heidmark is an area of the Lüneburg Heath, much of which has not been accessible to the population since about 1935/1936. The establishment of a large military training area (Truppenübungsplatzes Bergen) by the German armed forces, the Wehrmacht, as part of their rearmament and preparation for war resulted in the evacuation of 24 villages and, since then the training area has been out-of-bounds to non-military personnel. Today it has become the Bergen-Hohne Training Area, the largest of its kind in Europe.
Churchill later sought to portray himself as an isolated voice warning of the need to rearm against Germany. While it is true that he had little following in the House of Commons during much of the 1930s, he was given considerable privileges by the government. The "Churchill group" in the latter half of the decade consisted only of him, Duncan Sandys, and Brendan Bracken. It was isolated from the other main factions within the Conservative Party pressing for faster rearmament and a stronger foreign policy. In some senses the ‘exile’ was more apparent then real.
In addition to developments at the site of the Reichsbauernstand ("Reich farmers"), which amounted to little more than providing a curtain-raiser to the Heinrich Himmler cult at the Reich's farmers' conferences, the region became increasingly industrialized and mining was advanced with the introduction of new technology. During the Nazi era the town was also the centre for enterprises and institutions connected with Germany's rearmament. The largest employers were the chemical factory of Borchers A.G./H.C. Starck, the Lower Harz Mining and Smelting Company and Goslar air base.
She continued to care for both of them and Winston Churchill later wrote that she "kept him alive" and that he "was her contact with gt. affairs". Her husband is credited by some with leaking key information to Churchill before he returned to power enabling Churchill to be aware of Hitler's rearmament. When her husband died in 1936 she continued to entertain and network. It was said that she was welcome at any of the London embassies as well as at great houses like Arundel and Belvoir Castle.
She was president of the Home Thrift Association, supporting a Yorkville settlement house, and was president for 43 years of the Three Arts Club, a residence for women studying music, painting and drama. She was a founder of the Parents' League of New York in 1914, and later became its president. She was the president of the Peoples' Chorus of New York, and a commissioner of the Girl Scouts of Westchester County. After her husband's death in 1949, she donated the family's 277-acre Mount Kisco estate, Dellwood, to the controversial Moral Rearmament movement.
During 1927/28 Schneller was intensively involved in party attempts to uncover the Lohman Affair ("Phoebus Scandal"), a conspiracy of some complexity which lasted for several years and involved a bankrupt film company and various attempts by or on behalf of the government to fund covert rearmament. In 1928 the German party sent Schneller to Moscow as a delegate for the Sixth World Congress of the Comintern. He was appointed to the candidates' list for the powerful Comintern Executive Committee (ECCI / ИККИ). He would never make it to membership of the committee, however.
Because Mefo bills did not figure in government budgetary statements, they helped maintain the secret of rearmament and were, in Hitler's own words, merely a way of printing money. Schacht also proved adept at negotiating extremely profitable barter deals with many other nations, supplying German military expertise and equipment in return. The Nazi official who took the leading role in preparing German industry for war was Hermann Göring. In September 1936 he established the Four Year Plan, the purpose of which was to make Germany self-sufficient and impervious to blockade by 1940.
Forced industrialisation was designed to eliminate this contradiction. From a foreign policy point of view, the country was in hostile conditions. According to the leadership of the All- Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), there was a high probability of a new war with capitalist states. It is significant that even at the 10th congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in 1921, Lev Kamenev, the author of the report "About the Soviet Republic Surrounded", stated that preparations for the Second World War, which had begun in Europe: Preparation for war required a thorough rearmament.
As such, Fritsch, who worked closely with the Soviet Union with the secret rearmament, favored a pro-Soviet foreign policy and had an extreme hatred for Poland. In 1928, Fritsch began work on the plan that became 'Fall Weiss, the invasion of Poland in 1939. He was promoted to major-general (Generalmajor) in 1932 by Kurt von Schleicher, who regarded him as a promising young officer. Schleicher then assigned Fritsch and Gerd von Rundstedt the duty of carrying out the Prussian coup that saw the Reichswehr oust the German Social Democratic Party government of Prussia.
After a difficult school period, he finally graduated from highschool at the age of 21. Through his marriage in 1928 with a daughter of the Prussian family von der Goltz, whose father had been a general in World War I, he became interested in Nazism and Adolf Hitler's policy of rearmament. Already in 1932, he and his wife joined the NSB, the Dutch equivalent of the German Nazi Party. He soon became engaged in the political work for the party, which ultimately resulted in being fired from his regular job.
The 1st Panzer Brigade was organized in 1934, followed by others during Germany's rearmament. Before the war, a Panzer Brigade was composed of a staff and two panzer regiments. From the beginning of the war in 1939 Panzer Brigades were present and operational in the German Order of Battle until at least the summer of 1943. Apart from the official Order of Battle, German tank forces often operated in ad hoc formations, especially after the reverse of fortunes on the battlefield required makeshift units to tackle crisis situations more often.
The United States, acting through the CIA, funded a long list of projects to counter the communist appeal among intellectuals in Europe and the developing world. The CIA also covertly sponsored a domestic propaganda campaign called Crusade for Freedom. In the early 1950s, the US worked for the rearmament of West Germany and, in 1955, secured its full membership of NATO. In May 1953, Beria, by then in a government post, had made an unsuccessful proposal to allow the reunification of a neutral Germany to prevent West Germany's incorporation into NATO.
MEFO was a dummy company that was formed with relatively small amounts of capital that was used to finance German rearmament off the books. It issued bills without backing by its own resources but which were guaranteed redeemable at 1:1 for Reichsmarks for five years by the government. The MEFO bills amounts were considered a state secret and were an important element in the impression that Hitlerian economics was a success. This company essentially created a large amount of Reichsmarks off the books, inflating the currency in secret.
Applications included various forged items, including pipework, vessels, and heat exchangers, as well as fuselage elements of aircraft. By 1938, the material was being producing at a very high volume as a consequence of the European powers having entered a period of rearmament around the time of Munich crisis, which led into the Second World War. During the postwar era, Kynal continued to hold its strategic importance. The material proliferated throughout British engineering throughout the 1950s and 1960s; it began to be used in the frames of road vehicles during the mid 1950s.
The deteriorating international situation by 1933, typified by Germany's rearmament and the expansion of Japan and Italy, convinced the British to announce funds for the carrier's construction in the 1934 budget proposals. The plans were finished by November 1934 and were tendered in February 1935 to Cammell Laird and Company Ltd., which calculated the cost of the hull at £1,496,250 () and the main machinery at approximately £500,000 (equivalent to £31,850,000 in 2016). The overall cost was estimated to be over £3 million, making Ark Royal the most expensive non-battleship ordered by the Royal Navy.
They cut off 90% of Japan's oil supply, and Japan had to either withdraw from China or go to war with the US and Britain as well as China to get the oil. Under the Washington Naval treaty of 1922 and the London Naval treaty, the American navy was to be equal to the Japanese navy by a ratio of 10:6.Pelz, Stephen E. Race to Pearl Harbor. Harvard University Press 1974 However, by 1934, the Japanese ended their disarmament policies and enabled rearmament policy with no limitations.
Until 2021, three more regiments of the Strategic Missile Forces will be rearmed with the modernized complex. According to Sergey Karakaev, commander of the Strategic Missile Forces, as of November 2019, there were "more than 150" launchers of the "Yars" complex (silo and mobile- based) in operation. Regiments in Yoshkar-Ola, Teykovo, Nizhny Tagil and Novosibirsk have been fully rearmed with the TEL version of "Yars" and rearmament of the Irkutsk missile regiments is to be complete until the end of 2019. According to Karakaev, RVSN receives "around 20" "Yars" complexes per year.
The Germans were also fond of large destroyers, but while the initial Type 1934 displaced over 3,000 tons, their armament was equal to smaller vessels. This changed from the Type 1936 onwards, which mounted heavy guns. German destroyers also used innovative high-pressure steam machinery: while this should have helped their efficiency, it more often resulted in mechanical problems. Once German and Japanese rearmament became clear, the British and American navies consciously focused on building destroyers that were smaller but more numerous than those used by other nations.
Studienstiftung Alumni: Ulrike Meinhof, Gudrun Ensslin, Wolfgang Ketterle In 1957, she transferred to the University of Münster, where she met the Spanish Marxist intellectual Manuel SacristánSerra, Xavier. Social History of Catalan Philosophy: logic, 1900–1980. p. 184 (who later translated and edited some of her writings), joined the Socialist German Student Union, and participated in protests against the rearmament of the Bundeswehr and its involvement with nuclear weapons that were proposed by Konrad Adenauer's government. Meinhof eventually became the spokeswoman of the local Anti- Atomtod-Ausschuss (Anti Atomic-Death Committee).
A series of left-wing motions were passed. Bevanites took over the constituency section of Labour's National Executive Committee (the "NEC"): Bevan, Barbara Castle, Tom Driberg, Ian Mikardo and Harold Wilson took the top five places with Crossman seventh. Veteran right-wingers such as Herbert Morrison and Hugh Dalton were voted off, with Jim Griffiths in sixth place the only member of the Old Guard to survive; Shinwell, who as Minister of Defence was seen as responsible for the rearmament programme, had been voted off the previous year.
Cripps, whose health was still failing, had notified Attlee of his intention to resign as Chancellor of the Exchequer on 26 April 1950. He attempted to resign in the summer but was dissuaded by Gaitskell and Plowden because of the outbreak of the Korean War. He instead went on a long holiday, leaving Gaitskell in charge.Dell 1997, p.133 It was now becoming clear that the US Congress was reluctant to help Britain meet the cost of rearmament. Gaitskell visited Washington in October 1950, his first visit there, just before becoming Chancellor.
Gaitskell and Attlee warned of risks that the rearmament programme might not be fully implemented. Gaitskell warned the Economic Policy Committee (3 April 1951) of the shortage of machine tools, and stated that some could be imported from the USA but that this would weaken the balance of payments.Dell 1997, p.151 A very angry Bevan saw the charges as a blow to the principle of a free health service, telling a heckler whilst he was making a speech in Bermondsey (3 April 1951) that he would resign rather than accept health charges.
"Lift and strike" was a proposed policy by the Bill Clinton administration in 1993, which Clinton had supported during his successful presidential campaign in 1992. It sought to improve the chances of a political settlement in the bloody atrocity-filled Bosnian War in the former Yugoslavia by lifting the arms embargo, arming the Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims), and striking at the Bosnian Serbs if they resisted the rearmament project. A combination of the Vietnam Syndrome and very strong opposition from American allies in Europe killed the proposal and it was never enacted.
In the aftermath of Munich, Chamberlain continued to pursue a course of cautious rearmament. He told the Cabinet in early October 1938, "[I]t would be madness for the country to stop rearming until we were convinced that other countries would act in the same way. For the time being, therefore, we should relax no particle of effort until our deficiencies had been made good." Later in October, he resisted calls to put industry on a war footing, convinced that such an action would show Hitler that the Prime Minister had decided to abandon Munich.
Both internal and external forms of balancing encounter a fair share of obstacles, problems and criticisms. Internal balancing is subjected to a number of domestic obstacles that can impede its success. High costs associated with it and the difficult task of allocating resources to be able to make significant contributions to one's economic and military development are among the main ones. Furthermore, independently balancing a major power would require major expansion of one's capabilities and accelerated rearmament, which would undoubtedly provoke unfavourable responses from not just the major power in question but also other states.
He became Air Officer Commanding Wessex Bombing Area in February 1931 and then Air Officer Commanding Middle East Command in September 1931. He then returned to the Air Ministry, where he became Air Member for Supply and Organisation on 14 January 1935, during the beginnings of the pre-war expansion and rearmament. He was advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in the 1935 Birthday Honours and promoted to air marshal on 1 July 1935. He attended the funeral of King George V in January 1936.
IAI Harop, Israel, is the world's largest exporter of drones. Rejection of requests for weapons and technologies, arms sanctions and massive rearmament of the Arab countries prodded Israel into the development of a broad-based indigenous arms industry. The Israel Defense Forces relies heavily on local military technology and high-tech weapons systems designed and manufactured in Israel. Israeli-developed military equipment includes small arms, anti-tank rockets and missiles, boats and submarines, tanks, armored vehicles, artillery, unmanned surface vehicles, aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), air- defense systems, weapon stations and radar.
In addition to the resistors forced into their commitment because of their risk of being deported and exterminated because of their race, some were also committed against the German Nazi regime. Women represented approximately 15% of the Resistance. Monique Moser-Verrey notes however: Bust of Sophie Scholl in Munich The student Communist Liselotte Herrmann protested in 1933 against the appointment of Adolf Hitler as chancellor and managed to get information to foreign governments about the rearmament of Germany. In 1935 she was arrested, sentenced to death two years later and executed in 1938.
The European Defence Community (EDC) was a plan proposed in 1950 by René Pleven, the French Prime Minister, in response to the American call for the rearmament of West Germany. The intention was to form a pan-European defence force as an alternative to Germany's proposed accession to NATO, meant to harness its military potential in case of conflict with the Soviet bloc. The EDC was to include West Germany, France, Italy, and the Benelux countries. A treaty was signed on 27 May 1952, but the plan never went into effect.
In the early 1860s, the Eyalet of Egypt, a province of the Ottoman Empire, ordered several ironclad warships for its fleet as part of a rearmament program to again challenge the power of the central government--the last having been the Second Egyptian–Ottoman War twenty years earlier. These included the two Lüft-ü Celil-class vessels, ordered in 1866. After lengthy negotiations, the crisis was resolved when the Egyptian ironclads, including Lüft-ü Celil and Hifz-ur Rahman, were transferred to the central government on 29 August 1868, among other concessions made by Egypt.
St. Laurent introduced a bill in February 1951 creating a Department of Defence Production, and announced that on passage, Howe would add that responsibility to his portfolio. The opposition parties objected to the Defence Production Act, stating that there was no emergency justifying the powers Howe wanted. According to Roberts, Howe sought to implement rearmament by getting "full power for himself and running rights over everyone and everything to get an urgent job done". Backed by the overwhelming Liberal majority, the bill passed and the Department was established on 1 April 1951.
In June 1934, Reynaud defended in the Chamber of Deputies the need to devaluate the French franc, whose belonging to the gold standard was increasingly harmful for the French economy, but in those years the French public opinion was opposed to any devaluation SAUVY, ALFRED, Histoire Économique de la France entre les deux guerres (3 volumes), Paris, Fayard, 1984, Vol.I, p.143 He was not given another cabinet position until 1938. Like Winston Churchill, Reynaud was a maverick in his party and often alone in his calls for rearmament and resistance to German aggrandizement.
The Germanophobe Vansittart had always hated the Germans, and especially disliked the Nazis, whom he saw as a menace to civilization. Vansittart had supported Eden's efforts to defuse the Rhineland crisis as British rearmament had only just began, but being an intense Francophile Vansittart urged the government to use the crisis as a chance to begin forming a military alliance with France against Germany. By the spring of 1936, Vansittart had become convinced that a "general settlement" with Germany was not possible, and Hitler was seeking the conquest of the world.
After her crew had been worked up at the training base at Tobermory in August 1941, she joined the Clyde Escort Force at Greenock on the River Clyde. Apart from three annual refits and a rearmament at Govan, Fort William and Troon, she escorted merchant ships continuously for three years. Narcissus went across the North Atlantic to Newfoundland; across the Bay of Biscay to Gibraltar; and once to Freetown and back. During the course of these convoys, she expended countless depth charges against under-water contacts and picked up survivors from several Allied ships.
Spears became a member of the so-called 'Eden Group' of anti- appeasement backbench MPs. This group, known disparagingly by the Conservative whips as 'The Glamour Boys', formed around Anthony Eden when he had resigned as Foreign Secretary in February 1938 in protest at the opening of negotiations with Italy by the Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain. Given his long-standing friendship with Winston Churchill, it was not surprising that Spears also joined the latter's group of anti-appeasers, known as 'The Old Guard'. Both groups called for rearmament in the face of Nazi threats.
There, he created a rearmament program, demanding the formation of at least 42 divisions. A close friend of Kurt von Schleicher, Hammerstein repeatedly warned President Paul von Hindenburg about the dangers of appointing Hitler as chancellor. In response, Hindenburg assured Hammerstein-Equord that "he would not even consider making that Austrian corporal the minister of defense or the chancellor". Barely four days later, on 30 January 1933, pursuant to a request by Hindenburg, Hitler formed a cabinet as the German Chancellor and Nazi leader, in coalition with the conservative German National People's Party.
He returned to England after twenty years of missionary service between 1914 and 1934 due to conflicts within the ashram and joined Moral Rearmament, an Oxford Group Movement. He wrote a couple of famous Oxford Group books. The Most well known is "When I Awake" (instructions on how to keep the QUIET TIME WITH GOD on a daily basis) His other famous Oxford group book was the short book "Why I believe in the Oxford Group". While in England, he took up parish work, broadcasting and writing work.
As part of the Norwegian rearmament scheme in the last years leading up to the Second World War, the Royal Norwegian Navy began building a series of new destroyers. The six ships of the Sleipner class were larger than the preceding First World War vintage vessels. At some 735 tons the Sleipner- class ships were still much smaller than the destroyers of the major navies of the time. The Royal Norwegian Navy had requested 1,000 ton destroyers, but financial constraints led to the 735-ton Sleipner class being constructed as a compromise.
His tenure as DCAS coincided with the most significant rearmament program the Air Force had undertaken since World War II, and with manpower shortages stemming from this expansion and from Australia's increasing involvement in the security of South East Asia.Stephens, Going Solo, pp. 88–89 The first RAAF helicopters were committed to the Vietnam War towards the end of his term, and he travelled to Saigon with the Chief of the General Staff, Lieutenant General Sir John Wilton, in March 1966 to plan the deployment.Coulthard-Clark, The RAAF in Vietnam, p.
The memorandum was an attempt to exculpate the Wehrmacht from war crimes. Western powers were becoming increasingly concerned with the growing Cold War and wanted West Germany to begin rearming to counter the perceived Soviet threat. In 1950, West German chancellor Konrad Adenauer and former officers met to discuss West Germany's rearmament and agreed upon the Himmerod memorandum. This memorandum laid out the conditions under which West Germany would rearm: their war criminals must be released, the defamation of the German soldier must cease, and foreign public opinion of the Wehrmacht must be transformed.
The British were concerned with the growing Cold War and wanted to encourage the West German government to join the European Defence Community and NATO. Konrad Adenauer, the West German chancellor, arranged secret meetings between his officials and former Wehrmacht officers to discuss the rearmament of West Germany. The meetings took place at Himmerod Abbey between 5 October 1950 and 9 October 1950 and included Hermann Foertsch, Adolf Heusinger and Hans Speidel. During the war, Foertsch had worked under Walter von Reichenau, an ardent Nazi who issued the Severity Order.
The construction and training of motorised forces and a full mobilisation of the rail networks would not begin until 1943 and 1944 respectively. Hitler needed to avoid war until these projects were complete but his misjudgements in 1939 forced Germany into war before rearmament was complete. After the war, Albert Speer claimed that the German economy achieved greater armaments output, not because of diversions of capacity from civilian to military industry but through streamlining of the economy. Richard Overy pointed out some 23 percent of German output was military by 1939.
As part of the rearmament of the British Army before World War II, the 6th Battalion Royal Northumberland Fusiliers, a Territorial Army infantry battalion, was converted to the armoured role on 1 November 1938, under the designation 43rd (6th City) Battalion, The Royal Northumberland Fusiliers, Royal Tank Regiment, or '43 RTR' for short. During 1939, it formed 49 RTR as a duplicate regiment. The regiments shared St George's Drill Hall in Newcastle upon Tyne as their depot.43 RTR War Diary August 1940, The National Archives, Kew, file WO 166/1414.
Fleming, p.189 Although Londonderry immediately passed that information regarding Hitler's indicated future direction of German policy on to a member of the British government by a letter to Lord Halifax on 24 December 1936,later reproduced in "Ourselves and Germany"- see below – as letter "to a friend", p. 130–4. rearmament was not notably accelerated in Britain. In the end, Londonderry's high-profile promotion of Anglo-German friendship marked him with a far greater slur than what had led him to engage in appeasement in the first place.
Macleod pointed out that Chamberlain had been a "most valiant" champion of rearmament as Chancellor as early as 1934, but that little was done. According to Time magazine, Macleod saw Chamberlain as a "humanitarian industrialist, [a] progressive Lord Mayor of Birmingham and a dedicated Minister of Health who was damned as a 'Tory socialist'[.] Chamberlain had worked tirelessly in the '20s and '30s for the 'noble and fascinating ideal' of fashioning a better life for Britain's workingman." The 1960s and 1970s saw a further reassessment of Chamberlain as a Cabinet minister.
BMW 801 radial engine BMW 003 jet engine With German rearmament in the 1930s, the company again began producing aircraft engines for the Luftwaffe. In 1939, BMW bought Brandenburgische Motorenwerke, also known as Bramo, from the Siemens group of companies and merged it with its aircraft engine division under the name BMW Flugmotorenbau GmbH. A new factory at Allach, outside Munich, began production of aircraft engines later that year.Norbye, p. 72 Over 30,000 aero engines were manufactured through 1945, as well as over 500 jet engines such as the BMW 003.
Korten, by then a captain, joined the Luftwaffe in 1934 as Nazi Germany started on its rearmament programme. He received training as a general staff officer and served for several years in the Air Ministry. He was a Colonel and Chief of the General Staff of Luftflotte 4 (4th Air Fleet) stationed in Austria. At the beginning of 1940, Korten was transferred to the general staff of the Luftflotte 3 (3rd Air Fleet), in which he served during the Battle of France and in the Battle of Britain.
Fearing that defeatism and the effects of the Nazi propaganda would lead the federal government to submit to the Germans and give up the traditional democratic values of Switzerland, a group of young people led by Denis de Rougemont and Professor Theophil Spoerri founded the Gotthard League on 30 June 1940 in order to defend both these values and the independence of Switzerland. On 22 July an “Appeal to the Swiss People” written by de Rougemont was published in the Swiss press to rally support for the movement.Christian Ackermann, Denis de Rougemont : une biographie intellectuelle, Labor et Fides, 1996, 1284 pages, , p. 652 Signatories were, besides de Rougemont and Spoerri, , who was at the time a military instructor and later became a politician within the Radical- Democratic Party (PRD);Biography of Walther Allgöwer, , from the conservative- liberal movement Redressement national;Biography of Robert Eibel, Christian Gasser, from the liberal “Ligue des Non-Subventionnés”;Biography of Christian Gasser, , a social-democrat Christian trade-unionist;Biography of René Leyvraz, Philippe Mottu, from Moral Rearmament; Paul Schäfer, also from Moral Rearmament;Philippe Muller, Tout ce que ta main--, Publisher: L'âge d'homme, Lausanne, 1991, , 164 pages, p. 36 Heinrich Schnyder, a manager from the Migros groceries firm. Charles-F.
Prior to World War I, the Imperial Japanese Army was largely equipped with Krupp cannons from Germany. After the Versailles Treaty, the Japanese switched to the French Schneider company, and purchased numerous examples for test and evaluation. With an army rearmament program starting in 1931, a new 75 mm field gun loosely based on the French Schneider et Cie Canon de 85 mle 1927 built for GreeceWar Department Special Series No 25 Japanese Field Artillery October 1944History of War was introduced, and labeled the "Type 90".Mayer, S. L. The Rise and Fall of Imperial Japan, pp.
But Roosevelt insisted that without Wallace on the ticket he would decline re- nomination, and Wallace won the vice-presidential nomination, defeating Speaker of the House William B. Bankhead and other candidates. A late August poll taken by Gallup found the race to be essentially tied, but Roosevelt's popularity surged in September following the announcement of the Destroyers for Bases Agreement. Willkie supported much of the New Deal as well as rearmament and aid to Britain, but warned that Roosevelt would drag the country into another European war. Responding to Willkie's attacks, Roosevelt promised to keep the country out of the war.
When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Adolf Hitler soon began to more brazenly ignore many of the Treaty restrictions and accelerated German naval rearmament. The Anglo- German Naval Agreement of 18 June 1935 allowed Germany to build a navy equivalent to 35% of the British surface ship tonnage and 45% of British submarine tonnage; battleships were to be limited to no more than 35,000 tons. That same year the Reichsmarine was renamed as the Kriegsmarine. In April 1939, as tensions escalated between the United Kingdom and Germany over Poland, Hitler unilaterally rescinded the restrictions of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement.
Belgian troops were to be massed in central Belgium, in front of the National Redoubt at Antwerp ready to face any border, while the Fortified Position of Liège and Fortified Position of Namur were left to secure the frontiers. On mobilisation, the King became Commander-in- Chief and chose where the army was to concentrate. Amid the disruption of the new rearmament plan the disorganised and poorly trained Belgian conscripts would benefit from a central position to delay contact with an invader. The army would also need fortifications for defence but these had been built on the frontier.
He began planning for the concentration of the army in the centre of the country and met with railway officials on 29 July. The field army was to assemble in front of the National redoubt of Belgium, ready to face any border, while the Fortified Position of Liège and Fortified Position of Namur were left to secure the frontiers. On mobilisation, the King became Commander-in-Chief and chose where the army was to concentrate. Amid the disruption of the new rearmament plan, the disorganised and poorly-trained Belgian soldiers would benefit from a central position to delay contact with an invader.
This prompted Ammer and other members of the Eisenberger group, on 26 January 1956, to signal opposition to German rearmament by setting fire to a shooting stand belonging to the Party Battle group's "Sports and Technology Association". Ammer was the man who got hold of the kindling wood and petrol/gasoline needed for the exploit. For 1957 the Eisenberger Circle planned an appeal to academics to resist the growing centralisation of control over the universities. To outsiders, group members kept their heads down and conformed, Jammer himself serving as FDJ secretary for his student year group.
On mobilisation, the King became Commander-in-Chief and chose where the army was to concentrate. Amid the disruption of the new rearmament plan the disorganised and poorly trained Belgian soldiers would benefit from a central position to delay contact with an invader but it would also need fortifications for defence, which were on the frontier. A school of thought wanted a return to a frontier deployment in line with French theories of the offensive. Belgian plans became a compromise in which the field army concentrated behind the Gete river with two divisions forward at Liège and Namur.
Other prisoners had to work on constructing and expanding the camps. German state governments complained at being required to pay the upkeep of the camps, which was eventually taken over by the SS with costs reduced by forcing inmates to work. At Dachau, two streams of labor developed, one for punishing but less economically valuable labor, while a parallel system of workshops developed where prisoners performed economically valuable labor in much better conditions. The Four Year Plan of 1936 led to a shortage of labor, as free workers were diverted to projects related to German rearmament.
Soaring demand for coffee and rubber brought the Brazilian economy an influx of revenue,Sondhaus, p. 216 some of which was used to finance a 1904 Naval rearmament program. Before the bulk of the work could be completed, however, was launched in 1906, leading Brazil to alter her order for two, far more expensive vessels of a similar design. Minas Geraes and São Paulo instantly changed the balance of naval power in the region, sparking a new arms race; Chile ordered the dreadnoughts Almirante Latorre and Almirante Cochrane from Britain, and Argentina commissioned two vessels from the United States--Rivadavia and Moreno.
A proponent of rearmament and reinsertion into the war against Chile with an eye to recovering the lost territories, Campero was opposed in this endeavor by his vice-president, the Conservative Arce. Arce was linked to Chilean monetary and financial interests and favored an "accommodation" with Santiago, essentially advocating the giving up of the Litoral in exchange for investment and perhaps a promise to obtain a port through previously Peruvian but now Chilean-occupied at Arica. Campero soon accused Arce of treason and exiled him precisely to Chile. It was his foreign minister Daniel Nuñez del Prado who discovered the treason.
Significant numbers of Swedes also took part as volunteers in the Finnish civil war, with the 350-strong Swedish brigade playing a role in the decisive battle of Tampere. At the end of the war, Sweden was not a signatory of the Treaty of Versailles, which brought the conflict to a conclusion, but Sweden joined the League of Nations which was formed as a result of the treaty, and thus was bound by its restriction of German rearmament. However, Swedish firms provided assistance to their German counterparts that helped them avoid the restrictions of the treaty.
On mobilization, the King became Commander-in- Chief and chose where the army was to concentrate. Amid the disruption of the new rearmament plan, the disorganised and poorly trained Belgian soldiers would benefit from a central position, to delay contact with an invader but it would also need fortifications for defence, which were on the frontier. A school of thought wanted a return to a frontier deployment in line with French theories of the offensive. Belgian plans became a compromise in which the field army concentrated behind the Gete river with two divisions forward at Liège and Namur.
The Implacable class were ordered under the 1938 Naval Programme by the Chamberlain government as part of the general rearmament begun in response to the rise of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The design originated as an improved version of the s and was intended to be faster and carry an additional dozen aircraft over the speed and 36 aircraft of the earlier ships. To remain within the limit allowed by the Second London Naval Treaty, these improvements could only be made by reducing armour protection.Friedman, p. 141 Indefatigable was long overall and at the waterline.
By March 1940, Mussolini decided that Italy would intervene, but the date was not yet chosen. His senior military leadership unanimously opposed the action because Italy was unprepared. No raw materials had been stockpiled and the reserves it did have would soon be exhausted, Italy's industrial base was only one-tenth of Germany's, and even with supplies the Italian military was not organized to provide the equipment needed to fight a modern war of a long duration. An ambitious rearmament program was impossible because of Italy's limited reserves in gold and foreign currencies and lack of raw materials.
Churchill said Britain would not join the European Coal and Steel Community because doing so would mean sacrificing relations with the U.S and Commonwealth. From the beginning of his Chancellorship, Adenauer had been pressing for German rearmament. After the outbreak of the Korean War on 25 June 1950, the U.S. and Britain agreed that West Germany had to be rearmed to strengthen the defenses of Western Europe against a possible Soviet invasion. Further contributing to the crisis atmosphere of 1950 was the bellicose rhetoric of the East German leader Walter Ulbricht, who proclaimed the reunification of Germany under communist rule to be imminent.
The Federal elections of September 1953 resulted in large gains for CDU/CSU, while its coalition partners sustained slight losses. Adenauer missed an absolute majority by only one seat but to ensure a solid majority for his policy of Western integration and rearmament, all coalition partners were retained. However, because of the Minister of Justice's increasing differences with the Chancellor and because of "a serious breach of confidentiality" in the context of the Naumann affair, Dehler was replaced by Fritz Neumayer. This move met little opposition by fellow ministers and was supported President Heuss and Höpker-Aschoff, both fellow FDP members.
Further changes were made once work was under way, including the indefinite postponement of construction of the institute opposite the college. The plans of the tower were altered so that it would hold a library, instead of being purely ornamental, windows were added at regular intervals, and it was topped by a copper flèche, or small spire. A further delay in construction was announced in 1951, when labour and materials were restricted because of a government rearmament drive. Work to complete the quadrangle, including a hall, kitchen and the library tower, began in 1955 at a cost of £200,000.
Thwaites was born in Brisbane, to Yorkshire immigrant Robert Ernest Thwaites who taught at Brisbane Grammar School and Jessie Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Hugh Nelson, a previous premier of Queensland. He was educated at Geelong Grammar School, entering Trinity College at the University of Melbourne from which he graduated in 1937. As a student he came into contact with the Oxford Group (later Moral Rearmament), whose ideas greatly influenced him. He was awarded a Rhodes Scholarship to attend the University of Oxford where he won the Newdigate Prize (1938) for poetry and the King's Gold Medal for Poetry (1940).
It was also notable for the arrangement that machines were brought to the work instead of the work to the machines and several machines could work on the same piece at the same time. The cost of the oil alone to fill the well to harden the largest guns approached £5,000. Category: Business and Finance Coventry Ordnance Works 5.5 inch gun In 1908-1909 there was a very public "Mulliner scandal" because H H Mulliner was shown to have embellished reports of German rearmament in the hope of improving their order book for large naval guns.
As such, almost immediately after coming to power, they embarked on a vast program of military rearmament, which quickly dwarfed civilian investment. During the 1930s, Nazi Germany increased its military spending faster than any other state in peacetime, and the military eventually came to represent the majority of the German economy in the 1940s.Evans, Richard J., The Third Reich at War (New York: Penguin, 2008), p. 333. This was funded mainly through deficit financing before the war, and the Nazis expected to cover their debt by plundering the wealth of conquered nations during and after the war.
By comparison, the entire national income of Germany in 1933 was 43 billion Reichsmarks, so the government was not merely proposing to increase military spending, but to make military production the primary focus of the national economy. Earlier in April, the cabinet had already agreed to release the military from the normal processes of budgetary oversight. Germany’s international treaty obligations would not allow such extensive rearmament, so Hitler withdrew from the Geneva disarmament talks and from the League of Nations in October 1933. The German government feared that this might provoke immediate war with France at the time, but it did not.
Fearing that the summit would delay the rearmament of West Germany, and skeptical of Malenkov's intentions and ability to stay in power, the Eisenhower administration nixed the summit idea. In April, Eisenhower delivered his "Chance for Peace speech," in which he called for an armistice in Korea, free elections to re-unify Germany, the "full independence" of Eastern European nations, and United Nations control of atomic energy. Though well received in the West, the Soviet leadership viewed Eisenhower's speech as little more than propaganda. In 1954, a more confrontational leader, Nikita Khrushchev, took charge in the Soviet Union.
Two years later Bulgarian troops stopped a short-lived Greek invasion of southwestern Bulgaria, known as the War of the Stray Dog. By the mid-1930s, the army had begun an expansion in violation of the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine, following the rearmament pattern of Nazi Germany. During this period, the Bulgarian government procured combat aircraft from Germany and France, and light tanks from Italy. During World War II, Bulgarian troops did not participate in either the invasions of Yugoslavia or Greece, but occupied parts of northern Greece and Yugoslav Macedonia after they were conquered by Germany.
Hans A. Schmitt, Neutral Europe Between War and Revolution, 1917–23, University Press of Virginia, 1988, p. 68 Promoted to the Swiss General Staff in 1920 he left the army in 1923 in protest over plans to restructure the country's military. He went on to work for Schweizerische Industriegesellschaft Neuhausen and an arms manufacturer, as well as conducting a lecture tour of China. As an arms trader he co-operated closely with Max Bauer, who secured a number of lucrative contracts for Sonderegger's companies in return for Sonderegger becoming involved in the covert rearmament of Germany.
Although his majority was reduced to 625 in the 1951 general election, Hutchison was appointed as Financial Secretary and Under-Secretary of State to the War Office."New Government Nearly Completed", The Times, 6 November 1951, p. 6. With his post he was ex-officio Vice-Chairman of the Army Council and he occasionally deputised for the Secretary of State by attending Cabinet."Two- Hour Meeting Of The Cabinet", The Times, 23 January 1952, p. 4. Hutchison supported the controversial move to German rearmament in 1952, arguing that Germany should bear some of the burden of providing her own defence.
Muslim Algerians had served in large numbers as regular soldiers with the French Armée d'Afrique (Army of Africa) from 1830 as spahis (cavalry) and tirailleurs (lit. skirmisher, i.e. infantry). They played an important part during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 and especially during World War I (1914–1918), when 100,000 died in fighting against the Imperial German Army. During World War II, after the rearmament of the French Army accomplished by the US forces in North Africa in 1942–1943, North African troops serving with the French Army numbered about 233,000 (more than 50% of the Free French Army effectives).
In the legislature he was mainly concerned with questions of international relations, including the London Conference, the Council of Europe, ratification of the North Atlantic Treaty, Indochina and German rearmament. From 1949 to 1951 he led the group of liberals and radicals in the consultative assembly of the Council of Europe. Bastid and other Radical "Europeanists" such as René Mayer, Henri Queuille and Félix Gaillard advocated a pragmatic and gradualistic approach to the European Union. They hoped to make the European market as open as possible, but did not want to upset Radical opponents of a Federal Europe.
Some of the prominent issues of the day were the Liberal Government's Insurance Act, German rearmament, and trade tariffs. The Unionist party at the time was divided on the issue of free trade v tariff reform. In the Manchester area, and particularly in the Exchange division which included the Royal Exchange where commercial interests were paramount, there were many Unionists who favoured the continuance of free trade and opposed plans by the Unionist leader Bonar Law to campaign in favour of trade tariffs. The Unionist candidate, Sir John Randles was particularly keen to play down this fiscal divide within Unionist ranks.
Hopkinson's knowledge of flying led to his strong support for rearmament especially of the Royal Air Force and on 16 November 1938 he declared that the Chamberlain government's inadequate action in that area made it impossible for him to continue to support the government, and resigned the whip. In an article he wrote shortly after, he declared that Conservative Associations should not select "crooks and half-wits" as Parliamentary candidates. However he continued to back the government on the issue of Palestine. Hopkinson considered his warnings had been amply justified when the Second World War broke out.
However, the Reichsstatthalter of Hamburg, Karl Kaufmann, considered Mücke a national hero for his service in World War I, ignored Hitler's directive, and released Mücke after several months, citing that he was too ill for imprisonment. The family was moved from their home on the island of Föhr during this unstable period, and was finally settled inland, in Ahrensburg, Schleswig-Holstein, where Mücke lived from 1940 until his death. Mücke's oldest son and name-sake was killed on the Russian Front in 1943. After the war, Mücke continued peace activism, opposing rearmament in 1950s West Germany.
Bock stated the Reichswehr wanted no part in Buchrucker's coup and that "If Seeckt knew you were here, he would screw his monocle into his eye and say "Go for him!"". Despite Bock's orders to demobilize at once, Buchrucker went ahead with his coup on 30 September 1923, which ended in total failure. In 1935, Adolf Hitler appointed Bock as commander of the Third Army Group. Bock was one of the officers not removed from his position when Hitler reorganized the armed forces during the phase of German rearmament before the outbreak of the Second World War.
In the 1930s Amery, along with Churchill, was a bitter critic of the appeasement of Germany; they often openly attacked their own party. Being a former Colonial and Dominions Secretary, he was very aware of the views of the dominions and strongly opposed returning Germany's colonies, a proposal seriously considered by Neville Chamberlain. On the rearmament question, Amery was consistent. He advocated a higher level of expenditure, but also a reappraisal of priorities through the creation of a top-level cabinet position to develop overall defence strategy so that the increased expenditures could be spent wisely.
The Company was founded by Charles Connell (1822-1894) who had served an apprenticeship with Robert Steele and Co before becoming manager of Alexander Stephen and Sons Kelvinhaugh yard before he started shipbuilding on his own account at Scotstoun in 1861 initially concentrating on sailing ships.Royal Commission on Ancient & Historical Monuments of Scotland From 1918 the Company became well known for high quality passenger and cargo ships. The yard closed from 1930 to 1937 due to the Great Depression, before rearmament efforts stimulated demand. In 1968 the yard passed from Connell family ownership after 107 years and became part of Upper Clyde Shipbuilders.
If Mussolini became a mediator, he would want "his whack out of us" and Hitler would hardly be so foolish as to let British rearmament continue. He reasserted that Hitler's terms now would be no worse than if Great Britain fought on and was beaten. He reminded his colleagues that a continuation of the conflict would see severe losses inflicted on Germany also. Even so, Halifax said he still could not see what was so wrong in trying out the possibilities of mediation, but then Chamberlain said he did not see what could be lost by deciding to fight on to the end.
Lord Chatfield served as the second and final Minister for Coordination of Defence. The position of Minister for Coordination of Defence was a British Cabinet-level position established in 1936 to oversee and co-ordinate the rearmament of Britain's defences. The position was established by Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin in response to criticism that Britain's armed forces were understrength compared to Nazi Germany. This campaign had been led by Winston Churchill, and many expected him to be appointed as the new minister, though nearly every other senior figure in the National Government was also speculated upon by politicians and commentators.
The modern concept of containment provides a useful model for understanding the dynamics of this policy.James Stone, "Bismarck and the Containment of France, 1873–1877," Canadian Journal of History (1994) 29#2 pp 281–304 online Containment almost got out of hand in 1875 in the "War in Sight" crisis. It was sparked by an editorial entitled "Krieg-in-Sicht" in an influential Berlin newspaper the Post. It indicated some highly influential Germans, alarmed by France's rapid recovery from defeat in 1871 and its rearmament program, talked of launching a preventive war against France to hold it down.
In 1938, after running unopposed in the Republican primary, Carr was elected to a two-year term as governor of Colorado, defeating Democrat Teller Ammons, the incumbent governor. A conservative Republican, Carr was committed to fiscal restraint in state government and opposed the New Deal policies of President Franklin Roosevelt. In July 1939, he joined 33 other governors is a statement calling for "moral rearmament" as a solution to the current economic crisis. In August he sent the Colorado national guard to quell violence between AFL-organized strikers and non- strikers at the Green Mountain Dam construction site.
The depression had resulted in New Zealand's compulsory military training scheme being abolished and the Territorial Force needed to be reorganised accordingly. Burgess, now a major general, also implemented a rearmament program in response to increased aggression by the Japanese Empire in China and made a number of recommendations to the New Zealand government. Some recommendations, such as the purchase of aircraft (which led to the establishment of the Royal New Zealand Air Force) and artillery for harbour defences, were enacted. Others, such as the proposal for an infantry battalion and artillery battery be formed for service in British India, were not.
The first 1,000 houses were completed in 1901 and tenants soon moved in, despite strict selection criteria. A toll bridge to the mainland was opened in 1908. The rearmament programme and the First World War led to a second phase of building during which government loans were used to build accommodation for workers but these houses were more utilitarian than those in the original plans. After the First World War, houses began to be sold on to tenants and in 1951, with only a handful of properties still under its control, the estate company was wound up.
Richthofen was following a considerably difficult assignment, stemming from a directive issued to the Reichswehr before Adolf Hitler's rise to power. In July 1932, the Reichswehr had been pursuing the Schnellbomber (fast bomber) concept. The need for modern and fast bombers was to meet the future vision of air warfare for bombers that were faster than fighter aircraft. These concepts became even more important when Hitler seized power and issued demands for rapid rearmament. As the 1930s progressed the He 111 was refined, and the Dornier Do 17 Schnellbomber entered planning, production and service in 1936–37.
Safran Helicopter Engines, previously known as Turbomeca, is a French manufacturer of low- and medium-power gas turbine turboshaft engines for helicopters. The company also produces gas turbine engines for aircraft and missiles, as well as turbines for land, industrial and marine applications. Since its foundation as Turbomeca during 1938, Safran Helicopter Engines has produced over 72,000 turbines. In its early years, it benefitted greatly from a rearmament programme conducted by the French state; operations were disrupted by the occupation of France during the Second World War, but the company survived and rebuilt quickly during the immediate postwar years.
Robert Rhodes James, Churchill: A Study in Failure (Pelican, 1973), p. 343. In his speech on Baldwin's death, Churchill paid him a double-edged yet respectful tribute: "He was the most formidable politician I ever encountered in public life".Middlemas & Barnes 1969, p1072 In 1948, Reginald Bassett published an essay disputing the claim that Baldwin "confessed" to putting party before country and claimed that Baldwin was referring to 1933 and 1934 when a general election on rearmament would have been lost.Reginald Bassett, 'Telling the truth to the people: the myth of the Baldwin 'confession',' Cambridge Journal, II (1948), pp. 84–95.
Luard had entered the army in 1859 and, in 1871, was executive officer in London during the Fenian disturbances. In the same year he wrote to the Commissioner of the City Police with a report on the defensive state of Newgate Gaol, following a visit there in the company of the Commissioner and the City Architect. The letter included a sketch plan for rebuilding part of the prison wall. He was involved in building the Household Cavalry barracks in Windsor and the United Services Recreation Ground in Portsmouth; it is also said that he devised the scheme for the rearmament of Gibraltar.
This formed the British Socialist Party (BSP), and Douthwaite joined the new party. He was immediately elected to its Standing Order Committee, alongside Duncan Carmichael, Peter Petroff and E. C. Fairchild, and the four worked together to ensure voices in the party opposing British rearmament were heard. The BSP affiliated to the Labour Party, and Douthwaite devoted much of his time to it, being re-elected to the council in its colours in 1914, soon leaving the BSP. Douthwaite focused on local politics during and after World War I, chairing the UDC and the Macclesfield Divisional Labour Party.
By 1935 Moscow and Paris identified Nazi Germany as the main military, diplomatic, ideological and economic threat. Germany could probably defeat each one separately in a war, but would avoid a war a two-front war against both of them simultaneously. The solution, therefore, was a military alliance. It was pursued by Louis Barthou, the French foreign minister, but he was assassinated in October 1934 and his successor, Pierre Laval, was more inclined to Germany. However, after the declaration of German rearmament in March 1935 the French government forced the reluctant Laval to conclude a treaty.
The armed forces, in particular the young officers, sent Rallis' government a pronunciamento containing their demands (the previous day, Rallis had declined to receive a deputation seeking to hand over the manifesto). Part of it was purely internal in nature: for instance, the soldiers challenged the promotion system, with its limited prospects for advancement. Another part was political and demanded profound reforms in the country: in its political functioning, as well as social, economic and military. The troops called for naval and land rearmament, and asked that the Navy and War ministers belong to the military.
The end of the American War of Independence left Lind without a ship, and he spent between 26 July 1783 and 13 May 1790 unemployed. The Nootka Sound crisis in 1790 led to a general rearmament, and Lind joined the 80-gun HMS Gibraltar under Captain Samuel Goodall. Goodall was promoted to rear-admiral in October, and raised his flag aboard the 90-gun , taking Lind with him when he did so. Lind spent the next few years serving with Goodall on his flagships, the 50-gun from 22 March 1792, and the 98-gun from 24 May 1793.
Exercises consist of two parts, Cooperative Longbow 09 and Cooperative Lancer 09. Longbow is a Command Post exercise (CPX) and is focused on training and exercising NATO staff skills in order to improve interoperability between NATO and partner nations during crisis response operations at the multinational brigade level. Lancer is designed to provide basic training on peace support operations at the battalion level. Russia strongly opposed to the drills in Georgia, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev referred to them as "an open provocation" and said the exercises were assisting Georgia's rearmament after the conflict with Russia over South Ossetia.
Glading then visited the flat on April 21, 1937, with a man whom he referred to as 'Mr. Peters'. 'Peters' was really Theodore Maly, a Soviet spy and a principal agent in Britain. A few months later, Glading visited the flat with a foreign couple, 'Mr and Mrs Stevens' (their real names were William and Mary Brandes), agents of the NKVD who had just escaped from the Royal Canadian Mounted Police having obtained fraudulent Canadian passports.Curtis B. Robinson, Caught Red Starred: The Woolwich Spy-Ring and Stalin's Naval Rearmament on the Eve of War (Bloomington IN, 2011), p. 66.
The ship was formally laid down on , 1892. The management of the construction was flawed from the start: the stem and sternposts, rudder frame, and propeller shaft brackets were not ordered in time, and the late discovery of this omission substantially delayed progress. Verkhovsky, having no time to place orders with reliable foreign suppliers, contracted the job to local plants already known for poor discipline and quality that were already loaded down with other Navy jobs. The industrial capacity of the Saint Petersburg area could not sustain even the modest rate of naval rearmament that the government was willing to finance.
On August 14, 1641 De Marini was elected Doge of Genoa, the sixtieth in biennial succession and the one hundred and fifth in republican history. As doge he was also invested with the related biennial office of king of Corsica. Elected probably thanks to the votes of the "new" nobility, which required greater relevance in the European political landscape and a rearmament policy to guarantee the protection of the rivers. He allocated the funds for the construction of twenty galleys and, following the example of the former doge Giacomo Lomellini and Anton Giulio Brignole Sale, he armed one with his money.
The 15th Infantry Division () was an infantry division of the German Army during the interwar period and World War II, active from 1934 to 1945. The division was formed on 1 October 1934 in Würzburg under the cover name Artillerieführer V. With the announcement of German rearmament, the division was renamed on 15 October 1935. Mobilized on 25 August 1939, the division took part in the Invasion of Poland in the same year and the Battle of France in 1940. On 21 November 1940 one third of its personnel was used to create the 113th Infantry Division.
Kolářová belongs to the generation which touched off an iconoclastic revolution and "rearmament" in Czech art during the 1960s. This new wave hit the scene with a program of objective tendencies, proclaiming that art can exist as a process, concept, method, experiment and language, or as something "concrete"—such as a found and designed object. Kolářová’s training is in photography, and her role in the 1960s reversal was associated with this medium from the beginning. As with many of her contemporaries, she arrived at the conclusion that it is not possible to photograph the world, i.e.
The building and early operation of the depository occurred at the same time total gold reserves in the United States experienced unprecedented growth. These reserves, which were at the end of 1933 jumped to by the end of 1939. Factors driving this growth included the gold price revaluation (dollar devaluation) in 1934 spurring a rise in global gold production, political uncertainties in Europe causing a capital flight to the United States, and rearmament programs in Europe which increased U.S net merchandise exports. By far, most of the increase, , were the result of gold imports from abroad.
238 A further factor encouraging Britain to risk a war over Poland was statements from the various dominion governments in the summer of 1939 with the exception of the Irish Free State that unlike in 1938, they would go to war with Britain.Ovendale, Ritchie "Britain, the Dominions and the Coming of the Second World War", pp. 323–337, from The Fascist Challenge and the Policy of Appeasement, edited by Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Lothar Kettenacker, London: George Allen, 1938, pp. 333–336 Another factor was the state of the British economy and the financial problems of paying the colossal costs of rearmament.
The French had long been keen on large destroyers, with their of 1922 displacing over 2,000 tons and carrying 130 mm guns; a further three similar classes were produced around 1930. The of 1935 carried five guns and nine torpedo tubes, but could achieve speeds of , which remains the record speed for a steamship and for any destroyer. The Italians' own destroyers were almost as swift, most Italian designs of the 1930s being rated at over , while carrying torpedoes and either four or six 120 mm guns. Germany started to build destroyers again during the 1930s as part of Hitler's rearmament program.
As Minister of Economics, Walther Funk accelerated the pace of rearmament and as Reichsbank president banked for the SS the gold rings of Nazi concentration camp victims Another form of acquisition is theft. In the 1940s, Nazi Germany forcibly obtained the possessions of Jews, sometimes in collaboration with other parties. Most victims who died in death camps and Nazi concentration camps were robbed of all valuable property by the state, which was then sold or, in the case of bullion, sent to the Reichsbank. For example, in 1945 the Hungarian Gold Train was established to transport the property of Hungarian Jews to Berlin.
By 1951 inflation was beginning to increase, the government budget surplus had disappeared, and in another sign of an overheating economy unemployment was down to 1945 levels. By the second half of 1951 Gaitskell was worried about the political effect of the higher cost of living, but the Financial Times and The Economist accused him of using higher prices to choke off consumption and free up resources for rearmament instead of consumer goods production.Dell 1997, p.152, 154 Gaitskell again rejected Treasury advice to raise interest rates to cool the economy in June, July and August 1951.
In December 1790, during his time in Parliament, he voted to approve Prime Minister William Pitt's plan to pay off the debts incurred in rearmament, after having previously been against the government on the Spanish convention. After his vote, he suggested the government should investigate the great amount of money held by trustees of public lands, himself included, not being utilized rather than interfere with unpaid Bank dividends. The Prime Minister thanked him for highlighting the issue. In 1791, William Curtis raised the issue again with a motion for inquiry into the trustees of Ramsgate harbour over their possession of funds.
Before Glenrothes was developed, the main industries in the area were papermaking, coal mining and farming. Local paper manufacturers included the Tullis Russell and Dixons Mills near Markinch in the east and the Fettykil and Prinlaws Mills to the west at Leslie. The location of the mills was strategic to capitalise on the natural energy provided by the River Leven. Tullis Russell Papermills in 2010 Scotland had emerged from the Second World War in a strong position both to contribute to the UK's post-war reconstruction, and to help repay heavy overseas debt incurred in rearmament and six years of war.
Lyons with the National Defence Council in 1938 Lyons had no previous experience in international relations or diplomacy, but as prime minister took a keen interest in foreign relations and exerted significant influence over the government's foreign policy. His government pursued what has been called a policy of "appeasement and rearmament". Increases in Australia's defence budget in the years before World War II made him "the greatest peace-time rearmer in Australian history", and saw the military rebuilt after severe funding cuts during the Great Depression. Lyons had pacifist leanings and was keen to avoid a repeat of the First World War.
In any event, twelve years under Hitler had opened the way for an increasingly consensual approach to politics. Aschenbrenner's own experiences had left her with an increasingly powerful commitment to pacifism, and by opposing the military rearmament that was being promoted by the United States, she found herself increasingly seen as a left-wing extremist and marginalised within the SPD. During the 1950s her political energies became concentrated on municipal politics, and she sat as an SPD city councillor in Munich till 1956. As a city councillor she sat on committees involved in reconstruction, social and civic matters, health and the Oktoberfest.
Paul Stafford, "Political Autobiography and the Art of the Plausible: RA Butler at the Foreign Office, 1938–1939." Historical Journal 28#4 (1985): 901, 903–5, 913, 921–2. Patrick Cosgrave wrote that "Butler did not merely go along with appeasement, he waxed hard, long and enthusiastic for it, and there is very little evidence in public records at the time that he took the slightest contemporary interest in the rearmament programme to which he devotes such emphasis in his memoirs".Cosgrave 1981, p43 Jago comments that over appeasement Butler "distorted the facts, grossly misrepresenting his responsibility and attitudes in 1938".
He also joined the Orgesch, a paramilitary organization that was ordered disbanded by the Allies in 1921 as a violation of the provisions of Treaty of Versailles that limited German rearmament. Later that year Stieve supported the Kapp Putsch, a failed military coup that briefly forced the republic's civilian government to flee Berlin. Shortly afterwards, he received his doctorate and was appointed a professor of anatomy at Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg. He was also made director of the university's anatomical institute, making Stieve, then 35, the youngest doctor ever to chair a medical department at a German university.
Fearing that the summit would delay the rearmament of West Germany, and skeptical of Malenkov's intentions and ability to stay in power, the Eisenhower administration nixed the summit idea. In April, Eisenhower delivered his "Chance for Peace speech," in which he called for an armistice in Korea, free elections to re-unify Germany, the "full independence" of Eastern European nations, and United Nations control of atomic energy. Though well received in the West, the Soviet leadership viewed Eisenhower's speech as little more than propaganda. In 1954, a more confrontational leader, Nikita Khrushchev, took charge in the Soviet Union.
In 1940 Aeroflot requested that the Ya-19 should be produced for use on short haul routes, but the increasing pace of rearmament in the Soviet Union meant that only a single prototype was built. Production was curtailed when the UT-3 failed to achieve large scale production. An ambulance version capable of carrying two stretchers, one walking wounded and a medical assistant was proposed to the VVS. A mock-up review commission approved the design but production relied on continued development of the UT-3 and Ya-19, which was curtailed due to war requirements.
At the same time, the Western Allies, and particularly the British, depicted Rommel as the "good German". His reputation for conducting a clean war was used in the interest of the West German rearmament and reconciliation between the former enemies—Britain and the United States on one side and the new Federal Republic of Germany on the other. When Rommel's alleged involvement in the plot to kill Hitler became known after the war, his stature was enhanced in the eyes of his former adversaries. Rommel was often cited in Western sources as a patriotic German willing to stand up to Hitler.
Following the Treaty of Versailles, Germany succumbed to a considerably weakened position in pan-European politics, losing its colonial possessions and its military assets, and committed to reparations to the Allied Powers. These concessions to the Allied Powers led to a great feeling of disillusionment within the newly established Weimar Republic which paved the way for the Nazi party, under the leadership of Adolf Hitler to seize power. Upon Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1933, Germany began a program of industrialization and rearmament. It re-occupied the Rhineland and sought to dominate neighboring countries with significant German populations.
After Nan's death, Hughes married in 1949 Martha Cleland, daughter of P.M. Cleland, a Glasgow schoolmaster. Hughes was first elected to Parliament on at by-election on 7 February 1946 for South Ayrshire caused by the death of Alexander Sloan, the sitting Labour MP. Hughes was re-elected in the general elections of 1950, 1951, 1955, 1959, 1964, and 1966. As a left-winger and pacifist, Hughes was a frequent rebel against the party's leadership. He twice had the whip withdrawn, between November 1954 and April 1955 (over German rearmament), and between March 1961 and May 1963 (over nuclear weapons).
In the international theatre, Brüning tried to alleviate the burden of reparation payments and to achieve German equality in the rearmament question. In 1930, he replied to Aristide Briand's initiative to form a "United States of Europe" by demanding full equality for Germany. In 1931 plans for a customs union between Germany and Austria were shattered by French opposition. In the same year, the Hoover memorandum postponed reparation payments and in summer 1932, after Brüning's resignation, his successors would reap the fruits of his policy at the Lausanne conference, which reduced reparations to a final payment of 3 billion marks.
The specific German aims were the full rearmament of the Reichswehr, which was explicitly prohibited by the Treaty of Versailles, and an alliance against Poland. It is unknown exactly when the first contacts between von Seeckt and the Soviets took place, but it could have been as early as 1919–1921, or possibly even before the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.Smith, Arthur L. (1956). The German General Staff and Russia, 1919–1926. Soviet Studies 8 (2), 125–133.Hallgarten, George W. F. (1949) General Hans von Seeckt and Russia, 1920–1922. The Journal of Modern History 21 (1), 28–34.
Anti-Soviet propaganda poster in Nazi Germany, 1939 On November 25, 1936, Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan concluded the Anti- Comintern Pact, which Fascist Italy joined in 1937. Economically, the Soviet Union made repeated efforts to reestablish closer contacts with Germany in the mid-1930s. The Soviet Union chiefly sought to repay debts from earlier trade with raw materials, while Germany sought to rearm. The two countries signed a credit agreement in 1935. By 1936, crises in the supply of raw materials and foodstuffs forced Hitler to decree a Four Year Plan for rearmament "without regard to costs".
The secretary was generally successful, and agreements were reached on this and other points, including settlements to disputes over islands in the Pacific, and limitations on the use of poison gas. The naval agreement was limited to battleships and to some extent aircraft carriers, and in the end did not prevent rearmament. Nevertheless, Harding and Hughes were widely applauded in the press for their work. Harding had appointed Senator Lodge and the Senate Minority Leader, Alabama's Oscar Underwood, to the U.S. delegation; they helped ensure that the treaties made it through the Senate mostly unscathed, though that body added reservations to some.
36 In 1927 the studio became involved in major controversy during The Lohmann Affair, when it emerged that the company had secretly been granted a large sum from the German Navy Department geared toward military propaganda and support of rearmament at a time when this was forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. The ensuing scandal led to a political crisis in the Weimar Republic and the resignation of Otto Gessler as Defence MinisterKreimeier p.166-67 The company went bankrupt in the wake of the scandal. In 1928 the Munich-based Bavaria Film bought up the remaining assets of the company Petley p.
A Japanese language edition of the book had been published in the 1960s and was a popular addition to the post-war history of Japan in that country. The book chronicles the complexities of initiating and organizing the defense force in the only country ever devastated by nuclear war. Clever political maneuvering overcame strong pacifist opposition as well as efforts to insert the Japanese militarist World War II officer cadre into the leadership of the defense force. In the end, a truly defensive rearmament prevailed in large part due to Kowalski's capable management of these dicey issues.
This seemed to be the only way that German rearmament would be accepted, but opposition from France killed the plan. In what Conant considered a minor miracle, France's actions cleared the way for West Germany to become part of NATO with its own army. At noon on May 6, 1955, Conant, along with the high commissioners from Britain and France, signed the documents ending Allied control of West Germany, admitting it to NATO, and allowing it to rearm. The office of the United States High Commissioner was abolished and Conant became instead the first United States Ambassador to West Germany.
The division was formed on 1 October 1934 in Gießen as Infanterieführer V. With the uncovering of German rearmament on 15 October 1935 the division was renamed 9. Infanterie-Division. During the rout of the French Army in June 1940, the division massacred Black soldiers of the 4th Colonial Division they had captured near Erquivillers. A German officer is cited in French reports as explaining "an inferior race does not deserve to do battle with a civilized race such as the Germans." In August 1944 the division was destroyed in southern Ukraine and formally dissolved on 9 October 1944.
The navy was also prioritized last in the German rearmament scheme, making it the smallest of the branches. In the Battle of the Atlantic, the initially successful German U-boat fleet arm was eventually defeated due to Allied technological innovations like sonar, radar, and the breaking of the Enigma code. Large surface vessels were few in number due to construction limitations by international treaties prior to 1935. The "pocket battleships" and were important as commerce raiders only in the opening year of the war. No aircraft carrier was operational, as German leadership lost interest in the which had been launched in 1938.
In 1936, the Four Year Plan for rearmament and autarky, a plan assembled after the Treaty of Versailles to help modernize the German military, put in large amounts of money and resources in new, science-based technologies.p.108, Grunden, Walker, Yamazaki Moreover, aerodynamic researchers in Germany received generous funding to construct wind tunnels and mathematically design aircraft, missiles, and torpedoes.p.109-110, Grunden, Walker, Yamazaki Since these technologies were developed with the support of government funding, it is discernible that many scientists and scientific programs saw this as beneficial for their nation’s military and overall war effort.
The cost of rearmament and war time preparations took a toll on the Danish economy. Adding to the loss in the attack on Copenhagen in 1807, Frederik VI remained loyal to Napoleon and France, even as Sweden and Russia switched alliances to Great Britain. When France attacked Russia in 1812, both nations effectively allied with Great Britain, leaving their alliance with France behind. After suffering a prolonged period of defeat between 1810–1812, Frederik VI, the king of Denmark, was increasingly concerned about losing claims to Norway and the land owned in the North of Germany.
In the 1960s, Alan Milward developed a theory of blitzkrieg economics, that Germany could not fight a long war and chose to avoid comprehensive rearmament and armed in breadth, to win quick victories. Milward described an economy positioned between a full war economy and a peacetime economy. The purpose of the blitzkrieg economy was to allow the German people to enjoy high living standards in the event of hostilities and avoid the economic hardships of the First World War. Overy wrote that blitzkrieg as a "coherent military and economic concept has proven a difficult strategy to defend in light of the evidence".
As part of the intensified discussion of West German rearmament after the outbreak of the Korean War in the summer of 1950, on 31 January 1951 High Commissioner for Germany John McCloy assessed the 15 death sentences handed down at Nuremberg on the recommendation of the "Advisory Board on Clemency for War Criminals". Four inmates had their sentences commuted to life imprisonment and six given prison sentences of between ten and twenty-five years, but confirmed that five of the death sentences should be still enforced. The judgment against Fendler was reduced to eight years. In December 1951 he was released from prison.
By 1990, Iran was undergoing military rearmament and reorganization, and purchased $10 billion worth of heavy weaponry from the USSR and China, including aircraft, tanks, and missiles. Rafsanjani reversed Iran's self-imposed ban on chemical weapons, and ordered the manufacture and stockpile of them (Iran destroyed them in 1993 after ratifying the Chemical Weapons Convention). As war with the western powers loomed, Iraq became concerned about the possibility of Iran mending its relations with the west in order to attack Iraq. Iraq had lost its support from the West, and its position in Iran was increasingly untenable.
This issue was significant, as most of these organisations made their cooperation in the area of rearmament contingent on the satisfactory resolution of the amnesty issue. It was partly for this reason that the West German government was sympathetic to the fate of these individuals and made every effort to secure their early release. Chancellor Adenauer even met with Kurt Meyer in Werl Prison when he went there on an inspection tour. In its periodical Wiking-Ruf, HIAG made use of the same drawings of emaciated German POWs behind barbed wire used by the publications of another post-war organisation—the West German (VdH).
A panicked public began hoarding and the administration accelerated its rearmament plans, and the economy went into an upward inflationary spiral. By December, public support for the war had fallen significantly, and Truman and his intelligence experts expected World War III to break out by spring. Confronted with the failure of the NSRB and a mobilization effort that was faltering and unable to meet the needs of accelerated production plans, Truman declared a national emergency on December 16, 1950. The declaration of an emergency was, in part, motivated by the McCarthyite attacks on the administration and Truman's desire to appear strong in the prosecution of the war.
Detroyat's enthusiasm, problems with the MB.150, and the pressure of continuing German rearmament finally forced France to purchase 100 aircraft and 173 engines. The first Hawk 75A-1 (or H75A-1 n°1) arrived in France in December 1938 and began entering service in March 1939. A few months later, this aircraft was part of "Groupe de Chasse II/5 La Fayette" (heir of the Escadrille Lafayette that fought in France during World War I), wearing the famous Sioux Head on its fuselage side. After the first few examples, aircraft were delivered in pieces and assembled in France by the Société Nationale de Constructions Aéronautiques du Centre.
Not much later he is run over by a tram, presumably having committed suicide.summary of episode 14 on the BR’s website. # Heimtücke (‘Treachary’) #:Autumn 1935: Sara Soleder is distraught after block warden Uhl confronts her with some tenants’ complaints about her little daughter Gerti allegedly soiling the sandbox; Uhl then advises her she should rather go to places where nobody knows she is Jewish whenever leaving her apartment. The same day she learns that her husband Kurt has been summoned to appear at the police station and arrested upon arrival, for unwarily remarking that German rearmament means war in front of an external functionary visiting the radio studio.
182–84 In 1949, she grudgingly voted with her party for Denmark's membership of NATO. In 1952 and 1955 she voted against the party line, first against foreign military forces in Denmark during peacetime and second against Western Germany's admission to NATO. She was against the Vietnam War and nuclear rearmament and agitated for an open debate about the relationship between the Eastern and Western blocks during the Cold War in the 1950s and 1960s. Koch became worldwide famous for the first time when she in 1958 publicly criticized the US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles during the NATO conference in Copenhagen, May 1958.
Chamberlain was satisfied with the Munich conference, calling the outcome "peace for our time", while Hitler was angered about the missed opportunity for war in 1938; he expressed his disappointment in a speech on 9 October in Saarbrücken. In Hitler's view, the British-brokered peace, although favourable to the ostensible German demands, was a diplomatic defeat which spurred his intent of limiting British power to pave the way for the eastern expansion of Germany. As a result of the summit, Hitler was selected Time magazine's Man of the Year for 1938. In late 1938 and early 1939, the continuing economic crisis caused by rearmament forced Hitler to make major defence cuts.
The Enabling Act gave Hitler unrestricted legislative power, overriding the constitution; his government established a centralised totalitarian state, withdrew from the League of Nations, and dramatically increased the country's rearmament. A government-sponsored programme for economic renewal focused on public works, the most famous of which was the autobahn. In 1935, the regime withdrew from the Treaty of Versailles and introduced the Nuremberg Laws which targeted Jews and other minorities. Germany also reacquired control of the Saarland in 1935, remilitarised the Rhineland in 1936, annexed Austria in 1938, annexed the Sudetenland in 1938 with the Munich Agreement, and in violation of the agreement occupied Czechoslovakia in March 1939.
The treaty was left devoid of much of its authority after the signing of a succession of treaties establishing the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (April 1948), the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (April 1949), the Council of Europe (May 1949) and the European Coal and Steel Community (April 1951). When the division of Europe into two opposing camps became considered unavoidable, the threat of the USSR became much more important than the threat of German rearmament. Western Europe, therefore, sought a new mutual defence pact involving the United States, a powerful military force for such an alliance. The United States, concerned with containing the influence of the USSR, was responsive.
Assertions of this nature left the critics' many readers to conclude that Gert Ledig had produced not a work of serious literary merit, but an old fashioned "Penny dreadful". The idea that the novel was a serious attempt at a literary reassessment of the Second World War gained hardly any traction. The novel was underpinned by an ugly and unvarnished presentation of total war, acknowledging no diminution of the industrial-scale brutality of modern war on the so-called home front. This presentation coincided with a sustained push by the West German political establishment towards national rehabilitation, involving rearmament and the country's recent (in 1955) admission to NATO.
Only the Soviet Union had enough tanks to equip an organic tank battalion in each infantry division. Nevertheless, this country was the first to create large armoured units: in 1934 two Mechanised Corps were formed of 430 tanks each.Steven J. Zaloga and James Grandsen, 1984, Soviet Tanks and Combat Vehicles of World War Two, Arms and Armour Press, London, p. 106 In July 1935, in France the 4th Cavalry Division was transformed into the 1e Division Légère Mécanique, the first French armoured division of the Cavalry. In Germany, after the Nazi Regime started open rearmament in March 1935, on 15 October 1935 three Panzerdivisionen were formed.
From the outset, the Basic Law guaranteed the right of conscientious objection to war service (Article 4), and prohibited the Federal Republic from activities preparing for or engaging in aggressive war (Article 26). These provisions remain in force; and that in Article 4 is a fundamental right that cannot be removed in any subsequent amendment. Also in the 1949 Basic Law, Article 24 empowered the federal government to join international systems for mutual collective security; but made no specific provision for West German rearmament. The Basic Law was amended in 1955 with article 87a allowing the creation from new of federal armed forces, the Bundeswehr.
In 1929 the company made a large sum of money selling its interest in the Lorraine-Dietrich engine company to the government. In 1934, controversially, the Lorraine company, then known as SGA, was sold to Amiot-SECM and Marcel Bloch for a fraction of the price the government had paid five years earlier. As well as SGA, and the original SECM-Amiot works at Le Bourget, Amiot controlled the CAN () at Cherbourg. In the early phases of rearmament, Amiot scored a considerable success with the Amiot 143, widely considered one of the ugliest aircraft, along with its contemporary the Potez 542, to have flown.
As for the contradiction between German rearmament and his message of peace, Ribbentrop argued to whoever would listen that the German people had been "humiliated" by the Versailles Treaty, Germany wanted peace above all and German violations of Versailles were part of an effort to restore Germany's "self-respect". By the 1930s, much of British opinion had been convinced that the treaty was monstrously unfair and unjust to Germany, so as a result, many in Britain, such as Thomas Jones, Deputy Secretary to the Cabinet, were very open to Ribbentrop's message that European peace would be restored if only the Treaty of Versailles could be done away with.Bloch, pp. 92–93.
A page from the diary From his reading of Mein Kampf, Kellner believed the election of Adolf Hitler would mean another war in Europe, and events soon were to support his view. Within a few years after coming to power, Hitler abrogated the Treaty of Versailles, re-militarized the Rhineland, expanded the German military forces, and spent great sums to outfit those forces with modern weaponry. Although the leaders in the democracies were concerned about such rearmament, they failed to take action to stop it. On 1 September 1939, in coordination with the Soviet Union, Hitler ordered the German armed forces to invade Poland.
The Canon de 85 modèle 1927 Schneider () was a field gun used by Greece during World War II. After the occupation of Greece, the Germans allotted this gun the designation of 8.5 cm Kanonehaubitze 287(g), but it is unknown if they actually used them themselves. It appears to have been the inspiration for the Japanese 75 mm Type 90 Field Gun. After the Versailles Treaty, the Japanese switched to the French Schneider company, and purchased numerous examples for test and evaluation. With an Army rearmament program starting in 1931, a new 75 mm field gun loosely based on the Canon de 85 modèle 1927 SchneiderTomczyk, Andrzej.
From 1935 the factory was also supporting German rearmament with special bodies for "commando/staff cars" based on Steyr and Skoda chassis, and specialist conversions of Ford and Opel commercial vehicles. By the time war resumed in September 1939 they were also producing a plethora of components and sub-assemblies for Messerchmitt fighter planes. Overall activity was by now at a high level, and as the war progressed it became hard to find workers with the skill levels needed. By the mid-1940s Bachmann had received an allocation of 1,000 foreign workers along with between 150 and 180 Soviet prisoners of war in order to keep the factories running.
He fell into the hands of the insurgents at the action of Ladenburg, but was released just before the fall of Rastatt. In the Second Schleswig War of 1864, Hindersin, now a lieutenant- general, directed the artillery operations against the lines of Düppel, and for his services was ennobled by King William I. Soon afterwards he became inspector-general of artillery. Hindersin's experience at Düppel had convinced him that the days of the smooth-bore gun were past, and he now devoted himself with unremitting zeal to the rearmament and reorganization of the Prussian artillery. The available funds were small, and grudgingly voted by the parliament.
Rommel's former enemies, especially the British, played a key role in the manufacture and propagation of the myth. The German rearmament was highly dependent on the moral rehabilitation that the Wehrmacht needed. The journalist and historian Basil Liddell Hart, an early proponent of these two interconnected initiatives, provided the first widely available source on Rommel in his 1948 book on Hitler's generals, updated in 1951. Portraying Rommel as an outsider to the Nazi regime in the 1948 edition, Liddell Hart concluded the 1951 text with comments on Rommel's "gifts and performance" that "qualified him for a place in the role of the 'Great Captains' of history".
In August 1939, in a final effort to contain Germany, Britain and France guaranteed Polish independence (Anglo-Polish military alliance). Upon the outbreak of war in September 1939, British rearmament was not yet complete, although the Royal Air Force had been greatly expanded and programmes for new aircraft and equipment such as radar defences were just coming to fruition. Britain remained incapable of offensive operations except for strategic bombing, and this was relatively ineffective in the early war. After the fall of France in mid 1940 and Italian entry into the war on the Axis side, Britain and her commonwealth allies found themselves alone against most of Europe.
Partially influenced by the passage of the Vinson-Trammell Act in 1934, and the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933, in 1934 Japan announced they planned to leave the treaty system in two years. At the Second London conference, Japan showed willingness to negotiate, but left the conference in January 1936 and other treaties expired on December 31, 1936. They built mammoth treaty-busting battleshipsthe Yamato class. As a result of the treaties, by the time rearmament began in the 1930s, before the onset of World War II, the world's battleships were largely aging and obsolete due to the rise of air power and increasing use of submarines.
88–89Stephens, The Royal Australian Air Force, p. 52 The Air Force expanded greatly during Hely's term as AMP, owing to Australia's increasing commitment to the security of South East Asia, and the most significant rearmament program the RAAF had undertaken outside of World War II. Its permanent establishment increased from a steady 15,000 or so in the 1950s to over 18,000 by 1966.Stephens, Going Solo, p. 501 Hely himself initiated a scheme to attract staff from the Royal Air Force, which was suffering cutbacks, by opening a recruitment office in London and taking advantage of the Australian government's assisted passage scheme to import trained personnel and their families.
Moranville began planning for the concentration of the army and met railway officials on 29 July. Belgian troops were to be massed in central Belgium, in front of the National redoubt of Belgium ready to face any border, while the Fortified Position of Liège and Fortified Position of Namur were left to secure the frontiers. On mobilisation, the King became Commander-in-Chief and chose where the army was to concentrate. Amid the disruption of the new rearmament plan, the disorganised and poorly trained Belgian soldiers would benefit from a central position to delay contact with an invader but it would also need fortifications for defence, which were on the frontier.
He later published a detailed history of the crisis of 1931, challenging the left-wing interpretation of it as a plot. His famous 1948 article on Stanley Baldwin's "confession" of November 1936 challenged the view of Winston Churchill, who claimed in his history of the Second World War that Baldwin had admitted that an election fought on rearmament in 1935 would have been lost. Bassett proved that Baldwin was instead talking about 1933/34 when the public mood favoured disarmament, as revealed by the East Fulham by-election.Reginald Bassett, ‘Telling the truth to the people: the myth of the Baldwin "confession"’, Cambridge Journal, II (1948), pp. 84-95.
The rearmament period just before World War II saw a big expansion in the number of Royal Ordnance Factories (ROFs), which were British government-owned. However, due to shortages of management resources some ROFs were run as agency factories; and J. Lyons and Co. ran at least one, ROF Elstow.Bates, 1946 The management and stock control systems needed in the ROFs, in respect of control of raw materials and "perishable" finished products, were somewhat similar to those used in the catering business; and J. Lyons was ideally suited to this task. They do not appear to have any involvement in managing these after 1945, when the ROFs started to run down.
After World War II broke out in Europe in 1939, foreign policy became an increasingly important issue in the United States; Warren rejected the isolationist tendencies of many Republicans and supported Roosevelt's rearmament campaign. The United States entered World War II after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. Following the attack, Warren organized the state's civilian defense program, warning in January 1942 that, "the Japanese situation as it exists in this state today may well be the Achilles' heel of the entire civilian defense effort." He became a driving force behind the internment of over one hundred thousand Japanese Americans without any charges or due process.
With a narrow Parliament and an election possibly imminent, the Conservative Association quickly selected Robert Allan as their new candidate. Allan, a former Commander in the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve, was then the General Manager of the Investors Chronicle and the Banker, and had fought previous elections in his native Dunbartonshire. Labour initially selected Robert S. W. Pollard, but Pollard resigned the candidacy on 15 February 1951 stating that as a pacifist and a member of the Society of Friends, he could not accept the Labour government's rearmament programme. The party then fell back to Charles Wegg-Prosser, who had become the principal Labour Party member locally.
34–35 Such official racist perspectives for the establishment of German allowed the Nazis to unilaterally launch a war of aggression () against the countries of Eastern Europe, ideologically justified as historical recuperation of the Oium (lands) that the Slavs had conquered from the native Ostrogoths.Poprzeczny, J. (2004), , Hitler's Man in the East, pp. 42–43, McFarland, Although in the 1920s Hitler openly spoke about the need for living space, during his first years in power, he never publicly spoke about it. It was not until 1937 with the German rearmament program well under way that he began to publicly speak about the need for living space again.
Hoare took office against a backdrop of what Adams described as "much idle talk" of "mutual security". In March 1935, MacDonald's White Paper had committed Britain to limited rearmament. Italy, which also controlled Libya, straddled Britain's sea route across the Mediterranean to Egypt, the Suez Canal and India. The bombast of the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini was not taken very seriously in Britain.Roberts 1991, pp78-9 In April 1935, MacDonald and Foreign Secretary Sir John Simon had signed the Stresa Front on 14 April 1935, an alliance with France and Italy, the last of which had joined the Allies in World War One and was suspicious of German designs on Austria.
Danzig (Gdańsk) around the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries; the medieval port crane on the right The Peace of Thorn of 1466 reduced the Teutonic Knights, but brought no lasting solution to the problem they presented for Poland and their state avoided paying the prescribed tribute.A Concise History of Poland, by Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, p. 48, 50 The chronically difficult relations had gotten worse after the 1511 election of Albrecht as Grand Master of the Order. Faced with Albrecht's rearmament and hostile alliances, Poland waged a war in 1519; the war ended in 1521, when mediation by Charles V resulted in a truce.
The Royal Commission on the Private Manufacture of and Trading in Arms was a British official inquiry into the armaments industry. It was appointed on 20 February 1935 and was chaired by Sir John Bankes. Its report was published in October 1936.Royal Commission on the Private Manufacture of and Trading in Arms (Bankes Commission): Reports and Submissions The Commission sat for twenty two sessions and produced a unanimous report that advocated more state control over the armaments industry.David G. Anderson, ‘British Rearmament and the 'Merchants of Death': The 1935-36 Royal Commission on the Manufacture of and Trade in Armaments’, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol.
Edward Hugh John Neale Dalton, Baron Dalton, (16 August 1887 – 13 February 1962) was a British Labour Party economist and politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1945 to 1947. He shaped Labour Party foreign policy in the 1930s, opposing pacifism and promoting rearmament against the German threat, and strongly opposed the appeasement policy of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain in 1938. Dalton served in Winston Churchill's wartime coalition cabinet; after the Dunkirk evacuation he was Minister of Economic Warfare, and established the Special Operations Executive. As Chancellor, he pushed his policy of cheap money too hard, and mishandled the sterling crisis of 1947.
As party leader, Baldwin made many striking innovations, such as clever use of radio and film, that made him highly visible to the public and strengthened Conservative appeal. In 1935, Baldwin officially replaced MacDonald as prime minister, and won the 1935 general election with another large majority. During this time, he oversaw the beginning of the rearmament process of the British military, as well as the abdication crisis of King Edward VIII. Baldwin's third government saw a number of crises in foreign affairs, including the public uproar over the Hoare–Laval Pact, the remilitarisation of the Rhineland and the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War.
I mean the limitation > of armaments as a real limitation...and if we find ourselves on some lower > rating and that some other country has higher figures, that country has to > come down and we have to go up until we meet.Middlemas and Barnes, p. 741. On 14 October Germany left the League of Nations. The Cabinet decided on 23 October that Britain should still attempt to cooperate with other states, including Germany, in international disarmament.Middlemas and Barnes, p. 742. However between mid-September 1933 and the beginning of 1934 Baldwin's mind changed from hoping for disarmament to favouring rearmament, including parity in aircraft.
Honorary Colonel of 86th East Anglians, and the Hertfordshire Yeomanry Brigade. He was also Honorary Colonel of Royal Field Artillery in the Territorial Detachment and the 48th South Midland Division Royal Engineers (TA). Salisbury was part of two parliamentary deputations which called on the Prime Minister, Stanley Baldwin, and the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Neville Chamberlain, in the autumn of 1936 to remonstrate with them about the slow pace of British rearmament in the face of the growing threat from Nazi Germany. The delegation was led by Sir Austen Chamberlain, a former Foreign Secretary and its most prominent speakers included Winston Churchill, Leo Amery and Roger Keyes.
The treaty was initiated by the Pleven plan, proposed in 1950 by then French Prime Minister René Pleven in response to the American call for the rearmament of West Germany. The formation of a pan-European defence architecture, as an alternative to West Germany's proposed accession to NATO, was meant to harness the German military potential in case of conflict with the Soviet bloc. Just as the Schuman Plan was designed to end the risk of Germany having the economic power on its own to make war again, the Pleven Plan and EDC were meant to prevent the military possibility of Germany's making war again.
During the late 1940s, the divisions created by the Cold War were becoming evident. The United States looked with suspicion at the growing power of the USSR and European states felt vulnerable, fearing a possible Soviet occupation. In this climate of mistrust and suspicion, the United States considered the rearmament of West Germany as a possible solution to enhance the security of Europe and of the whole Western bloc. In September 1950, Dean Acheson, under a cable submitted by High Commissioner John J. McCloy, proposed a new plan to the European states; the American plan, called package, sought to enhance NATO's defense structure, creating 12 West German divisions.
René Pleven On 24 October 1950, France's Prime Minister René Pleven proposed a new plan, which took his name although it was drafted mainly by Jean Monnet, that aimed to create a supranational European army. With this project, France tried to satisfy America's demands, avoiding, at the same time, the creation of German divisions, and thus the rearmament of Germany.Pierre Guillen, "France and the Defence of Western Europe: From the Brussels Pact (March 1948) to the Pleven Plan (October 1950)." in The Western Security Community: Common Problems and Conflicting Interests during the Foundation Phase of the North Atlantic Alliance, ed. Norbert Wigershaus and Roland G. Foerster (1993), pp. 125–48.
One of the main goals of industrialisation was building up the military potential of the Soviet Union. So, if as of January 1, 1932, there were 1,446 tanks and 213 armored vehicles in the Red Army, then as of January 1, 1934 – 7574 tanks and 326 armored vehicles – more than in the armies of United Kingdom, France and Nazi Germany combined. The relationship between industrialisation and the victory of the Soviet Union over Nazi Germany in the "Great Patriotic War" is a matter of debate. In Soviet times, the view was adopted that industrialisation and pre- war rearmament played a decisive role in the victory.
At the same time, the existing rates of industrialisation seemed insufficient,The Industry of the Soviet Union in 1928–1929: According to official data, the growth of gross output in 1926/27 amounted to 14%. as the lag behind the capitalist countries, which had an economic upswing in the 1920s, was increasing. One of the first such plans for rearmament was laid out as early as 1921, in the draft reorganization of the Red Army prepared for the 10th congress by Sergey Gusev and Mikhail Frunze. The draft stated both the inevitability of a new big war and the unpreparedness of the Red Army for it.
In his August 1877 preliminary report on Queensland coastal defences, Jervois identified the principal threat to Queensland security as an attack from the sea on the major ports (Brisbane, Rockhampton and Maryborough), in the form of city bombardment to secure supplies and coal, rather than for permanent occupation. This report was the first to seriously propose the defence of Moreton Bay although due to prohibitive costs the proposal was not supported at the time. As events in Europe and Asia in the 1930s moved the world towards war, various sectors of Australia's defence, including coastal fortifications, were examined. There was an increased emphasis on defence rearmament from 1935.
Admiral Scheer in 1935 Admiral Scheer was ordered by the Reichsmarine from the Reichsmarinewerft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven. Naval rearmament was not popular with the Social Democrats and the Communists in the German Reichstag, so it was not until 1931 that a bill was passed to build a second Panzerschiff. The money for Panzerschiff B, which was ordered as Ersatz Lothringen, was secured after the Social Democrats abstained to prevent a political crisis. Her keel was laid on 25 June 1931, under construction number 123. The ship was launched on 1 April 1933; at her launching, she was christened by Marianne Besserer, the daughter of Admiral Reinhard Scheer, the ship's namesake.
Former Heereswaffenamt, Jebensstraße corner Hertz Avenue, Berlin Former Army Ordnance Department (courtyard), Jebensstraße corner Hertz Avenue Waffenamt (WaA) was the German Army Weapons Agency. It was the centre for research and development of the Weimar Republic and later the Third Reich for weapons, ammunition and army equipment to the German Reichswehr and then Wehrmacht. It was founded 8 November 1919 as Reichwaffenamt (RWA), and 5 May 1922 the name was changed to Heereswaffenamt (HWA). The task of overseeing Germany's gigantic pre-World War II rearmament program was given to the Heeresabnahmestelle (the Army Acceptance Organization, commonly referred to as the Abnahme), a subsidiary of the Heereswaffenamt.
The division was formed on 2 October 1934 in Würzburg under the cover designation of Artillerieführer V to conceal the expansion of the German Army. With the announcement of German rearmament, it was renamed the 15th Infantry Division on 15 October 1935 before being relocated to Frankfurt in Wehrkreis IX on 1 October 1936. The 15th included the 81st Infantry Regiment at Frankfurt, the 88th Infantry Regiment at Hanau, the 106th Infantry Regiment at Aschaffenburg, and the 51st Artillery Regiment at Fulda. The division was mobilized for World War II on 25 August 1939 with the 81st, 88th, and 106th Infantry Regiments, the 51st Artillery Regiment, and support troops.
The revaluation hit Italy's export trade, but, by making imports cheaper, benefited heavy industries, such as steel and chemicals, which relied on imported raw materials. These industries later provided the basis for an expanded rearmament industry and so supported the 'active' foreign policy, which became the chief characteristic of the fascist state. Tariffs on undesirable imports such as consumer goods and foodstuffs kept their high price and restricted demand, protecting Mussolini's Battle for grain policy. However, Italian workers were pressured into accepting wage cuts to match the new value of the lira to the point where wages fell more than food prices and living standards for working-class Italians rapidly declined.
The next focus of the film is the "softening-up" of the Western democracies using fascist organizations such as the Belgian Rexists, the French Cross of Fire, the Sudeten German National Socialist Party of Konrad Henlein, the British Union of Fascists and the German American Bund. Meanwhile, within Germany the Nazis are beginning an enormous process of rearmament. Germany then begins its territorial expansion with the first target being Austria, Hitler's "full-scale invasion test". He then uses his Sudeten "stooges" under Konrad Henlein to "soften up" Czechoslovakia and annex the Sudetenland with the help of a Britain and France desperate to avoid war.
Some sources also claim he was among those senior officers who demanded court-martials for those responsible for the murders, although Rundstedt didn't testify to that at Nuremberg. The Army was uncomfortable with the purge but Rundstedt, and the rest of the Army, still took the personal oath of loyalty to Hitler that Blomberg introduced. Rundstedt also supported the regime's plans for rearmament, culminating in the denunciation of the Treaty of Versailles in 1935, which was followed by the reintroduction of conscription. By 1935, when he turned 60, Rundstedt was the senior officer of the German Army in terms of service, and second only to Blomberg in rank.
Gyllenstierna belonged to the cautious senior officers who hesitated before the aggressive plans of Charles XII. His objections lead to the shelving of a planned attack on the Electorate of Saxony in 1701; he also argued against the invasion of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. After the battle of Poltava, Gyllenstierna opposed the rearmament policy advocated by Magnus Stenbock, as too onerous for the country, and in the Royal Council he joined with his son-in-law Arvid Horn in his opposition to the absent King. In the power struggle after the death of the King, Gyllenstierna again allied with Horn, but died in 1720.
The DMFK was established in 1956 as a response to the resumption of conscription in the wake of the rearmament of the Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany)) during the Cold War.Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online German Mennonites saw the need to provide counsel and support to their young men in conscientious objection to military service, at a time when German conscriptors made it difficult for young men to gain CO status.MCC Peace Office Newsletter: Military Counseling Network: Helping Military Sevicemembers Lay Down Their Arms MCC Peace Office Newsletter . The DMFK was established during a period of renewed peace witness among German Mennonites.
A Liberal up to this time, Foot was converted to socialism by Oxford University Labour Club president David Lewis, a Canadian Rhodes scholar, and others: "... I knew him [at Oxford] when I was a Liberal [and Lewis] played a part in converting me to socialism." Foot in an interview with the author in 1985 Foot joined the Labour Party and first stood for parliament, aged 22, at the 1935 general election, where he contested Monmouth. During the election, Foot criticised the Prime Minister, Stanley Baldwin, for seeking rearmament. In his election address, Foot contended that "the armaments race in Europe must be stopped now".
In 1954, Donnelly fell out with Bevan over the issue of German rearmament which he considered necessary. He was also outspokenly anti-Soviet Union, a position which intensified after he made trips to the Soviet bloc. After 1955, he became known as a vociferous opponent of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and a general supporter of Hugh Gaitskell as Labour leader. This ensured his appointment as political correspondent for the Daily Herald from 1959, but Gaitskell's death in 1963 brought in Harold Wilson with whom Donnelly was not pleased; although his skills would have merited appointment to Wilson's government after the 1964 election, Wilson offered Donnelly nothing.
Memorial plaque for Polish forced labourers at AEG in Blechhammer camp near Auschwitz Berlin memorial plaque for Polish forced labourers at AEG in Berlin-Gesundbrunnen, Germany. AEG donated 60,000 Reichsmarks to the Nazi party after the Secret Meeting of 20 February 1933 at which the twin goals of complete power and national rearmament were explained by Hitler. They joined with other large companies such as IG Farben, Thyssen and Krupp in their support of the Nazis, especially in promoting re-armament of the Wehrmacht, Luftwaffe, and Kriegsmarine. During the war itself, they were to use large numbers of forced labourers as well as concentration camp prisoners, under inhuman conditions of work.
A £300m surplus in the British balance of payments in 1950 turned into a £400m deficit in 1951, the most sudden reversal on record up until that time. This was caused partly by businesses switching to rearmament rather than generating exports. The other reason was a deterioration in the terms of trade: higher oil prices after the Iranian oil crisis caused an outflow of dollars, whilst prices of wool, tin and rubber fell so the rest of the sterling area was not earning so many dollars from exports. By the second half of 1951 the overseas sterling area was importing from North America at double the 1950 rate.
Marshall Aid, which had totalled $3.1bn over previous three years, ended officially on 1 January 1951, although in practice it ended six weeks earlier. It was held that the balance of payments was now strong enough for it no longer to be necessary. Harold Wilson (President of the Board of Trade) and George Strauss (Minister of Supply) warned Gaitskell that the burden of rearmament was too much for the shortage of raw materials and manufacturing capacity, but Gaitskell ignored them as they were friends of Bevan. On 27 January 1951 Bevan was reshuffled to the Ministry of Labour with Health, now under Hilary Marquand, downgraded to a non-Cabinet appointment.
He was then invited by Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida to serve as a member of a committee studying rearmament of Japan. In 1954, Nomura ran for the House of Councillors (upper house) and was elected by a landslide. In the late 1950 he was considered to be a strong candidate to head the Defense Agency by two prime ministers, Ichirō Hatoyama and Nobusuke Kishi, however he declined both offers and expressed his belief in civilian control of armed forces. Nomura had been a civilian for nearly two decades by that time, but was still regarded by many as a retired admiral of the old Imperial Japanese Navy.
On September 23 and 25, the Group partook in attacks led against Gibraltar, then went back to Blida. When the Allied disembarking in North Africa took place, in November 1942, the Group did not participate, but a little to the resistance, which opposed the Vichy Army () to the Anglo-Americans. Based at Rovigo, the group waited for rearmament to take place by the Allies and was transferred to Colomb-Béchar at the beginning of January 1943. The Group underwent a long training session until October of the same year, époque where the latter was dissociated, certain elements expedited to Constantine (1st Escadrille), the others to Sétif (2nd Escadrille).
The Battalion fought in the French conquest of Algeria and during the Crimean War. The French also employed the compagnies d'exclus ("companies of the excluded"), military units which were stationed at Aîn-Sefra in Southern Algeria. These penal units consisted of convicts condemned to five years or more of hard labor and were judged unworthy to carry weapons.Musée de l'infanterie - "Les Bataillons d'Afrique" The various Italian unification conflicts saw the Redshirts recruiting convicts and revolutionaries from prisons into penal regiments known as Battaglioni degli imprigionati ("Battalions of the Imprisoned" or "Prisoners Battalion".) The period of military rearmament preceding World War II caused renewed interest in the concept of penal military units.
The City of London Yeomanry (Rough Riders) was a yeomanry regiment of the British Territorial Army, formed in 1901 from veterans of the Second Boer War. In World War I it served dismounted in the Gallipoli Campaign but reverted to the mounted role in the Senussi campaign, at Salonika and in Palestine. It ended the war as a machine gun unit on the Western Front. In the interwar years it was reduced to a battery in a composite Royal Horse Artillery unit in London, but in the period of rearmament before World War II it was expanded into a full regiment of light anti-aircraft artillery.
During the period before the war, all companies with the exception of Alkett (which was under the control of Rhine-Metal Borsig, a subsidiary of the government-controlled Hermann Göring Works) were privately owned stock companies with the stock available for purchase by the public. All these companies, with the exception again of Alkett, produced tanks in addition to their normal peacetime manufacture of trucks, locomotives, and other heavy equipment. From 1935 onward, the government progressively increased its control over industries engaged in rearmament. The Nazi Party's Four Year Plan introduced in 1936 placed Hermann Göring in leadership of the state's efforts to bring industry into state control.
ALRANZ and other abortion rights groups shifted their attention to lobbying for sex education in schools and easing young people's access to contraceptives. In response, anti-abortion activists and groups picketed abortion clinics and joined forces with socially-conservative moral groups including Moral Rearmament, Family Rights Association, Society for the Protection of Community Standards (SPCS), and "Family 75" during the late 1970s and 1980s. SPUC was at the forefront of opposing abortion during the 1980s. In 1980, SPUC secured the removal of two members of the Abortion Supervisory Committee on the grounds that they had been promoting abortion by encouraging hospital boards to establish abortion services.
Greek ships against Achaemenid ships at the Battle of Salamis. The Achaemenid navy established bases located along the Karun, and in Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. The Persian fleet was not only used for peace- keeping purposes along the Karun but also opened the door to trade with India via the Persian Gulf. Darius's navy was in many ways a world power at the time, but it would be Artaxerxes II who in the summer of 397 BC would build a formidable navy, as part of a rearmament which would lead to his decisive victory at Knidos in 394 BC, re-establishing Achaemenid power in Ionia.
Decorated salads at Findhorn Foundation, Cluny Hill In the late 1940s Sheena Govan emerged as an informal spiritual teacher to a small circle that included her then-husband, Peter Caddy, and Dorothy Maclean. Eileen Caddy, as she became, who had a background in the Moral Rearmament (MRA) movement, joined them in the early 1950s. The group's principal focus was dedication to the 'Christ Within' and following God's guidance.In Perfect Timing: Memoirs of a Man for the New Millennium Peter Caddy 1994 In 1957 Peter and Eileen Caddy were appointed to manage the Cluny Hill Hotel near Forres, Maclean joining them as the hotel's secretary.
He undertook basic training and national service on the understanding that he would be given an opportunity to enter the Air Force as an instructor at the end of his four-year service. Pattle worked toward this goal for some time until, in late 1935, by chance, he picked up a copy of the Johannesburg Star newspaper. The paper contained an advertisement by the Royal Air Force (RAF) which was offering five-year short service commissions for cadets throughout the British Empire. The RAF expansion schemes required a great influx of capable personnel into the organisation as rearmament and the need for fighting men heightened.
Britannica 1938, p.195. In January 1937, unveiling a war memorial at Chateauroux, Delbos, in reply to Hitler's Reichstag speech of the previous day, emphasised the need for Franco- German understanding and for both countries to find new markets so that industrial expansion might replace rearmament. After representing France at the Nine-Power Conference at Brussels on 3 November, he expounded French Foreign Policy in a debate in the Chamber on 18–19 November, emphasizing Anglo-French friendship and the necessity for its maintenance. Ten days later, he visited London with Chautemps to receive a report from Neville Chamberlain and Anthony Eden on the result of the Halifax-Hitler talks.
More importantly, early ASDIC sets could not look directly down, so the operator lost contact on the U-boat during the final stages of the attack, a time when the submarine would certainly be manoeuvring rapidly. The explosion of a depth charge also disturbed the water, so ASDIC contact was very difficult to regain if the first attack had failed. It enabled the U-boat to change position with impunity. The belief ASDIC had solved the submarine problem, the acute budgetary pressures of the Great Depression, and the pressing demands for many other types of rearmament meant little was spent on anti-submarine ships or weapons.
The German rearmament of the early 1950s was highly dependent on the moral rehabilitation that the Wehrmacht needed. The journalist and historian Basil Liddell Hart, an early proponent of these two interconnected initiatives, provided the first widely available source on Rommel in his 1948 book on Hitler's generals, updated in 1951, portraying Rommel in a positive light and as someone who stood apart from the regime. The other foundational text was the influential and laudatory 1950 biography Rommel: The Desert Fox by Brigadier Desmond Young. Young extensively interviewed Rommel's widow and collaborated with several individuals who had been close to Rommel, including Hans Speidel.
171 In 1923, the British newspaper The Times made several claims about the state of the German Armed Forces: that it had equipment for , was transferring army staff to civilian positions in order to obscure their real duties, and warned of the militarization of the German police force by the exploitation the Krümper system. The Weimar Government also funded domestic rearmament programs, which were covertly funded with the money camouflaged in "X-budgets", worth up to an additional the disclosed military budget. By 1925, German companies had begun to design tanks and modern artillery. During the year, over half of Chinese arms imports were German and worth 13 million Reichsmarks.
J.Davies, To Build A New Jerusalem: The British Labour Party from Keir Hardie to Tony Blair, Abacus, 1996 and oppose appeasement.Clem Attlee: A Biography By Francis Beckett, Richard Cohen Books, A few on the left said that Chamberlain looked forward to a war between Germany and Russia. The Labour Party leader Clement Attlee claimed in one political speech in 1937 that the National Government had connived at German rearmament "because of its hatred of Russia". British Communists, following the party line defined by Joseph Stalin,Teddy J. Uldricks, "Russian Historians Reevaluate the Origins of World War II," History & Memory Volume 21, Number 2, Fall/Winter 2009, pp.
During World War II a number of nations produced self-propelled artillery. These ranged from heavily armored assault guns with 360° protection to lightly-armored open topped tank-destroyers and self-propelled guns. Often the chassis for these conversions came from tanks or artillery tractors and two such vehicles were the US built M7 Priest and M12 Gun Motor Carriage supplied to Free French forces during World War II. During the 1950s France began a rearmament program to replace both of these guns to provide mobile artillery support for their mechanized divisions. Like in World War II the chassis for these new weapons was a light tank the French AMX-13.
Until the late 1980s, North Korea's policy toward Japan was mainly aimed at minimizing cooperation between South Korea and Japan, and at deterring Japan's rearmament while striving for closer diplomatic and commercial ties with Japan. Crucial to this policy was the fostering within Japan of support for North Korea, especially among the Japanese who supported the Japanese communist and socialist parties and the Korean residents of Japan. Over the years, however, North Korea did much to discredit itself in the eyes of many potential supporters in Japan. Japanese who had accompanied their spouses to North Korea had endured severe hardships and were prevented from communicating with relatives and friends in Japan.
In the period of rearmament preceding World War II, the Royal Air Force estimated that they would need to acquire 50,000 new pilots annually in order to keep the RAF sufficiently supplied. While planners were confident that the industrial capacity of the British Empire would be capable of producing a sufficient number of planes, it became clear that there was a shortage of able fliers. As the War in Europe drew closer, it was estimated Britain could muster only 22,000 pilots annually. In response to this shortage, the British government instituted a plan to levy pilots from the dominions referred to as the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan.
The 7th Infantry Division (7. Infanterie-Division) was a formation of the German Wehrmacht during World War II. It was formed 1 October 1934 in Munich from the Artillerieführer VII staff and renamed 7. Infanterie-Division with the disclosure of German rearmament on 15 October 1935. In preparation of the Invasion of Poland, the division was transferred to Slovak Republik on 1 August 1939. The division surrendered to Soviet forces near Stutthof after the unconditional surrender of 8 May 1945. Translated from Wikipedia in German (Not totally objective): The 7th infantry division was sent to Slowakia on August 1, 1939, where it was mobilized on August 26.
In 1950, Ruge was part of a select group of former Wehrmacht high-ranking officers invited by Chancellor Konrad Adenauer to take part in the conference to discuss West Germany's rearmament. The conference resulted in the Himmerod memorandum that contributed to the creation of the myth of the "clean Wehrmacht". During the early 1950s, he advised as to how the navy could be restructured in the new Bundesmarine, as detailed in Searle's Wehrmacht Generals. Called out of retirement when Germany became a part of NATO, Ruge was appointed Inspector of the Navy (a position similar to the U.S. Chief of Naval Operations), a post he occupied until 1961.
The Danish state bankruptcy of 1813 was a domestic economic crisis that began in January 1813 and had consequential effects until 1818. As Denmark struggled with the financial burden that the Napoleonic wars had on the economy, the devaluation of the currency had negative effects on merchants, citizens and businesses alike. As Denmark allied with France in 1807 in the aftermath of British attacks on Copenhagen, it incurred costs of rearmament as machinery, equipment and supplies were required for wartime efforts. As a result, when the economic burden placed on the state began to take its toll the collapse of the currency became imminent.
Falsifiers pointedly ignored Soviet relations with Germany, making no attempt to directly counter or deal with the documents published in Nazi–Soviet Relations. Rather, the main theme of the booklet is Western culpability for the outbreak of war in 1939. It argues that "Western powers" aided Nazi rearmament and aggression, including that American bankers and industrialists provided capital for the growth of German war industries, while deliberately encouraging Hitler to expand eastward. It depicted the Soviet Union as striving to negotiate a collective security against Hitler, while being thwarted by double-dealing Anglo–French appeasers who, despite appearances, had no intention of a Soviet alliance and were secretly negotiating with Berlin.
There was discord in the ASU over the organization's changing position to European armament after 1938, with the Socialist-oriented members generally favoring continuation of the organization's historic opposition to militarism and Communist-oriented members arguing in favor of rearmament and collective security in Europe. The break came the following year, however, with the November 1939 Soviet invasion of Finland. The ASU leadership, consisting by that time of a Communist majority, dutifully supported the military action of the Soviet Union, prompting the Socialist minority to split the organization. The ASU continued forward as a more clearly defined Communist youth organization from that date and entered a period of organizational decline.
Built as part of the general rearmament in the time leading up to the events in 1905, Norge remained, along with her sister-ship Eidsvold, the backbone of the Royal Norwegian Navy for just over 40 years. Norge and Eidsvold were the largest vessels in the Royal Norwegian Navy, displacing 4,233 tons and crewed by 270 men. Both vessels were considered to be quite powerful for their time, with two 21 cm (8.26 inch) guns as their main armament. They were armoured to withstand battle with ships of a similar size, with 6 inches (15.24 cm) of Krupp cemented armour in the belt and 9 inches (22.86 cm) of the same armour on the two gun turrets.
Indeed, his impact on American public life was > formidable enough to profoundly affect the outcome of every presidential > election during the period 1864 to 1884.Albert Boime, "Thomas Nast and > French Art", American Art Journal (1972) 4#1 pp. 43–65 Notable editorial cartoons include Benjamin Franklin's Join, or Die (1754), on the need for unity in the American colonies; The Thinkers Club (1819), a response to the surveillance and censorship of universities in Germany under the Carlsbad Decrees; and E. H. Shepard's The Goose-Step (1936), on the rearmament of Germany under Hitler. The Goose-Step is one of a number of notable cartoons first published in the British Punch magazine.
To float the new company, Warren must sign a prospectus, declaring falsely that the yard is well-placed to make a profit. But when the oil-state suffers a revolution, its business is lost, and the only way to save the yard is for Warren to take personal responsibility for the deception, earning him two years’ jail. On his eventual release, he revisits Sharples, to find that the yard has managed to prosper, thanks to new rearmament projects, and the management has erected a bronze plaque, honouring his part in saving the local jobs. When he is recognised, the whole town rushes to greet him, including Alice who has been loyally awaiting his return.
Ceremony honouring the dead (Totenehrung) on the terrace in front of the Hall of Honour (Ehrenhalle) at the Nazi party rally grounds, Nuremberg, September 1934 In August 1934, Hitler appointed Reichsbank President Hjalmar Schacht as Minister of Economics, and in the following year, as Plenipotentiary for War Economy in charge of preparing the economy for war. Reconstruction and rearmament were financed through Mefo bills, printing money, and seizing the assets of people arrested as enemies of the State, including Jews. Unemployment fell from six million in 1932 to one million in 1936. Hitler oversaw one of the largest infrastructure improvement campaigns in German history, leading to the construction of dams, autobahns, railroads, and other civil works.
Strakosch being a Jew and his involvement in the payment of the private debts of Sir Winston Churchill, in 1938 and again in June 1940, has been cited as evidence of Jewish involvement in British politics in the run up to World War Two. Strakosch had supplied Churchill with figures on German arms expenditure during the latter's political campaign for rearmament against the Nazi regime, and the financial arrangement enabled Churchill to withdraw his home Chartwell from sale at a time of financial pressures. Strakosch also bequeathed Churchill £20,000 in his will. Strakosch was unmarried until 1941 when he married Mabel Elizabeth Vincent, daughter of John Curnow Millett of Pempol, Cornwall, and widow of Joseph Temperley, a shipowner.
Thanks in part to Adenauer's success in rebuilding West Germany's image, the British proposal met with considerable approval. In the ensuing London conference, Eden assisted Adenauer by promising the French that Britain would always maintain at least four divisions in the British Army of the Rhine as long as there was a Soviet threat, with the strengthened British forces also aimed implicitly against any German revanchism. Adenauer then promised that Germany would never seek to have nuclear, chemical and biological weapons as well as capital ships, strategic bombers, long-range artillery, and guided missiles, although these promises were non-binding. The French had been assuaged that West German rearmament would be no threat to France.
In the early 1920s, Trenchard had to fight to keep the RAF from being divided and absorbed back into the Royal Navy and the British Army. After Lord Trenchard retired in 1930 there were still suggestions that the RAF should be broken up, but Trenchard's foundations proved solid. By the time the Second World War broke out in 1939, the then occupant of the post, Air Chief Marshal Sir Cyril Newall, had a service that had been undergoing the most rapid of expansions during the British rearmament programs of the late 1930s. Newall gave way in 1940 to Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Portal, who led the service for the rest of the war.
In 1864, on the sudden death of Abe Masahisa, he was ordered by the shōgunate to become daimyō of Shirakawa, and a couple of months later was appointed both sōshaban and Jisha- bugyō, and only days later was appointed a rōjū. In this role, he played a leading role in the negotiations involving the creation of the port and foreign settlement at Yokohama. He also ordered the modernisation of Shirakawa's military forces along western lines and its rearmament with modern rifles. In early 1865, Abe went to Kyoto at the head of an army of 4000 troops to arrange for the meeting between Shōgun Tokugawa Iemochi and Emperor Kōmei and to suppress pro-sonnō jōi rōnin in the area.
Belgian troops were to be massed in central Belgium, in front of the National redoubt of Belgium ready to face any border, while the Liège fortress ring and Namur fortress ring were left to secure the frontiers. On mobilisation, the King became Commander-in-Chief and chose where the army was to concentrate. Amid the disruption of the new rearmament plan, the disorganised and poorly trained Belgian soldiers would benefit from a central position, to delay contact with an invader but it would also need fortifications for defence, which were on the frontier. A school of thought wanted a return to a frontier deployment in line with French theories of the offensive.
Foot remained in the editorial chair until 1952 when Bob Edwards took over, but he returned after losing his parliamentary seat in Plymouth in 1955. During the early 1950s, Tribune became the organ of the Bevanite left opposition to the Labour Party leadership, turning against the United States over its handling of the Korean War, then arguing strongly against West German rearmament and nuclear arms. However, Tribune remained critical of the Soviet Union as it denounced Stalin on his death in 1953 and in 1956 opposed the Soviet suppression of the Hungarian Revolution and the British government's Suez adventure. The paper and Bevan parted company after his "naked into the conference chamber" speech at the 1957 Labour Party conference.
As one of the original NATO war planners, he prepared the European Theater war plans on how to counter a potential Cold War invasion by the overwhelming Soviet land forces that outnumbered US and NATO conventional forces by a factor of 10-to-1. He worked the negotiation of an agreement for Germany's rearmament and for the establishment of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers in Europe (SHAPE) in Paris France. In February 1951, Richardson accompanied General Lauris Norstad to Europe as a member of his planning staff. In July 1951, he was designated as the US Joint Chiefs of Staff representative and military observer to the European Defense Community Treaty Conference in Paris.
Roosevelt and Churchill drafted the Atlantic Charter in August 1941 Winston Churchill, who had long warned against Nazi Germany and demanded rearmament, became prime minister after his predecessor Neville Chamberlain's policy of appeasement had totally collapsed and Britain was unable to reverse the German invasion of Norway in April 1940. After the fall of France in June 1940, Roosevelt gave Britain and (after June 1941) the Soviet Union all aid short of war. The Destroyers for Bases Agreement which was signed in September 1940, gave the United States a 99-year rent-free lease of numerous land and air bases throughout the British Empire in exchange for the Royal Navy receiving 50 old destroyers from the United States Navy.
James George Eayrs (born 1926) is a Canadian retired historian. Eayrs won the Governor General's Award for English-language non-fiction at the 1965 Governor General's Awards for his book In Defence of Canada: From the Great War to the Great Depression. The book, which examined Canadian military and defence policy during the period between World War I and the Great Depression, was the first in a multi-volume series on Canadian military history, and was followed by In Defence of Canada, Vol. 2: Appeasement and Rearmament (1965), In Defence of Canada: Peacemaking and Deterrence (1972), In Defence of Canada: Growing Up Allied (1980) and In Defence of Canada: Indochina, Roots of Complicity (1983).
The Bribie Island Fortifications were constructed from 1939 to 1943 as part of the systems of defence of southeast Queensland during the Second World War, and to provide artillery training for Australian soldiers for overseas service. Other fortifications were also apparent throughout Moreton Bay during the war, at Caloundra and on Moreton Island at Cowan Cowan Point and Rous, which together with the existing installations at Fort Lytton, provided a coordinated series of defensive batteries for the region. As events in Europe and Asia in the 1930s moved the world towards war, various sectors of Australia's defence, including coastal fortifications, were examined. There was an increased emphasis on defence rearmament from 1935.
The Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule (DVS), German Air Transport School, was a covert military-training organization operating as a flying school in Germany. It began during the Weimar Republic in Staaken, Berlin in 1925 and its head office was transferred in 1929 to Broitzem airfield near Braunschweig.Dirk Richhardt, Auswahl und Ausbildung junger Offiziere 1930–1945 The DVS was outwardly a flying school for commercial pilots, but in fact became a secret military arm training military aviators for the future Luftwaffe.Golden Years of Aviation This training facility grew in importance in the initial stages of Nazi Germany, while camouflaging as a harmless civilian organization (Tarnorganisation), at the time of Germany's rearmament in violation of the Versailles Treaty.
Once British rearmament began, the air policy of the British government was to have air defences sufficient to defeat an attack and an offensive force equal to that of the . With no land border to defend, British resources had been concentrated on radar stations, anti- aircraft guns and increasing the number of the most modern fighter aircraft. If Germany attacked, the British intended to take the war to the Germans by attacking strategically important targets with its heavy bombers, types unsuitable for operations in direct support of land forces. Implementation of the policy required a considerable number of first-class fighter aircraft to defeat an attacker and bombers to destroy ground targets.
During the period 1975 to 1979, Rhodesia descended into an increasingly violent civil war between the white minority government and the two black nationalist armies, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) and Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). :"The war was both bloody and brutal and brought out the very worst in the opposing combatants on all three sides," Mike Subritzky (former NZ Army ceasefire monitor in Rhodesia, 1980) The Christian Moral Rearmament (MRA) group became active in trying to bring the conflict to an end. MRA seeks to secure social reform through personal reform and, to this end, promotes relationships between people on different sides in conflict situations. Smith was a prominent member of MRA.
In Europe, the field force could only conduct defensive warfare and would need a big increase in ammunition and the refurbishment of its tank forces. The field force continued to be the least-favoured part of the least- favoured military arm and in February 1938, the Secretary of State warned that possible allies should be left in no doubt about the effectiveness of the army. The re-armament plans for the field force remained deficiency plans, rather than plans for expansion. The July 1934 deficiency plan was estimated at £10,000,000 but cut by 50 percent by the cabinet; by the first rearmament plan of 1936, the cost of the deficiency plan for the next five years had increased £177,000,000.
The General Treaty (, also ' “Germany Treaty”) is a treaty of international law which was signed by the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG or West Germany), and the Western Allies (France, United Kingdom, United States) on 26 May 1952 but which took effect, with some slight changes, only in 1955. It formally ended Germany's status as an occupied territory and recognised its rights of a sovereign state, with certain restrictions that remained in place until German reunification in 1990. Attaining sovereignty had become necessary in light of the rearmament efforts of the FRG. For this reason, it was agreed that the Treaty would only come to force when West Germany also joined the European Defense Community (EDC).
As the Navy and Coast Guard began gradually increasing and augmenting the armament on its vessels to prepare them for the inexorably advancing war, Taney underwent her first major rearmament at the Pearl Harbor Navy Yard in December 1940. She received her last major pre-war refit at the Mare Island Navy Yard, Vallejo, California, in the spring of the following year, 1941. On 25 July 1941, the Coast Guard cutter was transferred to the Navy and reported for duty with the local defense forces of the 14th Naval District, maintaining her base at Honolulu. Outside another "line island cruise" in the late summer, Taney operated locally out of Honolulu into the critical fall of 1941.
Andrews served again as ship's gunnery officer until May 1916, when he was ordered to the New York Shipbuilding Corporation in Camden, New Jersey for duty in connection with fitting out the battleship USS Oklahoma. He served originally as Ship's Navigator under Captain Roger Welles during the rearmament at Philadelphia Navy Yard and following the promotion and detachment of Captain Welles in January 1917, Andrews was appointed acting commanding officer. He handed over the command to Spencer S. Wood in June 1917 and resumed his duties as Navigator. Andrews was transferred to the battleship USS Mississippi in October that year and served as Executive officer under Captain Joseph L. Jayne during the period of ship's fitting out.
By 1940 the Abnahme consisted of 25,000 men in five departments in 16 inspection areas, augmented by specially selected plant personnel who were assigned to assist the Waffenamt inspectors in each manufacturing facility. Later, in the middle of 1944, approximately 8,000 of these Abnahme inspectors were "freed for service at the front". The Heeres-Abnahmewesen was responsible for the testing and acceptance of all weapons, equipment and ammunition before delivery to the Wehrmacht. Inspections were carried out according to detailed guidelines called "Technische Lieferbedingungen" (TLs) prepared by the various Waffenprüfämter (WaPrüf) departments When the rearmament program began, Waffenamt inspection departments were established in each factory and armourers were encouraged to apply for positions there.
The biggest beneficiary of the Kornilov affair was the Bolshevik Party, who enjoyed a revival in support and strength in the wake of the attempted coup. Kerensky released Bolsheviks who had been arrested during the July Days a few months earlier, when Vladimir Lenin was accused of being in the pay of the Germans and subsequently fled to Finland. Kerensky's plea to the Petrograd Soviet for support had resulted in the rearmament of the Bolshevik Military Organization and the release of Bolshevik political prisoners, including Leon Trotsky. Though these weapons were not needed to fight off Kornilov's advancing troops in August, they were kept by the Bolsheviks and used in their own successful armed October Revolution.
His appointment is now regarded as a sign of caution by Baldwin who did not wish to appoint someone like Churchill, because it would have been interpreted by foreign powers as a sign of the United Kingdom preparing for war. Baldwin anyway wished to avoid taking onboard such a controversial and radical minister as Churchill. Inskip's tenure as Minister for Coordination of Defence remains controversial, with some arguing that he did much to push Britain's rearmament before the outbreak of the Second World War, but others arguing he was largely ineffectual. In early 1939 he was replaced by the former First Sea Lord, Admiral of the Fleet Lord Chatfield, and moved to become Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs.
He approved of the rearmament drive which the Popular Front government began in 1936, although French military doctrine remained that tanks should be used in penny packets for infantry support (ironically, in 1940 it would be German panzer units that would be used in a manner similar to what de Gaulle had advocated).Lacouture 1991, p. 144. A rare insight into de Gaulle's political views is a letter to his mother warning her that war with Germany was sooner or later inevitable and reassuring her that Pierre Laval's pact with the USSR in 1935 was for the best, likening it to Francis I's alliance with the Turks against the Emperor Charles V.Lacouture 1991, p. 127.
764 & 766 Randolph felt very betrayed where he learned the military was to remain segregated after all despite the president's warm words.Kennedy, David Freedom From Fear, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 766 Roosevelt had begun a program of rearmament, and feeling the president was not to be trusted, Randolph formed the March on Washington Movement, announcing plans for a huge civil rights march in Washington DC that would demand desegregation of the military and the factories in the defense industry on 1 July 1941. In June 1941 as the deadline for the march approached, Roosevelt asked for it to be cancelled, saying that 100, 000 Black people demonstrating in Washington would create problems for him.
After the conclusion of World War I, Valorous deployed to the Baltic Sea to participate in the British campaign there against Bolshevik forces during the Russian Civil War, seeing action against Russian warships. In 1919, she and the destroyer severely damaged the Bolshevik submarine , which barely made it back to base at Kronstadt. In 1921 she began service in the Atlantic Fleet and later was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet until relieved there in 1931, when the flotilla leader was decommissioned and placed in reserve. In 1938, the Royal Navy selected Valorous for conversion into an anti-aircraft escort under the naval rearmament programme, and she entered Chatham Dockyard for the required work.
Renault UE2 with Renault UK trailer at the Musée des Blindés at Saumur; the upward bend of the front mudguard would make it be described as a Modèle 37; the internal mechanical parts are those of a late production vehicle. From 1935, in reaction to the German rearmament, the French Infantry embarked on a major expansion and modernisation programme. Part of this was the project to replace the Chenillette Modèle 31 with an improved type, which however should remain within the weight limit of the earlier vehicle or 2.6 metric tons. Interest from the side of the French industry was high and during 1937 five companies proposed prototypes: Lorraine, Hotchkiss, Fouga, Berliet and Renault.
126 Chamberlain had two but not mutually-exclusive, options: to reduce potential enemies by appeasing their grievances as long as the grievances were understood to be limited in nature and to be justified and to raise Britain's strength by forming alliances with other states. In 1937 and 1938, a greater emphasis was placed upon the former option, and in 1939 and 1940, the latter was prioritised. A necessary adjunct to his strategy was rearmament, which was intended to ensure that Britain could negotiate from a position of strength, deter a potential enemy from choosing war as an option, and, in the worst-case scenario of war breaking out, ensure that Britain was prepared.
While being the largest and most sophisticated attack since 1984, it was actually a part of Iran's strategy of attrition, in order to strike an unsustainable blow against Iraq, as the Iranians had little hope of a decisive victory in the face of Iraq's massive rearmament. There were hopes that it could bring about Iraq's downfall through sheer depletion. [75] Iran's plan was for a diversionary attack near Basra (Karbala-4), the main offensive (Karbala-5), and another diversionary attack using Iranian armor in the north to have Iraqi heavy armor diverted away from Basra (Karbala-6).[12] For these battles, Iran had swelled their military ranks by recruiting many new Basij and Pasdaran volunteers.
The list excluded bombing civilians to destroy homes or undermine morale, as that was considered a waste of strategic effort, but the doctrine allowed revenge attacks if German civilians were bombed. A revised edition was issued in 1940, and the continuing central principle of Luftwaffe doctrine was that destruction of enemy armed forces was of primary importance. The RAF responded to Luftwaffe developments with its 1934 Expansion Plan A rearmament scheme, and in 1936 it was restructured into Bomber Command, Coastal Command, Training Command and Fighter Command. The latter was under Hugh Dowding, who opposed the doctrine that bombers were unstoppable: the invention of radar at that time could allow early detection, and prototype monoplane fighters were significantly faster.
411-412 A large central citadel with 16 guns was added to Fort Winthrop and its water batteries were rebuilt for seven guns each.Weaver, pp. 104–114 The supervising builder of Forts Independence, Warren, and Winthrop was Sylvanus Thayer, best known as Superintendent of West Point although he spent most of his career building the Boston forts. Boston Harbor was not attacked in the Civil War; however, the forts served as mobilization centers and Fort Warren was a POW camp. Rearmament of the forts with the new Rodman guns, primarily 15-inch and 10-inch caliber, began during the war, most likely along with some 100-, 200-, and 300-pounder Parrott rifles.
The Belgian army was to be massed in central Belgium, in front of the National redoubt of Belgium, ready to face any border, while the Fortified Position of Liège and Fortified Position of Namur were left to secure the frontiers. On mobilisation, the King became Commander-in-Chief and chose where the army was to concentrate. Amid the disruption of the new rearmament plan, disorganised and poorly trained Belgian soldiers would benefit from a central position to delay contact with an invader but it would also need fortifications for defence, which were on the frontier. A school of thought wanted a return to a frontier deployment, in line with French theories of the offensive.
In December 1931, the Reichswehr finalized a second rearmament plan that called for 480 million Reichsmarks to be spent over the following five years: this program sought to provide Germany the capability of creating and supplying a defensive force of 21 divisions supported by aircraft, artillery, and tanks. This coincided with a 1 billion Reichsmark programme that planned for additional industrial infrastructure that would be able to permanently maintain this force. As these programs did not require an expansion of the military, they were nominally legal. On 7 November 1932, the Reich Minister of Defense Kurt von Schleicher authorized the illegal Umbau Plan for a standing army of 21 divisions based on soldiers and a large militia.
Vize Admiral Theodor Arps Theodor Arps (2 February 1884 in Garmisch- Partenkirchen — 28 April 1947) was a German naval officer, most recently Deputy Admiral in World War II, from 1940 to 1945 Judge at the Reichskriegsgericht. Theodor Arps was notable for managing the German Naval Intelligence Service (German:Marinenachrichtendienst) from 1 October 1934 to 31 December 1939. Arps' time at the Marinenachrichtendienst was known for increased rearmament at the agency, a modernizing period, preparing and undertaking assurance testing on the Naval Enigma for secure message use cases (which was insecure), training and mobilization planning and an increasingly efficient and modern signal intelligence architecture that was the culmination of two decades of work during the interwar period.
Most famously, Graham Greene won second prize in a challenge to parody his own work. During the 1930s, Martin's New Statesman moved markedly to the left politically. It became strongly anti-fascist and pacifist, opposing British rearmament. After the 1938 Anschluss, Martin wrote: "Today if Mr. Chamberlain would come forward and tell us that his policy was really one not only of isolation but also of Little Englandism in which the Empire was to be given up because it could not be defended and in which military defence was to be abandoned because war would totally end civilization, we for our part would wholeheartedly support him."The Anti- Appeasers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), pp. 156–157.
When the Korean War started in 1950, Kowalski was assigned as Chief of Staff of Military Advisory Assistance Group - Tokyo. He helped build the Japan Police Reserve, a force of over 75,000 that was organized to defend Japan, and skirted the American-drafted Japanese Constitution prohibition against organizing and maintaining a military force. Without the Japanese defense force, Japan and its approximately 100 thousand military dependents would have been completely vulnerable to potential Communist innovation from among other threats the Soviet Union, which was 40 miles across ocean from Japan's northernmost island. In 2013, Kowalski's memoir of his time in Japan was published in English as An Inoffensive Rearmament: The Making of the Postwar Japanese Army.
That miserable retreat convinced the government that the armed forces had been neglected too long, and rapid rearmament was initiated. Four battleships were ordered from the United Kingdom, and border fortifications were constructed. Swedish and Norwegian flags in 1899, after the removal of the union badge from the merchant flag of Norway In the midst of negotiations and discussions that were in vain, in 1895 the Swedish government gave notice to Norway that the current commercial treaty of 1874, which had provided for a promising common market, would lapse in July 1897. When Sweden reverted to protectionism, Norway also raised customs duties, and the result was a considerable diminution of trade across the border.
Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, unknown date The Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin claimed, with tears in his eyes, that Britain lacked the resources to enforce her treaty guarantees and that public opinion would not stand for military force anyway.Taylor, A.J.P. The Origins of the Second World War, London: Penguin 1961, 1976 p. 132. The British Chiefs of Staff had warned that war with Germany was inadvisable under the grounds that the deep cuts imposed by the Ten Year Rule together with the fact that rearmament had only begun in 1934 meant that at most Britain could do in the event of war would be to send two divisions with backward equipment to France after three weeks of preparation.Kagan, p. 213.
The benefits were clear but there were risks, namely that Russia would intervene and this would lead to a continental war. However, this was thought even more unlikely since the Russians had not yet finished their French-funded rearmament programme scheduled for completion in 1917. Moreover, they did not believe that Russia, as an absolute monarchy, would support regicides, and more broadly "the mood across Europe was so anti- Serbian that even Russia would not intervene". Personal factors also weighed heavily and the German Kaiser was close to the murdered Franz Ferdinand and was affected by his death, to the extent that German counsels of restraint vis a vis Serbia in 1913 changed to an aggressive stance.
Far from Hitler planning world domination by fighting a series of short wars, Hitler had not planned a war of any kind against the Allies. Frieser argued that German rearmament was incomplete in 1939 and it had been France and Britain that had declared war on Germany; Hitler's gamble failed and left Germany with no way out, in a war against a more powerful coalition, with time on the Allies' side. Hitler chose flight forward and staked everything on a surprise attack, not supported by an officer corps mindful of the failure of the 1914 invasion. Allied generals did not anticipate the "daring leap" from the Meuse to the Channel and were as surprised as Hitler.
Swing turned the job down and it was later given to Edward R. Murrow. Swing instead joined the Mutual Broadcasting System, where, in 1936, he began to broadcast on European affairs, emerging as a strong voice of opposition to Adolf Hitler and Fascism. As the Nazis rose in power and influence and began to threaten Europe, Mutual increased his broadcasts to five times a week. He also gave a number of lectures in the United States and abroad on the dangers of Fascism. Because of his prestige and credibility, Swing was chosen to be chairman of the Council for Democracy, a group founded in 1940 to support American rearmament and combat domestic isolationism.
During the 1930s, Marshall's purchased a large amount of farmland, using some of it to establish what would become Cambridge City Airport, which was larger and with greater facilities than its predercessor. Formally opened in 1937, the new airport was fortuitously timed with a coinciding national priority on rearmament, which included the training of military aircrew. Accordingly, in 1938, a major flying training school for the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve was established by Marshall; it had reportedly trained over 600 new RAF pilots prior to the start of the Battle of Britain. The scheme was ramped up during the Second World War; the company ultimately trained in excess of 20,000 aircrew, including pilots, observers and flying instructors.
In foreign policy, the Labour Party in power after 1935 disliked the Versailles Treaty of 1919 as too harsh on Germany, opposed militarism and arms build-ups, distrusted the political conservatism of the National Government in Britain, sympathized with the Soviet Union, and increasingly worried about threats from Japan. It denounced Italy's role in Ethiopia and sympathized with the republican forces in the Spanish Civil War. Those policies favoured the left but it also was pro- German. It consistently advocated negotiations with Nazi Germany, signed a trade agreement with it, welcomed the Munich agreement of 1938 regarding the division of Czechoslovakia, discouraged public criticism of the Nazi regime, and pursued a slow rearmament programme.
Olofsborg withstood several sieges by the Russians during the First and Second Russian-Swedish wars. A brisk trade developed under the umbrella of the castle towards the end of the 16th century, giving birth to the town of Savonlinna, which was chartered in 1639. While the castle was never captured by force, its garrison agreed to terms of surrender twice; first to invading Russians on 28 July 1714 and the second time on 8 August 1743, with the latter conflict's peace treaty in form of the Treaty of Åbo leading to the castle and the entire region being seceded to Empress Elizabeth of Russia. During the Russian era Alexander Suvorov personally inspected rearmament of the fortress.
Bevan was named Minister of Labour in 1951, but resigned after two months in office, when the Attlee government proposed the introduction of prescription charges for dental and vision care and decided to transfer funds from the National Insurance Fund to pay for rearmament. His influence waned after his departure, although a left-wing group (not under his control) within the party became known as "Bevanites". When Attlee retired in 1955, Bevan unsuccessfully contested the party leadership with Hugh Gaitskell, but was appointed Shadow Colonial Secretary and later Shadow Foreign Secretary. In 1959, he was elected Deputy Leader of the Labour Party and held the post for a year until his death from stomach cancer at the age of 62.
It is written into the strategy of the United States department of defense within this region that, "First, we are strengthening our military capacity to ensure the United States can successfully deter conflict and coercion and respond decisively when needed. Second, we are working together with our allies and partners from Northeast Asia to the Indian Ocean to build their capacity to address potential challenges in their waters and across the region. Third, we are leveraging military diplomacy to build greater transparency, reduce the risk of miscalculation or conflict, and promote shared maritime rules of the road." Starting in 2000, Japan renewed its defense obligations with the US and embarked on a rearmament program, partly in response to fears that Taiwan might be invaded.
The Scharnhorst class were the first capital ships, alternatively referred to as battlecruisers or battleships, built for Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine after World War I. The class comprised two vessels: the lead ship and . Scharnhorst was launched first, and so she is considered to be the lead ship by some sources; however, they are also referred to as the Gneisenau class in some other sources, as Gneisenau was the first to be laid down and commissioned. They marked the beginning of German naval rearmament after the Treaty of Versailles. The ships were armed with nine 28 cm (11 in) SK C/34 guns in three triple turrets, though there were plans to replace these weapons with six 38 cm (15 in) SK C/34 guns in twin turrets.
As the threat of war steadily increased, first through Soviet military build-up and then because of Germany's rearmament, the modern equipment was supposed to show to foreign powers that France was still a force to be reckoned with. For the regiments receiving the new tank, it was a grave disappointment however. The main reason for this, besides the fact that the obsolete Renault FT turrets had to be used for the first four years, lay in its very poor mechanical reliability. In March 1934, when 110 vehicles had been delivered, it was reported that seventeen of these were already worn out and had to return to the factory for a complete rebuild; of the remaining 93, 62 were non-operational because of major defects.
Orwell was opposed to rearmament against Nazi Germany and at the time of the Munich Agreement he signed a manifesto entitled "If War Comes We Shall Resist"—but he changed his view after the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the outbreak of the war. He left the ILP because of its opposition to the war and adopted a political position of "revolutionary patriotism". In December 1940 he wrote in Tribune (the Labour left's weekly): "We are in a strange period of history in which a revolutionary has to be a patriot and a patriot has to be a revolutionary." During the war, Orwell was highly critical of the popular idea that an Anglo-Soviet alliance would be the basis of a post-war world of peace and prosperity.
They criticized the hurried nature of rearmament, the lack of planning, Germany's insufficient resources to carry out a war, the dangerous implications of Hitler's foreign policy, and the increasing subordination of the army to the Nazi Party's rules. These four military leaders were outspoken and public in their opposition to these tendencies. The Nazi regime responded with contempt to the four military leaders' opposition, and Nazi members brewed a false crass scandal that alleged that the two top army leaders von Blomberg and von Fritsch were homosexual lovers, in order to pressure them to resign. Though started by lower-ranking Nazi members, Hitler took advantage of the scandal by forcing von Blomberg and von Fritsch to resign and replaced them with opportunists who were subservient to him.
Despite Nazi propaganda frequently depicting German families as well-dressed and driving new Volkswagen cars, consumption stagnated in the pre-war economy, with few people being able to afford cars.Niall Ferguson, Civilization: The Six Killer Apps of Western Power (London: Penguin), pp. 232f. Speaking to a meeting of his main economic advisers in 1937, Hitler insisted that Germany’s population had grown to the point where the nation would soon become unable to feed itself, so war for the conquest of Lebensraum in Eastern Europe was necessary as soon as possible. Therefore, if the rearmament drive caused economic problems, the response would have to entail pushing even harder in order to be ready for war faster, rather than scaling back military spending.
In the decade preceding World War I, many Eastern European countries underwent major rearmament for their military, thereby utilising the new technology that was transforming the artillery business at the time. In an effort to modernise, King Carol I of Romania sought his new artillery from the Krupp company and had his crest inscribed on the weapons (still evident on the barrel of Deniliquin's 75mm field gun). Romania was initially a neutral power when war broke out but eventually sided with the British and allied forces in 1916. After being invaded by the German forces, the Romanian weapons (now German trophies) were distributed amongst their allies (resulting in the 75mm field gun going to the Turkish forces in the Middle East).
The financial situation in Denmark at the time was dire, due to the large army of 20-25.000 soldiers stationed in Holstein, the rearmament following the aggression of Peter III of Russia in 1762, after the death of Frederick Charles, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein- Sonderburg-Plön. Because it was hard for the Danish state to get loans at the time, Denmark had tried to get funds through seignorage, but this destabilized both the state and the banks responsible. Lacking men of financial capacity, Schimmelmann's talents and reputation was utilized to get favourable loans from Amsterdam to keep the Danish state and financial system afloat.During the Amsterdam banking crisis of 1763 Schimmelmann succeeded in getting a loan for 3.4 million Thaler from Dutch banks for Denmark.
Churchill was wary of Adolf Hitler's potential danger as early as 1930. More than two years before Hitler took power in January 1933, Churchill warned at a dinner at the German Embassy that Hitler and his followers would start a war as soon as possible. Beginning in 1932, when he opposed those who advocated giving Germany the right to military parity with France, Churchill spoke often of the dangers of German rearmament. Later, particularly in The Gathering Storm, he portrays himself as being for a time, a lone voice in Government calling on Britain to strengthen itself against Germany., Lord Lloyd was the first to so agitate and he continued to lobby post 1930 for improvement to the Armed force and the Air Force in particular.Charmley.
Davies, John A History of Wales, Penguin, 1994, (Revised edition 2007, ) By the 1950s, partly influenced by his friend D. J. Williams, he had become a supporter of Plaid Cymru and stood for it as a parliamentary candidate in the Pembrokeshire constituency at the 1959 General Election, winning 4.32 per cent (2,253) of the votes.. Pembrokeshire had returned a Labour M. P., Desmond Donnelly, to the Commons since 1950. Donnelly's views differed from those of Willie Jenkins and Waldo Williams – Donnelly was a supporter of German rearmament in 1954 and a strong opponent of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament from 1958. In the late 1960s, Williams taught Welsh to children of 10–11 at the Holy Name Catholic School, Fishguard, Pembrokeshire.
Long Life: Presiding Genius, Nigel Nicolson, 15 August 1992, The Spectator, Retrieved 28 November 2015 In 1950, Senger was one of the authors of the Himmerod memorandum which addressed the issue of rearmament (Wiederbewaffnung) of the Federal Republic of Germany after World War II. Senger was introduced by B. H. Liddell Hart to the military historian Michael Howard. Howard, who had fought in Italy during the war, recalls him saying, "May I give you a word of advice? Next time you invade Italy, do not start at the bottom."Captain Professor, The Memoirs of Sir Michael Howard (Continuum, 2006), at page 155 He was the father of Bundeswehr General and military author Ferdinand Maria von Senger und Etterlin (1923–1987).
In 1933, Hitler had laid down his foreign policy priories as "natural antagonism" towards the Soviet Union. In the fall of 1935, various business leaders complained to Hitler about the overwhelming costs of the rearmament, only for Hermann Göring to speak about the necessity of preparing for the coming war against the Soviet Union. The outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936 put Hitler into an apocalyptic mood in the summer of 1936 as he become convinced that a war with the Soviet Union would occur in the near-future. The diary of Josef Goebbels shows that a leitmotiv of Hitler's thinking in 1936 and 1937 was his conviction that Germany would have to take on the forces of "Judeo-Bolshevism" sooner rather than later.
Historians such as Richard Overy have argued that the importance of the memo, which was written personally by Hitler, can be gauged by the fact that Hitler, who had something of a phobia about writing, hardly ever wrote anything down, which indicates that Hitler had something especially important to say.Overy, Richard “Misjudging Hitler” pages 93–115 from The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered edited by Gordon Martel Routledge: London, United Kingdom, 1999 page 98. The "Four-Year Plan Memorandum" predicated an imminent all-out, apocalyptic struggle between "Judeo-Bolshevism" and German National Socialism, which necessitated a total effort at rearmament regardless of the economic costs. The basic premise of the Four Year Plan memo was that "the showdown with Russia is inevitable".
Emphasis was put on the need for rearmament and the pseudoscience of superior races in the pursuit of "blood and soil". In the twenty-one year inter-war period, between the First (1914–18) and the Second (1939–45) world wars, for Germany was the principal tenet of the extremist nationalism that characterised the party politics in Germany. The Nazis, led by Adolf Hitler, demanded not only the geographic reversion of Germany's post-war borders (to recuperate territory lost per the Treaty of Versailles), but demanded the German conquest and colonisation of Eastern Europe (whether or not those lands were German before 1918).Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Diplomatic Revolution in Europe 1933–1936, Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1970 pp.
When the Liberals returned to power through the 1935 election, Mackenzie returned to Cabinet as Minister of National Defence where he had the responsibility for pre-war rearmament. With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, however, Mackenzie was moved to the position of Minister of Pensions and National Health, in part because of his role in a scandal involving the awarding of a contract to manufacture the Bren Gun. In 1944, he became Minister of Veterans Affairs. Mackenzie was an able parliamentarian, and when the increasing pressures of war led Prime Minister King to decide to delegate some of his responsibilities in the House of Commons to the new position of Government House Leader, he chose Mackenzie as the first MP to hold that responsibility.
In retirement, he stood strongly by Chamberlain's essential judgements but regretted Chamberlain's lack of sensitivity in foreign affairs and his tendency for personal intervention that led to his failure to retain Eden and to override his Foreign Office advisers. However, Hoare repeatedly pointed out that public opinion was vociferously pacifist and that Chamberlain's actions were widely endorsed at the time, not least by US President Franklin Roosevelt. Also, the Labour opposition strongly opposed rearmament and the introduction of conscription, even after Munich. In spring 1939, Hoare aligned himself very firmly with Chamberlain's upbeat belief that war was now unlikely, rather than with Halifax's increasing focus on shoring up alliances and rearming for a conflict that to seemed imminent to Halifax.
"Middlemas and Barnes, p. 818. On 25 February 1936, the Cabinet approved a report calling for expansion of the Royal Navy and the re- equipment of the British Army (though not its expansion), along with the creation of "shadow factories" built by public money and managed by industrial companies. The factories came into operation in 1937. In February 1937, the Chiefs of Staff reported that by May 1937, the Luftwaffe would have 800 bombers, compared to the RAF's 48.Barnett, pp. 414–15. In the debate in the Commons on 12 November 1936, Churchill attacked the government on rearmament as being "decided only to be undecided, resolved to be irresolute, adamant for drift, solid for fluidity, all-powerful to be impotent.
However he became alarmed at Britain's lack of defence against air raids and German rearmament, saying it "would be a terrible thing, in fact, the beginning of the end".Middlemas and Barnes, p. 738. In April 1933 the Cabinet agreed to follow through with the construction of the Singapore military base.Middlemas and Barnes, p. 739. On 15 September 1933 the German delegate at the Disarmament Conference refused to return to the Conference and Germany left altogether in October. On 6 October Baldwin, in a speech to the Conservative Party Conference in Birmingham, pleaded for a Disarmament Convention and then said: > when I speak of a Disarmament Convention I do not mean disarmament on the > part of this country and not on the part of any other.
" In 1937 Jenckes became the first American woman appointed as a U.S. delegate to the Inter- Parliamentary Union in Paris, France. The goal of the annual gathering, which she attended with three male U.S. senators, was to promote peace and cooperation in an effort to establish representative democracies. When Jenckes returned to the United States after the conference, she expressed her growing concern about Germany's expanding building programs and urged the U.S. government to demand repayment of loans made to European countries during World War I, a move that she thought would discourage rearmament. As an isolationist, Jenckes also supported a strong defense buildup, arguing that "a strong defense was the best way to keep the United States out of war.
Prösterchen, prostata ! The German historian Wolfram Wette wrote that Fritsch had come close to high treason with his letter, as he had taken the Reichswehreid oath to defend democracy, and in calling for a putsch to destroy the democracy that Fritsch had pledged to defend was an act of "extreme disloyalty to the republic to which he had sworn an oath". Fritsch was heavily involved in the secret German rearmament of the 1920s in which Germany sought to evade the terms of Part V of the Treaty of Versailles, which had essentially disarmed it by limiting its army to 100,000 soldiers and forbidding it to have aircraft or tanks.Wheeler- Bennett, John The Nemesis of Power, London: Macmillan, 1967 page 302.
From 1912, Krauch was employed at BASF, later I.G. Farbenindustrie AG. He was a longstanding member of the board and general committee, and chairman of the supervisory board, 1940 to 1945, succeeding Carl Bosch as chairman. From 1936, Krauch was head of the Research and Development Department of the Amt für Deutsche Roh- und Werkstoffe. From 1939, he was head of the renamed Reichsamtes für Wirtschaftsausbau (Reich Office for Economic Expansion), established in 1936 as part of the Four-Year Plan to achieve national economic self-sufficiency and promote industrial production especially for rearmament. The Amt für Deutsche Roh- und Werkstoffe was nicknamed the Amt für IG-Farben Ausbau ("Office for the Expansion of IG Farben"), due to his dual head positions.
As Minister of Economics, Walther Funk accelerated the pace of rearmament and as Reichsbank president banked for the SS the confiscated gold rings of Buchenwald prisoners Nazi gold in Merkers Salt Mine The seizure and consolidation of power by the Nazis during the years of the Third Reich also greatly affected the Reichsbank. A 1937 law re-established the Reich Government's control of the Reichsbank, and in 1939, the Reichsbank was renamed the Deutsche Reichsbank (“Bank of the German Reich”, lit.: “Bank of the German Realm”) and placed under the direct control of Adolf Hitler, with Walther Funk as the last president of the Reichsbank, from 1939 to 1945.Shirer, William L. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich.
Allowing Raeder to pursue his feud with Dönitz in print as he wanted to would have made him look petty, jealous and vindictive, and thus damaged the image of the Wehrmacht leaders as noble and tragic figures. Leaders of veterans' groups made it clear to both Raeder and Dönitz that they wanted a "united front" on history, and neither of them would be welcome at veterans' gatherings if they made their feud public. In Mein Leben, it was argued that "the deadly effect of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles" justified rearmament in the 1930s, and used the "sacrifice" of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 1935 to prove Germany was not pursuing aggressive policies.Goda Tales from Spandau pp. 172–173.
In 1965, Kishi gave a speech where he called for Japanese rearmament as "a means of eradicating completely the consequences of Japan's defeat and the American occupation. It is necessary to enable Japan finally to move out of the post-war era and for the Japanese people to regain their self-confidence and pride as Japanese." Kishi always saw the system created by the Americans as temporary and intended that one day Japan would resume its role as a great power; in the interim, he was prepared to work within the American-created system both domestically and internationally to safeguard what he regarded as Japan's interests. Kishi remained in the Diet until retiring from politics in 1979, and died in 1987 at the age of 90.
In 1935, the French Navy laid down the battleship ; combined with the two s also under construction, this placed the total tonnage over the 70,000-ton limit on new French battleships until the expiration of the treaty. The keel laying of in December 1936, albeit less than three weeks before the treaty expired, increased the magnitude of France's violation by another 35,000 tons. The French government dismissed British objections to the violations by pointing out that Britain had signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement in 1935, unilaterally dismantling the naval disarmament clauses of the Treaty of Versailles. German naval rearmament threatened France, and according to the French perspective, if Britain freely violated treaty obligations, France would similarly not be constrained.
The reintroduction of conscription in 1935 and subsequent rearmament led to a massive expansion of military facilities in Erlangen. On 16 March, 1935, construction began on a second artillery kaserne located on the northeast corner of the drill area to the east and adjacent to the original Artilleriekaserne. On 1 October, 1935, two batteries from the 17th Artillery Regiment occupied the new artillery kaserne. In 1936, the Wehrmacht (English: defense forces) took control of these facilities. In 1938, a new panzer (English: tank) kaserne complex was constructed on the drill area south of the original garrison hospital along Hartmannstraße. Originally called Panzerkaserne, it was occupied by the 25th Panzer Regiment, along with regimental and department staff, and included a new hospital.
Professor Saki Ruth Dockrill (), née Saki Kimura (14 December 1952 – 8 August 2009) was a Japanese-British historian of modern international affairs, and Professor at King's College London. Born in Kyoto, she obtained an LLM from Kyoto University in 1976, a Masters in International Relations from the University of Sussex in 1982, and then joined the Department of War Studies at King's College London where she did her PhD on West Germany and its relationship with NATO. Her thesis was later published as Britain's Policy for West German Rearmament, 1950-1955. She then moved to be one of the first Olin Fellows at Yale University for the 1988–89 year, where she studied especially resources in the Eisenhower Presidential Library.
Nicolson entered the House of Commons as National Labour Member of Parliament (MP) for Leicester West in the 1935 election. In the latter half of the 1930s he was among a relatively small number of MPs who alerted the country to the threat of fascism. More a follower of Anthony Eden in this regard than of Winston Churchill, he nevertheless was a friend (though not an intimate) of Churchill, and often supported his efforts in the Commons to stiffen British resolve and support rearmament. A Francophile, Nicolson was a close friend of Charles Corbin, the Anglophile and anti-appeasement French ambassador to the court of St. James.Duroselle, Jean-Baptiste France and the Nazi Threat: The Collapse of French Diplomacy 1932–1939, New York: Enigma, 2004 p. 222.
He was the only major member of the 20 July Plot to survive the war. During the early Cold War, Speidel emerged as one of the major military leaders of West Germany, and played a key role in German rearmament, Western international negotiations on defence cooperation and West German integration into NATO. He is thus regarded as one of the founders of the Bundeswehr. He was appointed as the military advisor of Chancellor Konrad Adenauer in 1950 and joined the predecessor of the Federal Ministry of Defence in 1951, was the West German chief delegate to the conference on the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community from 1951 to 1954 and was a lead negotiator when West Germany joined NATO.
During the 1930s, Keynes, unlike many of his followers, was an early advocate of rearmament to deter what he referred to as the "brigand powers" of Germany, Japan and Italy. In July 1936, Keynes wrote a letter to the editor of the New Statesman: > A state of inadequate armament on our part can only encourage the brigand > powers who know no argument but force, and will play, in the long run, into > the hands of those who would like us to acquiesce by inaction in these > powers doing pretty much what they like in the world. [...] Can I not > persuade you that the collective possession of preponderant force by the > leading pacific powers is, in the conditions of today, the best assurance of > peace.
The Brunauers spent time in Germany on fellowships in 1933, during the Nazi seizure of power. Returning to the U.S., Esther Brunauer became an advocate for collective security in opposition to the pacifism of many women's rights advocates of the period. She headed a National Defense Study Commission that published a study of national defense in 1937 that the U.S. Chief of Naval Operations assessed in 1950 as "largely responsible for converting various pacifist organizations in this country and thus making possible an immediate program of rearmament". On behalf of the AAUW, she became a key figure in such organizational alliances as the Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies and the Women's Action Committee for Victory and Lasting Peace.
As a thinker and as an activist, Philippe Mottu played a role in Swiss and European history, contributing to reinforce the spirit of resistance to fascism in Switzerland through the Gotthard League, to support German resistance to Hitler and on the European scene in triggering the setting up of the Caux conference Centre. Pioneer of Moral Rearmament in Switzerland, he left to the next generations the Caux conference centre, of which he was the inspirator and one of the most instrumental administrators. He was also a daring entrepreneur who signed the purchase contract for Caux in 1946, together with Robert Hahnloser, risking his name without knowing whether the necessary funds would be found in order to meet the down payments deadline.
In 2006, Tooze wrote that the German success could not be attributed to a great superiority in the machinery of industrial warfare. German rearmament showed no evidence of a strategic synthesis claimed by the supporters of the blitzkrieg thesis. There had been an acceleration in war spending after 1933 but no obvious strategy or realistic prediction of the war Germany would come to fight. The huge armaments plans of 1936 and 1938 were for a big partially- mechanised army, a strategic air force and an ocean-going fleet. In early 1939, a balance of payments crisis led to chaos in the armaments programme; the beginning of the war led to armaments output increasing again but still with no sign of a blitzkrieg concept determining the programme.
As Assistant Secretary of War from 1937 to 1940, Johnson advocated Universal Military education and training, rearmament, and expansion of military aviation. He feuded with isolationist Secretary of War Harry Hines Woodring over military aid to Great Britain. In mid-1940, after Woodring's resignation and the fall of France revealed the precarious state of the nation's defenses, Franklin D. Roosevelt bypassed Johnson for the position of Secretary of War, instead choosing Henry Stimson.McFarland, Keith D. and Roll, David L., Louis Johnson and the Arming of America: The Roosevelt and Truman Years, Indiana University Press (2005) , Master of the Pentagon, Time Magazine, 6 June 1949 Article Having aspired to the position of Secretary, which he felt he had earned, Johnson felt betrayed by Roosevelt.
Alain de Greef of Canal+ (a French pay for view TV channel) then offered him the direction of Nulle part ailleurs (Nowhere else) with his old collaborator Antoine de Caunes. He made use of video gags to bring political personalities into his sketches, which often focussed on current events. In 1993 he successfully proposed adding a television news report parody called "Zerorama", "telling events of moral rearmament", in which he used a mode of presentation and tone inspired by newsreels of the Vichy regime under Philippe Pétain in order to satirise Édouard Balladur's government and the media supporting it. Also in 1993, he directed an offbeat film called Le Tronc, in which he appeared alongside Albert Algoud, José Garcia and Lova Moor.
Bréguet was engaged in the rearmament efforts during the late 1930s, producing numerous military aircraft in the run-up to and during the Second World War. After resuming normal operations in the immediatepostwar climate, the company largely focused on the development of commercial transports and other large aircraft designs. On 4 May 1955, the company's founder, Louis-Charles Bréguet, died in Paris, France. In response to a NATO specification for a long-range maritime patrol aircraft to replace the Lockheed P2V Neptune, Bréguet submitted its own design, the Br 1150, which was chosen as the winner in late 1958. Accordingly, a multinational consortium, Société d'Étude et de Construction de Bréguet Atlantic (SECBAT) was set up to develop and build this aircraft, which was named the 1150 Atlantic.
That year, in response to pressure to provide a strong air defence component and faced with the prospect of improved imported designs being unavailable due to the war, Sweden decided to undertake an indigenous rearmament programme, which included the development and production of an advanced fighter aircraft. Accordingly, SAAB began studying the means to construct their radical proposal, a prospect which posed several problems that needed to be adequately addressed before proceeding to production. One early problem presented was the ability of the pilot to safely bail out without striking the propeller, which was behind his position. Many different solutions were examined, such as jettisoning either the propeller or the whole engine section via explosive charges prior to bailing out, before it was decided to adopt an ejection seat.
Recognition drawing of the South Dakota class The South Dakota was ordered in the context of global naval rearmament during the breakdown of the Washington treaty system that had controlled battleship construction during the 1920s and early 1930s. Under the Washington and London treaties, so-called treaty battleships were limited to a standard displacement of and a main battery of guns. In 1936, following Japan's decision to abandon the treaty system, the United States Navy decided to invoke the "escalator clause" in the treaty that allowed displacements to rise to and armament to increase to guns. Congressional objections to increasing the size of the new ships forced the design staff to keep displacement as close to 35,000 LT as possible while incorporating the larger guns and armor sufficient to defeat guns of the same caliber.
Neutrality forced the Belgian government into a strategy of military independence, based on a rearmament programme begun in 1909, which was expected to be complete in 1926. The Belgian plan was to have three army corps, to reduce the numerical advantage of the German armies over the French, intended to deter a German invasion. Conscription was introduced in 1909 but with a reduction in the term of service to fifteen months; the Agadir Crisis made the government continue its preparations but until 1913, the size of the army was not fixed as a proportion of the population. The annual conscription of was increased to to accumulate the trained manpower for a field army of Older men would continue to serve as garrison troops and by 1926 would be available.
Air Vice Marshal Nur Khan was a populist military figure in the country due to his involvement in sports management and managing-director of civilian Pakistan International Airlines, and his name was included in the nomination papers for the command of the Air Force. On contrary, Nur Khan was never achieved to the four-star rank of Air Chief Marshal but appointed to serve as an air force commander under President President Ayub. In 1965, Nur Khan was appointed as Commander in Chief and promoted as Air Marshal. During 1964–65, the Air Staff had been fighting with the Cabinet over the rearmament and contingency plans with the Ministry of Defence (MoD) and Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MoFA) as the Air Staff wanted coordinated efforts if there was a retaliation.
As Minister of Economics Funk assisted the pace of rearmament, and subsequently as Reichsbank President accepted from the SS the gold rings of Nazi concentration camp victims from Buchenwald eyeglasses from Auschwitz victims luggage taken from Auschwitz victims Funk was tried with other Nazi leaders at the Nuremberg trials. He was accused by Allied prosecutors of having been closely involved in the State confiscation and disposal of the property of German Jews; and of conspiracy to commit crimes against peace; planning, initiating and waging wars of aggression; war crimes and crimes against humanity. He argued that, despite his employment titles, he had very little power in the regime. He did however, admit to signing the laws that "aryanized" Jewish property and in that respect claimed to be "morally guilty".
Gustaf V giving the Courtyard Speech Rearmament was a special concern in Sweden due to growing tensions in Europe. When Karl Staaff's government proposed a reduction in military spending and the cancellation of the order for the coastal defence ships that were later known as the , more than 30,000 Swedish farmers marched to Stockholm to protest in the Peasant armament support march. In response King Gustaf gave a speech written by the ardently pro-German explorer Sven Hedin in the courtyard of the Royal Palace in Stockholm where he argued for higher military spending. King Gustaf's "Courtyard Speech" prompted a constitutional crisis in Sweden (the so-called "Courtyard Crisis") due to interference of the crown in the running of the state, as a parliamentary system meant the crown's exclusion from partisan politics.
Selassie also organized a Territorial Army that would serve to defeat the guerrilla organizations throughout the country, but the army never advanced past policing local areas. The British Military Mission to Ethiopia (BMME) under the leadership of General Stephen Butler aided in the training and rearmament of the Ethiopians. By 1942, the reorganized Ethiopian army was in possession of 250 horses, 2,100 mules, two artillery batteries, an armored car regiment of 205 soldiers, and 148 officers were trained in methods similar to those at the Royal Military College. By 1958, the army was in possession of rifles from the British, Czechoslovak, Italians, and Americans, 500 carbines, 590 machine guns, 432 mortars, 20 old Czechoslovak light tanks and 5 M24 Chaffees, 28 armored cars, 90 field artillery, 12 old antitank weapons, and 120 heavy mortars.
After World War Two, Dynamit Nobel began manufacturing plastic equipment and ammunition in West Germany but was not able to keep the factories located in the areas occupied by the Soviets. These factories were partly dismembered. From 1953, Dynamit Nobel tried to develop intermediary organic products in order not to rely completely on the plastic equipment. After deciding the rearmament of Bundeswehr, the manufacture of ammunition was restarted in 1957, at first in the factory of Liebenau by the Gesellschaft zur Verwertung chemischer Erzeugnisse mbH which had survived the war. At the beginning of the 1960s, once again, the company became the leader of the military and civil powder market in Germany, namely due to the takeover of the manufacturer of ammunitions Gustav Genschow & Co. AG de Karlsruhe in 1963.
The origins of the division lie in the first attempts of the Hellenic Army to introduce mechanization in the interwar period. In 1931, Greece acquired its first tanks—two Vickers 6-Ton light tanks, one each of Type A and Type B, and two Carden Loyd tankettes. Initially used for training, they were formed into a tank battalion in 1935, with the expectation that they would be complemented with 14 light tanks ordered in Britain and France. In the event, these were never delivered due to the priority given by Britain and France to their own rearmament and the outbreak of World War II. In 1937, a Mechanized Cavalry Regiment was formed within the Hellenic Army's single Cavalry Division, in an apparent effort to follow the French Division Légère de Cavalerie model.
Churchill selectively quotes a speech in the Commons by Baldwin and gives the false impression that Baldwin is speaking of the general election when he was speaking of a by-election in 1933, and omits altogether Baldwin's actual comments about the 1935 election: "we got from the country, a mandate for doing a thing [a substantial rearmament programme] that no one, twelve months before, would have believed possible." This canard had been first put forward in the first edition of Guilty Men but in subsequent editions (including those before Churchill wrote The Gathering Storm) had been corrected.For full discussion see R Basset "Telling the truth to the People: the myth of the Baldwin 'confession'". Cambridge Journal November 1948 Churchill continued his campaign against any further transfer of power to Indian natives.
Churchill and Eden visited Washington in January 1952. The Truman Administration was supporting the plans for a European Defence Community (EDC), hoping that this would allow controlled West German rearmament and enable American troop reductions. Churchill affected to believe that the proposed EDC would not work, scoffing at the supposed difficulties of language. Churchill asked in vain for a US military commitment to support Britain's position in Egypt and the Middle East (where the Truman Administration had recently pressured Attlee not to intervene against Mossadeq in Iran); this did not meet with American approval—the US expected British support to fight communism in Korea, but saw any US commitment to the Middle East as supporting British imperialism, and were unpersuaded that this would help prevent pro-Soviet regimes from coming to power.
The organisation was founded in August 1919 by a group of industrialists and then MP William Reginald Hall under the name of National Propaganda.Christopher W. Miller, "'Extraordinary Gentlemen: the Economic League, business networks, and organised labour in war planning and rearmament", Scottish Labour History 52 (2017), 120-151 Hall had been Director of the Naval Intelligence Division of the Admiralty from 1914 to 1919. The organization's chief function was to promote the point of view of industrialists and businessmen, as well as to keep track of communist and leftwing organizations and individuals. Predating McCarthyism, it worked closely with the British Empire Union. John Baker White worked as the league's Assistant Director, and then from 1926 to 1939 as Director.Thomas Lineham (2000) British Fascism, 1918-1939: Parties, Ideology and Culture, p.
Massigli's hopes that these treaties would orient Britain towards Europe and away from the United States were dashed. Sir Ivone Kirkpatrick told Massigli that the British felt that the immediate danger was the Soviet Union, not Germany, and that it was necessary for the states of Western Europe to co- ordinate their defense and foreign policies with the United States, even if the American views about rebuilding Germany as a great power were often unpalatable to the French. Bidault, in his instructions to Massigli, stated that France was opposed to any form of German rearmament. For his part, Massigli reported to Paris that the recurring crises of the Fourth Republic damaged France's credibility in London as even British officials normally Francophile were worried about the state of France.
With the both the United States and Great Britain in favor of West German rearmament, the French compromised by proposing in October 1950 the Pleven Plan of a European army with a European Minister of Defense and common budget. Through he disliked the idea of a "European Army", Massigli realized that at least under the Pleven Plan West Germany would not its own army. In a dispatch to Paris, he hoped that the European Army would not be "un organisme germano-franco-italien" and would involve contingents from Britain and Scandinavia as well. Massigli was especially worried when learned from the Quai d'Orsay's Political Director, Roland de Margerie, of the disorganisation within the French cabinet and of the lack of studies about the implications of the Pleven Plan.
A Mefo bill (sometimes written as MEFO bill), named after the company Metallurgische Forschungsgesellschaft (Metallurgical Research Corporation), was a promissory note used for a system of deferred payment to finance the Nazi German government's programme of rearmament, devised by the German Central Bank President, Hjalmar Schacht, in 1934. Mefo bills followed the scheme for which the Öffa bills were the blueprint. As Germany was rearming against the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, they needed a way to fund rearming without leaving a paper trail; Schacht created this system as a temporary method to fund rearming with only one million Reichsmarks in capital. Schacht later said that the device "enabled the Reichsbank to lend by a subterfuge to the Government what it normally or legally could not do".
Dry docks at Gibdock as seen from the Rock of Gibraltar. The three large graving docks initially known as docks Number 1, 2 and 3, were excavated on what had been the site of the old naval yard. Number 3 dock, the smallest at just over 50,000 tons of water capacity, was the first to be named in 1903 and was named King Edward VII, Queen Alexandra named the 60,000 ton Number 2 dock after herself in 1906, and the largest, Number 1 dock, which could hold over 100,000 tons of water, was called the Prince and Princess of Wales dock, having been named by their Royal Highnesses in 1907, subsequently King George V and Queen Mary. In 1937 the warning of the Chiefs of Staff gave way to rearmament.
The weakness of the plan was that, politically at least, it abandoned most of eastern Belgium to the Germans. Militarily it would put the Allied rear at right angles to the French frontier defences; while for the British, their communications located at the Bay of Biscay ports, would be parallel to their front. Despite the risk of committing forces to central Belgium and an advance to the Schedlt or Dyle lines, which would be vulnerable to an outflanking move, Maurice Gamelin, the French commander, approved the plan and it remained the Allied strategy upon the outbreak of war. The British, with no army in the field and behind in rearmament, was in no position to challenge French strategy, which had assumed the prominent role of the Western Alliance.
After Baldwin said that the government would ensure the RAF had parity with the future German air force, Churchill withdrew his amendment. In April 1935, the Air Secretary reported that although Britain's strength in the air would be ahead of Germany's for at least three years, air rearmament needed to be increased; so the Cabinet agreed to the creation of an extra 39 squadrons for home defence by 1937. However, on 8 May 1935, the Cabinet heard that it was estimated that the RAF was inferior to the Luftwaffe by 370 aircraft and that to reach parity, the RAF must have 3,800 aircraft by April 1937, an extra 1,400 above the existing air programme. It was learnt that Germany was easily able to outbuild that revised programme as well.
The Wehrmachtsamt was turned into the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW; High Command of the Armed Forces), which formally existed until the end of World War II. The High Command was not a government ministry, but a military command, however. After World War II, West Germany started with preparations for rearmament (Wiederbewaffnung) in 1950, as ordered by Chancellor Konrad Adenauer. After the outbreak of the Korean War, the United States called for a West German contribution to the defence of Western Europe (against the Soviet Union). Initially Gerhard Graf von Schwerin, a former Wehrmacht General, advised the Chancellor on these issues and led the preparations, but after Count Schwerin had talked to the press about his work, he was replaced by Theodor Blank, who was appointed as "Special Representative" of the Chancellor.
He was the youngest member of the federal parliament when elected, and was known as "the student prince". He became the Father of the House in 1975, and held his seat until he retired in 1977. A committed Christian (he was brought up and baptised in the Church of Christ),In Beazley K E Father of the House: The memoirs of Kim E Beazley Fremantle Press, January 2009 and member of Moral Rearmament, Beazley was prominent on the right-wing of the Labor Party during the ideological battles of the 1950s and 1960s. He claimed a central role in the events leading to the Labor Party's fateful 1954 split and harboured lifelong regret that he failed to help avert the split when he felt it had been in his power to do so.
The Budget was introduced in the British Parliament by David Lloyd George on 29 April 1909. Lloyd George argued that the People's Budget would eliminate poverty, and commended it thus: The budget included several proposed tax increases to fund the Liberal welfare reforms. Income tax was held at nine pence in the pound (9d, or 3.75%) on incomes less than £2,000, which was equivalent to roughly £225,000 in today's money—but a higher rate of one shilling (12d, or 5%) was proposed on incomes greater than £2,000, and an additional surcharge or supertax of 6d (a further 2.5%) was proposed on the amount by which incomes of £5,000, or more (approximately £566,000 today) exceeded £3,000 (£340,000 today approx.). An increase was also proposed in death duties and naval rearmament.
Recognition drawing of the South Dakota class The was ordered in the context of global naval rearmament during the breakdown of the Washington treaty system that had controlled battleships construction during the 1920s and early 1930s. Under the Washington and London treaties, so-called treaty battleships were limited to a standard displacement of and a main battery of guns. In 1936, following Japan's decision to abandon the treaty system, the United States Navy decided to invoke the "escalator clause" in the Second London treaty that allowed displacements to rise to and armament to increase to guns. Congressional objections to increasing the size of the new ships forced the design staff to keep displacement as close to 35,000 LT as possible while incorporating the larger guns and armor sufficient to defeat guns of the same caliber.
Recognition drawing of the South Dakota class The was ordered in the context of global naval rearmament during the breakdown of the Washington treaty system that had controlled battleships construction during the 1920s and early 1930s. Under the Washington and London treaties, so-called treaty battleships were limited to a standard displacement of and a main battery of guns. In 1936, following Japan's decision to abandon the treaty system, the United States Navy decided to invoke the "escalator clause" in the Second London treaty that allowed displacements to rise to and armament to increase to guns. Congressional objections to increasing the size of the new ships forced the design staff to keep displacement as close to 35,000 LT as possible while incorporating the larger guns and armor sufficient to defeat guns of the same caliber.
With the growing threat of Fascism and Nazism, Bystrolyotov successfully hunted for Italian and German military secrets. He also stole British secrets for the Soviets years before Kim Philby and made Stalin privy to the contents of French, Italian, Swiss, and American diplomatic pouches. The modus operandi of this dashing young man involved seduction and recruitment of women as Soviet agents, among them a French diplomat, a German countess, and a Gestapo officer. As a result, he provided Stalin with minutes of Hitler’s meetings with Western diplomats, as well with German, Italian, and Spanish diplomatic codes along with codes of Great Britain and France. Bystrolyotov also procured for the Soviets Hitler’s four-year plan for the rearmament of Germany and helped identify the Nazis’ fifth column in pre-World War II France.
289 Gaitskell was determined that there would not be an open-ended commitment to welfare spending at the expense of economic investment or rearmament, and rejected Morrison's proposal. At the second meeting, Gaitskell threatened to resign, but quietly and without a public fuss, if he did not have the backing of the Cabinet; the resignation of the Chancellor on the eve of the budget would have caused a political crisis. Douglas Jay and others attempted in vain to persuade Gaitskell to compromise, but he refused, arguing that two members of the Cabinet should not be allowed to dictate to eighteen, although he agreed not to specify just yet the date at which the charges would come into effect. A final attempt by Attlee to negotiate a compromise from his sickbed (10 April) came to nothing.
The policy and research agenda of racial hygiene and eugenics were promoted by Emil Kraepelin. The eugenic sterilisation of persons diagnosed with (and viewed as predisposed to) schizophrenia was advocated by Eugen Bleuler, who presumed racial deterioration because of “mental and physical cripples” in his Textbook of Psychiatry, Within the Nazi administration, the idea of including in the program people with physical disabilities had to be expressed carefully, because the Reich Minister of Propaganda, Joseph Goebbels, had a deformed right leg. After 1937, the acute shortage of labour in Germany arising from rearmament, meant that anyone capable of work was deemed to be "useful", exempted from the law and the rate of sterilisation declined. The term "Aktion T4" is a post-war coining; contemporary German terms included Euthanasie (euthanasia) and Gnadentod (merciful death).
Well known representatives of the Geier surname include the Geier Glove Company and the Geier Sausage Company, neither of which have any necessary connection with each other or any other American bearer of the Geier surname. Another well-known representative of the Geier name was the founder of the Cincinnati Milling Machine Company (originally the Cincinnati Screw and Tap Company), Frederick V. Geier, whose company is still controlled by the Geier family (but now known as Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.). This branch of the Geier family has been prominent in Cincinnati civic and social affairs since the early 20th century, and has endowed the Geier Collections and Research Center of the Museum of Natural History and Science in Cincinnati. Frederick V. Geier was quoted in a Time Magazine article on rearmament in 1951.
He was an active Southern Baptist. He was register of deeds of Richmond County, North Carolina from 1926–1934; attorney in the Wage and Hour Division, Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., in 1938 and 1939; in 1940, engaged in administrative law and in the general insurance business; served as chairman of the Richmond County Democratic executive committee 1932-1946; trustee of Wake Forest College. He was elected as a Democrat to the Eightieth and to the four succeeding Congresses (January 3, 1947 – January 3, 1957); was an unsuccessful candidate for renomination in 1956 to the Eighty-fifth Congress. Closely associated with the Moral Rearmament movement, he was defeated in the Democratic primary for a fifth term because he had refused to sign the controversial Southern Manifesto against desegregation of the races.
Deutsches Volk–Deutsche Arbeit: German People, German Work (1934) – an example of reactionary modernism The Nazis came to power in the midst of Great Depression, when the unemployment rate at that point in time was close to 30%. Generally speaking, Nazi theorists and politicians blamed Germany's previous economic failures on political causes like the influence of Marxism on the workforce, the sinister and exploitative machinations of what they called international Jewry and the vindictiveness of the western political leaders' war reparation demands. Instead of traditional economic incentives, the Nazis offered solutions of a political nature, such as the elimination of organised trade unions, rearmament (in contravention of the Versailles Treaty) and biological politics.R.J. Overy, War and Economy in the Third Reich (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), pp. 1–5.
"James P. Levy, Appeasement and rearmament: Britain, 1936–1939, Rowman and Littlefield, 2006 The view of Chamberlain colluding with Hitler to attack Russia has persisted, however, particularly on the far-left.See, for example, Clement Leibovitz and Alvin Finkel, In Our Time: The Chamberlain–Hitler Collusion, Monthly Review Press, 1997 In 1999, Christopher Hitchens wrote that Chamberlain "had made a cold calculation that Hitler should be re-armed...partly to encourage his 'tough-minded' solution to the Bolshevik problem in the East". While consciously encouraging war with Stalin is not widely accepted to be a motive of the Downing Street appeasers, there is historical consensus that anti- communism was central to appeasement's appeal for the conservative elite. As Antony Beevor writes, "The policy of appeasement was not Neville Chamberlin's invention.
After the death of Józef Piłsudski in 1935, the Sanation government of his political followers, along with President Ignacy Mościcki, embarked on a military reform and rearmament of the Polish Army in the face of the changing political climate in Europe. Thanks in part to a financial loan from France, Poland's new Central Industrial Region participated in the project from 1936 in an attempt to catch-up with the advanced weapons development by Poland's richer neighbors. Foreign Minister Józef Beck continued to resist the growing pressure on Poland from the West to cooperate with the Soviet Union in order to contain Germany. Against the rapidly growing German military force, Poland not only possessed no comparable quantity of technical resources, but also lacked the knowledge and concepts of developing modern warfare.
In 1917, he returned to government under David Lloyd George and served successively as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, Secretary of State for Air, and Secretary of State for the Colonies, overseeing the Anglo-Irish Treaty and British foreign policy in the Middle East. After two years out of Parliament, he served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in Stanley Baldwin's Conservative government, returning the pound sterling in 1925 to the gold standard at its pre-war parity, a move widely seen as creating deflationary pressure and depressing the UK economy. Out of office during the 1930s, Churchill took the lead in calling for British rearmament to counter the growing threat of militarism in Nazi Germany. At the outbreak of the Second World War he was re- appointed First Lord of the Admiralty.
Ueberschär, Gerd & Müller, Rolf-Dieter Hitler's War in the East, 1941–1945: A Critical Assessment, Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2002 page 14 To promote that goal, which would lead to the global triumph of communism, the Soviet Union tended to support German efforts to challenge the Versailles system by assisting the secret rearmament if Germany, a policy that caused much tension with France. An additional problem in Franco-Soviet relations was the Russian debt issue. Before 1917, the French had been by far the largest investors in Imperial Russia and the largest buyers of Russian debt and so the decision by Vladimir Lenin in 1918 to repudiate all debts and to confiscate all private property, owned by Russians or by foreigners, had hurt the world of French business and finance quite badly.
Nazi gold stored in Merkers Salt Mine As Minister of Economics, Walther Funk accelerated the pace of rearmament and as Reichsbank president banked for the SS the gold rings of Buchenwald victims The draining of Germany's gold and foreign exchange reserves inhibited the acquisition of materiel, and the Nazi economy, focused on militarisation, could not afford to deplete the means to procure foreign machinery and parts. Nonetheless, towards the end of the 1930s, Germany's foreign reserves were unsustainably low. By 1939, Germany had defaulted upon its foreign loans and most of its trade relied upon command economy barter. However, this tendency towards autarkic conservation of foreign reserves concealed a trend of expanding official reserves, which occurred through looting assets from annexed Austria, occupied Czechoslovakia, and Nazi-governed Danzig.
Labor union and civil rights leader A. Philip Randolph in 1942 By 1940, only a small committed core remained in the Socialist Party, including a considerable percentage of militant pacifists. The Socialist Party continued to oppose Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal as a capitalist palliative, arguing for fundamental change through socialist ownership. In 1940, Norman Thomas was the only presidential candidate who failed to support rearmament military support of Great Britain and China. The pacifist Thomas also served as an active spokesman for the isolationist America First Committee during 1941. After the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor in the fall of 1941 and the declaration of war, the United States defense of itself and war against fascism was supported by most of the remaining Militants and all of the Old Guard.
The Truman Administration had months earlier written off Czechoslovakia as little more than a Soviet satellite; in November 1947 U.S. Secretary of State George C. Marshall told a cabinet meeting that the Soviets would probably soon consolidate their hold on Eastern Europe by clamping down on Czechoslovakia as a "purely defensive move", and Kennan cabled from Manila that the Soviets seemed to be consolidating their defences, not preparing for aggression. He later wrote that the Prague coup and the Berlin Blockade were "defensive reactions" to the Marshall Plan's initial successes and to the Western decision to press for an independent West German state. This view of the event sees Truman's reaction as him seizing on a necessary crisis to sell the Marshall Plan and the rearmament programme the Pentagon had long been pushing.Steel, p. 452.
Even when war threatened again in the late 1930s, battleship construction did not regain the level of importance it had held in the years before World War I. The "building holiday" imposed by the naval treaties meant the capacity of dockyards worldwide had shrunk, and the strategic position had changed. In Germany, the ambitious Plan Z for naval rearmament was abandoned in favor of a strategy of submarine warfare supplemented by the use of battlecruisers and commerce raiding (in particular by s). In Britain, the most pressing need was for air defenses and convoy escorts to safeguard the civilian population from bombing or starvation, and re-armament construction plans consisted of five ships of the . It was in the Mediterranean that navies remained most committed to battleship warfare.
On 27 February 1981, Johnston was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register and transferred to the Republic of China (Taiwan), serving with the Republic of China Navy as the Chen Yang. Chen Yang was subject to a major modification and complete rearmament to a guided missile destroyer with the pennant number DDG-928 under the Wu Chin III program, with the upgrade completed by 1998.Prézelin and Baker 1990, pp. 509–510. All 5 inch guns were removed, with 10 box launchers for SM-1 Standard surface to air missiles fitted, four ahead of the bridge and six right aft on the ship's fantail. A single Otobreda 76 mm gun was mounted forward, with two Bofors 40 mm/L70 guns amidships and a Phalanx 20 mm Close-in weapon system aft.
11 A few years later he unhesitatingly lined up the union alongside the "Extra parliamentary opposition" during the run-up to the contentious "Emergency Acts" constitutional amendments eventually imposed on the country in 1968 by the Allied Control Council. His distrust of a resurgent authoritarian militarism caused him to reject West German re-armament and, in particular to oppose nuclear rearmament or the stationing of nuclear forces in German soil. His opposition to the arms build-up was reinforced by his conviction that militarisation on the ground made it even harder to envisage any future peaceful reunification of the two Germanies on either side of the iron curtain. That was also why he opposed the Paris conventions ratified in 1955, which he saw as a move to integrate West Germany into the west.
Irene Laure talking to Swiss professor Theophil Spoerri and an African delegate in Caux In 1947, she accepted an invitation of representatives of Initiatives of Change (then-named Moral Rearmament at the time), to join the international conferences in Caux, a conference centre just opened the year before. Like the creators of Caux she is keen to participate in the reconstruction of Europe, but upon her arrival the announcement of a massive delegation of Germans made her decide to leave at once. Her memory of her family' suffering under German occupation is too strong for her to talk to Germans. Challenged at the last minute by Frank Buchman the chief inspirator of Caux, about her true vision for Europe and whether Europe can be rebuilt without the Germans, she reluctantly stayed in Caux.
Early on, however, vice-president Arce's pro-Chile stance clashed with those of the patriotic President and retired General, who favored rearmament and a sustained diplomatic offensive against Chile, perhaps leading to a mediation of the conflict and if not, to a reinsertions of Bolivian troops in Peru's aid. Arce, as explained, favored a "realistic" policy of recognition that Bolivia had indeed lost its access to the Pacific, and that the best that could be done was to reach a modus vivendi with Santiago (which had the upper hand), even if this meant abandoning the hitherto sacrosanct alliance with Lima. President Campero took this to be a sign of treason and in 1881 expelled Arce, his own vice-president until then, to exile. Eventually, Arce's name was cleared and he was allowed to return to the country.
View on the site with ruins from the banks of the river Trave (2014) Berlin- Lübecker Maschinenfabrik (BLM) was a manufacturer of handguns, infantry rifles, ammunition up to 2 cm, flareguns and precision military equipment in Germany from 1936 to 1945.Abstract of the company (in German) retrieved on 2013-02-04 The company, based in Lübeck, Germany, was one of a number of metal-related businesses owned by Bernhard Berghaus, a German industrialist and member of the Nazi party who played an important role in the rearmament of Germany during the Third Reich.Albert F. Bender to Major S. Johnson, "Blocking of Properties Belonging to Bernhard Berghaus", 3.5.1947 (in German) BLM had a reported labor force of 3,809 in August 1944, comprising 1931 German men, 539 German women, 467 foreign women, 752 foreign men, and 120 war prisoners.
A retroactive law was passed making the action legal. Any criticism was met with arrests. Grüne Woche in Berlin, 1937 One of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which had been in place since the end of World War I, stated that Germany was not allowed to maintain an air force. After the 1926 signing of the Kellogg–Briand Pact, police aircraft were permitted. Göring was appointed Air Traffic Minister in May 1933. Germany began to accumulate aircraft in violation of the Treaty, and in 1935 the existence of the Luftwaffe was formally acknowledged, with Göring as Reich Aviation Minister. During a cabinet meeting in September 1936, Göring and Hitler announced that the German rearmament programme must be sped up. On 18 October, Hitler named Göring as Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan to undertake this task.
Heinkel 111P dropping bombs over Poland, September 1939 After Adolf Hitler came to power, designs by Heinkel's firm formed a vital part of the Luftwaffe's growing strength in the years leading up to the Second World War. This included the Heinkel He 59, the Heinkel He 115 and the Heinkel He 111. He was designated a Wehrwirtschaftführer (~ defence industry leader) by the German government for his commitment to rearmament. Heinkel was passionate about high-speed flight, and was keen on exploring alternative forms of aircraft propulsion. He donated aircraft to Wernher von Braun who was investigating rocket propulsion for aircraft, as well as sponsoring the research of Hans von Ohain into turbojet engines, leading to the flight of the Heinkel He 178, the first aircraft to fly solely under turbojet power by Erich Warsitz on August 27, 1939.
Timber exports from the U.S. occupation zone were particularly heavy. Sources in the U.S. government stated that the purpose of this was the "ultimate destruction of the war potential of German forests." The two quotes used by Balabkins are referenced to respectively: and With the beginning of the Cold War, the Western policies changed as it became evident that a return to operation of the West German industry was needed not only for the restoration of the whole European economy but also for the rearmament of West Germany as an ally against the Soviet Union. On 6 September 1946 United States Secretary of State, James F. Byrnes made the famous speech Restatement of Policy on Germany, also known as the Stuttgart speech, where he amongst other things repudiated the Morgenthau plan-influenced policies and gave the West Germans hope for the future.
Messerschmidt, p. 695. The new "containment" strategy adopted in March 1939 was to give firm warnings to Berlin, increase the pace of British rearmament and attempt to form an interlocking network of alliances that would block German aggression anywhere in Europe by creating such a formidable deterrence to aggression that Hitler could not rationally choose that option. Underlying the basis of the "containment" of Germany were the so-called "X documents", provided by Carl Friedrich Goerdeler, over the course of the winter of 1938–1939. They suggested that the German economy, under the strain of massive military spending, was on the verge of collapse and led British policy-makers to the conclusion that if Hitler could be deterred from war and that if his regime was "contained" long enough, the German economy would collapse, and, with it, presumably the Nazi regime.
Quoting Correlli Barnett ("The Desert War entered the British folk-memory, a source of legend, endlessly re-written as both history and fiction"), the historian Lucio Ceva argues that even though the myth was of British origin, it found its reflections in post-war West Germany. The historian Peter Caddick-Adams suggests that, following his forced suicide, Rommel emerged as the "acceptable face of German militarism, the 'good' German who stood apart from the Nazi regime." The ground was thus fertile for the myth to be reborn after the war, in the interest of the program of the German rearmament and the Allied–West German reconciliation. After the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, it became clear to the Americans and the British that a German army would have to be revived to help face off against the Soviet Union.
According to ace fighter pilot and member of JV-44 Franz Stigler, "In a matter of seconds, Steinhoff had turned into a human torch." Steinhoff was left with horrible scarring for the rest of his life and his chances of survival were slim, but he pulled through in the end; retiring as a four star general in the new German Air Force at age 59. Steinhoff joined the West German government's Rearmament Office as a consultant on military aviation in 1952 and became one of the principal officials tasked with building the German Air Force during the Cold War. He became the German Military Representative to the NATO Military Committee in 1960, served as Acting Commander Allied Air Forces Central Europe in NATO 1965–1966, as Inspector of the Air Force 1966–1970 and as Chairman of the NATO Military Committee 1971–1974.
In 1937, Trott was posted to China as a research fellow for the Institute of Pacific Relations under a research grant from the Auswärtiges Amt. He took advantage of his travels to try to raise support outside Germany for the internal resistance against the Nazis. At the time there was an informal alliance between China and Germany with a German military mission training the Chinese National Revolutionary Army which was largely armed with German weapons and German business being favored with investments in China in exchange for China helping German rearmament by selling the Reich certain strategic raw materials at below cost. Given the closeness in relations between China and Germany, as a German citizen, Trott enjoyed a certain privileged status in China, as Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek had often described Nazi Germany as a model for China.
On 29 August 1938, the company was founded as Turbomeca by the aero engine designers Joseph Szydlowski and André Planiol, following the granting of their patent application for a supercharger during the previous year. Engine manufacturer Hispano-Suiza promptly ordered a demonstrator to equip its 12 Y engine, which was used on the MS 405 C1 fighter, amongst others. The company benefitted greatly a decision by the French Government, recognising the looming threat of another World War with neighbouring Nazi Germany, having launched a rearmament programme during 1937. Over the course of three years, Turbomeca expanded rapidly from an artisanal production to an industrial one to meet the extensive demands of the French aircraft industry. The production figures of the company's first few years of operation indicate this rapid expansion: 18 compressors were produced in , 300 in and 1,200 in .
German armies prepared elaborate defensive positions on the western front with trenches, barbed wire and concrete strong-points backed by artillery, rifles and machine guns which until 1917, were sufficient to inflict mass losses on attacking infantry and restrict the Franco-British armies to minor gains in ground. Tactical development on the Western Front in 1917 began to return mobility to the battlefield and a form of semi-open warfare developed. Much inter-war military thinking was influenced by the cost of offensives fought for strategic reasons, in circumstances of defensive operational and tactical dominance. In World War II, the Western Allies from 1939–1940 avoided an offensive, intending to wait until Franco-British rearmament had matured and the blockade of Germany had undermined its war economy, then in 1941 or 1942, resume the firepower warfare of 1918.
From April 1936, whilst still in his staff position at SGDN, de Gaulle was also a lecturer to generals at CHEM. De Gaulle's superiors disapproved of his views about tanks, and he was passed over for promotion to full colonel in 1936, supposedly because his service record was not good enough. He interceded with his political patron Reynaud, who showed his record to the Minister of War Édouard Daladier. Daladier, who was an enthusiast for rearmament with modern weapons, ensured that his name was entered onto the promotion list for the following year.Lacouture 1991, pp147-8 In 1937 General Bineau, who had taught him at St Cyr, wrote on his report on his lectureship at CHEM that he was highly able and suitable for high command in the future, but that he hid his attributes under "a cold and lofty attitude".
In 1926, The Manchester Guardian ran an exposé showing the Reichswehr had been developing military technology forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles in the Soviet Union, and the secret German-Soviet co-operation had started in 1921. The German statement following The Manchester Guardians article that Germany did not feel bound by the terms of Versailles and would violate them as much as possible gave much offence in France. Nonetheless, in 1927, the Inter-Allied Commission, which was responsible for ensuring that Germany complied with Part V of the Treaty of Versailles, was abolished as a goodwill gesture reflecting the "Spirit of Locarno". When the Control Commission was dissolved, the commissioners in their final report issued a blistering statement, stating that Germany had never sought to abide by Part V and the Reichswehr had been engaging in covert rearmament all through the 1920s.
Weinberg, Gerhard, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980, p. 73 Most importantly, the general settlement was to be negotiated from position of strength and so for Chamberlain, it was preferable to complete British rearmament before they undertook such talks.Weinberg, Gerhard, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980, p. 81 The emphasis was put on Germany because the report of the Defense Requirements Committee (DRC) on 28 February 1934, which Chamberlain had helped to write as Chancellor of the Exchequer, called Germany "the ultimate potential enemy against whom our `long-range' defense policy must be directed".Post, Gaines, Dilemmas of Appeasement, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993, p. 31 The emphasis upon Germany was because of an assessment of Germany's power.
Before the Cold War began in the late 1940s, Foot favoured a 'third way' foreign policy for Europe (he was joint author with Richard Crossman and Ian Mikardo of the pamphlet Keep Left in 1947), but in the wake of the communist seizure of power in Hungary and Czechoslovakia he and Tribune took a strongly anti-communist position, eventually embracing NATO. Foot was however a critic of the West's handling of the Korean War, an opponent of West German rearmament in the early 1950s and a founder member of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. Under his editorship, Tribune opposed both the British government's Suez campaign and the Soviet crushing of the Hungarian Revolution in 1956. In this period he made regular television appearances on the current affairs programmes In The News (BBC) and subsequently Free Speech (ITV).
N.H. Gibbs, Grand Strategy: Volume 1 Rearmament Policy History of the Second World War (1976) HMSO Nonetheless, "Britain was a very wealthy country, formidable in arms, ruthless in pursuit of its interests and sitting at the heart of a global production system."; After becoming Prime Minister in 1940, Winston Churchill engaged industry, scientists and engineers to advise and support the government and the military in the prosecution of the war effort. Much of the scientific work that led to technology that determined the outcome of the war, such as radar, was done before 1940, and shared with the Americans that year through the Tizard Mission which led to extensive Allied technological cooperation. The Manhattan Project, however, was undertaken during the war beginning in 1942, to which the British contribution included the Tube Alloys work since 1941.
Writing before the Genoa Conference that concern for his personal safety was prescient of a foreboding for his own death.Kessler, p. 319 The insistence that Germany should fulfill its obligations under the Treaty of Versailles, but work for a revision of its terms, infuriated extreme German nationalists. He also angered such extremists by negotiating on 22 January 1922 Treaty of Rapallo with the Soviet Union, although the treaty implicitly recognized secret German-Soviet collaboration begun in 1921 that provided for the rearmament of Germany, including German- owned aircraft manufacturing in Russian territory.. The leaders of the (still obscure) National Socialist German Workers' Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, abbreviated NSDAP) and other extremist groups falsely claimed he was part of a "Jewish-Communist conspiracy," despite the fact that he was a liberal German nationalist who had bolstered the country's recent war effort.
After Robert Lovett left office on January 20, 1953, he returned again to Brown Brothers Harriman, where he remained active as a general partner for many years. Lovett has been recognized as one of the most capable administrators to hold the office of secretary of defense and as a perceptive critic of defense organization. His work in completing the Korean War mobilization and in planning and implementing the long-range rearmament program, as well as his proposals to restructure the Department of Defense, were among his major contributions. But his work for the U.S. Government was not yet quite completed. By January 1956, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower persuaded Lovett to take on a part-time job with the brand new President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities which, years later, would become known as the President's Intelligence Advisory Board.
In assessing Davies's political career the historian Alun Morgan notes certain inconsistencies: while calling for unity among leftist factions, Davies frequently rebelled against agreed Labour Party policies. He championed democracy, individual liberty and the rights of small nations, yet gave the Soviet Union his unvarying and uncritical support. However, he was consistent in certain core areas, often in defiance of official Labour policy: unremitting hostility to US foreign policy, opposition to the party's post-war defence policies (specifically on issues concerning American bases in Britain, rearmament in West Germany, and development of the Polaris submarine programme), and above all commitment to the needs and interests of his Merthyr constituents. His dedication to his own agenda brought him into frequent conflict with party managers, and led to withdrawals of the party whip throughout the 1950s and 1960s.
The uncertainty over what Hitler's ultimate intentions in foreign policy were coloured much of British policy towards Germany until 1939. The British could never quite decide if Hitler was merely revising Versailles or the unacceptable goal of seeking to dominate Europe. British policy towards Germany was a dual-track policy of seeking a "general settlement" with the Reich in which the "legitimate" German complaints about the Versailles Treaty would be addressed, but the British would rearm to negotiate with Germany from a position of strength, to deter Hitler from choosing war as an option, and ensure that Britain was prepared in the worst case of Hitler really wanting to conquer Europe. In February 1934, a secret report by the Defence Requirements Committee identified Germany as the "ultimate potential enemy" against which British rearmament was to be directed.
Men such as Beck and Guderian, > Manstein and Rommel, Doenitz and Kesselring, Milch and Udet cannot be > described as mere soldiers strictly devoted to their profession, rearmament > and the autonomy of the military establishment while remaining indifferent > to and detached from Nazi rule and ideology. The many points of contact > between Hitler and his young generals were thus important elements in the > integration of the Wehrmacht into the Third Reich, in stark contradiction of > its image as a "haven" from Nazism. Because of these conceptions of Germany being remade into a totalitarian Wehrstaat, the leadership of the military welcomed and embraced the Nazi regime. The German historian Jürgen Förster wrote that it was wrong as many historians have to dismiss the Wehrmacht's self-proclaimed role as one of the "twin pillars" of Nazi Germany (the other pillar being the NSDAP).
Enforcement of contracts was difficult and the large bureaucracy delayed resolutions of labour disputes.Sarti, 1968 After 1929, the Fascist regime countered the Great Depression with massive public works programs, such as the draining of the Pontine Marshes, hydroelectricity development, railway improvement and rearmament. In 1933, the Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale (IRI — Institute for Industrial Reconstruction) was established to subsidize failing companies and soon controlled important portions of the national economy via government-linked companies, among them Alfa Romeo. The Italian economy's Gross National Product increased 2 percent; automobile production was increased, especially that of the Fiat motor company; and the aeronautical industry was developing. Especially after the 1936 Society of Nation's sanctions against Italian invasion of Ethiopia, Mussolini strongly advocated agrarianism and autarchy as part of his economic "battles" for Land, the Lira and Grain.
Line-drawing of the España class Following the destruction of much of the Spanish fleet in the Spanish–American War of 1898, the Spanish Navy began a series of failed attempts to begin the process of rebuilding. After the First Moroccan Crisis strengthened Spain's ties to Britain and France and public support for rearmament increased in its aftermath, the Spanish government came to an agreement with those countries for a plan of mutual defense. In exchange for British and French support for Spain's defense, the Spanish fleet would support the French Navy in the event of war with the Triple Alliance. A strengthened Spanish fleet was thus in the interests of Britain and France, which accordingly provided technical assistance in the development of modern warships, the contracts for which were awarded to the Spanish firm (SECN), which was formed by the British shipbuilders Vickers, Armstrong Whitworth, and John Brown & Company.
During the 1920s and 1930s, British civil servants and politicians, looking back at the performance of the state during the First World War, concluded that there was a need for greater co-ordination between the three services that made up the armed forces of the United Kingdom—the Royal Navy, the British Army and the Royal Air Force. The formation of a united ministry of defence was rejected by David Lloyd George's coalition government in 1921; but the Chiefs of Staff Committee was formed in 1923, for the purposes of inter-service co-ordination. As rearmament became a concern during the 1930s, Stanley Baldwin created the position of Minister for Co-ordination of Defence. Lord Chatfield held the post until the fall of Neville Chamberlain's government in 1940; his success was limited by his lack of control over the existing Service departments and his limited political influence.
He supported Chamberlain's efforts to negotiate with Adolf Hitler in September 1938, culminating in the Munich Agreement, and after Hitler broke the agreement by occupying Prague in March 1939 Butler continued to urge rapprochement with Germany and – up to the very outbreak of war – to oppose Britain going to war for the sake of Poland. After the outbreak of war he continued to hanker towards a compromise peace, and in June 1940 he had a mysterious meeting with the Swedish trade envoy Björn Prytz, at which he declared that British attitude to peace would be based on "common sense not bravado". Thereafter he retained his job at the Foreign Office until May 1941 but appears to have been kept away from serious decision-making. Butler's later claims in his memoirs (1971), that he had supported appeasement merely to gain time for rearmament, are not supported by contemporary evidence.
While Seeckt undertook multiple programs to get around the military limitations imposed by the Treaty of Versailles which formally ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers after World War I, he has been criticized for failing to expand the reserves of officers and trained men available to the army, the main obstacle to rearmament during the Republic. Seeckt served as a member of parliament from 1930 to 1932. From 1933 to 1935 he was repeatedly in China as a military consultant to Chiang Kai-shek in his war against the Chinese Communists and was directly responsible for devising the Encirclement Campaigns, that resulted in a string of victories against the Chinese Red Army and forced Mao Zedong into a 9,000 km retreat, also known as the Long March. A large military barracks in Celle was built in 1935 and named after von Seeckt.
93–115 from The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered edited by Gordon Martel Routledge: London, United Kingdom, 1999 p. 98. The "Four-Year Plan Memorandum" predicated an imminent all-out, apocalyptic struggle between "Judeo- Bolshevism" and German National Socialism, which necessitated a total effort at rearmament regardless of the economic costs. In the memo, Hitler wrote: Hitler called for Germany to have the world's "first army" in terms of fighting power within the next four years and that "the extent of the military development of our resources cannot be too large, nor its pace too swift" [italics in the original] and the role of the economy was simply to support "Germany's self-assertion and the extension of her Lebensraum".Messerschmidt, Manfred "Foreign Policy and Preparation for War" from Germany and the Second World War Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990 pp. 623–624R.
Günther Blumentritt (10 February 1892 – 12 October 1967) was an officer in World War I, who became a Staff Officer under the Weimar Republic and went on to serve as a general for Nazi Germany during World War II. He served throughout the war, mostly on the Western Front, and mostly as a Staff Officer, though he was eventually given his own Corps and made a General der Infanterie. Blumentritt was instrumental in planning the 1939 German invasion of Poland and the 1940 invasion of France, he participated in Operation Barbarossa, and afterward bore a large part of the responsibility for planning the defense of the Atlantic Wall and Normandy. After the war, Blumentritt gave an affidavit at the Nuremberg Trials, though he never testified in person, and then later helped in the rearmament of Germany during the Cold War and the development of the modern German army.
Bishop p.23Tucker, p. 48 When the British government began its rearmament process in 1937, the Mk VI was the only tank with which the War Office was ready to proceed with manufacturing; the development of a medium tank for the Army had hit severe problems after the cancellation of the proposed "Sixteen Tonner" medium tank in 1932 due to the costs involved, and cheaper models only existed as prototypes with a number of mechanical problems. As a result of this, when the Second World War began in September 1939, the vast majority of the tanks available to the British Army were Mk VIs - there were 1,002 Mk VI Light Tanks. The British and Commonwealth forces employed a relatively small number of these light tanks and armoured vehicles in East Africa against the forces of the Italian Empire from June 1940 to November 1941.
Gamelin was very pleased, responding that due to heavy snowfall in the area of the Belgian-German border the Germans would be themselves unable to advance quickly, that a German invasion was therefore unlikely and that this posed an ideal situation for a French entrenchment, adding "We must now seize the occasion". Gamelin ordered that the Allied troops under his control during the night of 14–15 January should make their approach march to the Franco-Belgian border so that they would be ready to enter at a moment's notice. At 16:45 Gamelin was however telephoned by his deputy, the commander of the Western Front General Alphonse Georges. Alarmed by the order, Georges worried that the decision was irreversible and would set a series of events in motion that would make a German invasion inevitable at a moment when the French army and airforce had not yet completed their rearmament.
The Cyprus Naval Command ( (also known as the Cyprus Navy or Cypriot Navy) is the armed sea wing of the Cyprus National Guard. The Cypriot Navy has the primary mission of defending the maritime borders of the Republic of Cyprus, but is currently unable to access the waters around Northern Cyprus, which have been controlled by the Turkish Navy since the 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This force does not possess any capital ships or other major warships, but is equipped with patrol boats,• Table 23, Republic of Cyprus: Major National Guard Equipment, 1990, Library of Congress (Additional sourcing: Based on information from The Military Balance, 1989- 1990, London, 1989, 85; and Christopher F. Foss, "Cypriot Rearmament Completed," Jane's Defence Weekly [London], 12 March 1988, 445.) landing craft, surface-to-surface missile systems and integrated radar systems, as well as SEALs-type naval underwater demolitions units.
23 When the British government began its rearmament process in 1937, the Mk VI was the only tank with which the War Office was ready to proceed with manufacturing; the development of a medium tank for the Army had hit severe problems after the cancellation of the proposed "Sixteen Tonner" medium tank in 1932 due to the costs involved, and cheaper models only existed as prototypes with a number of mechanical problems. As a result of this, when the Second World War began in September 1939, the vast majority of the tanks available to the British Army were Mk VIs; there were 1,002 Mk VI Light Tanks, 79 Mk I (A9) and Mk II (A10) Cruiser Tanks and 67 Matilda Mk I infantry tanks. Of these tanks, only 196 light tanks and 50 infantry tanks were in use by operational units of the army.Harris, p.
By the second half of 1950 the western powers were caught up in a major rearmament drive. The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 at first threatened US loss of South Korea (which was seen as vital for the defence of Japan), and by the autumn threatened to escalate into a general war between the US and Communist China. There were also very real worries that the Soviets might invade western Europe (which was unarmed, with strong communist influence in many countries) and that the USA would not help Britain if she did not help herself. The crushing of democracy in Czechoslovakia had been as recent as 1948. In August 1950 the British defence budget was hiked from £2.3bn to £3.6bn (a total over a three-year period); at this stage it had appeared that the USA would be willing to help foot the bill.
In the early years of the regime, Germany was without allies, and its military was drastically weakened by the Versailles Treaty. France, Poland, Italy, and the Soviet Union each had reasons to object to Hitler's rise to power. Poland suggested to France that the two nations engage in a preventive war against Germany in March 1933. Fascist Italy objected to German claims in the Balkans and on Austria, which Benito Mussolini considered to be in Italy's sphere of influence. As early as February 1933, Hitler announced that rearmament must begin, albeit clandestinely at first, as to do so was in violation of the Versailles Treaty. On 17 May 1933, Hitler gave a speech before the Reichstag outlining his desire for world peace and accepted an offer from American President Franklin D. Roosevelt for military disarmament, provided the other nations of Europe did the same.
He made trips to Paris and Rome, hoping to persuade the French to hasten their rearmament and Mussolini to be a positive influence on Hitler. Several of his Cabinet members, led by Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax, began to draw away from the appeasement policy. Halifax was by now convinced that Munich, though "better than a European war," had been "a horrid business and humiliating". Public revulsion over the pogrom of Kristallnacht on 9 November 1938 made any attempt at a "rapprochement" with Hitler unacceptable, though Chamberlain did not abandon his hopes. Still hoping for reconciliation with Germany, Chamberlain made a major speech in Birmingham on 28 January 1939, in which he expressed his desire for international peace, and had an advance copy sent to Hitler at Berchtesgaden. Hitler seemed to respond; in his "Reichstag" speech on 30 January 1939, he stated that he wanted a "long peace".
He also attempted to steer the League away from sanctioning member nations, believing it yet lacked the military or economic sway to do so effectively and feared the breakdown of the League a prospect that loomed after Germany and Japan departed the body in 1933. During the Abyssinia Crisis, Bruce again counselled against partial sanctions, believing them the worst option as they would not stop the Ethiopian invasion and yet would alienate Italy then a potential ally against a rearming Nazi Germany. He further argued for much greater rearmament efforts in the United Kingdom and France to provide greater military capacity to enforce future decisions by the League. Bruce assumed the presidency of the League of Nations Council in 1936 at the height of the crisis and after the failure of the Hoare–Laval Pact between France, Italy and Britain, but further attempts to forestall the invasion failed.
Hans Speidel (28 October 1897 – 28 November 1984) was a German general and diplomat, who was one of the major military leaders of West Germany during the early Cold War. The first full General in West Germany, he was a principal founder of the Bundeswehr and a major figure in German rearmament, integration into NATO and international negotiations on European and Western defence cooperation in the 1950s. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the NATO ground forces in Central Europe from 1957 to 1963 and then as President of the German Institute for International and Security Affairs from 1964. Speidel joined the German Army in 1914, fought in the First World War, and stayed with the Army as a career soldier after the war. He served as chief of staff to Field Marshal Erwin Rommel during the Second World War and was promoted to lieutenant general in 1944.
He added that any plan for international peace must rest on Christian civilisation and "we British especially insist that in our own country, from the days of King Alfred to the present time, Christian civilisation has been responsible for every improvement and every advance that has been made". He said that that system had been attacked by Russian dialectical materialism, "its central tenet is that there is no such thing as the spiritual nature of man, or, if there is, it should be ignored or stamped out as speedily as possible". However, "If you ignore or abolish the spiritual nature of man, you destroy the foundation on which rests all truth, justice and freedom, except such as can flow from the love of money or what money can buy". He advocated rearmament to prevent a Marxist attack and claimed that "Christian civilisation is the only real alternative to dialectical materialism".
The massive investments intended for naval rearmament of course privileged Trieste own government, which had the appropriate physical facilities and personnel to carry out the proposed works. The result was that the Trieste industry, especially in sectors such as steel and shipbuilding in the strict sense, experienced a great expansion. In this partial national economic order metamorphosis also it contributed to the decision taken by the imperial authorities in 1891 to restrict the traditional customs duty (in practice dating as far back as 1719, the date of the granting of so-called free port) to one port area and not all 'entire city. Trieste was also a significant administrative and financial center, both for the capital that s'accumulavano with commerce or who flocked to foreign investors, and because it had become headquarters already in 1850 the establishment of the so-called maritime Central Government.
Location unknown Indonesian Navy Commandos (KKO Marines) occupying Langowan Airfield circa 1960s The KKO was active in various military operations in Indonesia. One of the largest amphibious military operations would have been Operation Jayawijaya in which thousands of marines were planned to land on Biak in 1963 as a part of the Trikora Campaign to take West Irian from Dutch control. The operation was aborted as a consequence of deals preceding the New York Agreement. That campaign saw massive rearmament of the Corps as per the national policies of guided democracy in the later years of the Sukarno presidency, part of the increasing military ties between Indonesia and the Warsaw Pact, wherein the former US-made equipment would be replaced by Russian-produced APCs and IFVs including the PT-76 Amphibious light tanks, BTR-50 APCs and BM-13 MRLs (Southeast Asia's first-ever MRL system in service).
French warships began to carry 36-pounders under Louis XIV, with the reform of the Navy undertaken by Richelieu. At this time, only first rank warships could carry them. In 1676, the entire Navy fielded merely 64 such heavy pieces, all bronze. From 1690, in only two years, their number increased from 115 to 442 (of which 407 were made of bronze), as the number and size of first-rank ships increased. Many 12-pounders were melted to procure the bronze needed to produce the needed 36-pounders. A maximum was reached in 1702 with 860 guns (411 bronze and 449 iron). Under Louis XV, their number was significantly reduced (164 in 1718, 452 in 1741), but from the mid-18th century, a sustained rearmament effort increased the number of 36-pounders to 986 in 1756, 1046 in 1777 and 2484 in 1786. These guns were all made of iron.
Delbos further stated that if war with came with Germany, France was destined to lose because: "If defeated it [France] would be Nazified. If victorious, it must, due to the destruction of German power, submit, with the rest of Europe, to the overwhelming weight of the Slavic world, armed with the communist flamethrower". Coulondre recalled in his 1950 memoirs De Staline à Hitler Souvenirs de deux ambassades, 1936-1939 that "the presentation of his [Delbos's] statement was made completely in a negative sense". Coulondre was told in his instructions that there was no question of a "preventive war" to put an end to the Nazi regime while its rearmament had just started, and he would was to refuse any Soviet offer about a "preventive war"; that he must end Soviet involvement in French internal affairs; and should a war come, he was to discuss "possible military aid" to the Soviet Union.
Cairns (2004); Holden Reid (2009) He argued frequently over the need for faster modernisation and rearmament, and the problem of the 'old men' still filling the upper ranks of the army; in the end, he was reprimanded by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Sir George Milne. After Camberley he was appointed to command 2nd Division in England, a post he held for two years with little effect or interest – he was frustrated by the task of training an infantry force with no modern equipment – and then sent to command the Meerut district, in India, in 1928. He enjoyed life in India, but found the military situation to be equally uninteresting; the equipment was old-fashioned, as were the regimental officers and the overall strategic plans. He was promoted to Lieutenant-General in March 1931, and left for England in May, where he returned to half-pay with the sinecure of Lieutenant of the Tower of London.
Line-drawing of the España class Following the destruction of much of the Spanish fleet in the Spanish–American War of 1898, the Spanish Navy made a series of failed attempts to begin the process of rebuilding. After the First Moroccan Crisis strengthened Spain's ties to Britain and France and public support for rearmament increased in its aftermath, the Spanish government came to an agreement with those countries for a plan of mutual defense. In exchange for British and French support for Spain's defense, the Spanish fleet would support the French Navy in the event of war with the Triple Alliance. A strengthened Spanish fleet was thus in the interests of Britain and France, which accordingly provided technical assistance in the development of modern warships, the contracts for which were awarded to the firm Spanish Sociedad Española de Construcción Naval (SECN), which was formed by the British shipbuilders Vickers, Armstrong Whitworth, and John Brown & Company.
However, it greatly differed from NATO in that it envisaged a purely-European mutual defence pact primarily against Germany. When NATO took shape the next year, on the other hand, it was recognised that Europe was being unavoidably divided into two opposing blocks (western and communist), and the USSR was a much greater threat than the possibility of a resurgent Germany, and Western European mutual defence would have to be Atlanticist and so include North America. Trying to avoid the need for West German rearmament, a treaty aimed at establishing a European Defence Community was signed by the six ECSC members in May 1952 but failed when it was rejected by the French National Assembly in August 1954. This rejection led to the London and Paris Conferences in September and October, with the result that the Treaty of Brussels was amended by the Protocol signed in Paris on 23 October 1954, which added West Germany and Italy to the Western Union Defence Organization (WUDO).
At a high- profile Vatican conference in November 2017, the first major international disarmament gathering following the treaty's adoption in July, Pope Francis took a stance further than his papal predecessors to condemn the possession of nuclear weapons and warn that nuclear deterrence policies offer a "false sense of security." Xanthe Hall (IPPNW and ICAN) said she regretted the boycott of the treaty by all nuclear powers and their allies, but hints at history: also the Mine Ban Treaty or the Convention on Cluster Munitions have been concluded against the states possessing such weapons, but finally were signed by most states. The request of a nuclear ban could only weaken the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), regarding that the nuclear forces were blocking multi-lateral disarmament negotiations since 1995, instead were planning modernization and rearmament. Therefore, they would abdicate from their responsibility of disarmament according to the NPT, Article VI. Then the danger would grow that in reaction other nations felt less stronger bound to non-proliferation.
Attlee responded the next day noting that Hitler's speech, although containing unfavourable references to the Soviet Union, created "A chance to call a halt in the armaments race...We do not think that our answer to Herr Hitler should be just rearmament. We are in an age of rearmaments, but we on this side cannot accept that position". Attlee played little part in the events that would lead up to the abdication of Edward VIII, as despite Baldwin's threat to step down if Edward attempted to remain on the throne after marrying Wallis Simpson, Labour were widely accepted not to be a viable alternative government due to the National Government's overwhelming majority in the Commons. Attlee, along with Liberal leader Archibald Sinclair, was eventually consulted with by Baldwin on 24 November 1936, and Attlee agreed with both Baldwin and Sinclair that Edward could not remain on the throne, firmly eliminating any prospect of any alternative government forming were Baldwin to resign.
In April 1936, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Neville Chamberlain, introduced a Budget which increased the amount spent on the armed forces. Attlee made a radio broadcast in opposition to it, saying: In June 1936, the Conservative MP Duff Cooper called for an Anglo-French alliance against possible German aggression and called for all parties to support one. Attlee condemned this: "We say that any suggestion of an alliance of this kind—an alliance in which one country is bound to another, right or wrong, by some overwhelming necessity—is contrary to the spirit of the League of Nations, is contrary to the Covenant, is contrary to Locarno is contrary to the obligations which this country has undertaken, and is contrary to the professed policy of this Government". At the Labour Party conference at Edinburgh in October Attlee reiterated that "There can be no question of our supporting the Government in its rearmament policy".
Relations further deteriorated when, in January 1948, the U.S. State Department also published a collection of documents titled Nazi–Soviet Relations, 1939–1941: Documents from the Archives of The German Foreign Office, which contained documents recovered from the Foreign Office of Nazi Germany revealing Soviet conversations with Germany regarding the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, including its secret protocol dividing eastern Europe, the 1939 German–Soviet Commercial Agreement, and discussions of the Soviet Union potentially becoming the fourth Axis Power. In response, one month later, the Soviet Union published Falsifiers of History, a Stalin edited and partially re-written book attacking the West. The book did not attempt to directly counter or deal with the documents published in Nazi-Soviet Relations and rather, focused upon Western culpability for the outbreak of war in 1939. It argues that "Western powers" aided Nazi rearmament and aggression, including that American bankers and industrialists provided capital for the growth of German war industries, while deliberately encouraging Hitler to expand eastward.
During the Ultramar War the Portuguese Air Force operated the F-84 Thunderjet, F-86 Sabre, and Fiat G.91 without much resistance from the guerrilla forces until the appearance of the Strela 2, in Guinea, in the early 1970s threatened the Portuguese air superiority. However, it had also become clear in the late-1960s that Portugal lacked a modern fighter capable of carrying out strikes with heavy payloads deep inside enemy territory. The fighters in service also lacked a self-defense capability when operating without escorts and were not able to counter the Soviet-made fighter aircraft that could potentially be supplied by communist states to the rebels and operated from the neighboring countries of Portugal's oversea territories. In 1968, a rearmament study by the Air Force perceived the need for a new fighter capable of reaching Mach 2 in horizontal flight and a rate of climb that allowed it to reach 40,000 ft in less than five minutes.
The study also gave preference to twin-engine aircraft and specified the armament capacity and the capability to operate in hot environments, in addition to being capable of flying directly from mainland Portugal to Sal, Cape Verde. The preferred contenders at the time were the Dassault Mirage III, Dassault Mirage 5, Northrop F-5A, and McDonnell-Douglas F-4C Phantom II. Nonetheless, it was only in 1971 that the Portuguese government gave priority to the procurement of new fighters and approved a new rearmament plan for the purchase of 64 fighters, 28 of which would be for the defense of mainland Portugal and 36 to be deployed overseas. This plan called for an initial order of 30 aircraft (27 single-seat and three twin-seat). At the time Portugal was under a United Nations arms embargo and the United States was against the Portuguese colonial war and Portugal's presence in Africa, having even previously put limitations on the use of Portuguese F-86F Sabre fighters in Africa.
102 Overy argued that there was a difference between economic pressures induced by the problems of the Four Year Plan and economic motives to seize raw materials, industry and foreign reserves of neighbouring states as a way of accelerating the Four Year Plan.Overy, Richard "Germany, 'Domestic Crisis' and War in 1939" from The Third Reich edited by Christian Leitz Blackwell: Oxford, 1999, pp. 117-118 Overy asserted that the repressive capacity of the German state as a way of dealing with domestic unhappiness was somewhat downplayed by Mason. Finally, Overy argued that there is considerable evidence that the German state felt they could master the economic problems of rearmament; as one civil servant put it in January 1940 "we have already mastered so many difficulties in the past, that here too, if one or other raw material became extremely scarce, ways and means will always yet be found to get out of a fix".
In August 1936, in response to a growing crisis in the German economy caused by the strains of rearmament, Hitler issued the "Four-Year Plan Memorandum" ordering Göring to carry out the Four Year Plan to have the German economy ready for war within the next four years.Overy, Richard “Misjudging Hitler” pages 93–115 from The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered edited by Gordon Martel Routledge: London, United Kingdom, 1999 pages 98–99. During the 1936 economic crisis, the German government was divided into two factions with one (the so-called "free market" faction) centering around the Reichsbank President Hjalmar Schacht and the Price Commissioner Dr. Carl Friedrich Goerdeler calling for decreased military spending and a turn away from autarkic policies, and another fraction around Göring calling for the opposite. Hitler hesitated for the first half of 1936 before siding with the more radical faction in his "Four Year Plan" memo of August.
He flew in the Junkers W 34 that had set the world altitude record at 12,739 metres on 26 May 1929.Kahn, p. 116. From this one-man restart of German strategic aerial reconnaissance,Barton Whaley, Covert German Rearmament, 1919–1939: Deception and Misperception, Foreign Intelligence Book Series, Frederick, Maryland: University Publications of America, 1984, , p. 43: "[When Conrad Patzig was appointed head of the Abwehr on 7 June 1932], its strategic aerial photoreconnaissance was still little more than Theodor Rowehl's one-man show." by 1934, Rowehl's operation had expanded to five aircraft and a small group of hand-picked pilots based at Kiel, and he had re-enlisted in the military as an officer.Godson and Wirtz, p. 64. After the signing of the German–Polish Non- Aggression Pact in 1934 the unit went underground as the Experimental Post for High-Altitude Flights, purportedly investigating weather,"Luftaufklärung", Der Spiegel, 18 May 1960 and moved to Berlin, flying out of the Staaken airfield.
Curtea Veche, 2004, . On October 22, 1934, the German Minister of Air, Marshal Hermann Göring, speaking on behalf of Adolf Hitler, presented to the Romanian Ambassador to Berlin, Nicolae Petrescu-Comnen, a German offer to Romania, respectively the full guarantee of borders, especially the border with the Soviet Union and the border with Hungary, while offering a complete rearmament of the army, demanding in return that Romania oppose with all its might any attempt to cross Soviet troops into the national territory. Nicolae Titulescu, who had already promised his French and Czechoslovak partners that they had already concluded mutual assistance treaties with the Soviet Union in the event of a European conflict, that he would also conclude a similar treaty, which would have allowed Soviet troops to pass through Romania to "support" France and Czechoslovakia against Germany, hides the government's Petrescu-Comnen report.Sturdza, Mihail - Romania și sfârșitul Europei, Amintiri din țara pierdută. România anilor 1917-1947, 499 p.
At that time, Europe had been moving towards disarmament and an international guarantee to defend the Straits. The Abyssinia Crisis of 1934–35, the denunciation by Germany of the Treaty of Versailles and international moves towards rearmament meant that "the only guarantee intended to guard against the total insecurity of the Straits has just disappeared in its turn." Indeed, Aras said, "the Powers most closely concerned are proclaiming the existence of a threat of general conflagration." The key weaknesses of the present regime were that the machinery for collective guarantees were too slow and ineffective, there was no contingency for a general threat of war and no provision for Turkey to defend itself. Turkey was therefore prepared The response to the note was generally favourable, and Australia, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Greece, Japan, Romania, the Soviet Union, Turkey, the United Kingdom and Yugoslavia agreed to attend negotiations at Montreux in Switzerland, which began on 22 June 1936.
American war crimes investigators question Irmgard Huber at the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre, May 1945 As Minister of Economics, Walther Funk accelerated the pace of rearmament and as Reichsbank president banked for the SS the gold rings of Buchenwald victims The images from the camps include shots of piles of skeletal corpses, naked skeletal survivors (often supported by fellow prisoners) together with footage of prosperous-looking German citizens being forced to observe their suffering. Some are also forced to carry the corpses to be buried, although most of this work was usually carried out by ex-camp guards (as at Belsen concentration camp). There are shots of mass graves, as well as of individual burials, as at Hadamar, now known to be a euthanasia or action T4 centre. Some of the footage appears to be of Soviet origin, and includes shots taken at Majdanek death camp which was one of the first camps to be liberated in 1944 by the Red Army.
Dutton, David, Neville Chamberlain, London: Arnold, 2001, p. 171 As both Chancellor of the Exchequer and Prime Minister, Chamberlain greatly expanded the RAF's budget. The importance of the RAF to Chamberlain can be seen by noting that its budget rose from £16.78 million in 1933 to £105.702 million in 1939, surpassing the British Army's budget in 1937 and the Royal Navy's in 1938.Levy, James, Appeasement & Rearmament, Rowman & Littlefield Inc: Lanham, 2006, p. 69 By the 1930s, a long economic, decline accelerated by the Great Slump, had led to the British economy contracting to such a point that there were simply not enough factories, machine tools, skilled workers and money to build up simultaneously a larger RAF, a Royal Navy of such size to fight two wars in two oceans at once and a British Army capable of fighting a major European power, which led to Chamberlain favouring the RAF at the expense of both the Royal Navy and, even more so, the British Army.
Conservative MP Iain Macleod's 1961 biography of Chamberlain was the first major biography of a revisionist school of thought on Chamberlain. The same year, A. J. P. Taylor, in his The Origins of the Second World War, found that Chamberlain had adequately rearmed Britain for defence (though a rearmament designed to defeat Germany would have taken massive additional resources) and described Munich as "a triumph for all that was best and most enlightened in British life ... [and] for those who had courageously denounced the harshness and short- sightedness of Versailles". The adoption of the "thirty-year rule" in 1967 made available many of the papers of the Chamberlain government over the subsequent three years, helping to explain why Chamberlain acted as he did. The resultant works greatly fuelled the revisionist school, although they also included books that strongly criticised Chamberlain, such as Keith Middlemas's 1972 Diplomacy of Illusion (which portrayed Chamberlain as a seasoned politician with strategic blindness when it came to Germany).
Winchester expert on rifles, discussing the finer points of the BAR at the Winchester plant The US entered World War I with an inadequate, small, and obsolete assortment of domestic and foreign machine gun designs, due primarily to bureaucratic indecision and the lack of an established military doctrine for their employment. When the 1917 United States declaration of war on Germany was announced on 6 April 1917, the high command was made aware that to fight this trench war, dominated by machine- guns, they had on hand a mere 670 M1909 Benét–Merciés, 282 M1904 Maxims and 158 Colt-Browning M1895s. After much debate, it was finally agreed that a rapid rearmament with domestic weapons would be required, but until that time, US troops would be issued whatever the French and British had to offer. The arms donated by the French were often second-rate or surplus and chambered in 8mm Lebel, further complicating logistics as machine gunners and infantrymen were issued different types of ammunition.
The two remained "friendly" rivals, although Canaris considered Heydrich a "brutal fanatic" and was likewise aware that Heydrich's SD constantly monitored the telephone traffic of the Abwehr. Heydrich was suspicious of Canaris and referred to him as a "wily old fox", cautioning his colleagues never to underestimate the man. Just a few weeks into his role as head of the Abwehr, he met with Heydrich and some of his officials to divide out intelligence operations between the Abwehr, Gestapo, and SD. It is clear from sources that at this point, Canaris was a true devotee to Hitler according to former Gestapo officer, Gerhard Fischer, who claimed that the Führer's gentlemanly relationship with Canaris converted the Admiral into "an extreme exponent of Hitlerism." Starting in May 1935, Canaris first donned the uniform of a rear admiral, a promotion which coincided with his responsibility for shielding Germany's burgeoning rearmament program from enemy counter- intelligence agents.
Hitler primarily viewed the German economy as an instrument of power and believed the economy was not about creating wealth and technical progress so as to improve the quality of life for a nation's citizenry, but rather that economic success was paramount for providing the means and material foundations necessary for military conquest.R.J. Overy, War and Economy in the Third Reich (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), pp. 1–30. While economic progress generated by National Socialist programs had its role in appeasing the German people, the Nazis and Hitler in particular did not believe that economic solutions alone were sufficient to thrust Germany onto the stage as a world power. The Nazis thus sought to secure a general economic revival accompanied by massive military spending for rearmament, especially later through the implementation of the Four Year Plan, which consolidated their rule and firmly secured a command relationship between the German arms industry and the National Socialist government.
The Vasilefs Georgios-class ships were ordered on 29 January 1937 as part of a naval rearmament plan that was intended to include one light cruiser and at least four destroyers, one pair of which were to be built in Britain and the other pair in Greece.Freivogel, p. 351 Vasilissa Olga was laid down at Yarrow & Company's shipyard in Scotstoun, Scotland, in February 1937, launched on 2 June 1938, and commissioned on 4 February 1939 without her armament, which was installed later in Greece. After the sank the elderly protected cruiser in a sneak attack on 15 August 1940 off the island of Tinos, Vasilissa Olga and her sister were sent to Tinos to escort the merchant ships there home. During the Greco-Italian War she escorted convoys and participated in raids against Italian lines of communication in the Strait of Otranto on the nights of 14/15 November 1940 and 4/5 January 1941 that failed to locate any ships.
Launch card for Eidsvold, printed in connection with her launch by Armstrong Whitworth at Newcastle on Tyne Eidsvold was built as part of the general rearmament in the time leading up to the political events in 1905, and remained, along with her sister ship Norge, the backbone of the Royal Norwegian Navy for just over 40 years. She was named after the town of Eidsvold, the site of the drafting and signing of the Norwegian Constitution on 17 May 1814. Considered to be quite powerful ships for their time, with two 21 cm (8.26 inch) guns as their main armament, they were soon outclassed by the new Dreadnought battleships. They were armoured to withstand battle with ships of a similar class to their own, with 6 inches (15.24 cm) of Krupp cemented armour in the belt and 9 inches (22.86 cm) of the same armour on her two turrets. Eidsvold and Norge were the largest vessels in the Royal Norwegian Navy at 4,233 tons gross and crews of up to 270 men.
While anchored at Woosung, China, near Shanghai, she parted her mooring cables during a storm on 17 April 1901 and drifted across the bows of the battleship HMS Glory. Glorys bow punched a hole in Centurions hull below the waterline, but the damage was not serious and was repaired at Hong Kong. Glory relieved Centurion as flagship on 10 June and Vice-Admiral Sir Cyprian Bridge relieved Seymour on the 26th.Seymour, p. 375 Centurion, with Seymour aboard, arrived at Portsmouth on 19 August, where she was welcomed by the local Commander-in-Chief and thousands of people lining the beach and pier. Admiral Seymour struck his flag on 21 August, and, after a month, Centurion paid off into reserve there on 19 September. The ship began a reconstruction at Portsmouth that month, including a partial rearmament, that lasted until on 3 November 1903 when she recommissioned for another period of service on the China Station. Centurion departed Portsmouth on 10 November and arrived at Hong Kong on 31 December 1903.
Rearmament and the founding of the Bundeswehr in 1955 brought with it a wave of war films which tended to depict the ordinary German soldiers of World War II as brave and apolitical. The Israeli historian Omer Bartov wrote that German films of the 1950s showed the average German soldier as a heroic victim: noble, tough, brave, honourable, and patriotic while fighting hard in a senseless war for a regime that he did not care for.Bartov, Omer "Celluloid Soldiers: Cinematic Images of the Wehrmacht" pages 130–143 from Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy edited by Ljubica & Mark Erickson, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2004 pages 134–135. The 08/15 film trilogy of 1954–55 concerns a sensitive young German soldier who would rather play the piano than fight, and who fights on the Eastern Front without understanding why; however, no mention is made of the genocidal aspects of Germany's war in East.Bartov, Omer "Celluloid Soldiers: Cinematic Images of the Wehrmacht" pages 130–143 from Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy edited by Ljubica & Mark Erickson, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2004 page 136.
On 9 May 1936, the Italian dictator, Benito Mussolini, proclaimed the colony of Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI, Italian East Africa), formed from Ethiopia (after the Italian victory in the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, fought 3 October 1935 – May 1936) and the existing Italian possessions of Italian Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. On 10 June 1940, Mussolini declared war on Britain and France, which made Italian military forces in Libya a threat to Egypt and those in Italian East Africa a danger to the British and French colonies in East Africa. Italian belligerence also closed the Mediterranean to Allied merchant ships and endangered British supply routes along the coast of East Africa, the Gulf of Aden, Red Sea and the Suez Canal. Egypt, the Suez Canal, French Somaliland and British Somaliland were also vulnerable to an attack from Italian East Africa but the rearmament plans of the Comando Supremo (Italian General Staff) were not due to mature until 1942; in 1940 the Italian armed forces were not ready for military operations against a comparable power.
In the Munich Agreement of 1938, Britain and France adopted a policy of appeasement as they gave Hitler what he wanted out of Czechoslovakia in the hope that it would bring peace. It did not. In 1939 Germany took over the rest of Czechoslovakia and appeasement policies gave way to hurried rearmament as Hitler next turned his attention to Poland. Starving Jewish children in Warsaw Ghetto (1940–1943). The fight against German Nazis during the Warsaw Uprising in 1944. meet in April 1945, east of the Elbe River. After allying with Japan in the Anti-Comintern Pact and then also with Benito Mussolini's Italy in the "Pact of Steel", and finally signing a non-aggression treaty with the Soviet Union in August 1939, Hitler launched the Second World War on 1 September 1939 by attacking Poland. To his surprise Britain and France declared war on Germany, but there was little fighting during the "Phoney War" period. War began in earnest in spring 1940 with the successful Blitzkrieg conquests of Denmark, Norway, the Low Countries, and France.
The description of Rommel as a brilliant commander started in 1941, with Rommel's participation, as a component of Nazi propaganda to praise the Wehrmacht and instill optimism in the German public. It was picked up and disseminated in the West by the British war-time press as the Allies sought to explain their continued inability to defeat the Axis forces in North Africa: The genius of Rommel was used by dissenters to protest against social inequality within the British army and by leaders like Churchill to reduce class tensions. Following the war, the Western Allies, and particularly the British, depicted Rommel as the "good German" and "our friend Rommel", adhering closely to the tenets of the myth of the clean Wehrmacht. His reputation for conducting a clean war was used in the interests of West German rearmament during the Cold War and the reconciliation between the former enemies—the United Kingdom and the United States on one side, and the new Federal Republic of Germany on the other.
Though most Americans favoured Britain in the war, there was widespread opposition to American military intervention in European affairs. President Roosevelt's policy of cash-and-carry still allowed Britain and France to purchase munitions from the United States and carry them home. Roosevelt and Churchill drafted the Atlantic Charter in August 1941 Churchill, who had long warned against Germany and demanded rearmament, became prime minister after Chamberlain's policy of appeasement had totally collapsed and Britain was unable to reverse the German invasion of Norway in April 1940. After the fall of France Roosevelt gave Britain all aid short of war. The Destroyers for Bases Agreement of September 1940, gave the United States a ninety-nine-year lease on strategically located bases in the Atlantic in exchange for the Royal Navy receiving fifty old destroyers to use in anti- submarine warfare. Roosevelt also sold (for cash) munitions that were carried away in British ships, including over half a million rifles, 85,000 machine guns, 25,000 automatic rifles, mortars, hundreds of field guns, with supplies of the necessary ammunition.
At a meeting with Sir William Strang, Massigli was able to get assurances that Britain was opposed to German rearmament, but Strang also stated that the Americans did not feel the same way on the "German question" and he was not certain that Britain were willing to risk a major clash with the Americans over the issue for the sake of France. Much of Massigli's annoyance fell on the politicians in Paris, and he complained that they were repeating the same mistakes of the 1920s towards Germany, alternating between the "soft" policies of Aristide Briand and the "hard" policies of Raymond Poincaré, without getting the advantage of either. Massigli argued that the British would take the French much more seriously if only France pursued a consistent policy towards Germany. In May 1950, a decisive moment in European history occurred when Jean Monnet, director of the Commissariat du Plan that oversaw France's economic recovery from the damages of World War II proposed a High Authority that would oversee a union of the coal and steel industries of France and West Germany.
The "continental commitment" was the opposite of the "limited liability" defense policy that formed the basis of British rearmament until 1939. Under the "limited liability" doctrine, the majority of the defense budget went to the Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy while the British Army was to be kept so small as to rule out the "continental commitment" ever made again. Under the "limited liability" doctrine, the British Army was to be an all-volunteer force intended to mostly serve as a colonial police force that would be strong enough to allow Britain to defend the colonies in the British empire, but not to fight a major war with a nation like Germany. The first major crisis in Anglo-French relations occurred in June 1934 when the French foreign minister Louis Barthou attempted to create an "Eastern Locarno", a counterpart to the Locarno treaties of 1925-26 guaranteeing the borders of Western Europe for Eastern Europe which was intended to deter Adolf Hitler from aggression in Eastern Europe.
Researcher Richard Toye writes that "Labour's official position, however, although based on the aspiration towards a world socialist commonwealth and the outlawing of war, did not imply a renunciation of force under all circumstances, but rather support for the ill-defined concept of 'collective security' under the League of Nations. At the same time, on the party's left, Stafford Cripps's small but vocal Socialist League opposed the official policy, on the non-pacifist ground that the League of Nations was 'nothing but the tool of the satiated imperialist powers'." Lansbury was eventually persuaded to resign as Labour leader by the non-pacifist wing of the party and was replaced by Clement Attlee.Rhiannon Vickers, Labour and the World, Manchester University Press, 2004 As the threat from Nazi Germany increased in the 1930s, the Labour Party abandoned its pacifist position and supported rearmament, largely as the result of the efforts of Ernest Bevin and Hugh Dalton, who by 1937 had also persuaded the party to oppose Neville Chamberlain's policy of appeasement.
Churchill also recorded visits to Chartwell by two more of his most important suppliers of confidential governmental information, Desmond Morton and Ralph Wigram, information which he used to "form and fortify my opinion about the Hitler Movement". Their sharing of data on German rearmament was at some risk to their careers; the military historian Richard Holmes is clear that Morton's actions breached the Official Secrets Act. Chartwell was also the scene of more direct attempts to prepare Britain for the coming conflict; in October 1939, when reappointed First Lord of the Admiralty on the outbreak of war, Churchill suggested an improvement for anti-aircraft shells; "Such shells could be filled with zinc ethyl which catches fire spontaneously ... A fraction of an ounce was demonstrated at Chartwell last summer". In 1938, Churchill, beset by financial concerns, again considered selling Chartwell, at which time the house was advertised as containing five reception rooms, nineteen bed and dressing rooms, eight bathrooms, set in eighty acres with three cottages on the estate and a heated and floodlit swimming pool.
The quashing of the SA's revolutionary fervor convinced many businessmen and military leaders that the Nazis had put aside their insurrectionist past, and that Hitler could be a reliable partner After the Nazis' "Seizure of Power" in 1933, Röhm and the Brown Shirts were not content for the party to simply carry the reins of power. Instead, they pressed for a continuation of the "National Socialist revolution" to bring about sweeping social changes, which Hitler, primarily for tactical reasons, was not willing to do at that time. He was instead focused on rebuilding the military and reorienting the economy to provide the rearmament necessary for invasion of the countries to the east of Germany, especially Poland and Russia, to get the Lebensraum ("living space") he believed was necessary to the survival of the Aryan race. For this, he needed the co-operation of not only the military, but also the vital organs of capitalism, the banks and big businesses, which he would be unlikely to get if Germany's social and economic structure was being radically overhauled.
Officially, the U.S. congratulated the Soviet Union on its accomplishments. Writing for The New York Times shortly after the flight, however, journalist Arthur Krock described mixed feelings in the United States due to fears of the spaceflight's potential military implications for the Cold War,Arthur Krock, "In The Nation; Concentration of Science on Outer Space," The New York Times p. 28, April 14, 1961. "But because of the distrust that now exists among the great nations, and has plunged them into huge programs of deadly rearmament, an achievement by one which carries a clear and direct potential of military supremacy engenders fear of its use.... And so it has become as impossible for either of the groups divided by the Cold War to welcome unreservedly such feats as Major Gagarin's in the opposite camp." and the Detroit Free Press wrote that "the people of Washington, London, Paris and all points between might have been dancing in the streets" if it were not for "doubts and suspicions" about Soviet intentions.
International relations (1919–1939) covers the main interactions shaping world history in this era, with emphasis on diplomacy and economic relations. The coverage here follows Diplomatic history of World War I and precedes Diplomatic history of World War II. The important stages of interwar diplomacy and international relations included resolutions of wartime issues, such as reparations owed by Germany and boundaries; American involvement in European finances and disarmament projects; the expectations and failures of the League of Nations; the relationships of the new countries to the old; the distrustful relations of the Soviet Union to the capitalist world; peace and disarmament efforts; responses to the Great Depression starting in 1929; the collapse of world trade; the collapse of democratic regimes one by one; the growth of economic autarky; Japanese aggressiveness toward China; Fascist diplomacy, including the aggressive moves by Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany; the Spanish Civil War; the appeasement of Germany's expansionist moves toward the Rhineland, Austria, and Czechoslovakia, and the last, desperate stages of rearmament as another world war increasingly loomed.Norman Rich, Great Power Diplomacy since 1914 (2003) pp 70-248.
Gladstone opposed increasing public expenditure on the naval estimates, in the tradition of free trade liberalism of his earlier political career as Chancellor. All his Cabinet colleagues believed in some expansion of the navy. He declared in the Commons on 19 December that naval rearmament would commit the government to expenditure over a number of years and would subvert "the principle of annual account, annual proposition, annual approval by the House of Commons, which...is the only way of maintaining regularity, and that regularity is the only talisman which will secure Parliamentary control".David Brooks, "Gladstone's Fourth Administration, 1892–1894", in David Bebbington and Roger Swift (eds.), Gladstone Centenary Essays (Liverpool University Press, 2000), p. 239. In January 1894, Gladstone wrote that he would not "break to pieces the continuous action of my political life, nor trample on the tradition received from every colleague who has ever been my teacher" by supporting naval rearmament.Anthony Howe, 'Gladstone and Cobden', in David Bebbington and Roger Swift (eds.), Gladstone Centenary Essays (Liverpool University Press, 2000), p. 115.
King Michael – Car Driver, Mechanic, Professional Pilot, Humanitas publishing house, Bucharest, 1996 especially military jeeps."King Michael of Rumania driving down steps leading out of Sinaia palace," Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images, 1 April 1946"King Michael of Rumania driving down steps leading out of Sinaia palace," Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images, 1 April 1946 He was also interested in aircraft having worked as a test pilot during exile. Shortly after the Second World War, he became interested in Moral Rearmament, which was introduced to him by his first cousin Prince Richard of Hesse-Cassel, and as Swiss residents after 1956 he and Queen Anne paid numerous visits to the MRA conference centre of Caux, where he found solace for the loss of his country and his émigré status as well as new hope for future reconciliation.See for instance in the film "Crossroad, the story of Frank Buchman" (1974), towards the end (1:07 to 1:08), King Michael's speech describing his relation to Frank Buchman MRA historical films, last access on 7 December 2017.
Martin Kitchen, A History of Modern Germany 1800–2000, Maden, MA, Blackwell Publishing, 2006, p. 284 Meanwhile, Schacht's administration achieved a rapid decline in the unemployment rate, the largest of any country during the Great Depression. By 1938, unemployment was practically extinct. The main economic priority of the Nazi government, which set it apart from previous German governments, was to rearm and rebuild Germany’s military in preparation for an eventual war to conquer Lebensraum ("living space") in the East. Thus, at the beginning of his rule, Hitler said that “the future of Germany depends exclusively and only on the reconstruction of the Wehrmacht. All other tasks must cede precedence to the task of rearmament” and “in case of conflict between the demands of the Wehrmacht and demands for other purposes, the interests of the Wehrmacht must in every case have priority.” This policy was implemented immediately, with military expenditures quickly growing far larger than the civilian work- creation programs. As early as June 1933, military spending for the year was budgeted to be three times larger than the spending on all civilian work- creation measures in 1932 and 1933 combined.
The Keynote label had debuted with the famous collection of Spanish Civil War songs, Six Songs for Democracy by Ernst Busch and chorus (1940). In addition to issuing records by Josh White and the Almanacs, Keynote drew on Cafe Society bands for a series of small group sessions, "nearly a third of which," Whitney Balliett has argued, "are among the best of all jazz recordings"; see Michael Denning, The Cultural Front (London: Verso, 1997), p. 338. Perhaps because of its controversial content, Songs for John Doe came out under the imprint "Almanac Records", and Bernay insisted that the performers themselves (in this case Pete Seeger, Millard Lampell, Josh White, and Sam Gary, an interracial group) pay for the costs of production. Songs for John Doe attacked big American corporations (such as J.P. Morgan and DuPont), repeating the Party's line that they had supported German rearmament, and during the period of re-armament in 1941, were now vying for government contracts to build up the defenses of the U.S. Besides being anti-union, these corporations were a focus of progressive and black activist anger because they barred blacks from employment in defense work.
When the bombers moved out, for about a year it was used by the Luftwaffe as a rest and rearmament airfield, with units from combat areas being withdrawn and stationed at Orly briefly until being redeployed. However, as part of the "Defense of the Reich" campaign by the Luftwaffe to defend against Allied bomber attacks, Orly in 1942 became a combat interceptor field, with Zerstörerschule 2 (ZG 2), flying Messerschmitt Bf 110 heavy twin-engine day interceptor aircraft. Beginning in early 1944, Kampfgeschwader 6 (KG 6) and Kampfgeschwader 30 (KG 30) operated Junkers Ju 88As from Orly as part of Operation Steinbock, a late war German operation carried out by the Luftwaffe between January and May 1944 against targets in southern England, mainly in and around the London area during the night. The offensive marked the Luftwaffe's last large-scale bombing operation against England, and afterward only the V1 cruise missiles and V2 ballistic rockets were used for hitting the British Isles. The American Eighth Air Force carried out three heavy bombing raids against Orly in May and June 1944 (Missions 359, 367 and 442).
Mobile radio station of the Mobiler Landfunkdienst on a signal vehicle (HF long-haul communications) (Funkenwagen (HF-Weitverkehr)) on exercise in summer 1935 During the rearming of the Wehrmacht the first top secret rearmament measures were carried out in spring 1933. These measures included the formation of new units and the establishment of a second signal company in existing units, the recruiting of officer cadets resulting in an eightfold increase over that on 1 April 1933, the reinforcing of the officer and NCO cadre by former signals soldiers, and their training through various courses.Hans-Georg Kampe: Das militärische Fernmeldewesen in Deutschland, retrieved 20 May 2012 From 1934, from the old signal units the required cadre of officers and soldiers was drawn for the establishment of new formations, the divisions of the Wehrmacht each receiving a signal unit. Meanwhile, the Signal Corps steadily expanded its field of expertise; they now had light, medium and heavy telephone troops, telephone exchange and telephone operating troops, telegraph construction troops, light and heavy radio troops, miniature radio troops, two-way radio troops, radio surveillance troops, patrol radio troops, cypher and evaluation troops and battery charging troops.
It was redesignated the Ship Repair Facility. As the major naval ship repair facility in the Far East, the Yokosuka Facility assumed a vital role in maintenance and repair of the U.S. Seventh Fleet during both the Korean War and Vietnam War. In March 1952, the geographical boundaries of Naval Forces Far East were changed to exclude the Philippines, Marianas, Bonin and Volcano Islands. In December 1952, the headquarters were shifted from Tokyo to Yokosuka. The expanded Supply Department of Fleet Activities became Naval Supply Depot, Yokosuka in August 1952. In 1960, the Naval Communications Facility was redesignated U.S. Naval Communications Station, Japan. In 1952, occupation ended and rearmament commenced, with its naval forces formally organized as Japan Maritime Self Defense Force by 1954. Some parts of the former Yokosuka Naval District were ceded back to house a new base for JMSDF. On 5 October 1973, , with Carrier Air Wing Five and her accompanying task group, put into Yokosuka, marking the first forward deployment of a complete carrier task group in a Japanese port. This was the result of an accord reached on 31 August 1972 between the U.S. and Japan.
William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011), p. 260. At the beginning of his rule, Hitler said that "the future of Germany depends exclusively and only on the reconstruction of the Wehrmacht. All other tasks must cede precedence to the task of rearmament." This policy was implemented immediately, with military expenditures quickly growing far larger than the civilian work-creation programs. As early as June 1933, military spending for the year was budgeted to be three times larger than the spending on all civilian work-creation measures in 1932 and 1933 combined. Nazi Germany increased its military spending faster than any other state in peacetime, with the share of military spending rising from 1 percent to 10 percent of national income in the first two years of the regime alone. Eventually, it reached as high as 75 percent by 1944.Evans, Richard J., The Third Reich at War (New York: Penguin, 2008), p. 333. In spite of their rhetoric condemning big business prior to their rise to power, the Nazis quickly entered into a partnership with German business from as early as February 1933.
Increasingly, the British came to favor the idea of "limited liability", under which if the "continental commitment" were to be made, Britain should only send the smallest-possible expeditionary force to Europe and to reserve its main efforts towards the war in the air and on the sea.Bond, pp. 200–201. Britain's refusal to make the "continental commitment" on the same scale as World War I caused tensions with the French, who believed that it would be impossible to defeat Germany without another large-scale "continental commitment" and deeply disliked the idea that they should do the bulk of the fighting on their land. In 1934, French Foreign Minister Louis Barthou decided to end to any potential German aggression by building a network of alliances intended to encircle Germany, and he made overtures to the Soviet Union and Italy. Until 1933, the Soviet Union had supported German efforts to challenge the Versailles system, but the strident anticcommunism of the German regime and its claim for Lebensraum led the Soviets change positions on the question of maintaining the Versailles system. In September 1933, the Soviet Union ended its secret support for German rearmament, which had started in 1921.
The Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance was a bilateral treaty between France and the Soviet Union with the aim of enveloping Nazi Germany in 1935 in order to reduce the threat from central Europe. It was pursued by Maxim Litvinov, the Soviet foreign minister, and Louis Barthou, the French foreign minister, who was assassinated in October 1934, before negotiations were finished. His successor, Pierre Laval, was skeptical of both the desirability and the value of an alliance with the Soviet Union. However, after the declaration of German rearmament in March 1935 the French government forced the reluctant foreign minister to complete the arrangements with Moscow that Barthou had begun. The pact was concluded in Paris on May 2, 1935 and ratified by the French government in February 1936. Ratifications were exchanged in Moscow on March 27, 1936, and the pact went into effect on the same day. It was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on April 18, 1936.League of Nations Treaty Series, vol. 167, pp. 396-406. On May 16, 1935 the Czechoslovak–Soviet Treaty of Alliance was signed between the two states as the consequence of Soviet treaty with France (which was Czechoslovakia's main ally).
In a speech about defense policy, Chamberlain stated: "We shall never again sent to the Continent an army on the scale of that which we put into the field of the Great War" The War Minister, Leslie Hore-Belisha, agreed, telling the House of Commons: "Our Army should be organised to defend this country and the empire...to organise it with a military prepossession in favor of a continental commitment is wrong". On 21 March 1938, the Foreign Minister, Joseph Paul-Boncour, instructed Corbin to seek to "interest" the British in Eastern Europe, especially in the states of the Cordon sanitaire, namely Czechoslovakia, Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia. On 23 March 1938, Paul- Boncour stated in his instructions for Corbin that the French had intelligence that German rearmament had not reached a point when the Reich could fight a long war and that if France were to mobilize with full British support that would force the Wehrmacht to concentrate its strength along the West Wall, thereby making any German aggression in Eastern Europe impossible. Paul- Boncour concluded that France did not want a war with Germany, but that a strategy of deterrence instead of appeasement would be the best way of achieving that.
Once the French forces left the Rhineland in 1930, this form of leverage with the Rhineland as collateral was no longer available to Paris, which from then on had to depend on Berlin's word that it would continue to abide by the terms of the Versailles and Locarno treaties, which stated that the Rhineland was to stay demilitarised forever. Given that Germany had engaged in covert rearmament with the co-operation of the Soviet Union starting in 1921 (a fact that had become public knowledge in 1926) and that every German government had gone out of its way to insist on the moral invalidity of Versailles, claiming it was based upon the so-called Kriegsschuldlüge ("War guilt lie") that Germany started the war in 1914, the French had little faith that the Germans would willingly allow the Rhineland's demilitarised status to continue forever, and believed that at some time in the future Germany would rearm in violation of Versailles, reintroduce conscription and remilitarise the Rhineland. The decision to build the Maginot Line in 1929 was a tacit French admission that without the Rhineland as collateral Germany was soon going to rearm, and that the terms of Part V had a limited lifespan.

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