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"mismeasure" Definitions
  1. to measure (something) badly or incorrectly : to make a mistake in measuring

52 Sentences With "mismeasure"

How to use mismeasure in a sentence? Find typical usage patterns (collocations)/phrases/context for "mismeasure" and check conjugation/comparative form for "mismeasure". Mastering all the usages of "mismeasure" from sentence examples published by news publications.

And so, when we say that the income of the middle class hasn't gone up, there's two problems with that: No. 2100, we always adjust those figures for inflation, but if we mismeasure inflation then we mismeasure income.
I can't tell you what a relief it would be to realize that Gould's book, The Mismeasure of Man, was right on the money.
There's actually evidence that Steven J. Gould, when he wrote The Mismeasure of Man, was consciously lying and was a true bad actor here and actually faked data.
In the courts there is a case in which the defendant, a fisherman, claims his cloth measuring tape constricted in the cold, causing him to mismeasure his halibut.
"Codependence was a fad that caught fire and hasn't burned out," says Carol Tavris, a psychologist and author of The Mismeasure of Women, who critiqued the concept in her book.
THEY ARE BIG ARGUMENTS ABOUT WHETHER WE MISMEASURE IT AND SO FORTH, BUT WE'RE LOOKING RECENTLY RATES OF PRODUCTIVITY GROWTH OF 1% A LITTLE BIT HIGHER, AND SOMETIMES LESS FOR A FEW YEARS.
Like "The Mismeasure of Man," it illustrates how conscientious scholars were completely wrong about virtually every aspect of a topic they studied — here, pre-Columbian American life — because they operated under false preconceptions.
"The Mismeasure of Man," Stephen Jay Gould A wonderful book on the flawed history of intelligence testing, which is fascinating in and of itself, but the story it tells speaks more broadly to how scholars can labor under the shadow of false ideas.
The majority of reviews of The Mismeasure of Man were positive, as Gould notes.Gould, S. J. (1996). The Mismeasure of Man: Revised edition. New York: W. W. Norton & Co. pp. 44-5.
The Mismeasure of Man is a 1981 book by paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould.
Gould was one of the judges.. In December 2006, Discover magazine ranked The Mismeasure of Man as the 17th-greatest science book of all time.Discover Editors (2006). "25 Greatest Science Books of All Time". Discover 27 (Dec. 8).
Next, he takes a distressingly small Caucasian skull, > shakes hard, and pushes mightily at the foramen magnum with his thumb. It is > easily done, without conscious motivation; expectation is a powerful guide > to action.Gould, SJ (1981). Mismeasure of Man.
In a review of The Mismeasure of Man, Bernard Davis, professor of microbiology at Harvard Medical School, said that Gould erected a straw man argument based upon incorrectly defined key terms—specifically reification—which Gould furthered with a "highly selective" presentation of statistical data, all motivated more by politics than by science. That Philip Morrison’s laudatory book review of The Mismeasure of Man in Scientific American was written and published because the editors of the journal had "long seen the study of the genetics of intelligence as a threat to social justice". Davis also criticized the popular-press and the literary-journal book reviews of The Mismeasure of Man as generally approbatory; whereas, most scientific-journal book reviews were generally critical. Nonetheless, in 1994, Gould contradicted Davis by arguing that of twenty-four academic book reviews written by experts in psychology, fourteen approved, three were mixed opinions, and seven disapproved of the book.
The Mismeasure of Desire was first published by Oxford University Press in 1999. The book was published as an Oxford University Press Paperback in 2001. The book is part of the "Ideologies of Desire" series edited by queer theorist David M. Halperin.
Reviewing the book, Stephen F. Blinkhorn, a senior lecturer in psychology at the University of Hertfordshire, wrote that The Mismeasure of Man was "a masterpiece of propaganda" that selectively juxtaposed data to further a political agenda.Blinkhorn, Steve (1982). "What Skulduggery?"] Nature 296 (April 8): 506.
Gould, S. J. (1981). The Mismeasure of Man. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. The book is both a history and critique of the statistical methods and cultural motivations underlying biological determinism, the belief that “the social and economic differences between human groups—primarily races, classes, and sexes—arise from inherited, inborn distinctions and that society, in this sense, is an accurate reflection of biology”.Gould, S. J. (1981). The Mismeasure of Man, p. 20; 1996, p. 52. Gould argues that the primary assumption underlying biological determinism is that, “worth can be assigned to individuals and groups by measuring intelligence as a single quantity”.
Mead, Margaret, "The Methodology of Racial Testing: Its Significance for Sociology" American Journal of Sociology 31, no. 5 (March 1926): 657–667.Gould, Stephen J. The Mismeasure of Man, New York City: W. W. Norton & Company, 1981. In 1929 Mead and Fortune visited Manus, now the northernmost province of Papua New Guinea, travelling there by boat from Rabaul.
Gould, S.J. (1996). The mismeasure of man. W.W. Norton and Company, N.Y. Doug Jones argued that human evolution's trend toward neoteny may have been caused by sexual selection in human evolution for neotenous facial traits in women by men with the resulting neoteny in male faces being a "by-product" of sexual selection for neotenous female faces.
98–99 Other scholars, such as Stephen Macedo and Michael J. Perry, have also criticised Finnis's views.Stein, Edward, The Mismeasure of Desire: The Science, Theory, and Ethics of Sexual Orientation. Oxford University Press, 1999. p. 356 He has supervised several PhD students including Neil Gorsuch, Justice Susan Kenny of the Federal Court of Australia, and Robert P. George.
Gould, S. J. (1981). The Mismeasure of Man, p. 24. 1996, p. 56. Examples of reification include the intelligence quotient (IQ) and the general intelligence factor (g factor), which have been the cornerstones of much research into human intelligence. The second fallacy is that of “ranking”, which is the “propensity for ordering complex variation as a gradual ascending scale”.
In his review of The Mismeasure of Man, Arthur Jensen, a University of California (Berkeley) educational psychologist whom Gould much criticized in the book, wrote that Gould used straw man arguments to advance his opinions, misrepresented other scientists, and propounded a political agenda. According to Jensen, the book was "a patent example" of the bias that political ideology imposes upon science—the very thing that Gould sought to portray in the book. Jensen also criticized Gould for concentrating on long-disproven arguments (noting that 71% of the book's references preceded 1950), rather than addressing "anything currently regarded as important by scientists in the relevant fields", suggesting that drawing conclusions from early human intelligence research is like condemning the contemporary automobile industry based upon the mechanical performance of the Ford Model T. Charles Murray, co- author of The Bell Curve (1994), said that his views about the distribution of human intelligence, among the races and the ethnic groups who compose the U.S. population, were misrepresented in The Mismeasure of Man. Psychologist Hans Eysenck wrote that The Mismeasure of Man is a book that presents "a paleontologist's distorted view of what psychologists think, untutored in even the most elementary facts of the science".
The Mismeasure of Man won the National Book Critics Circle award. Gould’s findings about how 19th-century researcher Samuel George Morton measured skull volumes came under criticism, and even Gould’s defenders found reasons to criticize his work on this topic. In 1996, a second edition was released. It included two additional chapters critiquing Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray's book The Bell Curve (1994).
The Mismeasure of Desire: The Science, Theory, and Ethics of Sexual Orientation is a 1999 book by the philosopher Edward Stein, in which the author critically evaluates scientific research on sexual orientation, discusses "social constructionist" and "essentialist" views of the subject and related ethical issues, and responds to criticism of social constructionism. Part of the "Ideologies of Desire" series edited by the queer theorist David M. Halperin, the book was published by Oxford University Press. The book received positive reviews and was praised by philosophers and other commentators, who described it as an important and well-researched work and credited Stein with carefully examining the assumptions underlying scientific research on sexual orientation and refuting the idea that biological research on sexual orientation should be used to support arguments for gay rights. However, reviewers disagreed over Stein's style of writing, some finding The Mismeasure of Desire well-written and others poorly written.
Stephen Jay Gould (; 1941 – 2002) was one of the most influential and widely read authors of popular science of his generation. He was known by the general public mainly for his 300 popular essays in Natural History magazine, As in The Mismeasure of Man, Gould criticized biological theories of human behavior in “Against Sociobiology” (1975)Allen, Elizabeth, et al. (1975). "Against 'Sociobiology'". [letter] New York Review of Books 22 (Nov.
The first edition of The Mismeasure of Man won the non-fiction award from the National Book Critics Circle; the Outstanding Book Award for 1983 from the American Educational Research Association; the Italian translation was awarded the Iglesias prize in 1991; and in 1998, the Modern Library ranked it as the 24th-best English-language non-fiction book of the 20th century.American Library (1998). 100 "Best Nonfiction". July 20.
By this she meant that environment (i.e., family structure, socioeconomic status, exposure to language) has too much influence on an individual to attribute inferior scores solely to a physical characteristic such as race. Lastly, Mead adds that language barriers sometimes create the biggest problem of all. Similarly, Stephen J. Gould finds three main problems with intelligence testing, in his 1981 book The Mismeasure of Man, that relate to Mead's view of the problem of determining whether there are indeed racial differences in intelligence.
Bronski called The Mismeasure of Desire "a smart book that raises skepticism to a fine art", "groundbreaking", and "meticulously researched and argued". He credited Stein with discrediting gay politics based on genetic theories of sexual orientation and showing the harmful consequences of arguing that sexual orientation is innate. However, according to Bronski, LeVay expressed disagreement with many of Stein's conclusions. Cohler considered the book "important for any scholar interested in a detailed review of the assumptions, methods, and findings emerging from the biological study of homosexuality".
While there he studied with John Pål Inderberg and took composition lessons with Terje Bjørklund, Odd Johan Overøye and Henning Sommerro. He currently runs Satu, an independent record label for jazz and improvised music which has released two records so far: The Mismeasure of Man by Fear of Faces, and San'an by Daniel Rorke. In 2011, he toured Norway with the Australian pianist Alister Spence and his trio of Canadian bass player Joe Williamson and the Swedish percussionist Christopher Cantillo. Daniel now lives in Iceland.
Perhaps the most famous critique of the construct of g is that of the paleontologist and biologist Stephen Jay Gould, presented in his 1981 book The Mismeasure of Man. He argued that psychometricians have fallaciously reified the g factor as a physical thing in the brain, even though it is simply the product of statistical calculations (i.e., factor analysis). He further noted that it is possible to produce factor solutions of cognitive test data that do not contain a g factor yet explain the same amount of information as solutions that yield a g.
Psychologist Lloyd Humphreys, then editor-in-chief of The American Journal of Psychology and Psychological Bulletin, wrote that The Mismeasure of Man was "science fiction" and "political propaganda", and that Gould had misrepresented the views of Alfred Binet, Godfrey Thomson, and Lewis Terman. In his review, psychologist Franz Samelson wrote that Gould was wrong in asserting that the psychometric results of the intelligence tests administered to soldier-recruits by the U.S. Army contributed to the legislation of the Immigration Restriction Act of 1924.Samelson, F. (1982). "Intelligence and Some of its Testers".
This species of darter, like many others, inhabits high-gradient streams with moderate to torrential current over rubble and boulders, deeper downstream portions of gravel riffles in streams of moderate gradient, and sometimes shallow pools with gravel or rock bottoms. Being very habitat specific, it is necessary for humans to have as little influence on the streams that this species inhabits. Human activities, particularly habitat destruction and species introductions, are resulting in increased homogenization of once unique biogeographic regions.Scott, Mark C. & Helfman, Gene S. “Native Invasions, Homogenization, and the Mismeasure of the Integrity of Fish Assemblages.” Fisheries (2001): 26:11.
Gould cited Leon Kamin's study which argued that Cyril Burt (above) fabricated data. The Mismeasure of Man presents a historical evaluation of the concepts of the intelligence quotient (IQ) and of the general intelligence factor (g factor), which were and are the measures for intelligence used by psychologists. Gould proposed that most psychological studies have been heavily biased, by the belief that the human behavior of a race of people is best explained by genetic heredity. He cites the Burt Affair, about the oft-cited twin studies, by Cyril Burt (1883–1971), wherein Burt claimed that human intelligence is highly heritable.
Popular science is a bridge between scientific literature as a professional medium of scientific research, and the realms of popular political and cultural discourse. The goal of the genre is often to capture the methods and accuracy of science, while making the language more accessible. Many science-related controversies are discussed in popular science books and publications, such as the long-running debates over biological determinism and the biological components of intelligence, stirred by popular books such as The Mismeasure of Man and The Bell Curve.Murdz William McRae, "Introduction: Science in Culture" in The Literature of Science, pp.
The Mismeasure of Desire has been praised by authors such as the anthropologist Roger Lancaster and the philosopher John Corvino. Lancaster described the book as a "methodical, meticulous, and highly readable critique of scientific research on sexual orientation". He added that while Stein covers many of the problems of the research of LeVay, Hamer, Bailey, and Pillard, his "important and cautionary text was given less attention than it deserved in the gay press, and it was hardly noticed at all in the mainstream media". Corvino gave the work a positive review in The Philosophical Quarterly, and, in 2013, described it as a "dated but still excellent" book on sexual orientation research.
In 1996 the American Psychological Association's Board of Scientific Affairs stated that IQ tests were not discriminatory towards any ethnic/racial groups. In his book The Mismeasure of Man, Stephen Jay Gould argued that intelligence testing results played a major role in the passage of the Immigration Act of 1924 that restricted immigration to the United States. However, Mark Snyderman and Richard J. Herrnstein, after studying the Congressional Record and committee hearings related to the Immigration Act, concluded "the [intelligence] testing community did not generally view its findings as favoring restrictive immigration policies like those in the 1924 Act, and Congress took virtually no notice of intelligence testing". Juan N. Franco contested the findings of Snyderman and Herrnstein.
Rose notes how sociologists and anthropologists have many new developments that involve study of the natural sciences and technology. Furthermore, Rose suggests that Tooby and Cosmides' characterization of scientists like Gould, Lewontin, Steven Rose and Leon Kamin as SSSM adherents is based on an inaccurate reading of works like The Mismeasure of Man and Not in Our Genes, two books that have explored the interplay between biology and the environment. Simon Hampton (2004) contends that evolutionary psychologists' account of the SSSM misses the debate on the existence of psychological instincts in the early part of the 20th century. He argues: > psychological and behavioural thinkers have for long periods been immersed > in the implications of Darwinism.
The "species" of man: "a Negro head . . . a Caucasian skull . . . a Mongol head", by S. G. Morton (1839) The Mismeasure of Man is a critical analysis of the early works of scientific racism which promoted "the theory of unitary, innate, linearly rankable intelligence"—such as craniometry, the measurement of skull volume and its relation to intellectual faculties. Gould alleged that much of the research was based largely on racial and social prejudices of the researchers rather than their scientific objectivity; that on occasion, researchers such as Samuel George Morton (1799–1851), Louis Agassiz (1807–1873), and Paul Broca (1824–1880), committed the methodological fallacy of allowing their personal a priori expectations to influence their conclusions and analytical reasoning.
The revised and expanded second edition (1996) includes two additional chapters, which critique Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray’s book The Bell Curve (1994). Gould maintains that their book contains no new arguments and presents no compelling data; it merely refashions earlier arguments for biological determinism, which Gould defines as “the abstraction of intelligence as a single entity, its location within the brain, its quantification as one number for each individual, and the use of these numbers to rank people in a single series of worthiness, invariably to find that oppressed and disadvantaged groups—races, classes, or sexes—are innately inferior and deserve their status”.Gould, S. J. (1981). The Mismeasure of Man pp. 24–25.
For this reason, psychologist Wayne Weiten argues that their construct validity must be carefully qualified, and not be overstated. According to Weiten, "IQ tests are valid measures of the kind of intelligence necessary to do well in academic work. But if the purpose is to assess intelligence in a broader sense, the validity of IQ tests is questionable." Some scientists have disputed the value of IQ as a measure of intelligence altogether. In The Mismeasure of Man (1981, expanded edition 1996), evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould compared IQ testing with the now-discredited practice of determining intelligence via craniometry, arguing that both are based on the fallacy of reification, “our tendency to convert abstract concepts into entities”.. .
The new act, inspired by the eugenic belief in the racial superiority of "old stock" white Americans as members of the "Nordic race" (a form of white supremacy), strengthened the position of existing laws prohibiting race-mixing.Lombardo, Paul; "Eugenics Laws Restricting Immigration," , Eugenics Archive Whereas Anglo-Saxon and Nordic people were seen as the most desirable immigrants, the Chinese and Japanese were seen as the least desirable and were largely banned from entering the U.S as a result of the immigration act.Gould, Stephen J. (1981) The mismeasure of man. Norton: In addition to the immigration act, eugenic considerations also lay behind the adoption of incest laws in much of the U.S. and were used to justify many anti-miscegenation laws.
Melvin Konner of Emory University, wrote: Lisa Suzuki and Joshua Aronson of New York University wrote that Jensen had largely ignored evidence which failed to support his position that IQ test score gaps represent genetic racial differences.The cultural malleability of intelligence and its impact on the racial/ethnic hierarchy L Suzuki, J Aronson – Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 2005 Paleontologist and evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould criticized Jensen's work in his 1981 book The Mismeasure of Man. Gould writes that Jensen misapplies the concept of "heritability", which is defined as a measure of the variation of a trait due to inheritance within a population (Gould 1981: 127; 156-157). According to Gould, Jensen uses heritability to measure differences between populations.
Stephen Jay Gould wrote, in his 1981 book The Mismeasure of Man, of George Jackson's death in context of 'statistically supported' social Darwinism. Quoting Gould about the legacy of failed science which supported racial bigotry and physiognomy, "George Jackson ... died under Lombroso's legacy, trying to escape after eleven years (eight and a half in solitary) of an indeterminate one-year-to-life sentence for stealing seventy dollars from a gas station." Jackson's life, beliefs and ultimate fate were the topic of one of the many audio tapes recorded at the Jonestown commune in Guyana during 1978. In the tape in question, Jones' tirade, touches on several issues relating to Jackson, most notably Jones' firm belief that Jackson's death was a racist assassination.
While not necessarily a dispute about the psychometric approach itself, there are several controversies regarding the results from psychometric research. One criticism has been against the early research such as craniometry.The Mismeasure of Man, Stephen Jay Gould, Norton, 1996 A reply has been that drawing conclusions from early intelligence research is like condemning the auto industry by criticizing the performance of the Model T. Several critics, such as Stephen Jay Gould, have been critical of g, seeing it as a statistical artifact, and that IQ tests instead measure a number of unrelated abilities. The American Psychological Association's report "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" stated that IQ tests do correlate and that the view that g is a statistical artifact is a minority one.
The journalist Neil Miller commended the book for its lucidity, while the literature scholar Leonard Barkan called it "brilliant". In Forms of Desire (1990), the philosopher Edward Stein called Halperin's reservations about scientific research "provocative and highly contentious". In The Mismeasure of Desire (1999), Stein wrote that Halperin's views about the development of contemporary categories of sexual orientation are not universally shared: while Halperin maintains that the word "homosexual" was coined by Karl-Maria Kertbeny in 1869 and attaches significance to this event, others, such as John Boswell, argue that the concept the word refers to has existed for centuries. The sociologist Gary W. Dowsett observed that Halperin, like Foucault in The History of Sexuality, redraws "the terms of our understanding of ancient male-to-male sexual activity and man-boy love", and that he does so with a "view to the politics of the late twentieth century".
Josef Kollmann, a collaborator of Virchow, stated in the same congress that the people of Europe, be them German, Italian, English or French, belonged to a "mixture of various races," furthermore declaring that the "results of craniology" led to "struggle against any theory concerning the superiority of this or that European race".Andrea Orsucci, "Ariani, indogermani, stirpi mediterranee: aspetti del dibattito sulle razze europee (1870-1914) , Cromohs, 1998 Virchow later rejected measure of skulls as legitimate means of taxonomy. Paul Kretschmer quoted an 1892 discussion with him concerning these criticisms, also citing Aurel von Törok's 1895 work, who basically proclaimed the failure of craniometry. Stephen Jay Gould (1941–2002) claimed Samuel Morton had fudged data and "overpacked" the skulls.Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, (1981) A subsequent study by John Michael concluded that "[c]ontrary to Gould's interpretation... Morton's research was conducted with integrity.
Richard Lewontin, a celebrated evolutionary biologist who held positions at both the University of Chicago and Harvard, wrote a glowing review of Gould's book in The New York Review of Books, endorsing most aspects of its account, and suggesting that it might have been even more critical of the racist intentions of the scientists he discusses, because scientists "sometimes tell deliberate lies because they believe that small lies can serve big truths." Gould said that the most positive review of the first edition to be written by a psychologist was in the British Journal of Mathematical & Statistical Psychology, which reported that "Gould has performed a valuable service in exposing the logical basis of one of the most important debates in the social sciences, and this book should be required reading for students and practitioners alike."Gould, S. J. (1996). The Mismeasure of Man: Revised edition.
Arthur Jensen and Bernard Davis argued that if the g factor (general intelligence factor) were replaced with a model that tested several types of intelligence, it would change results less than one might expect. Therefore, according to Jensen and Davis, the results of standardized tests of cognitive ability would continue to correlate with the results of other such standardized tests, and that the intellectual achievement gap between black and white people would remain. Psychologist J. Philippe Rushton accused Gould of "scholarly malfeasance" for misrepresenting and for ignoring contemporary scientific research pertinent to the subject of his book, and for attacking dead hypotheses and methods of research. He faulted The Mismeasure of Man because it did not mention the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies that showed the existence of statistical correlations among brain-size, IQ, and the g factor, despite Rushton having sent copies of the MRI studies to Gould.
Anthropometry demonstrated in an exhibit from a 1921 eugenics conference Phylogeography is the science of identifying and tracking major human migrations, especially in prehistoric times. Linguistics can follow the movement of languages and archaeology can follow the movement of artefact styles but neither can tell whether a culture's spread was due to a source population's physically migrating or to a destination population's simply copying the technology and learning the language. Anthropometry was used extensively by anthropologists studying human and racial origins: some attempted racial differentiation and classification, often seeking ways in which certain races were inferior to others."From Savage to Negro" (1998) Lee D. Baker p.14"The Mismeasure of Man" Stephen Jay Gould (1981) Nott translated Arthur de Gobineau's An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853–1855), a founding work of racial segregationism that made three main divisions between races, based not on colour but on climatic conditions and geographic location, and privileged the "Aryan" race.
London: NLB, 1982, p. 161-162 note 1; Helmut Brentel, Soziale Form und ökonomisches Objekt. Studien zum Gegenstands- und Methodenverständnis der Kritik der politischen Ökonomie. Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien, 1989, chapter 3; Patrick Murray, "The Grammar of Value: A Close Look at Marx’s Critique of Samuel Bailey", in: Patrick Murray, The mismeasure of wealth: Essays on Marx and Social Form. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2016, pp. 189-219; Samuel Bailey, A critical dissertation on the nature, measures, and causes of value; chiefly in reference to Mr Ricardo and his followers. London: R. Hunter, 1825; Samuel Bailey, Money and Its Vicissitudes in Value; as They Affect National Industry and Pecuniary Contracts : with a Postscript on Joint Stock Banks. London, 1837; See Karl Marx, Theories of Surplus Value. Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1978, Part III, pp.139-168, or Marx Engels Collected Works, Vol. 32 (New York: International Publishers, 1989), pp. 313-353. Robert M. Rauner, Samuel Bailey and the Classical Theory of Value.
161) Gould's Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle (first published in 1987) "locates the development of our conception of deep history in its cultural and intellectual context without any suggestion that that cultural context perverted the development of geology", whereas "in Wonderful Life, Gould argued that the Burgess Shale fauna were misunderstood because they were interpreted through the ideology of their discoverer". (p. 162) The Mismeasure of Man is Gould's most famous work on the themes of socio-cultural interests leading to bad science, pseudo-science, racist and sexist science, where "a particular ideological context led to a warped and distorted appreciation of the evidence on human difference". (p. 162) Thus, "one sharp contrast between Dawkins and Gould is on the application of science in general, and evolutionary biology in particular, to our species". (p. 162) Yet paradoxically, Dawkins' most systematic writings on human evolution explore the differences between human evolution and that of most other organisms, in which humans pass on their values through ideas and skills which Dawkins calls memes.
38–41 In Morton's Crania Americana, his claims were based on Craniometry data, that the Caucasians had the biggest brains, averaging 87 cubic inches, Native Americans were in the middle with an average of 82 cubic inches and Negroes had the smallest brains with an average of 78 cubic inches.Illustration from Types of Mankind (1854), whose authors leftIn The Mismeasure of Man (1981), the evolutionary biologist and historian of science Stephen Jay Gould argued that Samuel Morton had falsified the craniometric data, perhaps inadvertently over-packing some skulls, to so produce results that would legitimize the racist presumptions he was attempting to prove. A subsequent study by the anthropologist John Michael found Morton's original data to be more accurate than Gould describes, concluding that "[c]ontrary to Gould's interpretation... Morton's research was conducted with integrity". Jason Lewis and colleagues reached similar conclusions as Michael in their reanalysis of Morton's skull collection; however, they depart from Morton's racist conclusions by adding that "studies have demonstrated that modern human variation is generally continuous, rather than discrete or "racial," and that most variation in modern humans is within, rather than between, populations".
As an evolutionary biologist and historian of science, Gould accepted biological variability (the premise of the transmission of intelligence via genetic heredity), but opposed biological determinism, which posits that genes determine a definitive, unalterable social destiny for each man and each woman in life and society. The Mismeasure of Man is an analysis of statistical correlation, the mathematics applied by psychologists to establish the validity of IQ tests, and the heritability of intelligence. For example, to establish the validity of the proposition that IQ is supported by a general intelligence factor (g factor), the answers to several tests of cognitive ability must positively correlate; thus, for the g factor to be a heritable trait, the IQ-test scores of close-relation respondents must correlate more than the IQ-test scores of distant-relation respondents. However, correlation does not imply causation; for example, Gould said that the measures of the changes, over time, in "my age, the population of México, the price of Swiss cheese, my pet turtle’s weight, and the average distance between galaxies" have a high, positive correlation—yet that correlation does not indicate that Gould’s age increased because the Mexican population increased.

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