So what we have in the casebooks is a huge amount of information about excretion of all different sorts, because excretion is getting rid of the foul humors.
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Japanese has insults, and of course words for genitalia and excretion.
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It stands for Movement, Respiration, Sensitivity, Growth, Reproduction, Excretion, and Nutrition.
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WADA said there was a lack of clear scientific information on excretion times.
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These drugs lower blood sugar by increasing the excretion of glucose through urine.
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It is designed primarily for the word excretion process and has no editing features.
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Excretion is accomplished during interface via anal duct and throughout labor activity via catheter.
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When he came across a study of sodium excretion, he waded into the abstract.
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For instance, stress after a natural disaster increases insulin excretion that could cause metabolic disorders.
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The study found that alcohol consumption doesn&apost lead to dehydration, despite increased fluid excretion.
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For every profane holy, fucking, and shit, there's a technical and anodyne liturgical, copulation, or excretion.
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He prescribed coffee enemas, which Dr. Gonzalez believed improved liver function and the excretion of waste.
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And blood pressure drugs called ACE inhibitors can impair excretion of potassium from foods like bananas.
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Evans was an expert at measuring and mathematically modeling the human body's uptake and excretion of radioactivity.
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" He added: "There are complex medical and physiological issues which affect the metabolism and excretion of salbutamol.
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Excretion of toxic compounds, as measured in urine, went up compared with a group that drank placebo.
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At some homes, excretion sensors on the body monitor intestinal movements to predict when someone needs the lavatory.
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It means the production of limescale, which leads to constipation and the excretion of waste products through our skin.
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"The excretion of the pill too soon can decrease its breakdown and the efficacy of the pill," she says.
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Oh, and there's a great deal of masturbation, farting, and just about every other excretion you can think of.
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It turns out that the ants weren't into the anal excretion cocktail at all, imbibing the control water at consistently higher rates.
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I expected the shared lust between Naima and Sergio to manifest in some tangible form of excretion depicting the wetness of female orgasm.
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You get instances of men "menstruating"; they're described as menstruating through hemorrhoids or bloody noses as this sort of natural form of excretion.
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Because the makers of a special seat designed to improve excretion found their association with Kathy Griffin bad for their image, I guess.
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Because the makers of a special seat designed to improve excretion found their association with Kathy Griffin bad for their image, I guess.
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These Australian marsupials can drop anywhere from four to eight pieces of dung, each measuring about 2 centimeters across, during a single excretion session.
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The mineral is widely available in both plant and animal-based foods, and the kidneys limit urinary excretion of magnesium, so deficiencies are rare in healthy people.
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Television is the only medium that Trump really consumes, and much of what he tweets and says amounts to a distorted excretion of the television he's just watched.
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The Mary River turtle, native to Queensland, Australia, has the unusual ability to breathe underwater through specialized glands in its cloaca -- a posterior opening for excretion and reproduction.
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Some experts think it can cause the kidneys to have to work harder, leading to complications for those with existing kidney problems, or increase calcium excretion, causing bone loss.
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In some drawings Koch openly cites Guston's hooded figure, juxtaposing it with his own symbol of the eagle, whose hairdo echoes the bloated excretion who occasionally occupies the White House.
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A score higher than 1.0 indicated that more of the beverage remained in the body as compared to water, while a score lower than 1.0 indicated a higher excretion rate than water.
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"He gets the chance to prove that either his metabolism is particularly different from everyone else's or that dose has a bigger excretion into his urine compared with the standard," he told Reuters.
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"The estimated daily fecal excretion suggested that both dogs and cats are exposed to some PFASs at doses above the provisional minimum risk level recommended for humans," the authors concluded in their study.
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At around 1:00 PM local time, a livestream of the expanding, seemingly out-of-control chemical excretion revealed that young men had been riding their bikes through the area relatively unimpeded by the blob.
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What's more, prescription drugs can enter our waterways and drinking water supplies through manufacturing waste, animal excretion, runoff from animal feeding operations, or leaching from municipal landfills, according to a 2010 report from the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC).
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For example, for vitamin C, the office advises that a recent study found no difference in levels of vitamin C in the blood or in excretion among three different sources: simple ascorbic acid, a branded combination product and ascorbic acid combined with bioflavonoids.
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Given the placement of the hip bones, and the way the legs are coming together, and the fact that most reptiles have their cloaca [a multipurpose hole for excretion and reproduction] kind of right at the base of the tail, probably that's where I would place it.
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Our kidneys are fine-tuned machines for keeping blood levels of sodium within a physiologically healthy range; when there's too much sodium on board, the kidneys dump it into urine for excretion, and when more is needed, they reabsorb it from urine and pump it back into the blood.
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Teas on Turkish Airlines now include rooibos (an African shrub that contains calcium and magnesium, which can help reduce stress), roselle (a species of hibiscus that reportedly relieves bloating by contributing to the fluid and electrolyte balance) and a blend of green tea, cinnamon, ginger, corn silk and garam masala (to aid the excretion of excessive fluid).
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Some of what is shown at the Queens Museum can be likened to such other explorations of intimate body functions as the Icelandic performance piece by Ragnar Kjartansson in which he asked his mother to spit on him; Mika Rottenberg's video epics of ingestion, excretion, sweat and sneezing; and Janine Antoni's gargoyle-shaped copper urinary device, with which she posed for a rooftop photograph.
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From the paper, published open access in Nature Communications:The hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), which has long been recognized as an ecosystem engineer through its grazing and wallowing activities, transports massive amounts of organic matter and nutrients from terrestrial grazing lands into aquatic ecosystems through egestion and excretion in East Africa, there are an estimated 70,000 hippopotami, potentially loading 52,800 metric tons year−1 of organic matter directly into aquatic ecosystems.
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Increased net acid excretion is a compensation for respiratory acidosis, while decreased net acid excretion is a compensation for respiratory alkalosis.
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The primary form of excretion is in the urine (around 80%); the remaining fifth is evenly split between biliary excretion and metabolism into inactive forms.
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One way to understand jaundice pathophysiology is to organize it into disorders that cause increased bilirubin production (abnormal heme metabolism) or decreased bilirubin excretion (abnormal heme excretion).
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Biliary excretion is the major route of excretion for entacapone. People with liver dysfunction may require additional caution and more frequent liver function monitoring while taking entacapone.
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Diagram showing the basic physiologic mechanisms of the kidney The kidney's ability to perform many of its functions depends on the three fundamental functions of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion, whose sum is called renal clearance or renal excretion. That is: :Urinary excretion rate = Filtration rate – Reabsorption rate + Secretion ratep 314, Guyton and Hall, Medical Physiology, 11th edition Although the strictest sense of the word excretion with respect to the urinary system is urination itself, renal clearance is also conventionally called excretion (for example, in the set term fractional excretion of sodium).
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Cortisol stimulates gastric-acid secretion. Cortisol's only direct effect on the hydrogen-ion excretion of the kidneys is to stimulate the excretion of ammonium ions by deactivating the renal glutaminase enzyme.
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Bile excretion is different from kidney excretion as it always involves energy expenditure in active transport across the epithelium of the bile duct against a concentration gradient. This transport system can also be saturated if the plasma concentrations of the drug are high. Bile excretion of drugs mainly takes place where their molecular weight is greater than 300 and they contain both polar and lipophilic groups. The glucuronidation of the drug in the kidney also facilitates bile excretion.
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The results were found to be virtually identical (58%) to a physical mixture of stearic acid and 14C-labeled lactic acid. A follow up study in mice and guinea-pigs was conducted in 1981 using 14C-labeled CSL and lactic acid. The authors concluded that excretion of both CSL and lactic acid followed a respiration pathway (excretion via CO2) followed by excretion as urine and feces. Most of the excretion occurred within the first 7 hours of the study.
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In humans, the majority of excretion of Geniposide is urinary.
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Excretion of cephaloridine and cephalothin in patients with renal impairment.
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Low urinary-citrate excretion is also commonly found in those with a high dietary intake of animal protein, whereas vegetarians tend to have higher levels of citrate excretion. Low urinary citrate, too, promotes stone formation.
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This process reabsorbs water and creates a concentrated urine for excretion.
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Cortisol increases glomerular filtration rate, and renal plasma flow from the kidneys thus increasing phosphate excretion, as well as increasing sodium and water retention and potassium excretion by acting on mineralocorticoid receptors (cortisol can be metabolised into cortisone which acts on the receptor, mimicking the effect of aldosterone). It also increases sodium and water absorption and potassium excretion in the intestines.
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It is excreted mostly in feces, but also in urine. Because the main route of excretion is through biliary excretion into the feces, it is mainly the liver that is exposed to oleandrin. As excretion in urine is only a smaller route, the kidneys are less exposed. There is also accumulation in the heart, which explains its potential for cardiac toxicity.
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In tested animals, ethoprophos is widely distributed throughout the body, with the highest concentrations in the lungs, kidneys, and liver. In blood, it is mostly associated to cells instead of being in the plasma. Excretion mainly proceeds through the urine (~60%), but faecal excretion (~10%) and expired air (~15%) are also important routes. Intravenously dosed animals showed limited biliary excretion (~8%).
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The main route of elimination is urinary excretion, 75-90% excreted unchanged.
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Its metabolites, distribution, metabolism and excretion were not understood as of 2017.
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Thiazide diuretics increase the excretion of sodium and potassium ions and decrease the excretion of calcium ions and uric acid so they are contraindicated in patients with hyponatraemia, hypokalaemia, hypercalcaemia and hyperuricaemia. They are also contraindicated in patients with Addison's disease.
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The opposite of an accretion disk is an excretion disk where instead of material accreting from a disk on to a central object, material is excreted from the center outwards on to the disk. Excretion disks are formed when stars merge.
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Pantothenic acid status can be assessed by measuring either whole blood concentration or 24-hour urinary excretion. In humans, whole blood values less than 1 μmol/L are considered low, as is urinary excretion of less than 4.56 mmol/day.
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He proved that one healthy kidney can be sufficient for urine excretion in humans.
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Alvimopan undergoes 35% renal excretion and greater than 50% biliary excretion. Drug metabolized by intestinal flora is excreted in the feces. Alvimopan's half-life of elimination is 10 to 17 hours, while that of the gut metabolite is 10 to 18 hours.
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Unlike calcitonin, it also regulates phosphate level. It inhibits excretion of phosphate from the kidney.
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DMSA was able to increase the excretion of mercury to a greater extent than NAP.
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The body removes xenobiotics by xenobiotic metabolism. This consists of the deactivation and the excretion of xenobiotics, and happens mostly in the liver. Excretion routes are urine, feces, breath, and sweat. Hepatic enzymes are responsible for the metabolism of xenobiotics by first activating them (oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis and/or hydration of the xenobiotic), and then conjugating the active secondary metabolite with glucuronic acid, sulfuric acid, or glutathione, followed by excretion in bile or urine.
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Recent studies have shown marginal biotin deficiency can be present in human gestation, as evidenced by increased urinary excretion of 3-hydroxyisovaleric acid, decreased urinary excretion of biotin and bisnorbiotin, and decreased plasma concentration of biotin. Additionally, smoking may further accelerate biotin catabolism in women.
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Biliary excretion of copper and zinc in the rat as influenced by diethylmaleate, selenite and diethyldithiocarbamate. Biochemical Pharmacology, 29(15), 2129-2133. and the role of the tripeptide glutathione in the trafficking and excretion of essential trace elements.Aaseth J, Alexander J, Norseth T (1982).
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Urinary saturation with struvite occurs only when supranormal excretion of ammonia and alkaline urine occur together.
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Internal excretion of a hormone with a steroid skeleton called ecdysteroid makes exuviation proceed in insects.
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The majority of spironolactone is eliminated by the kidneys, while minimal amounts are handled by biliary excretion.
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3-Hydroxyisobutyric aciduria is a disorder of valine metabolism characterised by urinary excretion of 3-Hydroxyisobutyric acid.
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Excretion of cephalosporins is reduced by probenecid (resulting in increased concentrations of drug in the blood plasma).
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Mean distribution half-life was 0.09 hours and mean elimination half-life was 1.4 hours in paediatric studies. Biodistribution of 14C-labelled docetaxel in three patients showed the bulk of the drug to be metabolised and excreted in bile to the faeces. Of the radioactively labelled docetaxel administered, 80% was eliminated to the faeces with 5% in the urine over seven days, an indication that urinary excretion of docetaxel is minimal. Saliva contributed minimal excretion and no excretion was detected through pulmonary means.
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This may be due to rapid conjugation (O-methylation, glucuronidation, sulfonation) of 2-hydroxyestradiol followed by urinary excretion.
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Some preliminary evidence indicates the administration of probiotics can affect oxalic acid excretion rates in a positive manner.
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Primary hyperoxaluria is a rare, inherited condition, resulting in increased excretion of oxalate, with oxalate stones being common.
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Causes of increased production include high levels of purine in the diet and increased purine metabolism. Causes of decreased excretion include kidney disease, certain drugs, and competition for excretion between uric acid and other molecules. Mixed causes include high levels of alcohol and/or fructose in the diet, and starvation.
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The concentrating defect also occurs in individuals with sickle trait. Other tubule defects involve potassium and hydrogen ion excretion, occasionally leading to high blood potassium, metabolic acidosis, and a defect in uric acid excretion which, combined with increased purine synthesis in the bone marrow, results in high blood uric acid levels.
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It is the most common cause of metabolic acidosis in hospitalized patients. The most serious form occurs during various states of shock, due to episodes of decreased liver perfusion. Kidney failure results in decreased acid excretion and increased bicarbonate excretion. Toxins that result in acidic metabolites may trigger lactic acidosis.
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Aquaretics increase urine output without increasing sodium and chloride excretion, thus causing an increase in urine whilst retaining electrolytes.
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CO is considered non-reactive in the body and primarily undergoes pulmonary excretion and less than 10% is oxidized.
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Phosphorus is mainly absorbed in the small intestine and homeostasis is achieved by excretion of phosphorus with the faeces.
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In the kidneys, elimination of potassium is passive (through the glomeruli), and reabsorption is active in the proximal tubule and the ascending limb of the loop of Henle. There is active excretion of potassium in the distal tubule and the collecting duct; both are controlled by aldosterone. In sweat glands potassium elimination is quite similar to the kidney, its excretion is also controlled by aldosterone. Regulation of serum potassium is a function of intake, appropriate distribution between intracellular and extracellular compartments, and effective bodily excretion.
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DMSA facilitates urinary excretion of lead, and with sufficiently aggressive treatment, can reduce lead content in the brain. It also increases urinary excretion of copper and zinc. DMSA improved cognitive function in rats that had been exposed to lead, but reduced cognitive function in rats that had not been exposed to lead.
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Probenecid, also sold under the brand name Probalan, is a medication that increases uric acid excretion in the urine. It is primarily used in treating gout and hyperuricemia. Probenecid was developed as an alternative to caronamide to competitively inhibit renal excretion of some drugs, thereby increasing their plasma concentration and prolonging their effects.
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Anti-inflammatory and antibacterial: soothes people suffering from infectious diarrhea. Urinary disorders: promotes urinary excretion. Complement of weight loss diets.
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The excretion of urea is called ureotelism. Land animals, mainly amphibians and mammals, convert ammonia into urea, a process which occurs in the liver and kidney. These animals are called ureotelic. Urea is a less toxic compound than ammonia; two nitrogen atoms are eliminated through it and less water is needed for its excretion.
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Chorioamnionitis can also be caught early by looking at signs and symptoms such as fever, abdominal pain, or abnormal vaginal excretion.
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The nest camouflage, toxin excretion, and small clutch sizes may have derived from historically high rates of depredation and nest parasitism.
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Axillary lymph‐nodes in patients without breast carcinoma. Lancet, v.1, 1960, pp. 713‐715. Excretion urography in the acute abdomen.
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Acidifying the urine could theoretically enhance nicotine excretion, although this is not recommended as it may cause complications of metabolic acidosis.
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Excretion of dissolved organic carbon by eelgrass (Zostera marina) and its epiphytes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 22, 400–407. doi: 10.4319/lo.1977.22.
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Alternatively, an antidiuretic, such as vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone), is an agent or drug which reduces the excretion of water in urine.
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Jacobsen, R., Lorenzen J.K., Toubro, S., Krog-Mikkelsen, I. and Astrup, A. (2005). Effect of short-term high dietary calcium intake on 24-h energy expenditure, fat oxidation, and fecal fat excretion. International Journal of Obesity. 29: 293–301 Studies have shown that saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats all have a higher excretion rate with a high calcium intake.
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Excretion of lactate in significant quantities is not a common nor a desirable metabolic facility, but the excretion of ethanol presents no serious metabolic challenges. This metabolic expedient avoids the fatal accumulation of acid end-products of anaerobic glycolysis.Johnston, Ian A. & Bernard, Lynne M. Utilization of the Ethanol Pathway in Carp Following Exposure to Anoxia. J. exp. exp. Biol.
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Foregut tumors lack the decarboxylase enzyme necessary to convert 5-hydroxytryptophan to serotonin, resulting in minimal to no elevation in urinary 5-HIAA levels. Tumors derived from hindgut cells (rectal carcinoid) rarely produce excess serotonin or 5-HIAA. Of 75 patients with carcinoid tumors, 75% had above normal urinary 5-HIAA excretion and 64% had above normal serotonin excretion.
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Oral absorption: 50% Protein binding: 15% Metabolism: N-oxide is the principal metabolite. Half- life elimination: With normal renal function, ranitidine taken orally has a half-life of 2.5–3.0 hours. If taken intravenously, the half-life is generally 2.0–2.5 hours in a patient with normal creatinine clearance. Excretion: The primary route of excretion is the urine.
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Low potassium is caused by increased excretion of potassium, decreased consumption of potassium rich foods, movement of potassium into the cells, or certain endocrine diseases. Excretion is the most common cause of hypokalemia and can be caused by diuretic use, metabolic acidosis, diabetic ketoacidosis, hyperaldosteronism, and renal tubular acidosis. Potassium can also be lost through vomiting and diarrhea.
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Detoxification is suspected to occur primarily via glucuronidation of 4-IPO. Out of all the metabolites found in urine, the primary excretion pathway, 4-IPO glucuronide was the most abundant. Excretion of 4-IPO glucuronide can be increased when rats were treated with phenobarbital, which increases γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) activity. Half-life varies from species to species.
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It can also occur through the digestive process of an animal that eats the seed and then passes it in its excretion.
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The main way to diagnosis cystathioninuria is simply through increased urinary excretion of cystathionine. In some cases, a genetic test is employed.
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Trichlormethiazide works by inhibiting Na+/Cl− ion reabsorption from the distal tubules of the kidneys. In addition, trichlormethiazide increases the excretion of potassium.
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Application of this name to DI arose from the fact that diabetes insipidus does not cause glycosuria (excretion of glucose into the urine).
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Euphemisms may be used to mask profanity or refer to taboo topics such as disability, sex, excretion, or death in a polite way.
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In the lack of proper solute intake, the amount of free water excretion can be severely limited. Without adequate solute intake, the normal functioning electrolyte gradient that pulls water into urine will be effectively destroyed. Briefly, to excrete free water from urine, the urine flow (which is solute clearance + free water clearance) will equal the rate of solute excretion divided by the urine osmolality. With a diet of only solute poor beer, only about 200–300 mOSM (normal 750 mOSM to greater than 900 mOSM) of solute will be excreted per day, capping the amount of free water excretion at four liters.
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Beetles from the family Lampyridae have been known to use certain defenses such as unpleasant odour and the excretion of a sticky substance to avoid predation. Excretion of unpleasant fluids from the areas along the elytra and pronotum is the result of tactile stimulation and has been referred to as reflexive bleeding. This reflex bleeding is a defensive function of P.pyralis, as it can cause certain predators to become entangled in the sticky substance (such as ants) or cause revulsion in others upon predation. The excretion contains lucibufagins, steroids found in P. pyralis that render them distasteful to certain bird predators.
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The human digestive tract is a very efficient organ, and the faecal excretion of nitrogenous material and fats is a small proportion (usually less than 10%) of the intake. Atwater recognised that the faecal excretion was a complex mixture of unabsorbed intestinal secretions, bacterial material and metabolites, sloughed mucosal cells, mucus, and only to a small extent, unabsorbed dietary components. This might be one reason why he chose to use availability rather than digestibility. His view was that these faecal constituents were truly unavailable and that his apparent disregard of the nature of faecal excretion was justifiable in a practical context.
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Hypocalcemia (low blood calcium) can be caused by a variety of conditions that reduce dietary calcium absorption, increase calcium excretion or both. Positive calcium balance occurs when calcium excretion is decreased and intake remains constant so that calcium is retained within the body.Aung K, Htay T. Thiazide diuretics and the risk of hip fracture. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2011, Issue 10. Art.
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It has been said that the species of Portulaca pilosa in Brazil has been used as a traditional remedy to cause diuresis, antipyresis and analgesia. Studies have shown that its extracts have renal effects. It has also been seen that in rats, such extracts cause an increase in potassium excretion without a concomitant change in water diuresis or sodium excretion..
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Lithium toxicity can occur due to excessive intake or decreased excretion. Excessive intake may be either a suicide attempt or accidental. Decreased excretion may occur as a result dehydration such as from vomiting or diarrhea, a low sodium diet, or from kidney problems. The diagnosis is generally based on symptoms and supported by a lithium level of greater than 1.2 mEq/L.
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Empagliflozin causes moderate reductions in blood pressure and body weight. These effects are likely due to the excretion of glucose in the urine and a slight increase in urinary sodium excretion. In clinical trials, patients taking empagliflozin lost an average of 2% of their baseline body weight. A higher percentage of people taking empagliflozin achieved weight loss greater than 5% from their baseline.
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At the apical membranes of the liver and kidney, it enhances excretion of xenobiotics. In the lactating mammary gland, it has a role on excreting vitamins such as riboflavin and biotin into milk. In the kidney and gastrointestinal tract, it has a role in urate excretion. The protein also carries the Jr(a) antigen, which defines the Junior blood group system.
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Diets in Western nations typically contain a large proportion of animal protein. Eating animal protein creates an acid load that increases urinary excretion of calcium and uric acid and reduced citrate. Urinary excretion of excess sulfurous amino acids (e.g., cysteine and methionine), uric acid, and other acidic metabolites from animal protein acidifies the urine, which promotes the formation of kidney stones.
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Bilirubin count is also lowered through excretion — bowel movements and urination —so frequent and effective feedings are vital measures to decrease jaundice in infants.
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Methods for detection of the substances or their excretion products in urine specimens usually involve gas chromatography–mass spectrometry or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.
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Absorption of topical permethrin is minimal. One in vivo study demonstrated 0.5% absorption in the first 48 hours based upon excretion of urinary metabolites.
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It copes with the excess salt that it swallows partly through its kidneys and partly by excretion through specialised salt glands in its nostrils.
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On the other hand, sitting up to the neck in a pool for a few hours clearly increases the excretion of water, salts, and urea.
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Altered life histories, increased Cd excretion, and sustained growth under Cd exposure is evidence that shows that Chironomus riparius exhibits genetically based heavy metal tolerance.
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Late Cretaceous coprolites from southern Saskatchewan: Comments on excretion plasticity and ichnological nomenclature. Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology, vol. 25, no. 5, p. 1097-1099.
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The kinetics of labeled derivatives of apamin were studied in vitro and in vivo in mice by Cheng-Raude et al. This shed some light on the kinetics of apamin itself. The key organ for excretion is likely to be the kidney, since enrichment of the labeled derivatives was found there. The peptide apamin is small enough to pass the glomerular barrier, facilitating renal excretion.
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In a healthy person, normal serum phosphate levels are maintained by the regulation of dietary absorption, bone formation and resorption, equilibration with intracellular stores, and renal excretion. When kidney function is impaired, phosphate excretion declines. Without specific treatment, hyperphosphataemia occurs almost universally, despite dietary phosphate restriction and conventional dialysis treatment. In patients on dialysis, hyperphosphataemia is an independent risk factor for fractures, cardiovascular disease and mortality.
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Urine sodium is a measurement of the concentration of sodium in the urine. The urine sodium is expressed as a concentration (such as millimoles per liter). The result must therefore be interpreted in the context of the degree of urine concentration present. Alternatively, the urine sodium can be standardized to the excretion of creatinine using a formula such as the fractional excretion of sodium (FENa).
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Uric acid competes with lactic acid and other organic acids for renal excretion in the urine. In GSD I increased availability of G6P for the pentose phosphate pathway, increased rates of catabolism, and diminished urinary excretion due to high levels of lactic acid all combine to produce uric acid levels several times normal. Although hyperuricemia is asymptomatic for years, kidney and joint damage gradually accrue.
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Animal metabolism of nitrogen in proteins, in general, results in excretion of urea, while animal metabolism of nucleic acids results in excretion of urea and uric acid. The characteristic odour of animal flesh decay is caused by the creation of long-chain, nitrogen-containing amines, such as putrescine and cadaverine, which are breakdown products of the amino acids ornithine and lysine, respectively, in decaying proteins.
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Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists are diuretic drugs that work primarily on the kidneys. They decrease sodium reabsorption which leads to increased water excretion by the kidneys. By regulating water excretion, mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists lower blood pressure and reduce fluid around the heart which can be very beneficial in some cardiovascular conditions. Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists have been used for many clinical conditions in the cardiovascular system.
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By reducing hepatic clearance, less drug will transit through the biliary excretion route; as a consequence, less off-target toxicities (predicted from preclinical tests) are expected.
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Excretion of potassium from the body is done using either hemodialysis, loop diuretics, or a resin that causes potassium to be excreted in the fecal matter.
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Acetylcysteine is extensively liver metabolized, CYP450 minimal, urine excretion is 22-30% with a half-life of 5.6 hours in adults and 11 hours in neonates.
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Urinary excretion of calcium is normally about 5 mmol (200mg) /day. This is less in comparison to what is excreted via the feces (15 mmol/day).
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There is a specific pattern of N-acetyl amino acid excretion in the urine. The diagnosis can be confirmed by sequencing of the aminoacylase 1 gene.
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Correlations between low levels and chronic pancreatitisFecal Elastase 1 ELISA For Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency: Comparison With ERCP-Morphology And Fecal Fat Excretion and cancer have been reported.
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Effects of potassium chloride and potassium bicarbonate in the diet on urinary pH and mineral excretion of adult cats. British Journal of Nutrition, 111(5), 785-797.
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"Zigadenus poisoning treated with atropine and dopamine." Journal of Medical Toxicology 5, no. 4 (2009): 214. Dopamine increases renal sodium excretion, blood pressure and the heart rate.
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If dietary intervention is found to be unsuccessful, and the patient does not have hypercalcemia, thiazides are liable to acerbate hypercalcemia because they decrease renal calcium excretion.
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Calcium dobesilate after oral administration is well absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract . Maximum plasma concentrations (C max ) of 6-8 µg / ml are reached approximately six hours after oral administration of 500 mg, which are generally maintained for over 12 hours. In the body the drug is poorly metabolized (less than 10%) and its binding with plasma proteins is rather low. Elimination occurs mainly through excretion from the renal excretion.
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This increase is due to both a diuresis (increase in water excretion) and a natriuresis (increase in saline excretion); it is mediated via proximal tubular adenosine receptor blockade.Modulation of adenosine receptor expression in the proximal tubule: a novel adaptive mechanism to regulate renal salt and water metabolism Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol. 1 July 2008 295:F35-F36 The acute increase in urinary output may increase the risk of dehydration.
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Tetrathiomolybdate has a unique mechanism of action through which it selectively forms highly stable complexes with copper and proteins. These complexes are then believed to be primarily excreted via the bile, restoring the normal excretion route of copper that is impaired in patients with Wilson's disease. The binding and excretion mechanism of WTX101 is stable; whereas many de-coppering agents form unstable complexes that are excreted via urine.
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Dosage is increased until a negative sodium balance occurs. A random urine sodium-to-potassium ratio of > 1 is 90% sensitivity in predicting negative balance (> 78-mmol/day sodium excretion). Diuretic resistance: Diuretic resistance can be predicted by giving 80 mg intravenous furosemide after 3 days without diuretics and on an 80 mEq sodium/day diet. The urinary sodium excretion over 8 hours < 50 mEq/8 hours predicts resistance.
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The excretion of eplerenone is 67% through kidneys and 32% through feces. The information about excretion plays a critical role when determining the appropriate doses for patients with renal and/or hepatic dysfunction. It is very important to adjust the doses for patients with renal dysfunction because if they fail to eliminate the drug through their kidneys it could accumulate in the body, causing high concentration of potassium in the blood.
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These frugivorous bats eat from the viney pandans and some fig species. The excretion of seeds in the bat's guano helps with the dispersal of these plant species.
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PMID: 29483087. # Measurements of 24-Hour Urinary Sodium and Potassium Excretion: Importance and Implications. JAMA. 2018 03 27; 319(12):1201-1202. Ix JH, Anderson CAM. PMID: 29516102.
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Buger, H., Catt, K., and Brown, J. Relationship Between Plasma Luteininxing Hormone and Urinary Estrogen Excretion During the Menstrual Cycle. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology 28, 1508–1512 (1968).
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In hydrated subjects immersion will cause diuresis and excretion of sodium and potassium. Diuresis is reduced in dehydrated subjects, and in trained athletes in comparison with sedentary subjects.
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Examples include the hellbender salamander and the Lake Titicaca water frog. Cutaneous respiration in hellbenders accounts for more than 90 percent of oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide excretion.
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Calcium re- absorption in the kidney is prevented, allowing the excretion of excess calcium through the urine. Through these hormonal mechanisms, calcium homeostasis is maintained within the body.
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Excretion of gallium occurs in two phases: the first phase has a biological half-life of 1 hour, while the second has a biological half-life of 25 hours.
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Lesinurad is a urate transporter inhibitor that has been approved to treat gout. Lesinurad enhances urate excretion by inhibition the tubular re-absorption. Probenecid also facilitates uric acid secretion.
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For elimination via bile please see: Estimation of Biliary Excretion of Foreign Compounds Using Properties of Molecular Structure. 2014. Sharifi M., Ghafourian T. AAPS J. 16(1) 65–78.
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Primary hyperoxaluria is a rare condition (autosomal recessive), resulting in increased excretion of oxalate (up to 600mg a day from normal 50mg a day), with oxalate stones being common.
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Azilsartan medoxomil lowers blood pressure by blocking the action of angiotensin II at the AT1 receptor, a hormone that contracts blood vessels and reduces water excretion through the kidneys.
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A decreased urinary excretion of D-xylose is seen in conditions involving the gastrointestinal mucosa, such as small intestinal bacterial overgrowth and Whipple's disease. In cases of bacterial overgrowth, the values of D-xylose absorption return to normal after treatment with antibiotics. In contrast, if the D-xylose urinary excretion is not normal after a course of antibiotics, then the problem must be due to a non- infectious cause of malabsorption (i.e., celiac disease).
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For example, ultrasound of the liver and the biliary tree can help investigate the causes of extra-hepatic biliary obstruction. The gallbladder is visualized on oral cholecystography in Rotor syndrome while it is not visualized in Dubin Johnson syndrome. Ultimately, the best method of diagnosing the disease is the analysis of urine coproporphyrin excretion. The total urine coproporphyrin excretion in Rotor syndrome has a 2- to 5-fold elevation, with 65% constituting coproporphyrin I.
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Torasemide, is a high ceiling loop diuretic with the ability to promote excretion of water, sodium and chloride. If it used as a medication it is used to treat "fluid overload due to heart failure, kidney disease, and liver disease and high blood pressure." Torasemide is similar to furosemide (frusemide), but is twice as potent. As a diuretics it aims to increase the rate of urine and sodium excretion in the body.
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The eggs of the pipevine swallowtail vary in color from red to orange. They are small and are laid on host plant stems. A distinctive feature of these eggs which is shared by all Aristolochia butterflies is that the outer layer of the egg is covered by a firm and nourishing excretion laid in vertical stripes along the outside. The egg appears bumpy due to the excretion forming large beads along the bands.
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Hu and Hayton in 2001 discussed whether the basal metabolic rate scale is a ⅔ or ¾ power of body mass. The exponent of ¾ might be used for substances that are eliminated mainly by metabolism, or by metabolism and excretion combined, while ⅔ might apply for drugs that are eliminated mainly by renal excretion. An online allometric scaler of drug doses based on the above work is available. Online allometric scaling calculator, with explanation and source.
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Despite the unquestionable success of gold nanorods or nanoshells as photothermal agents in preclinical research, they have yet to obtain the approval for clinical use because their size is above the renal excretion threshold. In 2019, the first NIR-absorbing plasmonic ultrasmall-in-nano architecture has been reported, and jointly combine: (i) an efficient photothermal conversion suitable for multiple hyperthermia treatments, and (ii) renal excretion of the building blocks after the therapeutic action.
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The blood contains the copper-rich protein hemocyanin, which is used for oxygen transport at low ocean temperatures and low oxygen concentrations, and makes the oxygenated blood a deep, blue color. As systemic blood returns via two vena cavae to the branchial hearts, excretion of urine, carbon dioxide, and waste solutes occurs through outpockets (called nephridial appendages) in the vena cavae walls that enable gas exchange and excretion via the mantle cavity seawater.
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Distribution and Excretion of Plutonium Administered Intravenously to Man. Health Physics. 38(6): 1031-1060.Langham, W. H. (1959). Physiology and toxicology of plutonium-239 and its industrial medical control.
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Oncogenic osteomalacia also known as oncogenic hypophosphatemic osteomalacia, is an uncommon disorder resulting in increased renal phosphate excretion, hypophosphatemia and osteomalacia. It may be caused by a phosphaturic mesenchymal tumor.
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Biliary excretion of azithromycin, predominantly unchanged, is a major route of elimination. Over the course of a week, about 6% of the administered dose appears as unchanged drug in urine.
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Increased solubility allows the excretion of unconjugated bilirubin in bile. Some textbooks and research articles show the incorrect geometric isomer of bilirubin. The naturally occurring isomer is the Z,Z-isomer.
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Hyperoxaluria is an excessive urinary excretion of oxalate. Individuals with hyperoxaluria often have calcium oxalate kidney stones. It is sometimes called Bird's disease, after Golding Bird, who first described the condition.
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Approximately 230 publications in refereed scientific journals and chapters in books.Brown, J.B. (1956). Urinary excretion of oestrogens during pregnancy, lactation and the re-establishment of menstruation. Lancet, 267(6925), 704–707.
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The bursae are probably also the main organs of excretion, with phagocytic "coelomocytes" collecting waste products in the body cavity and then migrating to the bursae for expulsion from the body.
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Ammonium is excreted in the urine, resulting in net acid loss. Ammonia may itself diffuse across the renal tubules, combine with a hydrogen ion, and thus allow for further acid excretion.
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Acetophenone is then reduced to an alcohol and conjugated by glutathione transferases., Excretion of chlorfenvinphos is fairly rapid. In rats, an administered dose is excreted in 4 days, mostly in urine.
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Microvilli in the tube cell may be used to reabsorb some ions.. Molecules enter the tubule in tube cells through the gap between the flame cell and tube cell for excretion.
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Following an intravenous injection of labeled estradiol in women, almost 90% is excreted in urine and feces within 4 to 5 days. Enterohepatic recirculation causes a delay in excretion of estradiol.
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Aprepitant is taken orally in the form of a capsule. Before clinical testing, a new class of therapeutic agent has to be characterized in terms of preclinical metabolism and excretion studies.
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At time of excretion, the immature oocyst contains usually one sporoblast (more rarely two). In further maturation after excretion, the sporoblast divides in two, so the oocyst now contains two sporoblasts. The sporoblasts secrete a cyst wall, thus becoming sporocysts; and the sporocysts divide twice to produce four sporozoites each. Infection occurs by ingestion of sporocyst-containing oocysts: the sporocysts excyst in the small intestine and release their sporozoites, which invade the epithelial cells and initiate schizogony.
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Her laboratory examined hemicellulose, cellulose, and pectin. They found that hemicellulose increased the levels of zinc, copper, and magnesium in fecal excretions. She also found that supplementing hemicellulose improved urinary excretion of vitamin C. Kies discovered that pectin and zinc decreased urinary excretion of vitamin C. Her later research explored the relationship between dietary fat and mineral absorption. She observed correlations between the absorption rate of iron, zinc, and manganese and decreased intake of dietary cholesterol and fat.
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One of the recognized medical therapies for prevention of stones is the thiazide and thiazide-like diuretics, such as chlorthalidone or indapamide. These drugs inhibit the formation of calcium-containing stones by reducing urinary calcium excretion. Sodium restriction is necessary for clinical effect of thiazides, as sodium excess promotes calcium excretion. Thiazides work best for renal leak hypercalciuria (high urine calcium levels), a condition in which high urinary calcium levels are caused by a primary kidney defect.
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The studies were utilized to formulate mathematical equations necessary to establish plutonium excretion rates.Stannard, James Newell, and R. W. Baalman, Jr. (1988). Radioactivity and health: A history. No. DOE/RL/01830-T59.
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Metabolism of permethrin occurs mainly in the liver, where the molecule undergoes oxidation by the cytochrome P450 system, as well as hydrolysis, into metabolites. Elimination of these metabolites occurs via urinary excretion.
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The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 89(4), 1891-1896. Insufficient levels of ADH result in increased thirst and urine output, and prolonged excessive urine excretion increases the risk of dehydration.
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Urinary Excretion of the Main Anthocyanin in Lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea), Cyanidin 3-O-Galactoside, and Its Metabolites. Henna-Maria Lehtonen, Milla Rantala, Jukka-Pekka Suomela, Matti Viitanen and Heikki Kallio, J. Agric.
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These have a high affinity for glucose and a low capacity. Functioning in conjunction, these two secondary active transporters ensure that only negligible amounts of glucose are wasted through excretion in the urine.
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It is considered fairly safe on overdose, but in these cases supportive measures are usually advised as well as measures to limit absorption (such as activated charcoal) and accelerate excretion (such as haemodialysis).
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The main excretion processes were fecal egestion, growth dilution and loss across respiratory surfaces. The excretion rate of PCBs matched with the perch's natural bioenergetics, where most of their consumption, respiration and growth rates occur during the late spring and summer. Since the perch is performing more functions in the warmer months, it naturally has a faster metabolism and has less PCB accumulation. However, multiple cold- water periods mixed with toxic PCBs with coplanar chlorine molecules can be detrimental to perch health.
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Treatment centers on limiting intake of ammonia and increasing its excretion. Dietary protein, a metabolic source of ammonium, is restricted and caloric intake is provided by glucose and fat. Intravenous arginine (argininosuccinase deficiency), sodium phenylbutyrate and sodium benzoate (ornithine transcarbamoylase deficiency) are pharmacologic agents commonly used as adjunctive therapy to treat hyperammonemia in patients with urea cycle enzyme deficiencies.eMedicine - Hyperammonemia: Article by Kazi Imran Majeed Sodium phenylbutyrate and sodium benzoate can serve as alternatives to urea for the excretion of waste nitrogen.
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It has a plasma half-life of under 20 minutes. Drugs that interfere with the secretion or action of aldosterone are in use as antihypertensives, like lisinopril, which lowers blood pressure by blocking the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), leading to lower aldosterone secretion. The net effect of these drugs is to reduce sodium and water retention but increase retention of potassium. In other words, these drugs stimulate the excretion of sodium and water in urine, while they block the excretion of potassium.
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The plasma half life was found to be different, being less than 13 hours in the dog, rabbit and monkey, it was notable longer in mice. Furthermore, there were species differences found in the rate and route of excretion of the compound. Whereas benoxaprofen was excreted into the urine by the rabbit and guinea pig, biliary excretion was the way of clearance found in rats and dogs. In all species only unchanged benoxaprofen was found in the plasma mostly extensively bound to proteins.
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In a low oxygen environment, this pathway for releasing electrons is not available. Instead, electric bacteria "breathe" metals instead of oxygen, which effectively results in both an intake of and excretion of electrical charges.
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The overall elimination half-life is 20–40 hours. It is conjugated in the kidney for excretion in the urine, where 75% of the drug is excreted, and about 15% is eliminated in feces.
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Bile acid binding resins, such as colestipol, cholestyramine, and colesevelam, function by binding bile acids, increasing their excretion. They are useful for decreasing LDL cholesterol. The most common side effects include bloating and diarrhea.
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Pregnancy category C: Risk in pregnancy cannot be ruled out. Animal controlled studies have not been conducted with this medication. Low concentrations of paracetamol is excreted through breast milk, however, hydrocodone's excretion is unknown.
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Magnesium status depends on three organs: uptake in the intestine, storage in the bone, and excretion in the kidneys. Hypermagnesemia is therefore often due to problems in these organs, mostly the intestine or kidney.
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Phrynophiurida have bursae for gas exchange and excretion. Their ventral arm shields are rudimentary, and dorsal shields usually absent. Arms sometimes are branched, and can coil vertically. The vertebrae are joined by hourglass-shaped surfaces.
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Zooplankton-mediated release of DOC occurs through sloppy feeding, excretion and defecation which can be important energy sources for microbes.Lampert, W. (1978). Release of dissolved organic carbon by grazing zooplankton. Limnol. Oceanogr. 23, 831–834.
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The former is for urine (in Japanese, literally "small excretion") and the latter for feces ("large excretion"). The lever is often pushed to the "small" setting to provide a continuous covering noise for privacy, as discussed below. A combination squat/Western toilet also exists, where a seat can be flipped down over a squat toilet, and the toilet can be used essentially the same way as the Western style. This hybrid seems to be common only in rural areas for the benefit of resident foreigners.
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Amiloride was first synthesized and discovered by the Merck Sharp and Dohme Research Laboratories in the late 1960s. The drug was discovered as part of a screening process of chemicals that reversed the effects of mineralocorticoids in vivo. Amiloride was the only drug in the screen that was capable of causing the excretion of sodium (natriuresis) without a concomitant urinary excretion of potassium (kaliuresis). Thousands of amiloride analogues have been studied since its initial discovery, which have been used to study the effects of sodium transporters.
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This is why the composition of solutes in urine differs significantly from that of the blood plasma. Urine has a high concentration of divalent ions, such as Mg2+ and SO42− (U/P>>1), as these ions are mostly excreted by the kidneys keeping their concentration in blood plasma from rising. Monovalent ions (Na+, Cl−, K+) are excreted by the gills, so their U/P ratios in the urine are below 1. The excretion of inorganic ions by structures other than kidneys is called the extrarenal salt excretion.
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Due to the complexity of B12 absorption, geriatric patients, many of whom are hypoacidic due to reduced parietal cell function, have an increased risk of B12 deficiency. This results in 80–100% excretion of oral doses in the feces versus 30–60% excretion in feces as seen in individuals with adequate IF. Once the IF/B12 complex is recognized by specialized ileal receptors, it is transported into the portal circulation. The vitamin is then transferred to transcobalamin II (TC-II/B12), which serves as the plasma transporter.
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The kidneys are slower to compensate, but renal physiology has several powerful mechanisms to control pH by the excretion of excess acid or base. In responses to acidosis, tubular cells reabsorb more bicarbonate from the tubular fluid, collecting duct cells secrete more hydrogen and generate more bicarbonate, and ammoniagenesis leads to increased formation of the NH3 buffer. In responses to alkalosis, the kidney may excrete more bicarbonate by decreasing hydrogen ion secretion from the tubular epithelial cells, and lowering rates of glutamine metabolism and ammonia excretion.
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The technetium-99m DMSA binds to the proximal convoluted tubules in kidney so the excretion pattern of the kidneys cannot be assessed by this for which renal dynamic scans using radiotracers like DTPA, MAG3 are used.
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If kidney function is normal, stopping the source of magnesium intake is sufficient. Diuretics can help increase magnesium excretion in the urine. Severe symptoms may be treated with dialysis to directly remove magnesium from the blood.
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Water in the animal body performs a number of functions: as a solvent for transportation of nutrients; as a medium for excretion; a means for heat control; as a lubricant for joints; and for shock absorption.
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Hemopexin (Hx) is another plasma glycoprotein, like hemoglobin, that is able to bind heme with high affinity. Hemopexin sequesters heme in an inert, non-toxic form and transports it to the liver for catabolism and excretion.
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10% of people taking entacapone experience a change in urine color to orange, red, brown, or black. This side effect is due to entacapone metabolism and excretion in the urine and shown to not be harmful.
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Resistance may involve rapid excretion of toxins, secretion of them within the body away from vulnerable tissues and decreased penetration through the body wall.Yu, S.J. 2008. The Toxicology and Biochemistry of Insecticides. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
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Excrement is then voided as insoluble and non-toxic uric acid granules. Excretion and osmoregulation in insects are not orchestrated by the Malpighian tubules alone, but require a joint function of the ileum and/or rectum.
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After absorption from the gastrointestinal tract, prulifloxacin undergoes extensive first-pass metabolism (hydrolysis by esterases, mainly paraoxonase to form ulifloxacin, the active metabolite). Unchanged ulifloxacin is predominantly eliminated by renal excretion. Quoting from the available package insert.
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Zafirlukast is primarily cleared through biliary excretion at a rate of 20 liters/hour. Zafirlukast is undetectable in urine. The mean terminal half-life ranges 8–16 hours, following linear kinetics up to doses of 80 mg.
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If patients are adequately supported beyond childhood, growth and development appear to be normal. Essential fructosuria is a clinically benign condition characterized by the incomplete metabolism of fructose in the liver, leading to its excretion in urine.
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It is excreted by P-glycoprotein and an affinity of 1.07 ± 0.24 mM and a Vmaxof 5.2 ± 0.4 mmol mg/protein/min were determined. Excretion of convallatoxin is mainly by the kidneys (a clogP of about -0.7).
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Most excretion of excess calcium is via the bile and feces, because the plasma calcitriol levels (which ultimately depend on the plasma calcium levels) regulate how much of the biliary calcium is reabsorbed from the intestinal contents.
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Planaria are flat worms widely used in biological research. There are sexual and asexual planaria. Sexual planaria are hermaphrodites, possessing both testicles and ovaries. Each planarian transports its excretion to the other planarian, giving and receiving sperm.
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Clearance has been shown from population pharmacokinetic studies to decrease significantly with age, increased alpha1 acid glycoprotein and albumin concentrations and decreased body surface area. Renal impairment is unlikely to affect metabolism or excretion of docetaxel as renal excretion contributes less than 5% of elimination. Limited data is available for docetaxel use in children with dosage between 55 and 75 mg/m2. Two paediatric studies have taken place that show a mean clearance of 33 L/h/m2 and concentration-time profiles best fitted by a two-compartmental model of distribution and elimination.
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Increased production of uric acid is the result of interference, by a product of fructose metabolism, in purine metabolism. This interference has a dual action, both increasing the conversion of ATP to inosine and hence uric acid and increasing the synthesis of purine. Fructose also inhibits the excretion of uric acid, apparently by competing with uric acid for access to the transport protein SLC2A9. The effect of fructose in reducing excretion of uric acid is increased in people with a hereditary (genetic) predisposition toward hyperuricemia and/or gout.
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When more sulfur containing amino acids, methionine and cystine, are consumed than the body can use for growth and repair, they are broken down yielding sulfate, or sulfuric acid among other products. Animal foods such as meat, dairy, and eggs are high in protein and “dietary animal protein intake is highly correlated with renal net acid excretion”. Research dating back to the early 1900s has shown correlations between high protein diets and increased acid excretion. One measure of the acidic or basic effects foods have in the body is Potential Renal Acid Load (PRAL).
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Pharmacokinetics refers to the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs (ADME). All psychoactive drugs are first absorbed into the bloodstream, carried in the blood to various parts of the body including the site of action (distribution), broken down in some fashion (metabolism), and ultimately removed from the body (excretion). All of these factors are very important determinants of crucial pharmacological properties of a drug, including its potency, side effects, and duration of action. Pharmacokinetic tolerance (dispositional tolerance) occurs because of a decreased quantity of the substance reaching the site it affects.
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In 1953, Yu conducted research on phenylbutazone as a treatment for various arthritic disorders, one being acute gouty arthritis. She and colleagues found that phenylbutazone injections lead to significantly higher urate clearance and more efficient excretion, making it successful in treating acute gout. In the 1960s, Yu further developed studies of gout’s mechanisms and soon discovered allopurinol, a drug that helps to prevent the formation of uric acid and is used in treating gout and kidney stones. In 1980, she studied carprofen and its effect on urinary excretion.
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Calcium is not the only electrolyte that influences the formation of kidney stones. For example, by increasing urinary calcium excretion, high dietary sodium may increase the risk of stone formation. Drinking fluoridated tap water may increase the risk of kidney stone formation by a similar mechanism, though further epidemiologic studies are warranted to determine whether fluoride in drinking water is associated with an increased incidence of kidney stones. High dietary intake of potassium appears to reduce the risk of stone formation because potassium promotes the urinary excretion of citrate, an inhibitor of calcium crystal formation.
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Single oral doses of bornaprine were successfully excreted in urine and feces in rats, dogs, and humans. The following mean excretion rates were also reported during five days for urine and feces: rat 31 and 70%, dog 53 and 39%, and humans 78 and 4%. Excretion was notably prolonged and incomplete at five days in humans, indicating a longer half life and metabolism rate of bornaprine for humans. In human subjects, bornaprine has a half life of approximately 30 hours compared to 5 and 12 hour half lives in rats and dogs, respectively.
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Phases I and II of the metabolism of a lipophilic xenobiotic. The metabolism of xenobiotics is often divided into three phases:- modification, conjugation, and excretion. These reactions act in concert to detoxify xenobiotics and remove them from cells.
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Fimasartan was found mostly in unmetabolized form in the plasma and in bile excretions. Urinary elimination of the drug was low, at less than 3% 24 hours after administration, entailing that the fimasartan does not undergo renal excretion.
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Inheriting abnormal N-acetyltransferase which conjugated some drugs to facilitate excretion may affect the metabolism of drugs such as isoniazid, hydralazine, and procainamide. Inheriting abnormal thiopurine S-methyltransferase may affect the metabolism of the thiopurine drugs mercaptopurine and azathioprine.
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These pregnadienes originated in the fetus and traveled through the placenta before reaching the mother. Their excretion indicates that neither the placenta nor the maternal organs have necessary enzymes needed to reduce the double bond of these novel metabolites.
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Similar results were reported by Neef and co-workers using rats. Metabolism and excretion: Parenteral administration of radio-labeled tetramethylammonium iodide to rats resulted in almost the whole dose being excreted in urine, without any evidence of metabolic transformation.
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Drugs that inhibit sodium/glucose cotransporter 2 inhibit renal glucose reabsorption which leads to enhanced urinary glucose excretion and lower glucose in blood. They work independently of insulin and can reduce glucose levels without causing hypoglycemia or weight gain.
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The proposal was supported by an experiment involving volunteers and silicic- acid drinks. It was found that concentration of the acid rose only briefly above the normal 1 mg Si/l level and was efficiently expelled by urine excretion.
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Some patients require ileostomy or colostomy after this procedure as alternative means of excretion. Depending on which part and how much of the intestines are removed, there may be digestive and metabolic challenges afterward, such as short bowel syndrome.
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Indoleic acid excretion is another indicator of hypertryptophanemia. Indirectly related to kynurenine metabolism, indole modifies neural function and human behavior by interacting with voltage-dependent sodium channels (integral membrane proteins that form ion channels, allowing vital synaptic action potentials).
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L-Ornithine supplementation attenuated fatigue in subjects in a placebo- controlled study using a cycle ergometer. The results suggested that L-ornithine has an antifatigue effect in increasing the efficiency of energy consumption and promoting the excretion of ammonia.
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Recurrent myoglobinuria is characterized by recurrent attacks of rhabdomyolysis (necrosis or disintegration of skeletal muscle) associated with muscle pain and weakness, and followed by excretion of myoglobin in the urine. It has been associated with mitochondrial complex IV deficiency.
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Metabolites of repaglinide are inactive and do not display glucose-lowering effects. Excretion: repaglinide is 90% excreted in the feces and 8% in the urine. 0.1% is cleared unchanged in the urine. Less than 2% is unchanged in the feces.
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Following his father's footsteps, Haldane's first publication was on the mechanism of gaseous exchange by haemoglobin, and he subsequently worked on the chemical properties of blood as a pH buffer. He investigated several aspects of kidney functions and mechanism of excretion.
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There are several ways metabolism can be modeled. For some models, a linear excretion rate is preferred. This can be accomplished with a simple differential equation. Otherwise a Michaelis-Menten equation, as follows, is generally appropriate for a more accurate result.
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This results in darkly pigmented sweat and breast milk. Excretion of the pigment is only found in endogenous ochronosis and should not occur from topical phenols. Pathophysiology of alcaptonuria is due to the absence of functional homogentisate dioxygenase in the liver.
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Agents that injure the stratum corneum, such as strong acids, are absorbed faster than chemicals that do not.Rozman, KK and Klaassen CD. Absorption, Distribution and Excretion of Toxicants. in Cassarett & Doull's Toxicology, The Basic Science of Poisons. 5th edition. 1996.
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Due to the high content of essential oils in leaves (1–2.5%), especially menthol, mint tea is popular for its curative effects. Affecting the digestive system and excretion of gastric juices, it is thought to act as an anti-inflammatory.
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Sit studied detoxification, namely the process of conjugation by which metabolic by-products are made soluble prior to excretion. She also studied metabolism within cancer cells and found aerobic respiration within mitochondria in cancer cells, which contradicts the Warburg hypothesis.
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Digestion is both intracellular and extracellular. Respiration and excretion are accomplished by simple diffusion. A network of nerves is spread throughout the body. Many Cnidaria exhibit polymorphism, wherein different types of individuals are present in a colony for different functions.
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The presence of cystine in urine is often indicative of amino acid reabsorption defects. Cystinuria has been reported to occur in dogs. In humans the excretion of high levels of cystine crystals can be indicative of cystinosis, a rare genetic disease.
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The appendicular skeleton (126 bones) is formed by the pectoral girdles, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle or pelvis, and the lower limbs. Their functions are to make locomotion possible and to protect the major organs of digestion, excretion and reproduction.
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In addition, it inhibits excretion of fibroblast growth factor 2 through membrane interaction and through inhibition of the Na,K-ATPase pump. However, there are no results from clinical testing on humans that support any use as a cancer treatment.
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Here they act by increasing the expression of ABCA1, which transports extra-hepatic cholesterol into HDL. Increased uptake and excretion from the liver therefore follows. Animal studies have shown their possible role in amelioration of pulmonary inflammation, especially in asthma.
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Insects at different life stages can be collected by sieving followed by water cleaning when it is necessary to remove biomass or excretion. Before processing, the insects are sieved and stored alive at 4 ℃ for about one day without any feed.
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Vitamin C administration may also acidify the urine and could promote the precipitation of kidney stones or drugs in the urine. Although vitamin C can be well tolerated at doses well above what government organizations recommend, adverse effects can occur at doses above 3 grams per day. The common "threshold" side effect of megadoses is diarrhea. Other possible adverse effects include increased oxalate excretion and kidney stones, increased uric acid excretion, systemic conditioning ("rebound scurvy"), preoxidant effects, iron overload, reduced absorption of vitamin B12 and copper, increased oxygen demand, and acid erosion of the teeth when chewing vitamin C tablets.
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Two pathophysiologic mechanisms are thought to play a role in the development of gray baby syndrome after exposure to the anti-microbial drug chloramphenicol. This condition is due to a lack of glucuronidation reactions occurring in the baby, thus leading to an accumulation of toxic chloramphenicol metabolites: # The UDP-glucuronyl transferase enzyme system of infants, especially premature infants, is immature and incapable of metabolizing the excessive drug load. # Insufficient renal excretion of the unconjugated drug. Insufficient metabolism and excretion of chloramphenicol leads to increased blood concentrations of the drug, causing blockade of the electron transport of the liver, myocardium, and skeletal muscles.
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In humans, the major route of excretion of most arsenic compounds is via the urine. The biological half-life of inorganic arsenic is about 4 days, but is slightly shorter following exposure to arsenate than to arsenite. The main metabolites excreted in the urine of humans exposed to inorganic arsenic are mono- and dimethylated arsenic acids, together with some unmetabolized inorganic arsenic. The biotransformation of arsenic for excretion is primarily done through the nuclear factor erythroid 2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway. Under normal conditions the Nrf2 is bound to Kelch-like ECH associated protein 1 (Keap1) in its inactive form.
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An aquaretic is a novel class of drug that is used to promote aquaresis, the excretion of water without electrolyte loss. Strictly speaking, aquaretics are not diuretics, but are sometimes classified as such. Aquaresis is preferable to diuresis in the treatment of hyponatremia.
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The majority of drugs that contribute to hypouricemia are uricosurics (drugs that increase the excretion of uric acid from the blood into the urine). Others include drugs that reduce the production of uric acid: xanthine oxidase inhibitors, urate oxidase (rasburicase), and sevelamer.
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Water for respiration and excretion is drawn in under the edge of the shell and exits through the "keyhole" at or near the apex. Like all other fissurellids, these sea snails are herbivores, and use the radula to scrape algae from rocks.
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It has an oral bioavailability of 80%, protein binding of >99%, metabolism sites of the GI mucosa and liver, volume of distribution (Vd) of 0.13 L/kg, elimination half- life of 14–18 days and excretion routes of faeces (48%) and urine (43%).
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The third locus (mct) encodes a membrane-associated protein involved in the excretion of MC from the cell.Sheldon PJ, Mao Y, He M, Sherman DH. 1999. Mitomycin Resistance in Streptomyces lavendulae Includes a Novel Drug-Binding-Protein-Dependent Export System. Journal of Bacteriology.
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In the Lepidoptera, the order is as given here; ester cleavage preceding epoxide hydration. Either one terminates the activity of the hormone. JH diol acid, the product of both enzymes, is acted on by JH diol kinase to increase the solubility for excretion.
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Like all other fissurellids, Fissurella species are herbivores, using the radula to scrape up algae from the surface of rocks. Water for respiration and excretion is drawn in under the edge of the shell and exits through the "keyhole" at the apex.
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Long-term exposure and consequent excretion through urine has been linked to bladder and kidney cancer in addition to cancer of the liver, prostate, skin, lungs, and nasal cavity.The Tox Guide for Arsenic (2007). The US Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
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The developing of certain diseases such as renal microvascular disease and capillary rarefaction may relate to this decrease in efficiency of sodium excretion. There is experimental evidence that suggests that renal microvascular disease is an important mechanism for inducing salt-sensitive hypertension.
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These tubules bear a tuft of cilia or flagellum. An organ of excretion in flatworms: a hollow cup-shaped cell containing a bunch of cilia or flagellum, whose movement draws in waste products and wafts them to the outside through a connecting tubule.
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Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors are primarily used for the treatment of glaucoma. They may also be used to treat seizure disorder and acute mountain sickness. Because they encourage solubilization and excretion of uric acid, they can be used in the treatment of gout.
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Salcatonin is the type of calcitonin hormone found in salmon. As in humans, salmon calcitonin is a peptide hormone secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland in response to hypercalcemia, and lowers blood calcium and phosphate by promoting renal excretion.
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Also a disease called "angiogenia" appears.GUYTON, A.C., HALL, J.E "Tratado De Fisiologia Médica" 10. Ed. Rj . Elsevier Saunders: 2011; 530 The kidneys respond to low carbon dioxide partial pressure by decreasing the secretion of hydrogen ions, and increasing the excretion of bicarbonate.
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Ammonotelism is the excretion of ammonia and ammonium ions. Ammonia (NH3) forms with the oxidation of amino groups.(-NH2), which are removed from the proteins when they convert into carbohydrates. It is a very toxic substance to tissues and extremely soluble in water.
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This gene encodes a serine/threonine protein kinase that plays an important role in cellular stress response. This kinase activates certain potassium, sodium, and chloride channels, suggesting an involvement in the regulation of processes such as cell survival, neuronal excitability, and renal sodium excretion.
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Polymethylsiloxane polyhydrate (PMSPH) is a material use for sorption detoxification. It acts as sorbent for binding toxic substances of various natures, pathogens and metabolites in the gastrointestinal tract and their excretion. PMSPH is a homogeneous paste-like mass of white or almost white color, odorless.
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The conversion is nonenzymatic and irreversible. Men tend to have higher concentrations of creatinine than women because, in general, they have a greater mass of skeletal muscle. Increased dietary intake of creatine or eating a lot of protein (like meat) can increase daily creatinine excretion.
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The water is circulated by the action of the gills. Usually water enters the mantle cavity through the inhalant siphon, moves over the gills, and leaves through the exhalant siphon. The water current is utilized for respiration, but also for filter feeding, excretion, and reproduction.
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Resorptive cells, which may be unique to harvestmen, contain lipid droplets, glycogen and mineral spherites. These spherites are also common in many arachnids. They seem to function in heavy metal excretion and mineral storage. Overwintering juveniles store calcium and phosphates in it for molting.
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Fibroblasts also secrete growth factors that attract epithelial cells to the wound site. Hypoxia also contributes to fibroblast proliferation and excretion of growth factors, though too little oxygen will inhibit their growth and deposition of ECM components, and can lead to excessive, fibrotic scarring.
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Bisoprolol has both lipid- and water-soluble properties. It has an approximate half-life of 10–12 hours, and when ingested has high bioavailability (approx. 90%). When being eliminated, the body evenly distributes it (50–50) between kidney excretion and liver biotransformation (then excreted).
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Potassium homeostasis denotes the maintenance of the total body potassium content, plasma potassium level, and the ratio of the intracellular to extracellular potassium concentrations within narrow limits, in the face of pulsatile intake (meals), obligatory renal excretion, and shifts between intracellular and extracellular compartments.
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Carbon dioxide, for example, is reduced to methane (CH4) by methanogenic bacteria. The physiology of fish is also specially adapted to compensate for environmental salt levels through osmoregulation. Their gills form electrochemical gradients that mediate salt excretion in salt water and uptake in fresh water.
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Their kidneys return water to the body. The reverse happens in freshwater fish: they tend to gain water osmotically. Their kidneys produce dilute urine for excretion. Some fish have specially adapted kidneys that vary in function, allowing them to move from freshwater to saltwater.
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In 2019, the first NIR-absorbing plasmonic ultrasmall-in-nano architecture has been reported, and jointly combine: (i) a suitable photothermal conversion for hyperthermia treatments, (ii) the possibility of multiple photothermal treatments and (iii) renal excretion of the building blocks after the therapeutic action.
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EP2 receptor-deficient mice develop mild systolic and/or systemic hypertension which is worsened by high dietary intake of salt. These effects are thought to be due to the loss of EP2's vasodilation effects and/or ability to increase the urinary excretion of salt.
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Dimercaprol in combination with iron is toxic for the kidneys. The antibiotic chloramphenicol interferes with incorporation of iron into red blood cells and with iron excretion. Furthermore, iron can reduce the blood pressure lowering effects of methyldopa. Maltol is metabolized by the enzyme UGT1A6.
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Atorvastatin is primarily eliminated via hepatic biliary excretion, with less than 2% recovered in the urine. Bile elimination follows hepatic and/or extrahepatic metabolism. There does not appear to be any entero-hepatic recirculation. Atorvastatin has an approximate elimination half-life of 14 hours.
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The adhesion may be due to the excretion of liquid from adhesive pads, although setae can adhere in both dry and wet modes.Peattie, A. Dirks, J. Henriques, S. and W. Federle. 2011. Arachnids secrete a fluid over their adhesive pads. PLoSOne 6(5): e20485.
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Radioactivity of plasma terconazole is low compared to terconazole at 0.6%. Excretion of radioactivity is via two routes, renal (32–53%) and fecal (47–52%). Metabolism is extensive and is highly protein bound (94.9%) with the degree of binding being independent of drug concentration.
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Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function. Fat also serves as a useful buffer against a host of diseases. When a particular substance, whether chemical or biotic, reaches unsafe levels in the bloodstream, the body can effectively dilute—or at least maintain equilibrium of—the offending substances by storing it in new fat tissue. This helps to protect vital organs, until such time as the offending substances can be metabolized or removed from the body by such means as excretion, urination, accidental or intentional bloodletting, sebum excretion, and hair growth.
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The fractional excretion of sodium (FENa) is the percentage of the sodium filtered by the kidney which is excreted in the urine. It is measured in terms of plasma and urine sodium, rather than by the interpretation of urinary sodium concentration alone, as urinary sodium concentrations can vary with water reabsorption. Therefore, the urinary and plasma concentrations of sodium must be compared to get an accurate picture of kidney clearance. In clinical use, the fractional excretion of sodium can be calculated as part of the evaluation of acute kidney failure in order to determine if hypovolemia or decreased effective circulating plasma volume is a contributor to the kidney failure.
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The original paper by Wrong and Davies examined the effect of the ‘short ammonium chloride loading test’ on acid excretion by the kidney. A key insight was that in the group of diseases termed ‘Renal Tubular Acidosis’ (RTA), urinary excretion of ammonium was relatively well preserved. This was unlike the situation in chronic kidney failure. Furthermore, the paper identified a subset of patients with ‘incomplete’ RTA. In large part due to Wrong's work, it is now recognized that classical ‘distal’ or ‘Type 1 RTA’, due to the disease of the distal tubule, is only one form of the disease. ‘Proximal’ or ‘Type 2 RTA’ is another.
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2), amino acid residues involved in both uptake and excretion, or solely in excretion are located in the cytoplasmic loops and the cytoplasmic side of transmembrane segments, whereas residues involved in uptake are located in the periplasmic loops and the transmembrane segments. A hydrophilic cavity is proposed to be formed by the transmembrane segments II, III, IV, VI, VII, X, XI, and XII. Based on 3-D structures of APC superfamily members, Rudnick (2011) has proposed the pathway for transport and suggested a "rocking bundle" mechanism. The structure and function of the cadaverine- lysine antiporter, CadB (2.A.3.2.2), and the putrescine-ornithine antiporter, PotE (2.A.3.2.
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To regulate this excess and secrete these unwanted toxins, C. livia must remove the amine groups as uric acid. Nitrogen excretion through uric acid can be considered an advantage because it does not require a lot of water, but producing it takes more energy because of its complex molecular composition. Pigeons adjust their drinking rates and food intake in parallel, and when adequate water is unavailable for excretion, food intake is limited to maintain water balance. As this species inhabits arid environments, research attributes this to their strong flying capabilities to reach the available water sources, not because of exceptional potential for water conservation.
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A baseline excretion of Neu5Gc exists, and it is incorporated into all body parts, some of which—mucins, hair, saliva, serum and blood, are commonly excreted. Neu5Gc is rapidly absorbed in the intestinal tract, some of which is converted to acylmannosamines by intestinal cells and bacteria, and reconverted back to Neu5Gc in the body. According to an absorption study, about 3–6% of the ingested dose of Neu5Gc was excreted within 4–6 hours, with the peak excretion rate at 2–3 h and a return to baseline levels within 24 h. In mucins, an increase was seen from day 1 to 4, with increased also found in hair after ingestion.
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Simcyp Limited is a research-based company which provides modelling and simulation software to the pharmaceutical industry for use during drug development. Simcyp is based in Sheffield, UK. Simcyp’s Simulators allow in silico prediction of drug absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) and potential drug-drug interactions.
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Medical treatments are available for Wilson's disease. Some increase the removal of copper from the body, while others prevent the absorption of copper from the diet. Generally, penicillamine is the first treatment used. This binds copper (chelation) and leads to excretion of copper in the urine.
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It is contraindicated in patients with cystitis and urinary tract infections. It is sparingly metabolised in the liver to two inactive metabolites. Most of the drug is eliminated unchanged in the urine. Renal disease impairs excretion, and it should be used with caution in renal disease.
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Estrone is excreted in urine in the form of estrogen conjugates such as estrone sulfate. Following an intravenous injection of labeled estrone in women, almost 90% is excreted in urine and feces within 4 to 5 days. Enterohepatic recirculation causes a delay in excretion of estrone.
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Daily intramuscular injections of 1 mg estradiol benzoate in oil solution have been found to produce estradiol excretion rates almost double those of the normal luteal phase. This is in accordance with known production rates of estradiol in women (e.g., 300 µg/day in the luteal phase).
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Biliary route is the main pathway of excretion. No significant amount of unchanged drug was excreted in urine. In the urine collected for 24 h after an oral dosing, 1.1 % of the dose was excreted as deaminated Efonidipine, and 0.5% as a pyridine analogue of deaminated Efonidipine.
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A product of the bacterial biosynthesis of tryptophan is indole. The excess of tryptophan in hypertryptophanemia also results in substantial excretion of indoleic acids. These findings suggest a possible congenital defect in the metabolic pathway where tryptophan is converted to kynurenine. Kynurenine, a metabolite of tryptophan.
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The effects of chrysin are reliant on its bioavailability and solubility. Following oral intake by humans, chrysin has low bioavailability and rapid excretion. As a result, it is poorly absorbed. A 1998 study determined that the highest amounts in plasma was from 12 to 64 nM.
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PTH acts to decrease phosphate reabsorption from the renal filtrate and therefore promote its excretion into the urine. It does this by causing for endocytosis of NaPi transporters on the apical surface of the cell. With less transporter available more phosphate is lost in the urine.
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Increased uronic acid is demonstrated in cultured fibroblasts from the skin and to a lesser degree in both parents. Despite initial tests not showing increased mucopolysaccharide excretion, the disease was regarded as a mucopolysaccharidosis. Winchester syndrome is thought to be inherited as an autosomal recessive trait.
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Medeiros, L. S., et al. Ammonia excretion in fat snook (Centropomus parallelus Poey, 1860) at different salinities. Aquaculture Research epub ahead of print, April 2, 2014. This species is protandrous, the form of sequential hermaphroditism in which males change to the female sex as they grow.
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Simulations Plus, Inc. develops absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET) modeling and simulation software for the pharmaceutical and biotechnology, industrial chemicals, cosmetics, food ingredients, and herbicide industries. In September 2014, the company acquired Cognigen Corporation, a leading provider of clinical trial data analysis and consulting services.
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Furosemide 125mg vials for intravenous application A diuretic () is any substance that promotes diuresis, the increased production of urine. This includes forced diuresis. There are several categories of diuretics. All diuretics increase the excretion of water from bodies, although each class does so in a distinct way.
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Alpha-aminoadipic and alpha-ketoadipic aciduria is an autosomal recessive metabolic disorder characterized by an increased urinary excretion of alpha- ketoadipic acid and alpha-aminoadipic acid. It is caused by mutations in DHTKD1, which encodes the E1 subunit of the oxoglutarate dehydrogenase complex (alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex).
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The few exceptions generally have simple, filamentous gills. Excretion is through small ducts known as metanephridia. Terrestrial oligochaetes secrete urea, but the aquatic forms typically secrete ammonia, which dissolves rapidly into the water. The vascular system consists of two main vessels connected by lateral vessels in each segment.
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Where venesection is not possible, long-term administration of desferrioxamine mesylate is useful. Desferrioxamine is an iron-chelating compound, and excretion induced by desferrioxamine is enhanced by administration of vitamin C. It cannot be used during pregnancy or breast-feeding due to risk of defects in the child.
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Idiopathic hypouricemia usually requires no treatment. In some cases, hypouricemia is a medical sign of an underlying condition that does require treatment. For example, if hypouricemia reflects high excretion of uric acid into the urine (hyperuricosuria) with its risk of uric acid nephrolithiasis, the hyperuricosuria may require treatment.
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Struvite urinary stones and crystals form readily in the urine of animals and humans that are infected with ammonia-producing organisms. They are potentiated by alkaline urine and high magnesium excretion (high magnesium/plant-based diets). They also are potentiated by a specific urinary protein in domestic cats.
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Rectal discharge is intermittent or continuous expression of liquid from the anus (per rectum). Normal rectal mucus is needed for proper excretion of waste. Otherwise, this is closely related to types of fecal incontinence (e.g. fecal leakage) but the term rectal discharge does not necessarily imply degrees of incontinence.
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Another study reported that about one-third of patients were alcoholic, diabetic, and malnourished, while another ten percent had been immunosuppressed through chemotherapy, steroids, or malignancy. Fournier gangrene is a recognized side effect of SGLT2 inhibitors (canagliflozin, dapagliflozin, and empagliflozin), which increase the excretion of glucose in the urine.
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Katsanevakis, S., Stephanopoulou, S., Miliou, H., Moraitou- Apostolopoulou, M. & Verriopoulos, G. (2005). Oxygen consumption and ammonia excretion of Octopus vulgaris (Cephalopoda) in relation to body mass and temperature. Marine Biology, 146, 725–732. . This increased demand is met by an increase in the stroke volume of the octopus' heart.
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Originally, the anchoring method involved suturing the gland to the globe. This method was superseded over time due to the risky and difficult nature of the surgery, along with a high rate of recurrence. Anchoring approaches from posterior may disrupt normal fluid excretion. Subsequently, an anterior approach was introduced.
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Veterinary influenza vaccination aims to achieve the following four objectives:Influenza Report (online book) chapter Avian Influenza by Timm C. Harder and Ortrud Werner # Protection from clinical disease # Protection from infection with virulent virus # Protection from virus excretion # Serological differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals (so-called DIVA principle).
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Pharmacokinetics studies the manner and speed with which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated by the various excretory organs. This elimination will be proportional to the drug's plasmatic concentrations. In order to model these processes a working definition is required for some of the concepts related to excretion.
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Hereditary coproporphyria (HCP) and harderoporphyria are two phenotypically separate disorders that concern partial deficiency of CPOX. Neurovisceral symptomatology predominates in HCP. Additionally, it may be associated with abdominal pain and/or skin photosensitivity. Hyper-excretion of coproporphyrin III in urine and faeces has been recorded in biochemical tests.
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However, since there are no data to show excretion of salmeterol in a mother's breast milk, a decision on whether to continue or discontinue therapy should be decided based on the important benefits it provides to the mother. Pregnant and lactating women should consult their doctors before using salmeterol.
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Manganese may affect liver function, but the threshold of acute toxicity is very high. On the other hand, more than 95% of manganese is eliminated by biliary excretion. Any existing liver damage may slow this process, increasing its concentration in blood plasma.Ballatori N. Molecular mechanisms of hepatic metal transport.
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Elimination is by excretion in the bile and then feces. Pimobendan is 90–95% bound to plasma proteins in circulation. This may have implications in patients suffering from low blood protein levels (hypoproteinemia/hypoalbuminemia) and in patients that are on concurrent therapies that are also highly protein bound.
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Ammonia excretion is common in aquatic animals. In humans, it is quickly converted to urea, which is much less toxic, particularly less basic. This urea is a major component of the dry weight of urine. Most reptiles, birds, insects, and snails excrete uric acid solely as nitrogenous waste.
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An animal's metabolism can produce harmful substances which it can then make less toxic through reduction, oxidation (collectively known as redox reactions), conjugation and excretion of molecules from cells or tissues. This is called xenobiotic metabolism.L-60: Xenobiotic Metabolism (archived version).Xenobiotic Metabolism-Oxford Biomedical Research Inc (archived version).
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Some of the important clinical interactions of probenecid include those with captopril, indomethacin, ketoprofen, ketorolac, naproxen, cephalosporins, quinolones, penicillins, methotrexate, zidovudine, ganciclovir, lorazepam, and acyclovir. In all these interactions, the excretion of these drugs is reduced due to probenecid, which in turn can lead to increased concentrations of these.
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After oral administration, peak serum concentration is reached after 1–2 hours and up to 99% of the drug is bound to plasma proteins. The majority of ibuprofen is metabolised and eliminated within 24 hours in the urine; however, 1% of the unchanged drug is removed through biliary excretion.
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Howland published research on rickets, tetany and diarrhea. He and William McKim Marriott demonstrated that acidosis in diarrheal illnesses was caused by the excretion of bicarbonate in the stools rather than by a toxin, and with Edwards A. Park he showed that tetany was caused by alkalosis and hypocalcemia.
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However, infection may not always result in disease as the virus can be isolated in healthy cattle. Once infected, the cattle shed the virus for approximately 10 days in the respiratory secretions or feces—some cattle may become persistently infected, resulting in excretion of the virus for much longer.
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Estrone is excreted in urine in the form of estrogen conjugates such as estrone sulfate and estrone glucuronide. Following an intravenous injection of labeled estrone in women, almost 90% is excreted in urine and feces within 4 to 5 days. Enterohepatic recirculation causes a delay in excretion of estrone.
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Penicillin is actively excreted, and about 80% of a penicillin dose is cleared from the body within three to four hours of administration. Indeed, during the early penicillin era, the drug was so scarce and so highly valued that it became common to collect the urine from patients being treated, so that the penicillin in the urine could be isolated and reused. This was not a satisfactory solution, so researchers looked for a way to slow penicillin excretion. They hoped to find a molecule that could compete with penicillin for the organic acid transporter responsible for excretion, such that the transporter would preferentially excrete the competing molecule and the penicillin would be retained.
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Bendsen, N.T., Hother, A.L., Jensen S.K., Lorenzen J.K. and Astrup, A. (2008). Effect of dairy calcium on fecal fat excretion: a randomized crossover trial. International Journal of Obesity. 32: 1816–1824 In these studies, a high calcium intake is considered 2300 mg and a low calcium intake is considered 700 mg.
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In gout, the acute inflammatory arthritis is caused by excess uric acid caused by either overproduction or under-excretion. Before the age of menopause, women have a lower incidence than males, but the rates are equal above this age. Gout can cause mono- or polyarthritis, but usually results in monoarthritis first.
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M1 possesses about of pharmacological activity of glimepiride, yet it is unknown if this results in clinically meaningful effect on blood glucose. M1 is further metabolized to M2 metabolite by cytosolic enzymes. M2 is pharmacologically inactive. Excretion in the urine is about 65%, and the remainder is excreted in the feces.
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Treatment is based on the symptoms and severity of the disease. Iron chelators may be used to bind excess iron in tissues and allow for excretion of the excess metal. Individuals with hemochromatosis type 4B may be treated with therapeutic phlebotomy. However, individuals with hemochromatosis type 4A may not require treatment.
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During a normal pregnancy, many maternal physiological changes occur and there is an increase in insulin needs due to increased hormonal secretions that regulate blood glucose levels, glucose-'drain' to the fetus, slowed emptying of the stomach, increased excretion of glucose by the kidneys and resistance of cells to insulin.
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Glutathione facilitates metabolism of xenobiotics. Glutathione S-transferase enzymes catalyze its conjugation to lipophilic xenobiotics, facilitating their excretion or further metabolism. The conjugation process is illustrated by the metabolism of N-acetyl-p- benzoquinone imine (NAPQI). NAPQI is a reactive metabolite formed by the action of cytochrome P450 on paracetamol (acetaminophen).
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Tiopronin (trade name Thiola) is a prescription thiol drug used to control the rate of cystine precipitation and excretion in the disease cystinuria. Due to the rarity of the disorder, tiopronin falls under the classification of an orphan drug. It is somewhat similar to penicillamine in both chemistry and pharmacology.
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Fractional excretion of other substances can be measured to determine kidney clearance including urea, uric acid, and lithium. These can be used in patients undergoing diuretic therapy, since diuretics induce a natriuresis. Thus, the urinary sodium concentration and FENa may be higher in patients receiving diuretics in spite of prerenal pathology.
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Hypothyroidism is the most common thyroid abnormality associated with PFAS exposure. PFASs have been shown to decrease thyroid peroxidase, resulting in decreased production and activation of thyroid hormones in vivo. Other proposed mechanisms include alterations in thyroid hormone signaling, metabolism and excretion as well as function of nuclear hormone receptor.
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In phase I studies, when given once every 28 days, the main dose-limiting toxicities (DLT) of Triplatin (BBR 3464) were neutropenia and diarrhea encountered at a dose level of 1.1 mg/m2. Diarrhea was treatable with loperamide. Lack of nephrotoxicity and low urinary excretion supported use of drug without hydration.
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Betahistine comes in both a tablet form as well as an oral solution, and is taken orally. It is rapidly and completely absorbed. The mean plasma elimination half-life is 3 to 4 hours, and excretion is virtually complete in the urine within 24 hours. Plasma protein binding is very low.
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The FDA has assigned lacosamide to pregnancy category C. Animal studies have reported incidences of fetal mortality and growth deficit. Lacosamide has not been tested during human pregnancy, and should be administered with caution. In addition, it has not been determined whether the excretion of lacosamide occurs in breast milk.
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The kidneys are specialized to minimize water loss through excretion. Groups of camels avoid excess heat from the environment by pressing against each other. The dromedary can tolerate greater than 30% water loss, which is generally impossible for other mammals. In temperatures between , it needs water every 10 to 15 days.
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Likewise, the plasma half-life of (R)-MDMA was significantly longer than that of the (S)-enantiomer (5.8 ± 2.2 hours vs 3.6 ± 0.9 hours). However, because MDMA excretion and metabolism have nonlinear kinetics, the half-lives would be higher at more typical doses (100 mg is sometimes considered a typical dose).
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The fibroblasts contain organelles that are necessary for the synthesis and excretion of proteins needed to repair the tissue damage. Fibrocytes usually do not leave the connective tissue. Reticular cells are usually larger than fibrocytes. Reticular cells are the fibrocytes of reticular connective tissue and form a network of reticular fibers.
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Hence, the urine retains more uric acid, lowering uric acid concentration in the plasma. This is a good example of a medical usage for competition between substrates transported across cell membranes. This same effect, however, alters excretion of acidic drugs by the kidney, leading to the many drug interactions noted above.
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During World War II, probenecid was used to extend limited supplies of penicillin; this use exploited probenecid's interference with drug elimination (via urinary excretion) in the kidneys and allowed lower doses of penicillin to be used. Probenecid was added to the International Olympic Committee's list of banned substances in January 1988.
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This also leads to an increased urinary orotic acid excretion, because the orotic acid is not being properly utilized and must be eliminated. The hyperammonemia depletes alpha-ketoglutarate leading to the inhibition of the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) decreasing adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production. Orotic aciduria is a cause of megaloblastic anaemia.
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Hydrolysis of tefluthrin occurs at the ester bond which results in cyhalothrin acid and 4-methyl-2,3,5,6-tetrafluorobenzyl alcohol, which can be further oxidized into the corresponding carboxylic acid. In phase II metabolism, the phase I metabolites are glucuronidated on any available alcohol groups to facilitate membrane transport and eventually excretion.
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Such factors may have not been properly accounted for in certain studies observing TMA and TMAO level related mortality. Causality may be reverse or confounding and large choline intake might not increase mortality in humans. For example, kidney dysfunction predisposes for cardiovascular diseases, but can also decrease TMA and TMAO excretion.
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ABCG5 and ABCG8 genes encode for two proteins sterolin-1 and -2, respectively. Sterolin-1 and –2 are two ‘half’ adenosine triphosphate binding (ATP) cassette (ABC) transporters which found to be indispensable for the regulation of sterol absorption and excretion. Mutations in either genes result in a lipid disorder, sitosterolemia.
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Similar signs and symptoms have been observed in accidental human poisonings. The mechanisms of toxic action are unknown. Fecal excretion accounts for most of the elimination from the body. Ethylmercury clears from blood with a half-life of about 18 days in adults by breakdown into other chemicals, including inorganic mercury.
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A proportion of people have mutations in the proteins responsible for the excretion of uric acid by the kidneys. Variants within a number of genes have so far been identified: SLC2A9; ABCG2; SLC17A1; SLC22A11; SLC22A12; SLC16A9; GCKR; LRRC16A; and PDZK1. SLC2A9 is known to transport both uric acid and fructose.
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The various measures often used to assess the progress of people being treated for heart failure include fluid balance (calculation of fluid intake and excretion) and monitoring body weight (which in the shorter term reflects fluid shifts). Remote monitoring can be effective to reduce complications for people with heart failure.
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Dugesia digestion tract consists of a central non-pigmented tubular pharynx. Like the other triclads, Dugesia's gut consists in three ramified branches. Each branch consists of ceca, which delivers the nutrients to the body. This worm has a sac digestive plan, that is, it does not have a separate opening for waste excretion.
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Pyruvate oxidation via the pyruvate dehydrogenase route. The metabolic pathway can be genetically engineered in order to have succinic acid as the only excretion product.van Heerden, C.D.; Nicol, W. (2013). “Continuous and batch cultures of Escherichia coli KJ134 for succinic acid fermentation: metabolic flux distributions and production characteristics”, Microbial Cell Factories, 12:80.
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A 2009 study compared the saliva glucose levels of diabetic patients to those of non-diabetic controls. The authors reported that “salivary [glucose] concentration and excretion were much higher in diabetic patients than in control subjects.” In 2009 Rao, et al., investigated salivary biomarkers that could aid identification of type-2 diabetic individuals.
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The half-life varies in around 8 hours at normal doses. Excretion is 65% through urine, mostly in unmetabolized form, and 28% via feces. Clearance is reduced in people with severe kidney disease. Delafloxacin is more active (lower MIC90) than other quinolones against Gram-positive bacteria such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).
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The elimination of ADMA occurs through urine excretion and metabolism by the enzyme dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase (DDAH). The role of homocysteine as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease is suggested to be mediated by homocysteine down-regulating production of DDAH in the body. Polyphenol antioxidants also play a role in down-regulating homocysteine.
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It can increase the risk for adverse effects of methotrexate and lithium by lowering their excretion via the kidneys. It can increase the kidney toxicity of ciclosporin and tacrolimus. Combination with antihypertensive drugs such as ACE inhibitors, sartans and diuretics can decrease their effectiveness as well as increase the risk for kidney toxicity.
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Biomarkers of exposure are the actual chemicals, or chemical metabolites, that can be measured in the body or after excretion from the body to determine different characteristics of an organism’s exposure. For example, a person or fish’s blood can be tested to see the levels of lead and therefore determine the exposure.
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The VOLT, median eminence, and subfornical organ are interconnected with the mid-ventral hypothalamus, and together these three structures surround the third ventricle, a complex often called the "AV3V" region. This region functions in the regulation of fluid and electrolyte balance by controlling thirst, sodium excretion, blood volume regulation, and vasopressin secretion.
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It is also a substrate of the hepatic uptake transporter organic anion-transporting polypeptides (OATPs) OATP1B1, OATP1B3, and OATP2B1. Elimination of bosentan is mostly hepatic, with minimal contribution from renal and fecal excretion. Use of bosentan with cyclosporine is contraindicated because cyclosporine A has been shown to markedly increase serum concentration of bosentan.
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However, sodium urine can be low in a euvolemic patient with heart failure, cirrhosis, or nephrotic syndrome. Fractional excretion of sodium under 1% is also suggestive of volume depletion. Elevated urine osmolality can also suggest hypovolemia. However, this number also can be elevated in the setting of impaired concentrating ability by the kidneys.
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Hyperaldosteronism (the syndrome caused by elevated aldosterone) is commonly caused by either idiopathic adrenal hyperplasia or by an adrenal adenoma. The two main resulting problems: # Hypertension and edema due to excessive Na+ and water retention. # Accelerated excretion of potassium ions (K+). With extreme K+ loss there is muscle weakness and eventually paralysis.
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Like all other fissurellids, Diodora species are herbivores, and use the radula to scrape algae from rocks. An exception is D. apertura, which grazes on sponges such as Hymeniacidon. Water for respiration and excretion is drawn in under the edge of the shell and exits through the "keyhole" at or near the apex.
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Montvale, NJ: Medical Economics Company Inc; 1998:2563-5. These symptoms are often called the disulfiram-like reaction. The proposed mechanism of action for this interaction is that metronidazole can bind to an enzyme that normally metabolizes alcohol. Binding to this enzyme may impair the liver's ability to process alcohol for proper excretion.
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This helps the body to maintain normal volume status and electrolyte balance, increasing the blood pressure. Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists decrease the aldosterone effect by binding to the mineralocorticoid receptor inhibiting aldosterone. This leads to higher levels of potassium in serum and increased sodium excretion, resulting in decreased body fluid and lower blood pressure.
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Their kidneys produce dilute urine for excretion. Some fish have specially adapted kidneys that vary in function, allowing them to move from freshwater to saltwater. In sharks, digestion can take a long time. The food moves from the mouth to a J-shaped stomach, where it is stored and initial digestion occurs.
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Currie, S., B. Bagatto, M. DeMille, A. Learner, D. LeBlanc, C. Marks, K. Ong, J. Parker, N. Templeman, B.L. Tufts, and P.A. Wright. 2010. Metabolism, nitrogen excretion, and heat shock proteins in the central mudminnow (Umbra limi), a facultative air-breathing fish living in a variable environment. NRC Research 88: 43-58.
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Thus, total body clearance is equal to the sum clearance of the substance by each organ (e.g., renal clearance + hepatic clearance + lung clearance = total body clearance). For many drugs, however, clearance is solely a function of renal excretion. In these cases, clearance is almost synonymous with renal clearance or renal plasma clearance.
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P. psammophila is dioecious with individuals being male or female. The gametes are released into the metacoel to mature and for storage. Sperm pass out into the water column through nephridiopores, which are also used for the excretion of waste products. The sperm are formed into little balls called spermatophores by specialist organs.
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Half-life elimination is 6–7 days for people with normal lab results; 9–10 days for people with hypothyroidism; 3–4 days for people with hyperthyroidism. Thyroid hormones are primarily eliminated by the kidneys (about 80%), with urinary excretion decreasing with age. The remaining 20% of T4 is eliminated in the stool.
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Radioactivity is also seen in the bladder, from normal renal excretion of iodide. It localizes to adrenergic tissue and thus can be used to identify the location of tumors such as pheochromocytomas and neuroblastomas. With I-131 it can also be used to eradicate tumor cells that take up and metabolize norepinephrine.
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Levamisole's excretion is primarily through the kidneys, with about 70% being excreted over 3 days. Only about 5% is excreted as unchanged levamisole. Drug testing of racehorse urine has led to the revelation that among levamisole equine metabolites are both pemoline and aminorex, stimulants that are forbidden by racing authorities.J. Scarth et al.
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The metabolic processes required for alcohol elimination deplete essential vitamins and electrolytes. Furthermore, alcohol is a diuretic, causing excretion of electrolytes through urination. After a night of drinking, the resulting lack of key B and C vitamins, as well as potassium, magnesium, and zinc may cause fatigue, aching and other hangover-like symptoms.
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The berry clusters often sag down below the glossy foliage. Berries are dispersed by birds and, when present, raccoons through consumption and subsequent excretion and also by water flow.Langeland, K.A., Burks, K.C., "ARDISIA CRENATA SIMS", "Identification and Biology of Non- Native Plants in Florida's Natural Areas", 1998. Retrieved on 28 November 2012.
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Because the hypothalamus/osmoreceptor system ordinarily works well to cause drinking or urination to restore the body's sodium concentrations to normal, this system can be used in medical treatment to regulate the body's total fluid content, by first controlling the body's sodium content. Thus, when a powerful diuretic drug is given which causes the kidneys to excrete sodium, the effect is accompanied by an excretion of body water (water loss accompanies sodium loss). This happens because the kidney is unable to efficiently retain water while excreting large amounts of sodium. In addition, after sodium excretion, the osmoreceptor system may sense lowered sodium concentration in the blood and then direct compensatory urinary water loss in order to correct the hyponatremic (low blood sodium) state.
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Because the hypothalamus/osmoreceptor system ordinarily works well to cause drinking or urination to restore the body's sodium concentrations to normal, this system can be used in medical treatment to regulate the body's total fluid content, by first controlling the body's sodium content. Thus, when a powerful diuretic drug is given which causes the kidneys to excrete sodium, the effect is accompanied by an excretion of body water (water loss accompanies sodium loss). This happens because the kidney is unable to efficiently retain water while excreting large amounts of sodium. In addition, after sodium excretion, the osmoreceptor system may sense lowered sodium concentration in the blood and then direct compensatory urinary water loss in order to correct the hyponatremic (low blood sodium) state.
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Moller et al. Cardiopulmonary complications in chronic liver disease. World J Gastroenterol 2006;12;526-538 Key here are imbalances between vasodilatory and vasoconstricting molecules; endogenous prostacyclin and thromboxane (from Kupffer Cells) Christman et al. An imbalance between the excretion of thromboxane and prostacyclin metabolites in pulmonary hypertension. N Engl J Med 1992;327:1774-78Maruyama et al.
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Secretion is the movement of material from one point to another, e.g. secreted chemical substance from a cell or gland. In contrast, excretion, is the removal of certain substances or waste products from a cell or organism. The classical mechanism of cell secretion is via secretory portals at the cell plasma membrane called porosomes.
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DMSA may be prepared by reacting acetylenedicarboxylic acid with sodium thiosulfate or thioacetic acid followed by hydrolysis. The dimethyl ester is also known. Meso 2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid binds to "soft" heavy metals such as Hg2+ and Pb2+, mobilizing these ions for excretion. It binds to metal cations through the thiol groups, which ionize upon complexation.
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The increased reabsorption of Na leads to increased water and urea reabsorption from the proximal tubules of the kidney back into the blood. In contrast, creatinine is actually secreted in the proximal tubule. This generally leads to a BUN:Cr ratio > 20 and a fractional excretion of Na of < 1% and an elevated urine osmolarity.
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Plain RNAs may be poor immunogens, but antibodies can easily be created against RNA-protein complexes. Many autoimmune diseases see these types of antibodies. There haven't yet been reports of antibodies against siRNA bound to proteins. Some methods for siRNA delivery adjoin polyethylene glycol (PEG) to the oligonucleotide reducing excretion and improving circulating half-life.
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It connects to the baby via the umbilical cord in order to allow nutrient transport, waste excretion and gas exchange between mother and baby. The morphological features of the placenta differ among species, but the function is universal. The behaviour is characteristic to the birth giver, i.e. the mother, of the majority of placental mammals.
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A number of fluorogens were developed for FAST and its derivates by The Twinkle Factory, varying by their emission wavelength, their brightness and their tag affinity. Some are non permeant, i.e., they can't go through cell membranes, hence specifically labeling membrane proteins or extracellular proteins, allowing for, e.g., monitoring trafficking from synthesis until excretion.
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The female pipevine swallowtail deposits this excretion from a gland above the ovipositor during the egg laying process. These butterflies lay their eggs on the leaves of host plants in clusters with access to sunlight. The larvae hatch after a few weeks and immediately eat the remnants of the egg from which they emerged.
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Cystine ((SCH2CHNH2COOH)2) stones form in an acidic to neutral urine. They are usually smooth and round. They are caused by increased urine excretion of cystine (a relatively insoluble amino acid) in dogs with a defect in renal tubule reabsorption of cystine. Dietary reduction of protein and alkalinization of the urine may help prevent formation.
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Even at choline doses of 2–8 g, little choline is excreted into urine in humans. Excretion happens via transporters that occur within kidneys (see transport). Trimethylglycine is demethylated in the liver and kidneys to dimethylglycine (tetrahydrofolate receives one of the methyl groups). Methylglycine forms, is excreted into urine, or is demethylated to glycine.
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Abacavir is metabolized primarily through the enzymes alcohol dehydrogenase and glucuronyl transferase to an inactive carboxylate and glucuronide metabolites. It has a half-life of approximately 1.5-2.0 hours. If a person has liver failure, abacavir's half life is increased by 58%. Abacavir is eliminated via excretion in the urine (83%) and feces (16%).
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The main function of FGF23 seems to be regulation of phosphate concentration in plasma. FGF23 is secreted by osteocytes in response to elevated calcitriol. FGF23 acts on the kidneys, where it decreases the expression of NPT2, a sodium-phosphate cotransporter in the proximal tubule. Thus, FGF23 decreases the reabsorption and increases excretion of phosphate.
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The main urinary metabolites of exogenous estriol administered via intravenous injection in baboons have been found to be estriol 16α-glucuronide (65.8%), estriol 3-glucuronide (14.2%), estriol 3-sulfate (13.4%), and estriol 3-sulfate 16α-glucuronide (5.1%). The metabolism and excretion of estriol in these animals closely resembled that which has been observed in humans.
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Fredikson, Sundin, and Frankenhaeuser (1985) found that reactions to psychological stressors include increased activity in the brain axes which play an important role in the regulation of blood pressure,Fredrikson M., Sundin O., & Frankenhaeuser M. (1985). Cortisol excretion during the defence reaction in humans. Psychosomatic Medicine, 47, 313–319.DeQuattro, V., & Hamad, R. (1985).
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The nitrogen compounds through which excess nitrogen is eliminated from organisms are called nitrogenous wastes () or nitrogen wastes. They are ammonia, urea, uric acid, and creatinine. All of these substances are produced from protein metabolism. In many animals, the urine is the main route of excretion for such wastes; in some, the feces is.
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This extends from the pyloric valve which is located between the mid and the hindgut to the anus. Here absorption of water, salts and other beneficial substances take place before excretion. Like other animals, the removal of toxic metabolic waste requires water. However, for very small animals like insects, water conservation is a priority.
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As noted above, under licensed use, ofloxacin is now considered to be contraindicated for the treatment of certain sexually transmitted diseases by some experts due to bacterial resistance. Caution should be used in people with liver disease. The excretion of ofloxacin may be reduced in patients with severe liver function disorders (e.g., cirrhosis with or without ascites).
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D5 receptors are expressed in kidneys and are involved in regulation of sodium excretion. They are located on proximal convoluted tubules, and their activation suppresses the activity of sodium-hydrogen antiporter and Na+/K+-ATPase, preventing reabsorption of sodium. D5 receptors are thought to positively regulate expression of renalase. Their faulty functioning in nephrons can contribute to hypertension.
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Within their ranges, brown snakes are very commonly found species of snake. They are most frequently found under leaf litter or debris piles, and are sometimes turned up during gardening. They consume a variety of invertebrate prey, including, earthworms, snails and slugs. Their only means of defense are flattening of the body and excretion from the anal scent glands.
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In biology, solenocytes are flagellated cells associated with excretion, osmoregulation and ionoregulation in many animals and in some chordates under the sub-phylum Cephalochordata. These are the cells which form subtypes of protonephridium along with the other type i.e. flame cells. Flame cells can be distinguished from solenocytes as the former is usually ciliated whereas the latter is flagellated.
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The last step in the processing of the ultrafiltrate is excretion: the ultrafiltrate passes out of the nephron and travels through a tube called the collecting duct, which is part of the collecting duct system, and then to the ureters where it is renamed urine. In addition to transporting the ultrafiltrate, the collecting duct also takes part in reabsorption.
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Scent marking by dragging the perineal gland and leaving the secretion on the substrate was most commonly observed in animals of both sexes. The duration of the olfactory response varied and depended both on the sex and excretion type. The palm civet can distinguish animal species, sex, familiar and unfamiliar individuals by the odor of the perineal gland secretion.
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Hurwitz S, Bornstein S, Lev Y, "Some responses of laying hens to induced arrest of egg production", Poult. Sci. 1975, 54: 415-422 The mechanism by which egg production is reduced appears to be the result of reduced hypothalamic sensitivity to exogenous progesterone, while the ability of the pituitary to respond to the lutein excretion factor (LHRF) remains intact.
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Mutations in the ETFDH can cause glutaric aciduria 2C (GA2C), an autosomal recessively inherited disorder of fatty acid, amino acid, and choline metabolism. It is characterized by multiple acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiencies resulting in large excretion not only of glutaric acid, but also of lactic, ethylmalonic, butyric, isobutyric, 2-methyl-butyric, and isovaleric acids. A c.250G>A (p.
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4-deoxy-4-guanidino-Neu5Ac2en showed not only to be the better inhibitor but also showed considerable lower affinity for other isoforms of neuraminidase. For these reasons 4-deoxy-4-guanidino-Neu5Ac2en was selected as the main drug candidate under the name Zanamivir. High polar nature and rapid excretion contribute to the drugs low bioavailability and rapid elimination.
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In studies of dogs, the majority of urinary excretion is through glomerular filtration with some tubular secretion. There is also tubular absorption which is increased with urine acidification. However the activity of nitrofurantoin is also pH dependent and mean inhibitory concentration rises sharply with increased pH above 6. Nitrofurantoin cannot be used to treat infections other than simple cystitis.
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Elastase 3B preferentially cleaves proteins after alanine residues. Elastase 3B may also function in the intestinal transport and metabolism of cholesterol. Both elastase 3A and elastase 3B have been referred to as protease E and as elastase 1, and excretion of this protein in fecal material is frequently used as a measure of pancreatic function in clinical assays.
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Biurea is a chemical compound with the molecular formula C2H6N4O2. It is produced in food products containing azodicarbonamide, a common ingredient in bread flour, when they are cooked. Azodicarbonamide, FAO Nutrition Meetings, Report Series No. 40A,B,C Upon exposure, biurea is rapidly eliminated from the body through excretion. Biurea is produced from urea and hydrazine by transamidation.
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Lixivaptan is a potent, non-peptide, selective vasopressin 2 receptor antagonist. The oral capsule works by reducing the action of the hormone vasopressin that blocks fluid excretion. Lixivaptan acts by blocking vasopressin, an anti-diuretic hormone that causes the kidneys to retain water. When the body needs to remain hydrated under certain conditions, vasopressin can have protective effects.
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The catalytic enzyme has been isolated in the human liver mitochondria. Furthermore, phenylacetylglutamine has been found in human urine, but not in the excretory material of rats, dogs, cats, monkeys, sheep, or horses. Throughout the metabolic process, phenylacetylglutamine is bound and conjugated by free-plasma in the kidney to remove excess nitrogen through its excretion in the urine.
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Neonatal cholestasis defines persisting conjugated hyperbilirubinemia in the newborn with conjugated bilirubin levels exceeding 15% (5.0 mg/dL) of total bilirubin level. The disease is either due to defects in bile excretion from hepatocytes or impaired bile flow.General presentations in neonates include abdominal pain and general GI upset. Physical examination may show palpable liver and enlarged spleen.
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Goats exposed to ethion showed clear distinctions in excretion, absorption half-life and bioavailabilities. These differences depend on the method of administration. Intravenous injection resulted in a half-life time of 2 hours, while oral administration resulted in a half-life time of 10 hours. Dermal administration lead to a half-life time of even 85 hours.
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It has been estimated that 70-95% of the total volume of Gomantong cave in Borneo is due to biological processes such as guano excretion, as the acidity of the guano weathers the rocky substrate. The presence of high densities of bats in a cave is predicted to cause the erosion of of rock over 30,000 years.
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The diagnosis of protein losing enteropathy is made by excluding other causes of protein loss. Endoscopy can be used to localize the cause of the protein loss in the bowel. Different methods include faecal excretion of alpha 1-antitrypsin which is a marker of protein losing enteropathy, as well as, viral serologies which may be useful to detect PLE.
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There are two main groups of substances that biomagnify. Both are lipophilic and not easily degraded. Novel organic substances are not easily degraded because organisms lack previous exposure and have thus not evolved specific detoxification and excretion mechanisms, as there has been no selection pressure from them. These substances are consequently known as "persistent organic pollutants" or POPs.
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Trabutina is a genus of "blue-green" mealybugs, containing five species: T. crassispinosa, T. elastica, T. mannipara, T. serpentina, and T. tenax. This genus of scale insects feeds solely on plants of the genus Tamarix. Its type species is T. mannipara. Trabutina insects produce a sweet excretion which is used as a food in Israel and Iraq.
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Batroxobin is excreted by the liver, kidney and spleen. The excretion of batroxobin can be detected by small metabolite molecules in the urine. With use of the immunoassay only 0.2 - 1.9% of the dose was detected in the urine. The amount of radioactivity of 125I-batroxobin was 69% in rats and 73% in dogs within 48 hours.
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In some cases, affected individuals will present in the neonatal period with disease that closely mimics a classic urea cycle defect, such as ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency, as the block in ornithine metabolism leads to secondary dysfunction of the urea cycle. These individuals present with hyperammonemia, poor feeding, failure to thrive and increased excretion of orotic acid.
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This constitutes the normal "enterohepatic urobilinogen cycle." In biliary obstruction, below-normal amounts of conjugated bilirubin reach the intestine for conversion to urobilinogen. With limited urobilinogen available for reabsorption and excretion, the amount of urobilin found in the urine is low. High amounts of the soluble conjugated bilirubin enter the circulation where they are excreted via the kidneys.
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It is primarily excreted in bile, with less than 1% excretion in urine. Clofazimine is given to treat sulfone-resistant leprosy or to patients who are intolerant to sulfones. It also exerts an antiinflammatory effect and prevents erythema nodosum leprosum, which can interrupt treatment with dapsone. This is a major advantage of clofazimine over other antileprosy drugs.
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There is no information regarding the excretion of pentamidine in breast milk, but since the adverse effects on breastfed infants are unknown currently, it is recommended by the manufacturer for the infant to not be breastfed or for the mother to stop the drug. Risks versus benefits for the mother should be considered when making this decision.
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The more recently discovered group was given the name Entoprocta, while the original "Bryozoa" were called "Ectoprocta". However, "Bryozoa" has remained the more widely used term for the latter group. Individuals in bryozoan (ectoproct) colonies are called zooids, since they are not fully independent animals. All colonies contain autozooids, which are responsible for feeding and excretion.
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Manneken Pis depicts a urinating boy. Urination is the release of urine from the urinary bladder through the urethra to the outside of the body. It is the urinary system's form of excretion. It is also known medically as micturition, voiding, uresis, or, rarely, emiction, and known colloquially by various names including peeing, weeing, and pissing.
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The soils are loamy with little clay and lime content but with a high content of magnesia. Chemical fertilization, green manure and legume is used before cultivation .There is sufficient organic matter and nitrogen content in the alluvium because of plant residue, crops stubble, natural vegetation and animal excretion. Soils types include Gurti (clay), Bahil (Loam) and Sekil (Sandy).
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In humans, pyrimidine rings (C, T, U) can be degraded completely to CO2 and NH3 (urea excretion). That having been said, purine rings (G, A) cannot. Instead they are degraded to the metabolically inert uric acid which is then excreted from the body. Uric acid is formed when GMP is split into the base guanine and ribose.
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In man, rhesus monkey and rabbit it is mostly excreted via the urine, while in rat and dog it was excreted via biliary-faecal excretion. In man and dog, the compound was excreted as the ester glucuronide, and in the other species as the unchanged compound. This means no major metabolic transformation of benoxaprofen takes place.
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Use in pregnant women is limited due to high incidence of abortion shown in animal experiments. Because of this, latanoprost is classified as risk factor C (adverse events were observed in animal reproduction studies at maternally toxic doses) according to United States Food and Drug Administration's use-in-pregnancy ratings. Drug excretion in breast milk is unknown.
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Standard measures to maintain normal urine output should be instituted and kidney function monitored. Since ibuprofen has acidic properties and is also excreted in the urine, forced alkaline diuresis is theoretically beneficial. However, because ibuprofen is highly protein- bound in the blood, the kidneys' excretion of unchanged drug is minimal. Forced alkaline diuresis is, therefore, of limited benefit.
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Chemical biomarkers are a useful tool in detecting bone degradation. The enzyme cathepsin K breaks down type-I collagen, an important constituent in bones. Prepared antibodies can recognize the resulting fragment, called a neoepitope, as a way to diagnose osteoporosis. Increased urinary excretion of C-telopeptides, a type-I collagen breakdown product, also serves as a biomarker for osteoporosis.
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The elimination half-life of anastrozole is 40 to 50 hours (1.7 to 2.1 days). This allows for convenient once-daily administration. The medication is eliminated predominantly by metabolism in the liver (83 to 85%) but also by residual excretion by the kidneys unchanged (11%). Anastrozole is excreted primarily in urine but also to a lesser extent in feces.
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Research indicates that low dietary inclusion of potassium is associated with increased renal calcium excretion, which lowers urinary pH. By lowering urinary pH, the risk for development of calcium oxalate uroliths increases. By feeding proper amounts of calcium and potassium we avoid this issue, which is especially common in male cats.PaBlack, N., Brenten, T., Neumann, K., & Zentek, J. (2014).
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Overeating is the excess food consumed in relation to the energy that an organism expends (or expels via excretion), leading to weight gaining and often obesity. It may be regarded as an eating disorder. This term may also be used to refer to specific episodes of over-consumption. For example, many people overeat during festivals or while on holiday.
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Steatorrhea (or steatorrhoea) is the presence of excess fat in feces. Stools may be bulky and difficult to flush, have a pale and oily appearance and can be especially foul-smelling. An oily anal leakage or some level of fecal incontinence may occur. There is increased fat excretion, which can be measured by determining the fecal fat level.
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The specific gene is not identified. While biochemically similar, type 1 and 2 disease may be distinguished by the differing urinary excretion of cyclic AMP in response to exogenous PTH. Some sources also refer to a "type 1c" (OMIM ). The phenotype is the same as in type 1a, but red blood cells show normal Gs activity.
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A common trait of serous fluids is their role in assisting digestion, excretion, and respiration. In medical fields, especially cytopathology, serous fluid is a synonym for effusion fluids from various body cavities. Examples of effusion fluid are pleural effusion and pericardial effusion. There are many causes of effusions which include involvement of the cavity by cancer.
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Several methods have been developed to identify the disorder but there are difficulties with all of them. Diagnosis of bile acid malabsorption is easily and reliably made by the SeHCAT test. This nuclear medicine test involves two scans a week apart and so measures multiple cycles of bile acid excretion and reabsorption. There is limited radiation exposure (0.3 mSv).
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1 (1970) 243-253J. Heikkilä, Excretion of 15α-hydroxyestriol and estriol in maternal urine during normal pregnancy, J. Steroid Biochem. 2 (1971) 83-93. During the second trimester of pregnancy high levels were found in maternal plasma, with steadily rising concentrations of unconjugated estetrol to about 1 ng/mL (>3 nM) towards the end of pregnancy.
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They are notably not expressed in the cerebral cortex or locus coeruleus. Animal research suggests that much of the antihypertensive action of imidazoline drugs such as clonidine is mediated by the I1 receptor. In addition, I1 receptor activation is used in ophthalmology to reduce intraocular pressure. Other putative functions include promoting Na+ excretion and promoting neural activity during hypoxia.
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The half-life is estimated to be 135 to 177 days in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and 63 to 87 days in blood plasma. The drug is metabolized via exonuclease (3′- and 5′)-mediated hydrolysis and does not interact with CYP450 enzymes. The primary route of elimination is likely by urinary excretion for nusinersen and its metabolites.
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Excretion can be as ascorbic acid, via urine. In humans, during times of low dietary intake, vitamin C is reabsorbed by the kidneys rather than excreted. Only when plasma concentrations are 1.4 mg/dL or higher does re-absorption decline and the excess amounts pass freely into the urine. This salvage process delays onset of deficiency.
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This difference leads to the different clearance route. Which becomes saturated after administration of a toxic dose of the drug. If the metabolism of proxicromil in a rat is inhibited with SKF-525A, the plasma clearance of proxicromil is lowered (0.6 ml min-1 kg-1), which increases the amount of unchanged drug cleared by biliary excretion.
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LysE appears to catalyze unidirectional efflux of L-lysine (and other basic amino acids such as L-arginine), and it provides the sole route for L-lysine excretion. The energy source is believed to be the proton motive force (H+ antiport). The E. coli ArgO homologue (TC# 2.A.75.1.2) effluxes arginine and possibly lysine and canavanine as well.
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Creatorrhea is the abnormal excretion of muscle fibre in feces."creatorrhea", The Free Dictionary The term is made from the prefix creat- or creato- which comes from Greek kreas meaning "flesh". The suffix -rrhea (or -rrhoea) comes from Greek -rrhoia meaning "flow," hence discharge. Digestion of food is achieved through a mixture of mechanical and chemical processes.
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Remogliflozin etabonate was shown to enhance urinary glucose excretion in rodents and humans. Early studies in diabetics improved plasma glucose levels. Remogliflozin etabonate has been studied at doses up to 1000 mg. A pair of 12-week phase 2b randomized clinical trials of diabetics published in 2015, found reductions in glycated hemoglobin and that it was generally well tolerated.
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Microcystin-LR is rapidly excreted from the blood plasma. Plasma half-lifes for the α- and β-stages, corresponding to distribution and elimination, are respectively 0.8 and 6.9 minutes.Robinson, N.A., Pace, J.G., Matson, C.F., Miura, G.A. and Lawrence, W.B. 1991 Tissue distribution, excretion and hepatic biotransformation of microcystin-LR in mice, J.Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 256(1), 176-182.
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Uricotelism is the excretion of excess nitrogen in the form of uric acid. Uricotelic animals include insects, birds and most reptiles. Though requiring more metabolic energy to make than urea, uric acid's low toxicity and low solubility in water allow it to be concentrated into small volume of pasty white suspension, compared to the liquid urine of mammals.
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These factors prevent the expulsion of promastigotes during excretion of the insect. #During 4–7 days the peritrophic matrix is degraded by the activity of chitinases. This release the more actively motile "nectomonad promastigotes" which migrate anteriorly until they reach the opening of the thoracic gut. #Another transformation takes place by which they turn into "leptomonad promastigotes".
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Early treatment is possible once the disease is diagnosed. Treatments of Alagille syndrome typically involve medications, therapies, and/or surgical procedures. All treatments aim to improve bile excretion from the liver, reduce pain caused by the disease, and help improve nutritional deficiencies. Diet can also be a crucial factor in improving quality of life when living with ALGS.
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The structure and physiology of the calciferous glands of earthworms are described. Many hypotheses had been advanced for their function; Darwin believed them to be primarily for excretion and secondarily a digestion aid. Thin leaves are seized with the mouth, while thick ones are dragged by creating a vacuum. Leaves and stones are used to plug up the burrow.
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Plasma concentrations of niacin and niacin metabolites are not useful markers of niacin status. Urinary excretion of the methylated metabolite N1-methyl- nicotinamide is considered reliable and sensitive. The measurement requires a 24-hour urine collection. For adults, a value of less than 5.8 µmol/day represent deficient niacin status and 5.8 to 17.5 µmol/day represents low.
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Anatomy of a Nephron; functional unit of the kidney Gitelman syndrome (GS) is an autosomal recessive kidney tubule disorder characterized by low blood levels of potassium and magnesium, decreased excretion of calcium in the urine, and elevated blood pH. The disorder is caused by genetic mutations resulting in improper function of the thiazide-sensitive sodium-chloride symporter (also known as NCC, NCCT, or TSC) located in the distal convoluted tubule of the kidney. The distal convoluted tubule of the kidney serves a minimal role in salt absorption and a greater role in managing the excretion of electrolytes like magnesium and calcium to produce more concentrated urine. Genetic mutations along the sodium chloride symporter, lead to inadequate transport of multiple electrolytes along this channel such as sodium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, and potassium.
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The normal concentration range of uric acid (or hydrogen urate ion) in human blood is 25 to 80 mg/L for men and 15 to 60 mg/L for women (but see below for slightly different values). An individual can have serum values as high as 96 mg/L and not have gout. In humans, about 70% of daily uric acid disposal occurs via the kidneys, and in 5–25% of humans, impaired renal (kidney) excretion leads to hyperuricemia. Normal excretion of uric acid in the urine is 250 to 750 mg per day (concentration of 250 to 750 mg/L if one litre of urine is produced per day – higher than the solubility of uric acid because it is in the form of dissolved acid urates). Dogs.
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The reduction of technetium (VII) to technetium (IV) made by S. putrefaciens, G. sulfurreducens, D. desulfuricans, Geobacter metallireducens and Escherichia coli, on the other hand, requires the presence of the complex formate hydrogenlyase, also placed in this cell compartment. Other radioactive actinides such as thorium, plutonium, neptunium and americium are enzymatically reduced by Rhodoferax ferrireducens, S. putrefaciens and several species of Geobacter, and directly form an insoluble mineral phase. The phenomenon of indirect enzymatic reduction is carried out by sulfate-reducing and dissimilatory metal-reducing bacteria on excretion reactions of metabolites and breakdown products. There is a coupling of the oxidation of organic acids —produced by the excretion of these heterotrophic bacteria— with the reduction of iron or other metals and radionuclides, which forms insoluble compounds that can precipitate as oxide and hydroxide minerals.
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Carbon-14 has a long half-life of 5,730±40 years. Its maximum specific activity is 0.0624 Ci/mmol (2.31 TBq/mol). It is used in applications such as radiometric dating or drug tests. C-14 labeling is common in drug development to do ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion) studies in animal models and in human toxicology and clinical trials.
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Survived butterflies were capable of excreting higher levels of cyanides, suggesting a defense mechanism in H. erato. H. erato species with more mechanisms to detoxify and secrete ingested toxins are the result of genetic differences among H. erato subspecies. Toxin excretion, from previous studies, results in changes in wing pattern and body size. Consequences include decreased fecundity, egg size, and survival rate.
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When cornered, it becomes aggressive, bristling and raising its tail to appear larger. It can stand on its front legs and advance in that position against their attacker. If the threat persists, it returns to standing on four legs and folds back on itself in a U shape, pointing its tail at its enemy. That is when it sprays its odorous excretion.
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Salt may be iodized, meaning iodine has been added to it, a necessary nutrient that promotes thyroid function. Some canned foods, notably soups or packaged broths, tend to be high in salt as a means of preserving the food longer. Historically salt has long been used as a meat preservative as salt promotes water excretion. Similarly, dried foods also promote food safety.
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Many factors contribute to hyperuricemia, including genetics, insulin resistance, iron overload, hypertension, hypothyroidism, chronic kidney disease, obesity, diet, use of diuretics (e.g. thiazides, loop diuretics), and consumption of excess alcoholic beverages. Of these, alcohol consumption is the most important. Causes of hyperuricemia can be classified into three functional types: increased production of uric acid, decreased excretion of uric acid, and mixed type.
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As a byproduct of its fermentation process, beer additionally contributes purines. Ethanol decreases excretion of uric acid by promoting dehydration and (rarely) clinical ketoacidosis. High dietary intake of fructose contributes significantly to hyperuricemia. In a large study in the United States, consumption of four or more sugar-sweetened soft drinks per day gave an odds ratio of 1.82 for hyperuricemia.
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Instead, it must bind as bis- quaternary (inter-site). These structures are very dissimilar from acetylcholine and free pipecuronium from nicotinic or muscarinic side-effects linked to acetylcholine moiety. Also, they protect the molecule from hydrolysis by cholinesterases, which explain its nature of kidney excretion. The four methyl-groups on the quaternary N atoms make it less lipophilic than most aminosteroids.
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Gliflozins are a class of drugs in the treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2D). They act by inhibiting sodium/glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT-2), and are therefore also called SGLT-2 inhibitors. The efficacy of the drug is dependent on renal excretion and prevents glucose from going into blood circulation by promoting glucosuria. The mechanism of action is insulin independent.
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Therapeutic effects are usually achieved within 3 to 4 weeks. No accumulation of venlafaxine has been observed during chronic administration in healthy subjects. The primary route of excretion of venlafaxine and its metabolites is via the kidneys. The half-life of venlafaxine is relatively short, so patients are directed to adhere to a strict medication routine, avoiding missing a dose.
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The heart is one of the many tissues with high SGK1 expression. As SGK1 affects both Na+ intake and renal+ excretion, the regulation of blood pressure could be influenced by SGK1-induced salt imbalance. Activated SGK1, due to insulin, may lead to Na+ reabsorption and consequently blood pressure. SGK1 has been shown to impact the QT interval of the heart electrical cycle.
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A non-camouflage mechanism has been suggested for some vertebrates. In tropical ocean regions subject to industrial pollution the turtle-headed seasnake Emydocephalus annulatus is more likely to be melanic. These snakes shed their skin every two to six weeks. Sloughed skin contains toxic minerals, higher for dark skin, so industrial melanism could be selected for through improved excretion of trace elements.
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This led to the assumption that 1,3-dibromopropane could have reacted with GSH after administration and gave rise to 1-bromo-3-propyl-S-glutathione, which ultimately form the urinary metabolite. Moreover, due to little radioactivity observed from feces and the confirmation from maintained blood levels of radioactivity proved the occurrence of biliary excretion of sulfur-containing metabolites and enterohepatic cycling.
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Approximately the urinary excretion is 38% of an orally administered dose within 48 h, and in urine is possible detect 8.6% of the N-demethyl metabolite and 4.4% of the N-oxide metabolite. Fleroxacin can penetrate into milk of nursing women. As quinolones are known to induce arthropathy in juvenile animals, administration of the drug to breast-feeding women cannot be allowed.
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In vitro studies suggest sulfamethoxazole is not a substrate of the P-glycoprotein transporter. Excretion Sulfamethoxazole is primarily renally excreted via glomerular filtration and tubular secretion. About 20% of the sulfamethoxazole in urine is the unchanged drug, about 15–20% is the N-glucuronide conjugate, and about 50–70 % is the acetylated metabolite. Sulfamethoxazole is also excreted in human milk.
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In the intestine, bilirubin is converted by bacteria to stercobilinogen. Stercobilinogen is absorbed and excreted by either the liver or the kidney. Stercobilinogen is oxidized to stercobilin, which is responsible for the pigmentation of feces. In early liver disease, impaired biliary excretion causes sterocobilinogen to be absorbed mostly by the kidney, and, therefore, stercobilinogen will appear in the urine in excess as urobilinogen.
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The discovery of a natriuretic factor (one that promotes kidney excretion of salt and water) was first reported by de Bold in 1981 when rat atrial extracts were found to contain a substance that increased salt and urine output in the kidney. Later, the substance was purified from heart tissue by several groups and named atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) or ANP.
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Each system also suppresses its counteracting system(s). NP's are made in cardiac, intestinal, renal, and adrenal tissue: ANP in one of a family of cardiac NP's: others at BNP, CNP, and DNP. ANP binds to a specific set of receptors – ANP receptors. Receptor-agonist binding causes the increase in renal sodium excretion, which results in a decreased ECF and blood volume.
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The principal cell mediates the collecting duct's influence on sodium and potassium balance via sodium channels and potassium channels located on the cell's apical membrane. Aldosterone determines expression of sodium channels (especially the ENaC). Increases in aldosterone increase expression of luminal sodium channels. Aldosterone also increases the number of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase pumps that allow increased sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion.
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The apparent half-life of its excretion is higher than the apparent half-life of absorption via oral route. Therefore, intravenous dose of furosemide is twice as potent as the oral route. However, for torsemide and bumetanide, their oral bioavailability is consistently higher than 90%. Torsemide has longer half life in heart failure patients (6 hours) when compared to furosemide (2.7 hours).
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HCP is an autosomal dominant inherited disorder, whereas harderoporphyria is a rare erythropoietic variant form of HCP and is inherited in an autosomal recessive fashion. Clinically, it is characterized by neonatal haemolytic anaemia. Sometimes, the presence of skin lesions with marked faecal excretion of harderoporphyrin is also described in harderoporphyric patients. To date, over 50 CPOX mutations causing HCP have been described.
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Chronic copper toxicity does not normally occur in humans because of transport systems that regulate absorption and excretion. Autosomal recessive mutations in copper transport proteins can disable these systems, leading to Wilson's disease with copper accumulation and cirrhosis of the liver in persons who have inherited two defective genes. Elevated copper levels have also been linked to worsening symptoms of Alzheimer's disease.
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Like most soluble materials, fluoride compounds are readily absorbed by the stomach and intestines, and excreted through the urine. Urine tests have been used to ascertain rates of excretion in order to set upper limits in exposure to fluoride compounds and associated detrimental health effects. Ingested fluoride initially acts locally on the intestinal mucosa, where it forms hydrofluoric acid in the stomach.
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The clinical manifestation is similar to neurogenic diabetes insipidus, presenting with polydipsia (excessive thirst) and polyuria (excretion of a large amount of dilute urine). Dehydration is common, and incontinence can occur secondary to chronic bladder distension. On investigation, there will be an increased plasma osmolarity and decreased urine osmolarity. As pituitary function is normal, ADH levels are likely to be abnormal or raised.
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Thiazide diuretics are used in treatment because diabetes insipidus causes the excretion of more water than sodium (i.e., dilute urine). This condition results in a net concentrating effect on the serum (increasing its osmolarity). This high serum osmolarity stimulates polydipsia in an attempt to dilute the serum back to normal and provide free water for excreting the excess serum solutes.
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Headache, poor concentration, weight gain, poor memory, insomnia, and depression have all been associated with isoniazid use. All patients and healthcare workers should be aware of these serious side effects, especially if suicidal ideation or behavior are suspected. Isoniazid is associated with pyridoxine (vitamin B6) deficiency because of its similar structure. Isoniazid is also associated with increased excretion of pyridoxine.
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Blood tests may show impaired kidney function (elevated urea or creatinine) or electrolyte imbalances such as hyponatremia or hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis. Urinalysis may indicate an elevated pH due to the secondary destruction of nephrons within the affected kidney, which impairs acid excretion. Physical examination in a thin patient may detect a palpable abdominal or flank mass caused by the enlarged kidney.
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Corticosteroid resistance mechanisms Resistance to the therapeutic uses of glucocorticoids can present difficulty; for instance, 25% of cases of severe asthma may be unresponsive to steroids. This may be the result of genetic predisposition, ongoing exposure to the cause of the inflammation (such as allergens), immunological phenomena that bypass glucocorticoids, and pharmacokinetic disturbances (incomplete absorption or accelerated excretion or metabolism).
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The urate to creatinine (breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle) concentration ratio in urine is elevated. This is a good indicator of acid overproduction. For children under ten years of age with LNS, a urate to creatinine ratio above two is typically found. Twenty-four-hour urate excretion of more than 20 mg/kg is also typical but is not diagnostic.
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Enhanced excretion of manganese prompted by chelation therapy brings its blood levels down but the symptoms remain largely unchanged, raising questions about efficacy of this form of treatment. Increased ferroportin protein expression in human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells is associated with decreased intracellular Mn concentration and attenuated cytotoxicity, characterized by the reversal of Mn-reduced glutamate uptake and diminished lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage.
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It is a product of the catabolism of protein. It is converted to the less toxic substance urea prior to excretion in urine by the kidneys. The metabolic pathways that synthesize urea involve reactions that start in the mitochondria and then move into the cytosol. The process is known as the urea cycle, which comprises several enzymes acting in sequence.
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5th Ed, Benjamin Cummings. The intricacies of schooling are far from fully understood, especially the swimming and feeding energetics. Many hypotheses to explain the function of schooling have been suggested, such as better orientation, synchronized hunting, predator confusion and reduced risk of being found. Schooling also has disadvantages, such as excretion buildup in the breathing media and oxygen and food depletion.
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Chrysin, also called 5,7-dihydroxyflavone, is a flavone found in honey, propolis, the passion flowers, Passiflora caerulea and Passiflora incarnata, and in Oroxylum indicum. It is extracted from various plants, such as the blue passion flower (Passiflora caerulea). Following oral intake by humans, chrysin has low bioavailability and rapid excretion. It is under basic research to evaluate its safety and potential biological effects.
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Traube showed that sugar excretion in the urine of a diabetic patient rose after starch intake but fell after protein consumption. Additionally he demonstrated the unrestricted intestinal absorption of fats in diabetics. He thus contributed to the scientific basis for a diabetic diet. For diagnosis he proposed to measure sugar levels at specific, regular intervals: in the morning before breakfast and after meals.
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Since aldosterone is responsible for increasing the excretion of potassium, ACE inhibitors can cause retention of potassium. Some people, however, can continue to lose potassium while on an ACE inhibitor. Hyperkalemia may decrease the velocity of impulse conduction in the nerves and muscles, including cardiac tissues. This leads to cardiac dysfunction and neuromuscular consequences, such as muscle weakness, paresthesia, nausea, diarrhea, and others.
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Hyperaldosteronism is a medical condition wherein too much aldosterone is produced by the adrenal glands, which can lead to lowered levels of potassium in the blood (hypokalemia) and increased hydrogen ion excretion (alkalosis). This cause of mineralocorticoid excess is primary hyperaldosteronism reflecting excess production of aldosterone by adrenal zona glomerulosa. Bilateral micronodular hyperplasia is more common than unilateral adrenal adenoma.
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Potassium channel efflux is inhibited by magnesium. Thus hypomagnesemia results in an increased excretion of potassium in kidney, resulting in a hypokalaemia. This condition is believed to occur secondary to the decreased normal physiologic magnesium inhibition of the ROMK channels in the apical tubular membrane. In this light, hypomagnesemia is frequently the cause of hypokalaemic patients failing to respond to potassium supplementation.
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This protein is expressed in the canalicular (apical) part of the hepatocyte and functions in biliary transport. Substrates include anticancer drugs such as vinblastine; therefore, this protein appears to contribute to drug resistance in mammalian cells. MRP2 is also expressed in the apical membrane of proximal renal tubule endothelial cells where they are involved in the excretion of small organic anions.
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The cycle of successional colonization of P. setosa involves the ingestion and excretion of the fungus by herbivorous animals. Spore projection from animal excrement allows for transferring of the fungus between animals. The process of spore dispersal requires the build-up of osmotic pressure inside the perithecia. At the threshold of pressure, ejection of spores occur through the apical pore.
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Creatine was first identified in 1832 when Michel Eugène Chevreul isolated it from the basified water-extract of skeletal muscle. He later named the crystallized precipitate after the Greek word for meat, κρέας (kreas). In 1928, creatine was shown to exist in equilibrium with creatinine. Studies in the 1920s showed that consumption of large amounts of creatine did not result in its excretion.
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When hydrostatic pressures are raised in the peritubular capillaries such as seen in hyperaldosteronism, Starling forces begin to favor "backflow" of Na+ and water from the interstitium into the tubules—thus, increasing Na+ excretion. This is the proposed mechanism of "mineralocorticoid escape" for how patients with increased levels of aldosterone are able to maintain Na+ balance and avoid an edematous state.
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Without supplies of fixed nitrogen entering the marine cycle, the fixed nitrogen would be used up in about 2000 years. Phytoplankton need nitrogen in biologically available forms for the initial synthesis of organic matter. Ammonia and urea are released into the water by excretion from plankton. Nitrogen sources are removed from the euphotic zone by the downward movement of the organic matter.
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In psychology, a scatology is an obsession with excretion or excrement, or the study of such obsessions. In sexual fetishism, scatology (usually abbreviated scat) refers to coprophilia, when a person is sexually aroused by fecal matter, whether in the use of feces in various sexual acts, watching someone defecating, or simply seeing the feces. Entire subcultures in sexuality are devoted to this fetish.
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Modification of cell surface molecules with sialic acid is crucial for their function in many biologic processes, including cell adhesion and signal transduction. Differential sialylation of cell surface molecules is also implicated in the tumorigenicity and metastatic behavior of malignant cells. Sialuria is a rare inborn error of metabolism characterized by cytoplasmic accumulation and increased urinary excretion of free NeuAc.
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This protein is a member of the White subfamily. The protein encoded by this gene functions as a half-transporter to limit intestinal absorption and promote biliary excretion of sterols. It is expressed in a tissue-specific manner in the liver, colon, and intestine. This gene is tandemly arrayed on chromosome 2, in a head-to-head orientation with family member ABCG5.
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The significant presence of diabetes also brings other health complications, such as end-stage renal disease. Each of these are more prevalent in the Native American population. Diabetes has caused premature death of Native Americans by vascular disease, especially in those diagnosed with diabetes later in life. It has been reported among the Pima Tribe to cause elevated urinary albumin excretion.
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Other defense responses include inflating its body and excretion of a bitter, milky fluid from warty glands located on its back. Maximum longevity of the frog is six to 10 years. The diet of adult Mississippi gopher frogs probably includes frogs, toads, insects, spiders, and earthworms. Males reach sexual maturity at four to six months and females at two to three years.
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The maned wolf participates in symbiotic relationships. It contributes to the propagation and dissemination of the plants on which it feeds, through excretion. Often, maned wolves defecate on the nests of leafcutter ants. The ants then use the dung to fertilize their fungus gardens, but they discard the seeds contained in the dung onto refuse piles just outside their nests.
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In contrast, clonidine binds to both receptors with near equal affinity. Moxonidine has an affinity for I1 that is 33 times greater than α2, compared to clonidine which is only four times greater. In addition, moxonidine may also promote sodium excretion, improve insulin resistance and glucose tolerance and protect against hypertensive target organ damage, such as kidney disease and cardiac hypertrophy.
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Dissolved in water, it is neither acidic nor alkaline. The body uses it in many processes, most notably nitrogen excretion. The liver forms it by combining two ammonia molecules (NH3) with a carbon dioxide (CO2) molecule in the urea cycle. Urea is widely used in fertilizers as a source of nitrogen (N) and is an important raw material for the chemical industry.
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Quinapril inhibits angiotensin converting enzyme, an enzyme which catalyses the formation of angiotensin II from its precursor, angiotensin I. Angiotensin II is a powerful vasoconstrictor and increases blood pressure through a variety of mechanisms. Due to reduced angiotensin production, plasma concentrations of aldosterone are also reduced, resulting in increased excretion of sodium in the urine and increased concentrations of potassium in the blood.
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Figure 1: During fat digestion, lipases in the gastrointestinal tract hydrolyse fat (triglycerides) into smaller molecules (free fatty acids and monoglycerides) which can be absorbed through the duodenal mucosa. Lipase inhibitors bind to lipases and inactivate the enzyme. That leads to excretion of the undigested fat with faeces. The lipase inhibitors lipstatin and orlistat act locally in the intestinal tract.
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Freshwater fish differ physiologically from salt water fish in several respects. Their gills must be able to diffuse dissolved gasses while keeping the salts in the body fluids inside. Their scales reduce water diffusion through the skin: freshwater fish that have lost too many scales will die. They also have well developed kidneys to reclaim salts from body fluids before excretion.
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This increase in ddcfDNA can be detected prior to any other clinical or biochemical signs of complication. Besides ddcfDNA in plasma, some research also focused on the excretion of ddcfDNA through urine. This is of special interest in kidney allografts transplantation. When ddcfDNA is measured using targeted next-generation sequencing, assays were used with a population specific genome wide SNP panel.
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Such measurements can be useful to avoid central nervous system toxicity in any person receiving large doses of the drug on a chronic basis, but they are especially relevant to patients with kidney failure, who may accumulate the drug due to reduced urinary excretion rates.Fossieck B Jr, Parker RH. Neurotoxicity during intravenous infusion of penicillin. A review. J. Clin. Pharmacol.
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The total clearance of the compound from the plasma is about 0.9 mL/min. The excretion of the compound takes primarily place via the feces and urine. After 6 days approximately 24% of the intake is excreted from the body, of which about 9% is excreted via the feces and 14.5% via the urine. Microcystin-LR is mostly concentrated in the liver.
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Guanine is responsible for the white markings of the European garden spider Araneus diadematus. It is in many species accumulated in specialized cells called guanocytes. In genera such as Tetragnatha, Leucauge, Argyrodes or Theridiosoma, guanine creates their silvery appearance. While guanine is originally an end-product of protein metabolism, its excretion can be blocked in spiders, leading to an increase in its storage.
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For people with hyperuricosuria and calcium stones, allopurinol is one of the few treatments that have been shown to reduce kidney stone recurrences. Allopurinol interferes with the production of uric acid in the liver. The drug is also used in people with gout or hyperuricemia (high serum uric acid levels). Dosage is adjusted to maintain a reduced urinary excretion of uric acid.
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Estradiol/estradiol enanthate (E2/E2-EN) is an injectable combination formulation of estradiol (E2), a short-acting estrogen, and estradiol enanthate (E2-EN), a long-acting estrogen, which was developed by Boehringer around 1960 for potential medical use but was never marketed. It contained 1 mg E2 and 9 mg E2-EN in oil solution and was intended for administration by intramuscular injection. A single intramuscular injection of E2/E2-EN (1 mg/9 mg) has been found to result in a 10-fold increase in estradiol excretion on the 2nd day post-injection (due to the 1 mg short-acting E2 component). Following this, estradiol excretion remained above the menstrual-cycle average for 10 days post-injection and did not return to baseline until the 24th day post-injection (due to the 9 mg long-acting E2-EN component).
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Of particular note in these antioxidant proteins is heme oxygenase 1 ([HO-1]), NAD(P)H-quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1), and γ-glutamylcysteine synthase (γGCS) which work in conjunction to reduce the oxidative species such as hydrogen peroxide to decrease the oxidative stress upon the cell. The increase in γGCS causes an increased production of arsenite triglutathionine (As(SG)3) an important adduct that is taken up by either multidrug associated protein 1 or 2 (MRP1 or MRP2) which removes the arsenic out of the cell and into bile for excretion. This adduct can also decompose back into inorganic arsenic. Of particular note in the excretion of arsenic is the multiple methylation steps that take place which may increase the toxicity of arsenic due to MMeAsIII being a potent inhibitor of glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, and thioredoxin reductase.
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Studies also show that if sulfate is reabsorbed by a Tm-limited process, it will have low splay and, in animals, the limits of citrate concentration normal in the body, citrate titration curves show a large amount of splay therefore a Tm for citrate reabsorption may actually happen. Also, tubular transport is Tm-limited and the reabsorption mechanism being saturated at a plasma concentration more than 20 times than usual shows a low level of splay. Renal abnormalities of glucose excretion, causing glycosuria, may happen as either a result of reduced Tm for glucose or because of an abnormally wide range of nephron heterogeneity so splay of the glucose excretion curve is increased. Two causes are also listed for splay: "heteroginicity in glomerular size, proximal tubular length and number of carrier proteins for glucose reabsorption" and variability of TmG nephrons.
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Because there is no problem with the liver or bile systems, this excess unconjugated bilirubin will go through all of the normal processing mechanisms that occur (e.g., conjugation, excretion in bile, metabolism to urobilinogen, reabsorption) and will show up as an increase of urobilinogen in the urine. This difference between increased urine bilirubin and increased urine urobilinogen helps to distinguish between various disorders in those systems.
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Nectar excretion from Passiflora has also been studied as one factor which contributes to coevolution. Passiflora nectar is known to produce aggressive behaviors among ants, wasps, and egg parasitoids. Ehrlich and Gilbert have estimated that parasitoids are capable of destroying most Heliconius eggs under nectar influence. Therefore, host plants such as Passiflora are believed to have self-defense mechanisms that utilize predators against Heliconius butterflies.
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The bioavailability of ofloxacin in the tablet form is roughly 98% following oral administration, reaching maximum serum concentrations within one to two hours. Between 65% and 80% of an administered oral dose of ofloxacin is excreted unchanged via the kidneys within 48 hours of dosing. Therefore, elimination is mainly by renal excretion. However, 4-8% of an ofloxacin dose is excreted in the feces.
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Ofloxacin should be administered as described within the Dosage Guidelines table found within the most recent package insert. The status of the patient's renal function and hepatic function must also be taken into consideration to avoid an accumulation that may lead to a fatal drug overdose. Ofloxacin is eliminated primarily by renal excretion. However, the drug is also metabolized and partially cleared through the liver.
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The pharmacology of 5α-reductase inhibition is complex, but involves the binding of NADPH to the enzyme followed by the substrate. Specific substrates include testosterone, progesterone, androstenedione, epitestosterone, cortisol, aldosterone, and deoxycorticosterone. The entire physiologic effect of their reduction is unknown, but likely related to their excretion or is itself physiologic. 5α-Reductase reduces the steroid Δ4,5 double bond in testosterone to its more active form DHT.
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The principal drugs that contribute to hyperuricemia by decreased excretion are the primary antiuricosurics. Other drugs and agents include diuretics, salicylates, pyrazinamide, ethambutol, nicotinic acid, ciclosporin, 2-ethylamino-1,3,4-thiadiazole, and cytotoxic agents. The gene SLC2A9 encodes a protein that helps to transport uric acid in the kidney. Several single nucleotide polymorphisms of this gene are known to have a significant correlation with blood uric acid.
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An adult body has 22–26 grams of magnesium, with 60% in the skeleton, 39% intracellular (20% in skeletal muscle), and 1% extracellular. Serum levels are typically 0.7–1.0 mmol/L or 1.8–2.4 mEq/L. Serum magnesium levels may be normal even when intracellular magnesium is deficient. The mechanisms for maintaining the magnesium level in the serum are varying gastrointestinal absorption and renal excretion.
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Once the more complex mesonephros forms the pronephros undergoes apoptosis in amphibians. In fishes the nephron degenerates but the organ remains and becomes a component of the immune system. In mammals a functional pronephros, in the context of an organ performing waste excretion or osmoregulation, does not develop. However, a kidney primordium that runs along the intermediate mesoderm does form and links up to the cloaca.
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Buprenorphine is metabolized by the liver, primarily via the cytochrome P450 (CYP) isozyme called CYP3A4, into norbuprenorphine. The glucuronidation of buprenorphine is primarily carried out by the UDP- glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) UGT1A1 and UGT2B7, while norbuprenorphine is glucuronidated by UGT1A1 and UGT1A3. These glucuronides are then eliminated mainly through excretion into bile. The elimination half-life of buprenorphine is 20 to 73 hours (mean 37 hours).
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The salt reduction effort is controversial, with some scientists stating that lower sodium intake may harm some people.Mente A, O'Donnell M, Rangarajan S, et al. Urinary sodium excretion, blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, and mortality: a community- level prospective epidemiological cohort study. Lancet. 2018;392(10146):496–506 The initiative also works to make countries better prepared for epidemics and have funding to fill preparedness gaps.
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One of the many lipid lowering effects of the fibrate drug class is mediated through the inhibition of transcription of this enzyme. This inhibition leads to more cholesterol in the bile, which is the body's only route of cholesterol excretion. This also increases the risk of cholesterol gallstone formation. Inhibition of CYP7A1 is thought to be involved in or responsible for the hepatotoxicity associated with ketoconazole.
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Raw cranberries, cranberry juice and cranberry extracts are a source of polyphenols – including proanthocyanidins, flavonols and quercetin. These phytochemical compounds are being studied in vivo and in vitro for possible effects on the cardiovascular system, immune system and cancer. However, there is no confirmation from human studies that consuming cranberry polyphenols provides anti-cancer, immune, or cardiovascular benefits. Potential is limited by poor absorption and rapid excretion.
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Antitranspirants are compounds applied to the leaves of plants to reduce transpiration. They are used from Christmas trees, on cut flowers, on newly transplanted shrubs, and in other applications to preserve and protect plants from drying out too quickly. They have also been used to protect leaves from salt burn and fungal diseases . They block the active excretion of hydrogen cation from the guard cells.
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Carnitine interacts with pivalate-conjugated antibiotics such as pivampicillin. Chronic administration of these antibiotics increases the excretion of pivaloyl-carnitine, which can lead to carnitine depletion. Treatment with the anticonvulsants valproic acid, phenobarbital, phenytoin, or carbamazepine significantly reduces blood levels of carnitine. When taken in the amount of roughly per day, carnitine may cause nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, and body odor smelling like fish.
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Severe cases require hemodialysis, which are the most rapid methods of removing potassium from the body. These are typically used if the underlying cause cannot be corrected swiftly while temporising measures are instituted or there is no response to these measures. Loop diuretics (furosemide, bumetanide, torasemide) and thiazide diuretics (e.g., chlortalidone, hydrochlorothiazide, or chlorothiazide) can increase kidney potassium excretion in people with intact kidney function.
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Avian kidneys do not send urine to a bladder. Instead it is sent via the ureters to the cloaca to be deposited into the lower intestine. The epithelium of the lower intestine absorbs a large amount of sodium chloride, and water follows osmotically to be reabsorbed into the blood stream. This final step insures a concentrated waste product with minimal water and ion loss from excretion.
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The biological half-life of strontium-90 in humans has variously been reported as from 14 to 600 days, 1000 days, 18 years, 30 years and, at an upper limit, 49 years. The wide-ranging published biological half life figures are explained by strontium's complex metabolism within the body. However, by averaging all excretion paths, the overall biological half life is estimated to be about 18 years.
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The minor pathway of elimination is biliary excretion. When the blood serum concentration is 24 µg/ml, the corresponding biliary concentration is 10 µg/ml. In the spinal fluid the concentration of cephaloridine is 6–12% of the concentration in the blood and serum. Cephaloridine is distributed well into the liver, stomach wall, lung and spleen and is also found in fresh wounds one hour after injection.
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Healthy periwound is an immediate barrier surrounding the wound bed that can perform all the regular functions of skin – the body’s largest organ – such as absorption, excretion, protection, secretion, thermoregulation, pigment production, sensory perception and immunity. Healthy periwound maintains all the physical characteristics of skin: elasticity, surface integrity, color and texture. However, periwound can become compromised and negatively affect the healing progress of the wound.
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Manganese may affect liver function, but the threshold of acute toxicity is very high. On the other hand, more than 95 percent of manganese is eliminated by biliary excretion. Any existing liver damage may slow this process, increasing its concentration in blood plasma. The exact neurotoxic mechanism of manganese is uncertain but there are clues pointing at the interaction of manganese with iron, zinc, aluminum, and copper.
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Most patients with thin basement membrane disease are incidentally discovered to have microscopic hematuria on urinalysis. The blood pressure, kidney function, and the urinary protein excretion are usually normal. Mild proteinuria (less than 1.5 g/day) and hypertension are seen in a small minority of patients. Frank hematuria and loin pain should prompt a search for another cause, such as kidney stones or loin pain-hematuria syndrome.
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CO has approximately 210x greater affinity for hemoglobin than oxygen. The equilibrium dissociation constant for the reaction Hb-CO ⇌ Hb + CO strongly favours the CO complex, thus the release of CO for pulmonary excretion takes some time. Based on this binding affinity, blood is essentially an irreversible sink for CO and presents a therapeutic challenge for the delivery of CO to cells and tissues.
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While not classically considered potassium-sparing diuretics, ACE inhibitors (ACEis) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) are anti-hypertensive drugs with diuretic effects that decrease renal excretion of potassium. They work by inhibiting either the production (ACEis) or effects (ARBs) of angiotensin 2. This results in a decrease in aldosterone release, which causes potassium- sparing-diuretic-like effects similar to those of the aldosterone antagonists, spironolactone and eplerenone.
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The conjugated hyperbilirubinemia is a result of defective endogenous and exogenous transfer of anionic conjugates from hepatocytes into bile.Suzanne M Carter, MS Impaired biliary excretion of bilirubin glucuronides is due to a mutation in the canalicular multiple drug-resistance protein 2 (MRP2). A darkly pigmented liver is due to polymerized epinephrine metabolites, not bilirubin. Dubin–Johnson syndrome has an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance.
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Hyperkalemia is typically caused by decreased excretion by the kidneys, shift of potassium to the extracellular space, or increased consumption of potassium rich foods in patients with kidney failure. The most common cause of hyperkalemia is lab error due to potassium released as blood cells from the sample break down. Other common causes are kidney disease, cell death, acidosis, and drugs that affect kidney function.
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The uricosuric agent probenecid proved to be suitable. When probenecid and penicillin are administered together, probenecid competitively inhibits the excretion of penicillin, increasing penicillin's concentration and prolonging its activity. Eventually, the advent of mass- production techniques and semi-synthetic penicillins resolved the supply issues, so this use of probenecid declined. Probenecid is still useful, however, for certain infections requiring particularly high concentrations of penicillins.
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All subjects had incurable diseases. Excretion of polonium was followed, and an autopsy was conducted at that time on the deceased patient to determine which organs absorbed the polonium. Patients' ages ranged from "early thirties" to "early forties". The experiments were described in Chapter 3 of Biological Studies with Polonium, Radium, and Plutonium, National Nuclear Energy Series, Volume VI-3, McGraw- Hill, New York, 1950.
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The kidney function can also be assessed with medical imaging. Some forms of imaging, such as kidney ultrasound or CT scans, may assess kidney function by indicating chronic disease that can impact function, by showing a small or shrivelled kidney.. Other tests, such as nuclear medicine tests, directly assess the function of the kidney by measuring the perfusion and excretion of radioactive substances through the kidneys.
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Like other β-lactam antibiotics, renal excretion of cefalexin is delayed by probenecid. Alcohol consumption reduces the rate at which it is absorbed. Cefalexin also interacts with metformin, an antidiabetic drug, and this can lead to higher concentrations of metformin in the body. Histamine H2 receptor antagonists like cimetidine and ranitidine may reduce the efficacy of cefalexin by delaying its absorption and altering its antimicrobial pharmacodynamics.
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The Cayenne keyhole limpet is a herbivore, and uses its radula to scrape algae from rocks. Its powerful foot creates strong suction to keep waves from washing it off the rocks. Water for respiration and excretion is drawn in under the edge of the shell and exits through the "keyhole" near the peak. The eggs of this species are yellow and are stuck to rocks.
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In addition, about 50% of the administered dose is decarboxylated and excreted via the lungs. In urine, the N-demethyl and N-oxide metabolites account for 30% of the initial dose. Between 7 and 10% of zopiclone is recovered from the urine, indicating extensive metabolism of the drug before excretion. The terminal elimination half-life of zopiclone ranges from 3.5 to 6.5 hours (5 hours on average).
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The organs of Bojanus or Bojanus organs are excretory glands that serve the function of kidneys in some of the Molluscs. In other words, these are metanephridia that are found in some molluscs, for example in the bivalves. Some other molluscs have another type of organ for excretion called Keber's organ. The Bojanus organ is named after Ludwig Heinrich Bojanus, who first described it.
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Hypertension can also be age-related, and if this is the case, it is likely to be multifactorial. One possible mechanism involves a reduction in vascular compliance due to the stiffening of the arteries. This can build up due to isolated systolic hypertension with a widened pulse pressure. A decrease in glomerular filtration rate is related to aging and this results in decreasing efficiency of sodium excretion.
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Despite the importance to differentiate between the infection by either fasciolid species, due to their distinct epidemiological, pathological, and control characteristics, unfortunately, coprological (excretion-related) or immunological diagnoses are difficult. Especially in humans, specific detection by clinical, pathological, coprological, or immunological methods are unreliable. Molecular assays are the only promising tools, such as PCR-RFLP assay, and the very rapid loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP).
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Forced alkaline diuresis has been used to increase the excretion of acidic drugs like salicylates and phenobarbitone, and is recommended for rhabdomyolysis. For forced acid diuresis, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is sometimes used. Ammonium chloride has also been used for forced acid diuresis but it is a toxic compound. Usually however, this technique only produces a slight increase in the renal clearance of the drug.
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Ampicillin reacts with probenecid and methotrexate to decrease renal excretion. Large doses of ampicillin can increase the risk of bleeding with concurrent use of warfarin and other oral anticoagulants, possibly by inhibiting platelet aggregation. Ampicillin has been said to make oral contraceptives less effective, but this has been disputed. It can be made less effective by other antibiotic, such as chloramphenicol, erythromycin, cephalosporins, and tetracyclines.
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Nicotinamide cream is used as a treatment for acne. It has anti- inflammatory actions, which may benefit people with inflammatory skin conditions. Nicotinamide increases the biosynthesis of ceramides in human keratinocytes in vitro and improves the epidermal permeability barrier in vivo. The application of 2% topical nicotinamide for 2 and 4 weeks has been found to be effective in lowering the sebum excretion rate.
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Contraindications for nandrolone decanoate include pregnancy, breastfeeding, prostate cancer, male breast cancer, breast cancer in women with hypercalcemia, hypersensitivity (to nandrolone decanoate or excipients such as arachis (peanut) oil; includes those with peanut and soy allergies), nephrosis or nephritis, liver disease with impaired bilirubin excretion, and heart failure. High dosages may also be considered contraindicated in women due to their high potential for virilization.
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Increased urination is a commonly reported side effect, particularly during the initial phase following treatment initiation, this is mostly transient and tends to reduce with sustained treatment. Common side effects for antimineralocorticoid medications include nausea and vomiting, stomach cramps and diarrhoea. Clinically significant hyperkalemia is possible, and warrants serum potassium monitoring on a periodic basis. The pathophysiology of hyperkalaemia is that antimineralocorticoid medications reduce potassium (K) excretion.
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Clomifene produces N-desmethylclomifene, clomifenoxide (clomifene N-oxide), and 4-hydroxyclomifene as metabolites. Clomifene has an onset of action of 5 to 10 days following course of treatment and an elimination half-life about 5 days. Most clomifene metabolism occurs hepatically, where it undergoes enterohepatic recirculation. Clomifene and its metabolites are excreted primarily through feces (42%), and excretion can occur up to 6 weeks after discontinuation.
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The increased GFR increases the excretion of protein, albumin, and glucose. The increased GFR leads to increased urinary output, which the woman may experience as increased urinary frequency. Progesterone also causes decreased motility of the ureters, which can lead to stasis of the urine and hence an increased risk of urinary tract infection. Pregnancy alters the vaginal microbiota with a reduction in species/genus diversity.
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Another strategy used to reduce the risk of death by dehydration is to reduce the rate at which water is lost. The three main ways through which insects can lose water are (1) the surface of the body (integument); (2) the tracheae (respiration); and (3) excretion, or waste products. The important feature in reducing water loss in land snails during inactivity is an epiphragm.Machin J. 1968.
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Rabbits are prone to hypercalciuria due to intestinal absorption of calcium not being dependent on vitamin D and a high fractional urinary excretion of calcium. The urine will appear thick and creamy or sometimes sandy. Small stones and sand can be removed using urohydropropulsion. Prevention is through reducing calcium intake by feeding more hay and less commercial rabbit pellets, and by not using mineral supplements.
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Betrixaban (trade name Bevyxxa) is an oral anticoagulant drug which acts as a direct factor Xa inhibitor. Betrixaban is FDA approved for venous thrombosis prevention in adults hospitalized for an acute medical illness who are at risk for thromboembolic complications due to restricted mobility and other risk factors. Compared to other DOACs betrixaban has relatively low renal excretion (ca. 17%) and is not metabolized by CYP3A4.
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Although only a fragment of total reabsorption happens here, it is the main part of intervention. This is e.g. done by endogenous production of aldosterone, increasing reabsorption. Since the normal excretion rate of sodium is ~100mmoles/day, then a regulation of the absorption of still more than 1000 mmoles/day entering the collecting duct system has a substantial influence of the total sodium excreted.
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In one study the cumulative excretion over 72 h was 50% of the administered dose. HES has remained detectable in plasma 4 months after infusion, and in skin tissue up to 54 months after HES infusion. Administered HES accumulates in large quantities within diverse tissues where it can persist for periods of several years. Therefore, HES should not be administered for longer than 24 hours.
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Chapter 6. Some prohibitions are specific to a particular part or excretion of an animal, while others forgo the consumption of plants or fungi. Some food prohibitions can be defined as rules, codified by religion or otherwise, about which foods, or combinations of foods, may not be eaten and how animals are to be slaughtered or prepared. The origins of these prohibitions are varied.
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Ethylenediamine is an ingredient in the common bronchodilator drug aminophylline, where it serves to solubilize the active ingredient theophylline. Ethylenediamine has also been used in dermatologic preparations, but has been removed from some because of causing contact dermatitis. When used as a pharmaceutical excipient, after oral administration its bioavailability is about 0.34, due to a substantial first-pass effect. Less than 20% is eliminated by renal excretion.
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The liver enzyme CYP3A4 oxidizes the methylidene group in position 6, and the 17-keto group (on the five-membered ring) is reduced by aldo-keto reductases to an alcohol. Of the resulting metabolites, 40% are excreted via the urine and 40% via the feces within a week. The original substance accounts for only 1% of excretion in the urine. The terminal half-life is 24 hours.
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Following oral administration, the majority of ivacaftor (87.8%) is eliminated in the faeces after metabolic conversion. The major metabolites M1 and M6 accounted for approximately 65% of total dose eliminated with 22% as M1 and 43% as M6. There was negligible urinary excretion of ivacaftor as unchanged parent. The apparent terminal half-life was approximately 12 hours following a single dose in the fed state.
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The urea cycle (also known as the ornithine cycle) is a cycle of biochemical reactions that produces urea (NH2)2CO from ammonia (NH3). This cycle occurs in ureotelic organisms. The urea cycle converts highly toxic ammonia to urea for excretion. This cycle was the first metabolic cycle to be discovered (Hans Krebs and Kurt Henseleit, 1932), five years before the discovery of the TCA cycle.
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RM-MT is a disease that is characterized by recurrent attacks of rhabdomyolysis (necrosis or disintegration of skeletal muscle) associated with muscle pain and weakness, exercise intolerance, low muscle capacity for oxidative phosphorylation, and followed by excretion of myoglobin in the urine. It has been associated with mitochondrial myopathy. A G5920A mutation, and a heteroplasmic G6708A nonsense mutation have been associated with COX deficiency and RM-MT.
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Xylitol has no known toxicity in humans. At high doses, xylitol and other polyols cause gastrointestinal discomfort, including flatulence, diarrhea, and irritable bowel syndrome (see metabolism section); some people have these adverse effects at lower doses. Xylitol has a lower laxation threshold than some sugar alcohols but is more easily tolerated than mannitol and sorbitol. Increased xylitol consumption can increase oxalate, calcium and phosphate excretion to urine.
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They provide some of the best evidence for skeletal manifestations of pellagra and the reaction of bone in malnutrition. They claimed radiological studies of adult pellagrins demonstrated marked osteoporosis. A negative mineral balance in pellagrins was noted, which indicated active mobilization and excretion of endogenous mineral substances, and undoubtedly impacted the turnover of bone. Extensive dental caries were present in over half of pellagra patients.
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Under normal circumstances, the parathyroids secrete PTH to maintain a calcium level within normal limits, as calcium is required for adequate muscle and nerve function (including the autonomic nervous system). PTH acts on several organs to increase calcium levels. It increases calcium absorption in the bowel, while in the kidney it prevents calcium excretion and increases phosphate release and in bone it increases calcium through bone resorption.
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Apabetalone stimulates ApoA-I gene expression and production of the protein. ApoA-I is the main protein component of high-density lipoprotein (HDL), which can transfer cholesterol from atherosclerotic plaque in arteries to liver for excretion via the reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) pathway. This process is thought to stabilize the plaque to avoid coronary events. Clinical trials have shown apabetalone increases ApoA-I and HDL.
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Both DMPS and DMSA increase the urinary excretion of copper and zinc, which in some patients may give deficiency symptoms. Based on experimental studies and clinical experience Aaseth recommend DMSA to be used against mercury and lead intoxications,Aaseth J, Friedheim EA (1978). Treatment of methyl mercury poisoning in mice with 2, 3‐dimercaptosuccinic acid and other complexing thiols. Acta pharmacologica et toxicologica, 42(4), 248-252.
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In this connection, it may be noted that under some circumstances, calcium carbonate accompanies silica in siliceous uroliths. Pelleted feeds may be conducive to formation of phosphate uroliths, because of increased urinary phosphorus excretion. This is attributable to lower saliva production where pelleted rations containing finely ground constituents are fed. With less blood phosphate partitioned into saliva, more tends to be excreted in urine.
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Elcatonin Elcatonin is a calcitonin derivative used as an anti-parathyroid agent. It is transformed from eel's calcitonin by changing the S-S bond into a stable C-N bond. It inhibits the absorption and autolysis of bones and thus leads to lowering of blood calcium. It inhibits bone salts from dissolving and transferring and promotes the excretion of calcium and phosphorus in the urine.
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Chlortalidone may improve edema (swelling) by increasing urinary salt and water excretion, lowering intravascular hydrostatic pressure and thereby lowering transcapillary pressure (see Starling Equation). Edema may be caused by either increased hydrostatic pressure or reduced oncotic pressure in the blood vessels. Edema due to increased hydrostatic pressure may be a result of serious cardiopulmonary disease (which reduces glomerular perfusion in the kidney) or to kidney injury or disease (which may reduce glomerular excretion of salt and water by the kidney) or due to relatively benign conditions such as menstrual-related fluid retention, or as an adverse effect of dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers, which commonly cause swelling of the feet and lower legs. Edema due to decreased oncotic pressure may be a result of leaking of blood proteins through the glomeruli of an injured kidney or a result of decreased synthesis of blood proteins by the liver.
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Lachrymal glands located behind each eye allow the loggerhead to maintain osmotic balance by eliminating the excess salt obtained from ingesting ocean water. On land, the excretion of excess salt gives the false impression that the turtle is crying. The urea content is high in Caretta caretta tears. The skull is most easily distinguished from other sea turtles by having maxillae that meet in the mid- line of the palate.
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Some results show that cisplatin and carboplatin cause different morphological changes in MCF-7 cell lines while exerting their cytotoxic behaviour. The diminished reactivity limits protein- carboplatin complexes, which are excreted. The lower excretion rate of carboplatin means that more is retained in the body, and hence its effects are longer lasting (a retention half-life of 30 hours for carboplatin, compared to 1.5-3.6 hours in the case of cisplatin).
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The excretion of the resin by certain plants is thought to be an evolutionary adaptation for protection from insects and to seal wounds. Fossil resin often contains other fossils called inclusions that were captured by the sticky resin. These include bacteria, fungi, other plants, and animals. Animal inclusions are usually small invertebrates, predominantly arthropods such as insects and spiders, and only extremely rarely a vertebrate such as a small lizard.
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It is of note that kidney dysfunction in general is associated with hypercarotenemia as a result of decreased excretion of carotenoids. Liver dysfunction, regardless of origin, causes hypercarotenemia as a result of the impaired conversion of carotenoids to retinol. This is of particular interest because jaundice and carotenoderma can coexist in the same patient. Anorexia nervosa causes carotenoderma mainly through diets that are rich in carotenoids and the associated hypothyroidism.
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The coelomic cavity is reduced. They have an open circulatory system and kidney-like organs for excretion. Good evidence exists for the appearance of gastropods, cephalopods, and bivalves in the Cambrian period, 541–485.4 million years ago. However, the evolutionary history both of molluscs' emergence from the ancestral Lophotrochozoa and of their diversification into the well-known living and fossil forms are still subjects of vigorous debate among scientists.
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There are no specific antidotes or protocols for bromide poisoning of the body. Although administering chloride (or dietary salt loading protocol) coupled with fluids can help the body to excrete bromide more quickly. Furosemide may help aid urinary excretion in individuals with renal impairment or where bromide toxicity is severe. In one case, hemodialysis was used to reduce bromide's half-life to 1.38h, dramatically improving the patient's condition.
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An additional 10% is excreted in urine as metabolites. Urinary excretion is virtually complete 24 hours after administration. Dose adjustment is required in the elderly and in those with renal impairment. Ciprofloxacin is weakly bound to serum proteins (20-40%), but is an inhibitor of the drug-metabolizing enzyme cytochrome P450 1A2, which leads to the potential for clinically important drug interactions with drugs metabolized by that enzyme.
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In 1876 he received his habilitation for pharmacology and medicinal chemistry with a dissertation involving oxalic acid excretion in the urine. In 1879 he became an associate professor and head of the district health center in Jena, and during the following year was director of the Amtsphysikat-Jena. From 1886 to 1903 he was director of the city hospital at Friedrichshain-Berlin. Fürbringer's interests in medicine were many and varied.
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Primary carnitine deficiency is a genetic disorder of the cellular carnitine-transporter system that typically appears by the age of five with symptoms of cardiomyopathy, skeletal-muscle weakness, and hypoglycemia. Secondary carnitine deficiencies may happen as the result of certain disorders, such as chronic kidney failure, or under conditions that reduce carnitine absorption or increase its excretion, such as use of antibiotics, malnutrition, and poor absorption following digestion.
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In healthy individuals, homeostasis is maintained when cellular uptake and kidney excretion naturally counterbalance a patient's dietary intake of potassium. When kidney function becomes compromised, the ability of the body to effectively regulate serum potassium via the kidney declines. To compensate for this deficit in function, the colon increases its potassium secretion as part of an adaptive response. However, serum potassium remains elevated as the colonic compensating mechanism reaches its limits.
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Its excretion is ≥50% as unchanged drug in urine, where acidification of urine increases its elimination. It has a very high volume of distribution, as it diffuses into the body's adipose tissue. Accumulation of the drug may result in deposits that can lead to blurred vision and blindness. It and related quinines have been associated with cases of retinal toxicity, particularly when provided at higher doses for longer times.
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Proportion of antifungal drugs metabolized by different families of CYPs.doctorfungus > Antifungal Drug Interactions Content Director: Russell E. Lewis, Pharm.D. Retrieved on Jan 23, 2010 CYPs are the major enzymes involved in drug metabolism, accounting for about 75% of the total metabolism. (Metabolism in this context is the chemical modification or degradation of drugs.) Most drugs undergo deactivation by CYPs, either directly or by facilitated excretion from the body.
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Temperature and body size directly affect the oxygen consumption of O. vulgaris, which alters the rate of metabolism. When oxygen consumption decreases, the amount of ammonia excretion also decreases due to the slowed metabolic rate. O. vulgaris has four different fluids found within its body: blood, pericardial fluid, urine, and renal fluid. The urine and renal fluid have high concentrations of potassium and sulphate, but low concentrations of chloride.
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The principal harm done by the citrus blackfly is the sucking of the tree's sap, which deprives it of both water and nutrients. The excretion of honeydew coats the leaf surfaces and encourages the growth of sooty mold. This can severely impair both leaf respiration and photosynthesis. The combination of all these factors causes a decline in the health and vigour of the tree and a reduction in fruit yield.
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Serotonin, and consequently 5-HIAA, are produced in excess by most carcinoid tumors, especially those producing the carcinoid syndrome of flushing, hepatomegaly (enlarged liver), diarrhea, bronchospasm, and heart disease. Quantitation of urinary 5-HIAA is the best test for carcinoid, but scrupulous care must be taken that specimen collection and patient preparation have been correct. Carcinoid tumors may cause increased excretion of tryptophan, 5-hydroxytryptophan and histamine as well as serotonin.
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Instead, as waste accumulates, part of the gut starts to balloon out until it touches the outer layer, or epidermis. The gut then fuses with the epidermis, forming an anal opening. Once excretion is complete, the process is reversed and the anus vanishes. The animals defecate at regular intervals: once an hour in the 5-centimetre-long adults, and once every 10 minutes or so in the larvae.
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Gas exchange and excretion occur through cilia-lined sacs called bursae; each opens between the arm bases on the underside of the disk. Typically ten bursae are found, and each fits between two stomach digestive pouches. Water flows through the bursae by means of cilia or muscular contraction. Oxygen is transported through the body by the hemal system, a series of sinuses and vessels distinct from the water vascular system.
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There is not an officially established treatment due to rarity of disease. Most are misdiagnosed anyway and treated with general medicines against cestodes. One record of treatment in a Bertiella case in Equatorial Guinea, documented a patient treated with praziquantel in a 40 mg/kg body weight, in a single dose, followed by a second, similar dose 20 days later. From then, the proglottid excretion and oesophageal pain desisted.
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Once the diagnosis is confirmed additional testing is needed to find the underlying cause because the underlying condition may require treatment for reasons independent of nephrocalcinosis. These additional tests will measure serum, electrolytes, calcium, and phosphate, and the urine pH. If no underlying cause can be found then urine collection should be done for 24 hours and measurements of the excretion of calcium, phosphate, oxalate, citrate, and creatinine are looked at.
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EE is often identified by urine organic acid analysis, the excretion of ethylmalonic acid, methylsuccinic acid, isobutyrylglycine and isovalerylglucine. Patients will also often have elevated thiosulphate concentration in their urine. The signs and symptoms of ethylmalonic encephalopathy are apparent at birth or begin in the first few months of life. Problems with the nervous system typically worsen over time, and most affected individuals survive only into early childhood.
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The Hobart Phase is the new order of life where people rise from the dead and are rejuvenated. Time reversal apparently began in 1986. Other than aging, Hobart Phase resurrection has changed nutritional and excretion processes and associated social taboos. People do not eat, but instead consume "Sogum" anally through a pipe, and later "plop" out food orally, which is done in private, due to its 'shameful' nature.
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In salt intoxication, the urine sodium concentrations are very high and fractional excretion of sodium is greater than 1%. Initial test results may be suggestive of diabetes insipidus. The circulating AVP levels tend to be high, which indicate an appropriate response of the pituitary to hyperosmolality. Patients may have mild stable elevations of serum sodium concentrations, along with elevations in both BUN and creatinine levels and in the BUN/creatinine ratio.
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Functionally, parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases calcium resorption from the bone and increases phosphate excretion from the kidney which increases serum calcium and decreases serum phosphate. Individuals with FHH, however, typically have normal PTH levels, as normal calcium homeostasis is maintained, albeit at a higher equilibrium set point. As a consequence, these individuals are not at increased risk of the complications of hyperparathyroidism. Another form has been associated with chromosome 3q.
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Cable bacteria lack flagella, but are capable of motility in the form of gliding by propelling themselves forward through the excretion of substances. Cable bacteria have been observed to move as fast as 2.2 µm/s, with an average speed of 0.5 µm/s. Speed of motility in cable bacteria is not related to size of the bacteria. The average distance a cable bacterium glides is approximately 74 µm without interruption.
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Processes in pharmacokinetics ADME is an abbreviation in pharmacokinetics and pharmacology for "absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion", and describes the disposition of a pharmaceutical compound within an organism. The four criteria all influence the drug levels and kinetics of drug exposure to the tissues and hence influence the performance and pharmacological activity of the compound as a drug. Sometimes, liberation and/or toxicity are also considered, yielding LADME, ADMET, or LADMET.
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In the cryogenic freezing of heteroploid cell lines (MDCK, VERO, etc.) a mixture of 10% DMSO with 90% EMEM (70% EMEM + 30% fetal bovine serum + antibiotic mixture) is used. As part of an autologous bone marrow transplant the DMSO is re-infused along with the patient's own hematopoietic stem cells. DMSO is metabolized by disproportionation to dimethyl sulfide and dimethyl sulfone. It is subject to renal and pulmonary excretion.
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A sodium load augments the intense potassium excretion by cortisol. Corticosterone is comparable to cortisol in this case. For potassium to move out of the cell, cortisol moves an equal number of sodium ions into the cell. This should make pH regulation much easier (unlike the normal potassium-deficiency situation, in which two sodium ions move in for each three potassium ions that move out—closer to the deoxycorticosterone effect).
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The fact that it was used as an initiator was classified until the 1960s.RESTRICTED DATA DECLASSIFICATION DECISIONS, 1946 TO THE PRESENT (RDD-7), January 1, 2001, U.S. Department of Energy Office of Declassification, via fas.org The Atomic Energy Commission and the Manhattan Project funded human experiments using polonium on five people at the University of Rochester between 1943 and 1947. The people were administered between of polonium to study its excretion.
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The two main areas of pharmacology are pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. Pharmacodynamics studies the effects of a drug on biological systems, and pharmacokinetics studies the effects of biological systems on a drug. In broad terms, pharmacodynamics discusses the chemicals with biological receptors, and pharmacokinetics discusses the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of chemicals from the biological systems. Pharmacology is not synonymous with pharmacy and the two terms are frequently confused.
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The fish is obligately ureotelic (urea excreting), unlike most teleosts which produce ammonia. The reason for this appears to be due to the difficulty of diffusing ammonia into a highly alkaline environment, not pH regulation as previously thought. Efficient nitrogen excretion is particularly crucial as the fish feeds on cyanobacteria which have a very high nitrogen content. Urea is also used in a small way, but significantly, in osmoregulation.
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The topical application of monobenzone in animals increases the excretion of melanin from melanocytes. The same action is thought to be responsible for the depigmenting effect of the drug in humans. Monobenzone may cause destruction of melanocytes and permanent depigmentation. The histology of the skin after depigmentation with topical monobenzone is the same as that seen in vitiligo; the epidermis is normal except for the absence of identifiable melanocytes.
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Circulation of body fluids is a function of many organs working together as a team, including the lungs. The role of the lung in promoting and maintaining water metabolism depends on the descending function of lung qi. Under normal circumstances, the lungs are capable of sending fluids downwards to the kidneys, which pass the fluids to the bladder for excretion. Dysfunction may result in dysuria, oliguria, and oedema.
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In normal individuals, there is a constant production of ketone bodies by the liver and their utilization by extrahepatic tissues. The concentration of ketone bodies in blood is maintained around . Their excretion in urine is very low and undetectable by routine urine tests (Rothera's test). When the rate of synthesis of ketone bodies exceeds the rate of utilization, their concentration in blood increases; this is known as ketonemia.
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This is followed by ketonuria – excretion of ketone bodies in urine. The overall picture of ketonemia and ketonuria is commonly referred as ketosis. The smell of acetoacetate and/or acetone in breath is a common feature in ketosis. When a type 1 diabetic suffers acute biological stress (infection, heart attack, or physical trauma) or fails to administer enough insulin, they may enter the pathological state of diabetic ketoacidosis.
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There are also humans. The chemicals that alter gender are constantly produced and excreted by a human being on a normal everyday basis. Along with this, pregnant women contain greater amounts of the chemicals thus releasing greater amounts of it with every excretion. Because of this, one can see that the source of gender-altering pollutants is not natural, but due to man-made chemicals that, globally, are being released.
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Bile is the main form of B12 excretion; most of the B12 secreted in the bile is recycled via enterohepatic circulation. Excess B12 beyond the blood's binding capacity is typically excreted in urine. Owing to the extremely efficient enterohepatic circulation of B12, the liver can store 3 to 5 years' worth of vitamin B12; therefore, nutritional deficiency of this vitamin is rare in adults in the absence of malabsorption disorders.
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British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 2006;61(6):682-689. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2125.2006.02601.x. In blood, about 20% of circulating primaquine is protein-bound, with preferential binding to the acute phase protein orosomucoid. With a half-life on the order of 6 hours, it is quickly metabolized by liver enzymes to carboxyprimaquine, which does not have anti- malarial activity. Renal excretion of the parent drug is less than 4%.
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Magnesium deficiency may result from gastrointestinal or kidney causes. Gastrointestinal causes include inadequate dietary intake of magnesium, reduced gastrointestinal absorption or increased gastrointestinal loss due to rapid gastrointestinal transits. Kidney causes involve increased excretion of magnesium. Poor dietary intake of magnesium has become an increasingly important factor - many people consume diets high in refined foods such as white bread and polished rice which have been stripped of magnesium-rich plant fiber.
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After inducing the metanephric mesenchyme the lower portions of the nephric duct will migrate caudally (downward) and connect with the bladder, thereby forming the ureters. The ureters will carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder for excretion from the fetus into the amniotic sac. As the fetus develops, the torso elongates and the kidneys rotate and migrate upwards within the abdomen which causes the length of the ureters to increase.
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Because of progranulin's structural similarities to these proteins, much research was done to interrogate progranulin's potential role as a growth factor. When progranulin is secreted into the extracellular matrix, it is often glycosylated at 4 confirmed and 1 tentative N-linked glycosylation sites. The n-terminus of progranulin is hypothesized to be involved in the secretion of progranulin via secretory vesicles. Specifically, Progranulin may be involved in regulating exosome excretion.
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The enzyme also metabolizes some steroids and carcinogens. Most drugs undergo deactivation by CYP3A4, either directly or by facilitated excretion from the body. Also, many substances are bioactivated by CYP3A4 to form their active compounds, and many protoxins being toxicated into their toxic forms (for examples – see table below). CYP3A4 also possesses epoxygenase activity in that it metabolizes arachidonic acid to epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs), i.e. (±)-8,9-, (±)-11,12-, and (±)-14,15-epoxyeicosatrienoic acids.
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Urate stones Urate (C5H4N4O3) stones, usually ammonium urate (NH4·C5H4N4O3) or sodium urate monohydrate (Na·C5H4N4O3×H2O), form in an acidic to neutral urine. They are usually small, yellow-brown, smooth stones. Urate stones form due to an increased excretion of uric acid in the urine. Dalmatians (especially males) and to a lesser extent Bulldogs are genetically predisposed to the formation of urate stones because of an altered metabolism of purines.
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Type II pseudohypoaldosteronism (PHA2), also known as Gordon's syndrome, is an autosomal dominant disease in which there is an increase in NCC activity leading to short stature, increased blood pressure, increased serum K+ levels, increased urinary calcium excretion and hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis. However, PHA2 is not caused by mutations within the NCC gene, but by mutations in NCC regulators WNK1 and WNK4. Patients respond well to treatment with thiazide-type diuretics.
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Buprenorphine is metabolized by the liver, via CYP3A4 (also CYP2C8 seems to be involved) isozymes of the cytochrome P450 enzyme system, into norbuprenorphine (by N-dealkylation). The glucuronidation of buprenorphine is primarily carried out by UGT1A1 and UGT2B7, and that of norbuprenorphine by UGT1A1 and UGT1A3. These glucuronides are then eliminated mainly through excretion into bile. The elimination half-life of buprenorphine is 20 to 73 hours (mean 37 hours).
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There is no cumulative effect of moclobemide centrally when taken long-term. With long-term use of moclobemide, there is a significant down-regulation of B-adrenoceptors. Single or repeated dosing with 100–300 mg of moclobemide leads to a reduction in deaminated metabolites of amines such as 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylethylglycol as well as 5-HIAA. Excretion of homovanillic acid and vanillylmandelic acid via urine is also reduced.
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In literature, "scatological" is a term to denote the literary trope of the grotesque body. It is used to describe works that make particular reference to excretion or excrement, as well as to toilet humor. Well known for his scatological tropes is the late medieval fictional character of Till Eulenspiegel. Another common example is John Dryden's Mac Flecknoe, a poem that employs extensive scatological imagery to ridicule Dryden's contemporary Thomas Shadwell.
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In addition to the usual routine haematologic and biochemical investigations, the serum calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, alkaline phosphatase, calcitonin and parathyroid hormone should also be measured. The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) should be examined to exclude bacteria, viruses and parasites. The Ellsworth Howard test (a 10-20 fold increase of urinary cyclic AMP excretion following stimulation with 200 micromoles of parathyroid hormone) may be worth doing also. Serology for toxoplasmosis is also indicated.
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Reaction of acecainide Renal clearance of acecainide following short and long term administration ranges from 2.08±0.36 mL/min/kg to 3.28±0.52 mL/min/kg in healthy people. There is a linear relationship between acecainide clearance and creatinine clearance. However, the clearance of acecainide was reduced in a few patients with cardiomyopathyand and ventricular arrhythmias. Also is excretion of procainamide and NAPA is reduced in patients with CKD.
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In a study of absorption, distribution, metabolism (biotransformation) and excretion of novaluron, rats received radioactively labeled novaluron orally. The absorbed novaluron was metabolized and 14 and 15 components were detected in the urine and bile respectively. The main metabolic pathway was cleavage of the urea bridge between the chlorophenyl- and difluorophenylgroups. The products of this reaction are 2,6-difluorobenzoic acid and 3-chloro-4-(1,1,2-trifluoro-2-trifluoromethoxyethoxy) aniline.
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Excretion is performed mainly by two small kidneys. In diapsids, uric acid is the main nitrogenous waste product; turtles, like mammals, excrete mainly urea. Unlike the kidneys of mammals and birds, reptile kidneys are unable to produce liquid urine more concentrated than their body fluid. This is because they lack a specialized structure called a loop of Henle, which is present in the nephrons of birds and mammals.
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A 2012 review and meta-analysis found that there was "limited supporting evidence" but that acetazolamide "may be considered" for the treatment of central (as opposed to obstructive) sleep apnea. It has also been used to prevent methotrexate-induced kidney damage by alkalinalizing the urine, hence speeding up methotrexate excretion by increasing its solubility in urine. There is some evidence to support its use to prevent hemiplegic migraine.
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Blood urea and creatinine levels will be elevated. Leptospirosis increases potassium excretion in urine, which leads to a low potassium level and a low sodium level in the blood. Urinalysis may reveal the presence of protein, white blood cells, and microscopic haematuria. Because the bacteria settle in the kidneys, urine cultures will be positive for leptospirosis starting after the second week of illness until 30 days of infection.
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Excretion can occur via different routes: via the lungs, the urine, bile and sometimes via the skin or breast milk. Iproniazid has a molecular weight of 179.219 g/mol, which is far below 500 g/mol, and it is hydrophilic (because of e.g. the N-H groups in the molecule). These two properties together indicate that iproniazid is likely to be excreted in the urine via the kidneys.
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Kies saved money for graduate school and studied human physiology while she continued teaching. She earned an M.S. in foods and nutrition in 1960 and a Ph.D. in human nutrition and medical physiology in 1963 from the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Her master's thesis was titled "Studies in Urinary Nitrogen Excretion". Kies' dissertation was titled "Effect of Essential to Non-essential Amino Acid Relationships in Adult Man and in the Rat".
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Robley D. Evans made the first measurements of exhaled radon and radium excretion from a former dial painter in 1933. At MIT he gathered dependable body content measurements from 27 dial painters. This information was used in 1941 by the National Bureau of Standards to establish the tolerance level for radium of 0.1 μCi (3.7 kBq). The Center for Human Radiobiology was established at Argonne National Laboratory in 1968.
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Acute tubular necrosis is classified as a "renal" (i.e. not pre-renal or post-renal) cause of acute kidney injury. Diagnosis is made by a FENa (fractional excretion of sodium) > 3% and presence of muddy casts (a type of granular cast) in urinalysis. On histopathology, there is usually tubulorrhexis, that is, localized necrosis of the epithelial lining in renal tubules, with focal rupture or loss of basement membrane.
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The main body cavity of most aquatic gastropods also includes pericardial glands, often located above the heart. These secrete waste into the haemolymph, prior to further filtration in the nephridium. Pulmonates lack these glands, so that the nephridium is the only major organ of excretion. In some gastropods, the nephridium opens directly into the sinus, but more usually, there is a small duct, referred to as the renopericardial canal.
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Excretion of these ciguatoxins is largely via the feces and in smaller amounts via urine. The compounds are very lipophilic and will therefore diffuse to multiple organs and tissues, for example the liver, fat and the brain. The highest concentration was found in the brain, but muscles contained the highest total amount after a few days. Because gambierol is lipophilic, it can easily persist and accumulate in the fish food chain.
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Hawkinsin (also known as 2-cystenyl-1,4-dihydroxycyclohexenylacetate) is an amino acid, which is formed after detoxification of a reactive tyrosine metabolite (quinol acetate) by glutathione. Hawkinsin is ninhydrin positive (a common test to detect amino acids and proteins with a free -NH2 group). It is found in elevated concentrations in the urine in hawkinsinuria, which is probably related to the depletion of glutathione and resulting high excretion of 5-oxoproline.
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Infants sometimes create trauma to the nipple and areolae by latching-on. Another function of an areola is to house slowly-adapting mechanoreceptors that trigger oxytocin excretion during nursing. The size of the areola implies a need to protect a larger area than the nipple due to many factors that are not fully known. Rated according to the Tanner scale of physical development, in stage four, the areolae are raised.
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The dose rate from a single uptake decays over time due to both radioactive decay, and biological decay (i.e. excretion from the body). The combined radioactive and biological half-life, called the effective half-life of the material, may range from hours for medical radioisotopes to decades for transuranic waste. Committed dose is the integral of this decaying dose rate over the presumed remaining lifespan of the organism.
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The bioavailability of enzalutamide in humans is unknown, but is at least 84.6% based on the amount recovered from urine and bile in excretion studies. Similarly, the bioavailability of enzalutamide in rats is 89.7%. Steady-state concentrations of enzalutamide are achieved within 28 days of treatment initiation. The plasma protein binding of enzalutamide is 97 to 98%, while that of N-desmethylenzalutamide (NDME), its major metabolite, is 95%.
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The main excretion-pathway is revealed to be through urine where up to one-third of the administered compound was recovered unchanged. o-toluidine and metabolites are known to bind to hemoglobin. The o-toluidine metabolite o-nitrosotoluene, is proven to cause bladder cancer in rats and is thought to bind to hemoglobin in humans. o-Toluidine exposure has been researched in a number of different degrees in animals.
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When a Hydra is cut in half, each half will regenerate and form into a small Hydra; the "head" will regenerate a "foot" and the "foot" will regenerate a "head". If the Hydra is sliced into many segments then the middle slices will form both a "head" and a "foot". Respiration and excretion occur by diffusion throughout the surface of the epidermis, while larger excreta are discharged through the mouth.
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Metabolic syndrome and its associated diseases of obesity and diabetes as general risk factors for kidney stone disease are under research to determine if urinary excretion of calcium, oxalate and urate are higher than in people with normal weight or underweight, and if diet and physical activity have roles. Dietary, fluid intake, and lifestyle factors remain major topics for research on prevention of kidney stones, as of 2017.
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High potassium concentrations in the plasma cause depolarization of the zona glomerulosa cells' membranes in the outer layer of the adrenal cortex. This causes the release of aldosterone into the blood. Aldosterone acts primarily on the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of the kidneys, stimulating the excretion of potassium ions into the urine. It does so, however, by activating the basolateral Na+/K+ pumps of the tubular epithelial cells.
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Asher yatzar ( "Who has formed man") is a blessing in Judaism. It is recited after engaging in an act of excretion or urination, but is also included in many Jewish prayer books as a part of daily prayer prior to birkot hashachar. The purpose of this blessing is to thank God for good health. It expresses thanks for having the ability to excrete, for without it existence would be impossible.
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In 1940 he published his paper The Diagnostic Value of Pregnandiol Excretion in Pregnancy Disorders. He became in 1942 a lieutenant-colonel in the RAMC; he served from 1944 to 1945 in France and Holland and then in the postwar-era in Norway. He was director of human problems research for the UK's National Coal Board from 1947 to 1949. He was then appointed to the Royal Postgraduate Medical School.
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However, recent data suggests that both potassium monitoring and dietary restriction of potassium intake is unnecessary in healthy young women taking spironolactone for acne. Spironolactone together with trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole increases the likelihood of hyperkalemia, especially in the elderly. The trimethoprim portion acts to prevent potassium excretion in the distal tubule of the nephron. Spironolactone has been reported to induce the enzymes CYP3A4 and certain UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs), which can result in interactions with various medications.
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A single, fragile site exists in the Sperrin Mountains of Northern Ireland. In North America, cloudberries grow wild across Greenland, most of northern Canada, Alaska, northern Minnesota, New Hampshire, Maine, and New York. Wide distribution occurs due to the excretion of the indigestible seeds by birds and mammals. Further distribution arises through its rhizomes, which are up to long and grow about below the soil surface, developing extensive and dense berry patches.
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As interpreted by the Linus Pauling Institute and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), dietary flavonoids have little or no direct antioxidant food value following digestion. Unlike controlled test tube conditions where antioxidant effects may result when high concentrations of flavonoids are used, the fate of ingested flavonoids in vivo shows they are poorly conserved (less than 5%), with most of what is absorbed existing as chemically-modified metabolites destined for rapid excretion.
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D5 receptor may be involved in modulation of the neuronal pathways that regulate blood pressure. Mice lacking this receptor in their brains showed hypertension and elevated blood pressure, which may have been caused by increased sympathetic tone. D5 receptors that are expressed in kidneys are also involved in the regulation of blood pressure via modulating expression of renalase and excretion of sodium, and disturbance of these processes can contribute to hypertension as well.
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Hemosiderinuria (syn. haemosiderinuria),the existence of hemosiderin in the urine .Occurs with chronic intravascular hemolysis, in which hemoglobin is released from RBCs into the bloodstream in excess of the binding capacity of haptoglobin. (Haptoglobin binds circulating hemoglobin and reduces renal excretion of hemoglobin, preventing tubular injury.) The excess hemoglobin is filtered by the kidney and reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule, where the iron portion is removed and stored in ferritin or hemosiderin.
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Thus, an abnormal rise in both unconjugated and conjugated bilirubin will be present. Because excretion (the rate-limiting step) is usually impaired to the greatest extent, conjugated hyperbilirubinemia predominates. The unconjugated bilirubin still enters the liver cells and becomes conjugated in the usual way. This conjugated bilirubin is then returned to the blood, probably by rupture of the congested bile canaliculi and direct emptying of the bile into the lymph leaving the liver.
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Post-hepatic jaundice (obstructive jaundice) is due to a blockage of bile excretion from the biliary tract → increased conjugated bilirubin and bile salts. In complete obstruction of the bile duct, conjugated bilirubin cannot access the intestinal tract → no further bilirubin conversion to urobilinogen → no stercobilin or urobilin. Instead, excess conjugated bilirubin is filtered into the urine without urobilinogen in obstructive jaundice. Conjugated bilirubin in urine (bilirubinuria) gives urine an abnormally dark brown color.
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Solute carrier family 22 member 7 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the gene SLC22A7. The protein encoded by this gene is involved in the sodium- independent transport and excretion of organic anions, some of which are potentially toxic. The encoded protein is an integral membrane protein and appears to be localized to the basolateral membrane of the kidney. Alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been described.
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Using glucose as substrate the natural producing succinic acid producers are first considered. These organisms use the excretion of acetic acid (and sometimes formic acid) to balance the NADH requirement of succinic acid production. Two possible paths exist as indicated in Figure 1 and Figure 2. The difference between the two pathways lies in the pyruvate oxidation step where pyruvate formate lyase is employed in Figure 1 and pyruvate dehydrogenase employed in Figure 2.
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In comparison, the rate of bone loss for the elderly is between 1-1.5% yearly. The excretion of calcium from bones in space also places those in low gravity at a higher risk of kidney stones. Additionally, a lack of gravity causes fluids in the body to shift towards the head, possibly causing pressure in the head and vision problems. Overall physical fitness tends to decrease as well, and proper nutrition becomes much more important.
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Hyperkalemia develops when there is excessive production (oral intake, tissue breakdown) or ineffective elimination of potassium. Ineffective elimination can be hormonal (in aldosterone deficiency) or due to causes in the kidney that impair excretion. Increased extracellular potassium levels result in depolarization of the membrane potentials of cells due to the increase in the equilibrium potential of potassium. This depolarization opens some voltage- gated sodium channels, but also increases the inactivation at the same time.
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Alcohol also impairs and alters the functioning in the cerebellum, which affects both motor function and coordination. It has a notable inhibitory effect on the neurons of the cerebral cortex, affecting and altering thought processes, decreasing inhibition, and increasing the pain threshold. It also decreases sexual performance by depressing nerve centers in the hypothalamus. Alcohol also has an effect on urine excretion via inhibition of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) secretion of the pituitary gland.
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Graphic representation of a physiologically based whole body model. Here, it is dissected into seven tissue/organ compartments: brain, lungs and heart, pancreas, liver, gut, kidney and adipose/muscle tissue. Blood flows, Q, and concentration, [X], of a substance of interest are depicted. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling is a mathematical modeling technique for predicting the absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) of synthetic or natural chemical substances in humans and other animal species.
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A non-inherited cause of excess urinary excretion of proline and glycine, similar to that found in iminoglycinuria, is quite common to newborn infants younger than 6 months. Sometimes referred to as neonatal iminoglycinuria, it is due to underdevelopment of high-affinity transport mechanisms within the renal circuit, specifically PAT2, SIT1 and SLC6A18. The condition corrects itself with age. In cases where this persists beyond childhood, however, inherited hyperglycinuria or iminoglycinuria may be suspected.
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In a Mayo clinic study of 101 individuals with light chain SMM, the cumulative probability of progression to active multiple myeloma or light-chain amyloidosis in patients with light-chain SMM was 28%, 45%, and 56% after 5, 10, and 15 years, respectively. The major risk factors for progression were the level of urinary excretion of M protein, percentage of bone marrow plasma cells, and immunoparesis (i.e. reduced serum levels of intact immunoglobulins).
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The biological half-life of tritium—the time it takes for half of an ingested dose to be expelled from the body—is low, at only 12 days. Tritium excretion can be accelerated further by increasing water intake to 3–4 liters/day. Direct, short-term exposure to small amounts of tritium is mostly harmless. If a tritium tube breaks, one should leave the area and allow the gas to diffuse into the air.
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Individual pseudopods characteristically have small granules streaming in both directions. Foraminifera are unique in having granuloreticulose pseudopodia; that is, their pseudopodia appear granular under the microscope; these pseudopodia are often elongate and may split and rejoin each other. These can be extended and retracted to suit the needs of the cell. The pseudopods are used for locomotion, anchoring, excretion, test construction and in capturing food, which consists of small organisms such as diatoms or bacteria.
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Compounds on red are inactive. For N-alkyl amphetamines, deamination and N-dealkylation are the major elimination pathways and renal excretion is a minor one. Methiopropamine is metabolized into active thiopropamine, 4-hydroxymethiopropamine and thiophene S-oxides. These N-demethylated metabolites are further deaminated by the cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP2C19 in the liver transforming them into inactive 1-(thiophen-2-yl)-2-propan-2-one which can be seen as a phenylacetone derivative.
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Modifications in the effect of a drug are caused by differences in the absorption, transport, distribution, metabolism or excretion of one or both of the drugs compared with the expected behavior of each drug when taken individually. These changes are basically modifications in the concentration of the drugs. In this respect, two drugs can be homergic if they have the same effect in the organism and heterergic if their effects are different.
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The condition was first described, simultaneously and independently, in 1929, by Luis Morquio (1867–1935), a prominent Uruguayan physician who discovered it in Montevideo, and James Frederick Brailsford (1888–1961), an English radiologist in Birmingham, England. They both recognized the occurrence of corneal clouding, aortic valve disease, and urinary excretion of keratan sulfate. Morquio observed the disorder in four siblings in a family of Swedish descent and reported his observations in French.
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Parker's family report that she died of leukemia, which they believe was radiation-induced. Leukemia is regarded as a risk of occupational polonium exposure. Workers on the Dayton Project had weekly tests for polonium excretion. In 2000, the Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program included leukemia as a compensable illness for workers at the Dayton Project who were, or should have been, regularly monitored for polonium levels and were employed there over a certain time.
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Four potential processes exist for a chemical interacting with an animal: absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME). Absorption describes the entrance of the chemical into the body, and can occur through the air, water, food, or soil. Once a chemical is inside a body, it can be distributed to other areas of the body through diffusion or other biological processes. At this point, the chemical may undergo metabolism and be biotransformed into other chemicals (metabolites).
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A more common cause is excessive loss of potassium, often associated with heavy fluid losses that "flush" potassium out of the body. Typically, this is a consequence of diarrhea, excessive perspiration, or losses associated with muscle-crush injury, or surgical procedures. Vomiting can also cause hypokalemia, although not much potassium is lost from the vomitus. Rather, heavy urinary losses of K+ in the setting of post-emetic bicarbonaturia force urinary potassium excretion (see Alkalosis below).
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"Microbial heterotrophic metabolic rates constrain the microbial carbon pump." The American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2011. In general, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is introduced into the ocean environment from bacterial lysis, the leakage or exudation of fixed carbon from phytoplankton (e.g., mucilaginous exopolymer from diatoms), sudden cell senescence, sloppy feeding by zooplankton, the excretion of waste products by aquatic animals, or the breakdown or dissolution of organic particles from terrestrial plants and soils.
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It is very important for the bumble bees to have bodily homeostasis over their body. However, the Bombus morio do not have a rectal pad. Instead, the excretion system in the Bombus morio, consisting of the Malpighian tubules, ileum, and rectum, gives the bees an efficient method of keeping homeostasis. An analysis of these organs showed that the Bombus morio Malpighian tubules are made up of two cell types, and the ileum four types.
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Betanin, the beet pigment causing urine coloring Beeturia is the passing of red or pink urine after eating beetroots or foods colored with beetroot extract or beetroot pigments. The color is caused by the excretion of betalain (betacyanin) pigments such as betanin. The coloring is highly variable between individuals and between different occasions, and can vary in intensity from invisible to strong. The pigment is sensitive to oxidative degradation under strongly acidic conditions.
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Generally speaking, it has been shown that chromium(III) picolinate is not toxic to humans. For most adults, it can be taken orally in doses up 1000 μg per day. This low toxicity has general been associated with low absorbance of Cr(III) in the body through the lungs, skin and gastrointestinal tract, coupled with high excretion. Normally, 99% of chromium(III) taken can be recovered in the feces of the user.
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The female lays her eggs in hexagonal batches of 25 to 30, and a single female will lay three to four batches. After the eggs hatch, the green shield bug enter a larval stage (which is really their first nymphal stage) where, in general, they remain together in sibling communities. This is made possible by the excretion of an aggregation pheromone. In case of danger, another pheromone is released which causes dispersal.
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Hence, defects in renal dopamine function can lead to reduced sodium excretion and consequently result in the development of high blood pressure. There is strong evidence that faults in the production of dopamine or in the receptors can result in a number of pathologies including oxidative stress, edema, and either genetic or essential hypertension. Oxidative stress can itself cause hypertension. Defects in the system can also be caused by genetic factors or high blood pressure.
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Her later research concerned vitamin B6 and its antimetabolite, an animal carcinogen. She was the first chemist to create the antimetabolite of an amino acid. Dyer's studies with vitamin B6 included the discovery that the vitamin prevented heightened excretion of abnormal tryptophan metabolites, including xanthurenic acid, in animals that consumed the liver carcinogen N-2-fluorenylacetamide. She also collaborated with colleagues at the NCI to study enzymes present in liver cancers and liver tumors.
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During fasting, the normal conversion of triglycerides to free fatty acids, ketones, and ultimately acetyl-CoA is impaired. Triglyceride levels in GSD I can reach several times normal and serve as a clinical index of "metabolic control". Hyperuricemia results from a combination of increased generation and decreased excretion of uric acid, which is generated when increased amounts of G6P are metabolized via the pentose phosphate pathway. It is also a byproduct of purine degradation.
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A primary antibody can be very useful for the detection of biomarkers for diseases such as cancer, diabetes, Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease and they are used for the study of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) and multi-drug resistance (MDR) of therapeutic agents. The primary antibody binds to an antigen (in red). A labeled secondary antibody (in green), then binds to the primary antibody. The label is then used to indirectly detect the antigen.
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Santorio Santorio spent a large portion of 30 years living on a platform meticulously measuring his daily weight combined with that of his intake and excretion in an effort to test Galen's theory that respiration occurs through the skin as perspiratio insensibilis (insensible perspiration). The result was the 1614 publication De Statica Medicina ("On Medical Measurements").Eknoyan G. Santorio Sanctorius (1561–1636) – founding father of metabolic balance studies. Am J Nephrol. 1999;19(2):226-33.
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DL-Methionine is sometimes given as a supplement to dogs; It helps reduce the chances of kidney stones in dogs. Methionine is also known to increase the urinary excretion of quinidine by acidifying the urine. Aminoglycoside antibiotics used to treat urinary tract infections work best in alkaline conditions, and urinary acidification from using methionine can reduce its effectiveness. If a dog is on a diet that acidifies the urine, methionine should not be used.
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Amiloride works by directly blocking the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) with an IC50 around 0.1 μM, indicating potent blockade. Antagonism of ENaC thereby inhibits sodium reabsorption in the late distal convoluted tubules, connecting tubules, and collecting ducts in the nephron. This promotes the loss of sodium and water from the body, and reduces potassium excretion. The drug is often used in conjunction with a thiazide diuretic to counteract with a potassium-losing effect.
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Kaliuresis () or kaluresis () is the condition of excreting potassium in the urine. Thiazide diuretics are used to treat patients with heart failure. Their goal is to decrease the amount of salt (sodium chloride) in the body by decreasing the amount that the kidney reabsorbs. This excess sodium in the kidneys that is destined for excretion via urination can cause hyponatremia (low sodium level) and can lead to kaliuresis by increasing sodium-potassium exchange.
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NAT2 is involved in the metabolism of xenobiotics, which can lead to both the inactivation of drugs and formation of toxic metabolites that can be carcinogenic. The biotransformation of xenobiotics may occur in three phases. In phase I, reactive and polar groups are introduced into the substrates. In phase II, conjugation of xenobiotics with charged species occurs, and in phase III additional modifications are made, with efflux mechanisms leading to excretion by transporters.
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It distributes rapidly and exhibits virtually no binding to plasma proteins, giving it a relatively high volume of distribution. Benzamide and its derivatives are highly water-soluble, and because of their polarity are believed to cross the blood–brain barrier via carrier-mediated transport. Elimination of tiapride, mostly in its original form, occurs through renal excretion with a half-life of 3 to 4 hours. Recommended dosages of tiapride vary with clinical symptoms.
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Two of the eight branches of classical Ayurveda deal with surgery (Śalya-cikitsā and Śālākya-tantra), but contemporary Ayurveda tends to stress attaining vitality by building a healthy metabolic system and maintaining good digestion and excretion. Ayurveda also focuses on exercise, yoga, and meditation. One type of prescription is a Sattvic diet. Ayurveda follows the concept of Dinacharya, which says that natural cycles (waking, sleeping, working, meditation etc.) are important for health.
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Horseshoe crabs convert nitrogenous wastes to ammonia and dump it via their gills, and excrete other wastes as feces via the anus. They also have nephridia ("little kidneys"), which extract other wastes for excretion as urine. Ammonia is so toxic that it must be diluted rapidly with large quantities of water. Most terrestrial chelicerates cannot afford to use so much water and therefore convert nitrogenous wastes to other chemicals, which they excrete as dry matter.
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Urinary excretion of the unchanged drug ranges from 0% to as high as 18.7%, depending on various factors. The two major circulating metabolites of modafinil are modafinil acid (CRL-40467) and modafinil sulfone (CRL-41056). Both of these metabolites have been described as inactive, and neither appear to contribute to the wakefulness-promoting effects of modafinil. However, modafinil sulfone does appear to possess anticonvulsant effects, and this is a property that it shares with modafinil.
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The pancreatic ducts are totally plugged in more advanced cases, usually seen in older children or adolescents. This causes atrophy of the exocrine glands and progressive fibrosis. The lack of digestive enzymes leads to difficulty absorbing nutrients with their subsequent excretion in the feces, a disorder known as malabsorption, which leads to malnutrition and poor growth and development because of calorie loss. Resultant hypoproteinemia may be severe enough to cause generalized edema.
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The plant has been known to promote digestion and excretion, along with respiratory and immune functions. The sap of the plant is used as a laxative and is a remedy for bloating and stomachaches. The bark is said to be purgative and is also used for venereal sores. The flowers can be boiled in water or juice and made into a salad to promote bowel movement, urine flow, and to control gas and phlegm.
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Estradiol butyrylacetate (EBA), sold under the brand names Follikosid and Klimanosid-R Depot (with testosterone ketolaurate and reserpine), is an estrogen medication which is no longer marketed. It is an estrogen ester, specifically, an ester of estradiol. It is administered by intramuscular injection and a single 10 mg dose has been said to have a duration of action of 2 to 3 weeks. The excretion of EBA in women has been studied.
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Organic acidemias are usually diagnosed in infancy, characterized by urinary excretion of abnormal amounts or types of organic acids. The diagnosis is usually made by detecting an abnormal pattern of organic acids in a urine sample by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. In some conditions, the urine is always abnormal, in others the characteristic substances are only present intermittently. Many of the organic acidemias are detectable by newborn screening with tandem mass spectrometry.
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This means that within 40 hours, half of the dose is excreted out of the system. In female rats, after oral dose of 20 mg/kg, the tissue concentration of benoxaprofen was the highest in liver, kidney, lungs, adrenals and ovaries. The distribution in pregnant females is the same, while it can also be found –in lower concentrations– in the foetus. There is a big difference between species in the route of excretion.
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Blood lipids (or blood fats) are lipids in the blood, either free or bound to other molecules. They are mostly transported in a protein capsule, and the density of the lipids and type of protein determines the fate of the particle and its influence on metabolism. The concentration of blood lipids depends on intake and excretion from the intestine, and uptake and secretion from cells. Blood lipids are mainly fatty acids and cholesterol.
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In contrast, large numbers of small dense LDL (sdLDL) particles are strongly associated with the presence of atheromatous disease within the arteries. For this reason, LDL is referred to as "bad cholesterol". High-density lipoprotein (HDL) particles transport cholesterol back to the liver for excretion, but vary considerably in their effectiveness for doing this. Having large numbers of large HDL particles correlates with better health outcomes, and hence it is commonly called "good cholesterol".
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The intricacies of schooling is far from fully understood, especially the swimming and feeding energetics. Many hypotheses to explain the function of schooling have been suggested, such as better orientation, synchronized hunting, predator confusion and reduced risk of being found. Schooling also has disadvantages, such as excretion buildup in the breathing media and oxygen and food depletion. The way the fish array in the school probably gives energy saving advantages, though this is controversial.
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Crop Protection Garlic mustard is an invasive plant species in North American temperate forests. Its success may be partly due to its excretion of glucosinolates like sinigrin that can interfere with mutualisms between native tree roots and their mycorrhizal fungi.Stinson, K.A., Campbell, S.A., Powell, J.R., Wolfe, B.E., Callaway, R.M., Thelen, G.C., Hallett, S.G., Prati, D., and Klironomos, J.N. 2006. Invasive plant suppresses the growth of native tree seedlings by disrupting belowground mutualisms.
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The presence of oxytocin triggers the secretion of prolactin. Prolactin regulates the production of milk and delivery of that milk into the alveoli of breast tissue where it waits to be excreted. Oxytocin regulates the excretion of milk by targeting the layer of smooth muscle cells that surround the alveoli, causing them to contract. As this muscle contracts, milk is forced out of the alveoli, through ducts, and out of the breast via the nipple.
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Glycosuria is the excretion of glucose into the urine. Ordinarily, urine contains no glucose because the kidneys are able to reabsorb all of the filtered glucose from the tubular fluid back into the bloodstream. Glycosuria is nearly always caused by elevated blood glucose levels, most commonly due to untreated diabetes mellitus. Rarely, glycosuria is due to an intrinsic problem with glucose reabsorption within the kidneys (such as Fanconi syndrome), producing a condition termed renal glycosuria.
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However, parathyroid hormone has a greater effect on the quantity of phosphate ions (HPO42−) excreted in the urine. Phosphates form insoluble salts in combination with calcium ions. High concentrations of HPO42− in the plasma, therefore, lower the ionized calcium level in the extra-cellular fluids. Thus, the excretion of more phosphate than calcium ions in the urine raises the plasma ionized calcium level, even though the total calcium concentration might be lowered.
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However, ouabain has a low bioavailability and is absorbed poorly from the alimentary tract as so much of the oral dose is destroyed. Intravenous administration results in greater available concentrations and has been shown to decrease the LD50 to 2.2 mg/kg, also in rodents. After intravenous administration, the onset of action occurs within 3–10 minutes in humans with the maximum effect enduring for 1.5 hours. Ouabain is eliminated by renal excretion, largely unchanged.
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Conn proved that normal carbohydrate tolerance could be reached in twenty of twenty-one subjects when they reached normal weight. He became fellow in 1935 and assistant professor in 1938. From 1943 Conn took on the Division of Endocrinology and started an investigation concerning acclimatization of military personnel to warm climates like in the South Pacific. He discovered that the excretion of sodium in sweat, urine and saliva was curtailed in these circumstances.
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EDTA, DMPS, and DMSA increase urinary excretion of Cd. Studies in vitro and in vivo suggest that EDTA is superior to DMSA in mobilizing intracellular Cd. As EDTA is approved by the FDA for lead and other heavy metals, and has a long history of safe use, it is most widely accepted for clinical use. Use of such chelators as has been seen as therapeutically beneficial to humans and animals when done using established protocols.
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Born in Gatooma in Southern Rhodesia, Berridge gained a BSc in zoology and chemistry at the University of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Salisbury (1960), where his interest in insect physiology was stimulated by Eina Bursell. He came to the UK to study with insect physiologist Sir Vincent Wigglesworth at the Department of Zoology of the University of Cambridge, gaining his PhD on the topic of nitrogen excretion in the African cotton stainer (Dysdercus fasciatus) in 1965.
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The protein encoded by this gene functions as a half-transporter to limit intestinal absorption and promote biliary excretion of sterols. It is expressed in a tissue-specific manner in the liver, colon, and intestine. This gene is tandemly arrayed on chromosome 2, in a head-to-head orientation with family member ABCG8. Mutations in this gene may contribute to sterol accumulation and atherosclerosis, and have been observed in patients with sitosterolemia.
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Muladhara is located near the coccygeal plexus beneath the sacrumit,Judith (1996: p.52) while its kshetram, or superficial activation point, is located between the perineum and the coccyx or the pelvic bone. Because of its location and connection with the act of excretion, it is associated with the anus. Muladhara is said to be the base from which the three main psychic channels or nadis emerge: the Ida, Pingala and Sushumna.
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Activity is generally dosage-dependent. Further, it is common to have effects ranging from beneficial to adverse for one substance when going from low to high doses. Activity depends critically on fulfillment of the ADME criteria. To be an effective drug, a compound not only must be active against a target, but also possess the appropriate ADME (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion) properties necessary to make it suitable for use as a drug.
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Kies' early research was in amino acids and nitrogen excretion. Kies' advancements in the understanding of protein metabolism stemmed from her pioneering use of human subjects to research nutrients and their interactions through controlled feeding studies. In these studies, research participants lived in university live-in facilities alongside nonparticipants. In exchange for housing, American and international students participated in feeding studies that involved controlled diets and the collection of urine and stool samples.
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The composition of breast milk changes depending on how long the baby nurses at each session, as well as on the child's age. The first type, produced during the first days after childbirth, is called colostrum. Colostrum is easy to digest although it is more concentrated than mature milk. It has a laxative effect that helps the infant to pass early stools, aiding in the excretion of excess bilirubin, which helps to prevent jaundice.
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The eel (Anguilla anguilla) uses the hormone prolactin, while in salmon (Salmo salar) the hormone cortisol plays a key role during this process. Many sea birds have special glands at the base of the bill through which excess salt is excreted. Similarly the marine iguanas on the Galápagos Islands excrete excess salt through a nasal gland and they sneeze out a very salty excretion. Freshwater molluscs include freshwater snails and freshwater bivalves.
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The yogin who understands this, is ever content, his conduct in the world is like that of a child, he is temperate in his eating habits and his excretion is diminished, yet he is strong in his body. Nothing matters to such a yogin anymore, he has accomplished the non-dual state, he realises the Brahman, he attains the nature of bliss. Such is the yogin who has drunk the nectar of the Brahman knowledge.
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The substance is metabolised in the liver, mainly by the enzyme CYP2D6. At least 15 different metabolites are described, including (in animals) N-desalkyl and hydroxy derivatives and glucuronides. Less than 1% is excreted in unchanged form, and the main excretion path is via bile and faeces. Elimination half life varies widely between individuals and is about 5 to 15 hours after a single dose, and 18 to 19 days on average when given daily.
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Solute carrier family 22 member 11 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC22A11 gene. The protein encoded by this gene is involved in the sodium- independent transport and excretion of organic anions, some of which are potentially toxic. The encoded protein is an integral membrane protein and is found mainly in the kidney and in the placenta, where it may act to prevent potentially harmful organic anions from reaching the fetus.
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While there have been recent improvements in recognizing different variables that can affect acid excretion in the urine, the level of detail needed to predict the urinary pH based on diet is still daunting. Precise calculations require very detailed knowledge of the nutritional components of every meal as well as the rate of absorption of nutrients, which can vary substantially from individual to individual, making effective estimation of urine pH not currently feasible.
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These are coiled when contained in cells, but upon release reacts with salt water and expands. This is what causes the slime to fill the mouth. The excretion of the slime appears to have no effect on E. cirrhatus, as it continues foraging despite attacks. This is considered unusual behaviour as in most animals they would be more alert for potential danger or in timid species, run or hide at the threat of danger.
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Delapril is a prodrug; it is converted into two active metabolites, 5-hydroxy delapril diacid and delapril diacid. These metabolites bind completely to and inhibit angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), hence blocking angiotensin I to angiotensin II conversion. The resulting vasodilation prevents the vasoconstrictive effects of angiotensin II. Angiotensin II-induced aldosterone secretion by the adrenal cortex is also decreased by Delapril, leading to increases in excretion of sodium and therefore increases water outflow.
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Arachnocampa luminosa larvae Although primarily involved in excretion and osmoregulation, Malpighian tubules have been modified in some insects to serve accessory functions. Larvae of all species in genus Arachnocampa use modified and swollen Malpighian tubules to produce a blue-green lightGreen, L.B.S. (1979) The fine structure of the light organ of the New Zealand glow-worm Arachnocampa luminosa (Diptera: Mycetophilidae). Tissue and Cell 11: 457–465. attracting prey towards mucus-coated trap lines.
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Only one nitrogen atom is removed with it. A lot of water is needed for the excretion of ammonia, about 0.5 L of water is needed per 1 g of nitrogen to maintain ammonia levels in the excretory fluid below the level in body fluids to prevent toxicity. Thus, the marine organisms excrete ammonia directly into the water and are called ammonotelic. Ammonotelic animals include protozoans, crustaceans, platyhelminths, cnidarians, poriferans, echinoderms, and other aquatic invertebrates.
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They eat the wood, creating long tunnels with side galleries and holes for excretion of frass and aeration to discourage fungal growth. They bore longitudinally into the stems, going towards the main stem or branch. Occasionally larvae will bore around a branch, causing girdling. Lemon tree borers can sometimes be found in dead trees, but prefer living trees as they require a certain level of humidity and nutrition to properly pupate to adulthood.
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The first symptom of an infestation by larvae is the wilting of foliage and dieback, but this may not always be apparent immediately. Trees will have excretion holes measuring , with frass visible on the outside. As the larva tunnels through the living branches of young hardwood trees and vines, the stems weaken, dry and break. This reduces the plants health rapidly, or even killing the tree over time if there is a manifestation.
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Trichlormethiazide appears to block the active reabsorption of chloride and possibly sodium in the ascending loop of Henle. This results in excretion of sodium, chloride and water, and thus acts as a diuretic. Although trichlormethiazide is used to treat hypertension, its hypotensive effects may not necessarily be due to its role as a diuretic. Thiazides in general cause vasodilation by activating calcium-activated potassium channels in vascular smooth muscles and inhibiting various carbonic anhydrases in vascular tissue.
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The free heme can then accelerate tissue damage by promoting peroxidative reactions and activation of inflammatory cascades. Hemopexin (Hx) is another plasma glycoprotein able to bind heme with high affinity. Hx sequesters heme in an inert, non-toxic form and transports it to the liver for catabolism and excretion. As long as both haptoglobin and hemopexin are saturated, the remaining free hemoglobins are filtered in the kidney and some of them will be reabsorbed by way of proximal tubules.
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Rutin (rutoside or rutinoside) and other dietary flavonols are under preliminary clinical research for their potential biological effects, such as in reducing post-thrombotic syndrome, venous insufficiency, or endothelial dysfunction, but there was no high-quality evidence for their safe and effective uses as of 2018. As a flavonol among similar flavonoids, rutin has low bioavailability due to poor absorption, high metabolism, and rapid excretion that collectively make its potential for use as a therapeutic agent limited.
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Exoskeletons contain rigid and resistant components that fulfill a set of functional roles in many animals including protection, excretion, sensing, support, feeding and acting as a barrier against desiccation in terrestrial organisms. Exoskeletons have a role in defense from pests and predators, support and in providing an attachment framework for musculature. Exoskeletons contain chitin; the addition of calcium carbonate makes them harder and stronger. Ingrowths of the arthropod exoskeleton known as apodemes serve as attachment sites for muscles.
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After ingestion, fructose is converted to fructose-1-phosphate in the liver by fructokinase. Deficiencies of fructokinase cause essential fructosuria, a clinically benign condition characterized by the excretion of unmetabolized fructose in the urine. Fructose-1-phosphate is metabolized by aldolase B into dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde. HFI is caused by a deficiency of aldolase B. A deficiency of aldolase B results in an accumulation of fructose-1-phosphate, and trapping of phosphate (fructokinase requires adenosine triphosphate (ATP)).
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16, 2010. Copper reduction or deficiency can also be deliberately induced for therapeutic purposes by the compound ammonium tetrathiomolybdate, in which the bright red anion tetrathiomolybdate is the copper-chelating agent. Tetrathiomolybdate was first used therapeutically in the treatment of copper toxicosis in animals. It was then introduced as a treatment in Wilson's disease, a hereditary copper metabolism disorder in humans; it acts both by competing with copper absorption in the bowel and by increasing excretion.
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Ion trapping is the reason why basic (alkaline) drugs are secreted into the stomach (for example morphine), where pH is acidic, and acidic drugs are excreted in urine where the conditions are alkaline. Similarly, ingesting sodium bicarbonate with amphetamine, a weak base, causes better absorption of amphetamine (in stomach) and its lesser excretion (in urine), thus prolonging its actions. Ion trapping can cause partial failure of certain anti-cancer chemotherapies. Ion trapping is also important outside of pharmacology.
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Cells which synthesize heme are predominantly erythroblasts/reticulocytes in the bone marrow (80%) and hepatocytes (20%). Deficiency of FECH results in increased release of protoporphyrin, which binds to albumin in plasma and subsequently undergoes hepatic extraction. Normally, most protoporphyrin in hepatocytes is secreted into bile; the remainder undergoes transformation into heme. Some protoporphyrin in bile is returned to the liver as a consequence of the enterohepatic circulation; the remaining protoporphyrin in the intestine undergoes fecal excretion.
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FGF21 also protects animals from diet-induced obesity when overexpressed in transgenic mice and lowers blood glucose and triglyceride levels when administered to diabetic rodents. Treatment of animals with FGF21 results in increased energy expenditure, fat utilization and lipid excretion. β-Klotho () functions as a cofactor essential for FGF21 activity. In cows plasma FGF21 was nearly undetectable in late pregnancy (LP), peaked at parturition, and then stabilized at lower, chronically elevated concentrations during early lactation (EL).
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4-Hydroxy-2-oxoglutarate aldolase, mitochondrial (HOGA1) also known as dihydrodipicolinate synthase-like (DHDPSL) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the HOGA1 gene. The protein is one of the enzymes (4-hydroxy-2-oxoglutarate aldolase) involved in metabolism of hydroxyproline to glyoxylate. The enzyme overactivity can form excessive glyoxylate from hydroxyproline. Glyoxylate is catabolised to oxalate, resulting in excess excretion of oxalate in urine, predisposing to oxalate stone; a condition known as primary hyperoxaluria type III.
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Glutaminase is expressed and active in periportal hepatocytes, where it generates NH3 (ammonia) for urea synthesis, as does glutamate dehydrogenase. Glutaminase is also expressed in the epithelial cells of the renal tubules, where the produced ammonia is excreted as ammonium ions. This excretion of ammonium ions is an important mechanism of renal acid-base regulation. During chronic acidosis, glutaminase is induced in the kidney, which leads to an increase in the amount of ammonium ions excreted.
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IL-18 has also been found to increase the Alzheimer's disease-associated amyloid-beta production in human neuron cells. IL-18 is also associated with urine protein excretion what means that it can be marker for assessing the progression of diabetic nephropathy. This interleukin was also significantly elevated in patients with microalbuminuria and macroalbuminuria when it was compared with healthy people and patients with diabetes which have normoalbuminuria. IL-18 is involved in the neuroinflammatory response after intracerebral hemorrhage.
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Valproic acid and valnoctamide both inhibit microsomal epoxide hydrolase (MEH), the enzyme responsible for the breakdown of carbamazepine-10,11 epoxide into inactive metabolites. By inhibiting MEH, valproic acid and valnoctamide cause a build-up of the active metabolite, prolonging the effects of carbamazepine and delaying its excretion. Grapefruit juice raises the bioavailability of carbamazepine by inhibiting CYP3A4 enzymes in the gut wall and in the liver. Carbamazepine increases the processing of methadone resulting in lower blood levels.
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Decreases in skeletal muscle size and function have been reported since humans first began to explore space. Spaceflight results in the loss of lean body mass as determined by body composition measurements. Urinary amino acid and nitrogen excretion, both indirect measures of catabolism of lean body mass, are elevated during both brief and long spaceflights. Direct measurement of protein synthesis during spaceflight using 15N-glycine incorporation as a marker revealed an increase in whole-body protein synthesis rates.
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Mepartricin is estrogen reabsorption inhibitor that may interfere with the reabsorption of estrogens in the gut leading to increased fecal estrogen excretion. It reduces 17β-estradiol concentration in enterohepatic circulation and decreases estrogen levels in the prostate. The effect of mepartricin on the reabsorption of estrogens was evaluated in studies in vitro and in vivo. Mepartricin significantly improves pelvic pain and quality of life compared with the results in placebo group after two months of treatment.
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Angiotensin II also stimulates the secretion of the hormone aldosterone from the adrenal cortex. Aldosterone causes the renal tubules to increase the reabsorption of sodium which in consequence causes the reabsorption of water into the blood, while at the same time causing the excretion of potassium (to maintain electrolyte balance). This increases the volume of extracellular fluid in the body, which also increases blood pressure. If the RAS is abnormally active, blood pressure will be too high.
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In mammals, an elegant rete mirabile in the efferent arterioles of juxtamedullary glomeruli is important in maintaining the hypertonicity of the renal medulla. It is the hypertonicity of this zone, resorbing water osmotically from the renal collecting ducts as they exit the kidney, that makes possible the excretion of a hypertonic urine and maximum conservation of body water. Vascular retia mirabilia are also found in the limbs of a range of mammals. These reduce the temperature in the extremities.
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O. vulgaris can apply behavioral changes to manage wide varieties of environmental temperatures. Respiration rate in octopods is temperature- sensitive – respiration increases with temperature.Yin F., et al. 2013. The respiration, excretion and biochemical response of the juvenile common Chinese cuttlefish, Sepiella maindroni at different temperatures. Aquaculture. 402–403: 127–132. . Its oxygen consumption increases when in water temperatures between 16 and 28°C, reaches a maximum at 28°C, and then begins to drop at 32°C.
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In chemistry, Titratable acid generally refers to any acid that can lose proton(s) in an acid-base reaction. The term is used slightly differently in other fields. For example, in renal physiology, Titratable acid is a term to describe acids such as phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid which are involved in renal physiology. It is used to explicitly exclude ammonium (NH4+) as a source of acid, and is part of the calculation for net acid excretion.
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Nutrients are transported throughout the coelom, including the mantle lobes, by cilia. The wastes produced by metabolism are broken into ammonia, which is eliminated by diffusion through the mantle and lophophore. Brachiopods have metanephridia, used by many phyla to excrete ammonia and other dissolved wastes. However, brachiopods have no sign of the podocytes, which perform the first phase of excretion in this process, and brachiopod metanephridia appear to be used only to emit sperm and ova.
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Hepatocytes have the ability to metabolize, detoxify, and inactivate exogenous compounds such as drugs (see drug metabolism), insecticides, and endogenous compounds such as steroids. The drainage of the intestinal venous blood into the liver requires efficient detoxification of miscellaneous absorbed substances to maintain homeostasis and protect the body against ingested toxins. One of the detoxifying functions of hepatocytes is to modify ammonia into urea for excretion. The most abundant organelle in liver cells is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
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These mechanisms include reducing heavy metal uptake, sequestering and storing heavy metals within the cell, and excretion. Heavy metal uptake can be reduced by sorption and metabolic inactivation at the cell wall and apoplast level. Ectomycorrhizal fungi also have the ability to bind considerable amounts of heavy metals. Once inside the cell, heavy metals can be immobilized in organo-metal complexes, made soluble, transformed into metallothioneins, involved in metal sequestration and/or stored in vacuoles in chemically inactive forms.
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Instead of the fully fused, hydrodynamic paddles that modern sea turtles possess, the early sea turtle's digits were distinct and movable similar to that of non-marine turtles. Like later sea turtles though, Santanachelys had large salt glands situated near its eyes, which aided with the excretion of excess salt. This was an adaptation to the highly saline marine environment. Evolutionarily, the morphology of Santanachelys is typical of what is expected of an early sea turtle.
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Although treatment with dimercaprol will increase the excretion of cadmium, there is a concomitant increase in renal cadmium concentration, so that its use in case of cadmium toxicity is to be avoided. It does, however, remove inorganic mercury from the kidneys; but is not useful in the treatment of alkylmercury or phenylmercury toxicity. Dimercaprol also enhances the toxicity of selenium and tellurium, so it is not to be used to remove these elements from the body.
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It allows parent birds to more easily remove fecal material from the nest. The nestling usually produces a fecal sac within seconds of being fed; if not, a waiting adult may prod around the youngster's cloaca to stimulate excretion. Young birds of some species adopt specific postures or engage in specific behaviors to signal that they are producing fecal sacs. For example, nestling curve- billed thrashers raise their posteriors in the air, while young cactus wrens shake their bodies.
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In the healthy kidney, albumin's size and negative electric charge exclude it from excretion in the glomerulus. This is not always the case, as in some diseases including diabetic nephropathy, which can sometimes be a complication of uncontrolled or of longer term diabetes in which proteins can cross the glomerulus. The lost albumin can be detected by a simple urine test. Depending on the amount of albumin lost, a patient may have normal renal function, microalbuminuria, or albuminuria.
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Nephrocalcinosis is caused by an increase in the urinary excretion of calcium, phosphate, and/or oxalate. Nephrocalcinosis is closely associated with nephrolithiasis, and patients frequently present with both conditions, however there have been cases where one occurs without the other. Calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate crystals form when the concentration of the reactants exceeds the limit. The deposits are collected in the inner medullary interstitium in the basement membranes of the thin limbs of the loop of Henle.
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Equil 2 is a computer program used to estimate the risk of nephrolithiasis (renal stones). The input data includes excretion, concentration, and the saturation of trace elements or other substances which are involved in the creation of kidney stones and the output will be provided in terms of PSF score (probability of stone formation) or other equivalent formats. In some studies SUPERSAT, another program, provided more accurate measurements in some of the parameters such as relative supersaturation (RSS).
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This ability is present regardless of ontogeny in Adélie penguins, meaning that both adults and juveniles are capable of extreme levels of salt ion concentration. However, chicks do possess a greater ability to concentrate chloride ions in their cloacal fluids. Salt glands also play a major role in the excretion of excess salts. In aquatic birds such as the Adelie penguin, nasal salt glands excrete an extremely concentrated sodium chloride solution, reducing the load on their kidneys.
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Since the 1990s, water contamination by pharmaceuticals has been an environmental issue of concern. Many public health professionals in the United States began writing reports of pharmaceutical contamination in waterways in the 1970s.” Most pharmaceuticals are deposited in the environment through human consumption and excretion, and are often filtered ineffectively by municipal sewage treatment plants which are not designed to manage them. Once in the water, they can have diverse, subtle effects on organisms, although research is still limited.
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Elevated levels of serum CK greater than 5,000 U/L that are not caused by myocardial infarction, brain injury, or disease generally indicate serious muscle damage confirming diagnosis of ER.Baird, M., F., Graham, S., M., Baker, J., S., & Bikerstaff, G., F. (2012). Creatine kinase and exercise related muscle damage implications for muscle performance and recovery. J of Nutrition & Metabolism, 201, 2-14 Urine is often a dark "cola" color as a result of the excretion of muscle cell components.
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Solifenacin is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP3A4. When administered concomitantly with drugs that inhibit CYP3A4, such as ketoconazole, the metabolism of solifenacin is impaired, leading to an increase in its concentration in the body and a reduction in its excretion. As stated above, solifenacin may also prolong the QT interval. Therefore, administering it concomitantly with drugs which also have this effect, such as moxifloxacin or pimozide, can theoretically increase the risk of arrhythmia.
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This has led to the investigation of other metabolites as markers for toluene exposure. Urinary o-cresol may be more reliable for the biomonitoring of toluene exposure because, unlike hippuric acid, o-cresol is not found at detectable levels in unexposed subjects. o-Cresol may be a less sensitive marker of toluene exposure than hippuric acid. o-Cresol excretion may be an unreliable method for measuring toluene exposure because o-cresol makes up <1% of total toluene elimination.
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Additionally, the cited studies of larger daily doses of vitamin C do not take into account the fast excretion rate of vitamin C at gram-level doses, which makes it necessary to give the total daily amount in smaller, more frequent doses to maintain higher plasma levels. As of 2014, at least 16 studies had found that vitamin C supplements did not prevent the common cold and had minimal effect at best in shortening cold lengths.
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Supplements of potassium are most widely used in conjunction with diuretics that block reabsorption of sodium and water upstream from the distal tubule (thiazides and loop diuretics), because this promotes increased distal tubular potassium secretion, with resultant increased potassium excretion. A variety of prescription and over-the counter supplements are available. Potassium chloride may be dissolved in water, but the salty/bitter taste make liquid supplements unpalatable. Typical doses range from 10mmol (400mg), to 20mmol (800mg).
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Sauna suits are also worn for body wrapping in some health spas. The wearer is first wrapped in bandages saturated with mineral and/or herbal preparations and then covered with a sauna suit. The objective of this process is to enable the wearer to "sweat out toxins", however there is little scientific evidence to support the effectiveness of this practice. Sauna suits are often worn specifically for such sweat excretion rather for exercise or weight loss.
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An estimated 46% of women experience subjectively poor sleep during pregnancy, increasing progressively during pregnancy. Reasons vary according to the trimester, relating to hormonal changes and physical discomfort: anatomic changes, sleep fragmentation, fragmentation of breathing, metabolic changes which might increase sleep disorders such as Restless Leg Syndrome, gastroesophageal reflux, increase in overnight sodium excretion, changes in the musculoskeletal system, nocturnal uterine contractions, changes in iron and folate metabolism, and changes in the circadian and homeostatic regulation of sleep.
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Further processing of aristolactam I by O-demethylation results in aristolactam Ia, the primary metabolite. Additionally, nitroreduction results in an N-acylnitrenium ion, which can form DNA-base adducts, thus giving aristolochic acid I its mutagenic properties. Aristolactam I adducts that are bound to DNA are extremely stable; they have been detected in patient biopsy samples taken 20 years after exposure to plants containing aristolochic acid. Excretion of aristolochic acids and their metabolites is through the urine.
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The human RhCG ammonia transporter was found to have a similar ammonia-conducting channel structure. It was proposed that the erythrocyte Rh complex is a heterotrimer of RhAG, RhD, and RhCE subunits in which RhD and RhCE might play roles in anchoring the ammonia-conducting RhAG subunit to the cytoskeleton. Based on reconstitution experiments, purified RhCG subunits alone can function to transport ammonia. RhCG is required for normal acid excretion by the mouse kidney and epididymis.
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Although herbivorous, cases are known of rabbits eating snails. Like other leporids, the European rabbit produces soft, mucus-covered faecal pellets, which are ingested directly from the anus. The soft pellets are produced posterior to the colon in the hind-gut soon after the excretion of hard pellets and the stomach begins to fill with newly-grazed food. The soft pellets are filled with protein-rich bacteria, and pass down to the rectum in glossy clusters.
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3D model of urinary system The urinary system refers to the structures that produce and transport urine to the point of excretion. In the human urinary system there are two kidneys that are located between the dorsal body wall and parietal peritoneum on both the left and right sides. The formation of urine begins within the functional unit of the kidney, the nephrons. Urine then flows through the nephrons, through a system of converging tubules called collecting ducts.
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Water is needed by many birds although their mode of excretion and lack of sweat glands reduces the physiological demands. Some desert birds can obtain their water needs entirely from moisture in their food. They may also have other adaptations such as allowing their body temperature to rise, saving on moisture loss from evaporative cooling or panting. Seabirds can drink seawater and have salt glands inside the head that eliminate excess salt out of the nostrils.
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Impressed by Jobert's success rate with VVF, Simon developed his own surgical technique for VVF when he returned to Darmstadt. Simon demonstrated that the excretion process remains functional in animals with one healthy kidney, and on 2 August 1869 performed the first planned nephrectomy on a human, only eight years after the first nephrectomy by Erastus Bradley Wolcott. In 1872 with Bernhard von Langenbeck (1810-1887) and Richard von Volkmann (1830-1889), he founded the German Society of Surgery.
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Since DOC has about 1/5 the potassium excreting power of aldosterone, it probably must have aldosterone's help if the serum potassium content becomes too high. DOC's injections do not cause much additional potassium excretion when sodium intake is low. This is probably because aldosterone is already stimulating potassium outflow. When sodium is low DOC probably would not have to be present, but when sodium rises aldosterone declines considerably, and DOC probably tends to take over.
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Permethrin application can cause mild skin irritation and burning. Permethrin has little systemic absorption, and is considered safe for topical use in adults and children over the age of two months. The FDA has assigned it as pregnancy category B. Animal studies have shown no effects on fertility or teratogenicity, but studies in humans have not been performed. The excretion of permethrin in breastmilk is unknown, and breastfeeding is recommended to be temporarily discontinued during treatment.
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In the second reaction, biliverdin is converted to bilirubin by biliverdin reductase (BVR): Bilirubin is transported into the liver by facilitated diffusion bound to a protein (serum albumin), where it is conjugated with glucuronic acid to become more water-soluble. The reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme UDP- glucuronosyltransferase. This form of bilirubin is excreted from the liver in bile. Excretion of bilirubin from liver to biliary canaliculi is an active, energy-dependent and rate-limiting process.
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Feces were excreted into a container such as a chamber pot, and sometimes collected in the container with urine and other waste ("slops", hence slopping out). The excrement in the pail was often covered with earth (soil), which may have contributed to the term "night soil". Often the deposition or excretion occurred within the residence, such as in a shophouse. This system may still be used in isolated rural areas or in urban slums in developing countries.
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Mammals are endotherms, ("warm-blooded") and have higher metabolic demands than ectothermic ("cold-blooded") vertebrates, and the skin is thicker and more impermeable than other vertebrates, which preclude the skin as a major source of gas exchange. However, small amounts of respiration may occur, and in bats, the highly vascularized wings may account for up to 12 percent of carbon dioxide excretion. In humans and most other mammals, cutaneous respiration accounts for only 1 to 2 percent.
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It is unknown the amount of Gadobutrol transferred to milk in humans. Limited data exists on the excretion of other GBCAs in human breast milk, but suggest a transfer rate of 0.01% to 0.04% of the administered material to breast milk. Non-clinical data for Gadrobutrol suggests that less than 0.01% is excreted into breast milk upon intravenous administration of the recommended dose. Further data suggests that absorption via the GI tract is very poor (approximately 5%).
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These images confirm soft tissue mass (arrows) in the renal pelvis with contrast excretion into the collecting system (arrowheads). CT urography (CTU) is commonly used in the evaluation of hematuria, and specifically tailored to image the renal collecting system, ureters and bladder in addition to the renal parenchyma. Initial imaging includes a noncontrast phase to detect renal calculi as a source of hematuria. Note that dual energy CT may eventually allow the noncontrast phase to be eliminated.
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As noted above, brivaracetam is primarily metabolized by hydrolysis, via amidase enzymes, to an inactive metabolite. To a lesser extent, it is also metabolized by a minor metabolic pathway via CYP2C19-dependent hydroxylation. Individuals who have no CYP2C19 enzyme activity, "CYP2C19 poor metabolizers", will have a greater exposure to standard doses of brivaracetam. Because they are less able to metabolize the drug to its inactive form for excretion, they may have an increased risk of adverse effects.
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Research efforts since the early 1980s have studied their effects on electrolyte homeostasis. When administered intravenously, urodilatin induces strong diuresis and natriuresis with tolerable hemodynamic side effects. Urodilatin is localized in the kidney, differentially processed (involved in the regulation of body fluid volume and water-electrolyte excretion, while circulating), and secreted into the urine. As a consequence, urodilatin is involved in drug development along with the prohormone CDD/ANP-1-126 and cardiodilatin CDD/ANP-99-126.
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Anidulafungin significantly differs from other antifungals in that it undergoes chemical degradation to inactive forms at body pH and temperature. Because it does not rely on enzymatic degradation or hepatic or renal excretion, the drug is safe to use in patients with any degree of hepatic or renal impairment. Volume of distribution: 30–50 L. Anidulafungin is not evidently metabolized by the liver. This specific drug undergoes slow chemical hydrolysis to an open-ring peptide which lacks antifungal activity.
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Iron, zinc, calcium, copper, magnesium, selenium and molybdenum are among the essential minerals having stable isotopes to which isotope tracer methods have been applied. Iron, zinc and calcium in particular have been extensively studied. Aspects of mineral nutrition/metabolism that are studied include absorption (from the gastrointestinal tract into the body), distribution, storage, excretion and the kinetics of these processes. Isotope tracers are administered to subjects orally (with or without food, or with a mineral supplement) and/or intravenously.
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The elimination depends on molar substitution degree. Molecules smaller than the renal threshold (60–70 kDa) are readily excreted in the urine while a small part of the larger ones are metabolized by plasma α–amylase before those degradation products are renally excreted. However HES is only partly degraded and excreted, while for a large amount the metabolism remains unclear. Approximately one-third to two-thirds of administered HES cannot be accounted for by 24-h urinary excretion.
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Cats metabolize aspirin slowly because they lack the glucuronide conjugates that aid in the excretion of aspirin, making it potentially toxic if dosing is not spaced out properly. No clinical signs of toxicosis occurred when cats were given 25mg/kg of aspirin every 48 hours for 4 weeks, but the recommended dose for relief of pain and fever and for treating blood clotting diseases in cats is 10mg/kg every 48 hours to allow for metabolization.
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Cocoa is the prime ingredient of chocolate, a source of polyphenols. There is debate regarding the total body absorption of dietary intake of polyphenolic compounds. While some indicate potential health effects of certain specific polyphenols, most studies demonstrate low bioavailability and rapid excretion of polyphenols, indicating their potential roles only in small concentrations in vivo. More research is needed to understand the interactions between a variety of these chemicals acting in concert within the human body.
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Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 149–150. Print. They have large, four-chambered stomachs, which help to ferment the large amount of plant matter they eat. Food can take up to a month to digest due to their slow metabolism. Depending on when in the excretion cycle a sloth is weighed, urine and feces may account for up to 30% of the animal’s body weight, which averages about 6 kg (13 lb).
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When this content exceeds 2.0 ppm, few plants will perform well and some may not survive. It is thought that boron plays several essential roles in animals, including humans, but the exact physiological role is poorly understood. A small human trial published in 1987 reported on postmenopausal women first made boron deficient and then repleted with 3 mg/day. Boron supplementation markedly reduced urinary calcium excretion and elevated the serum concentrations of 17 beta-estradiol and testosterone.
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Several other enzymes, including MAO-B and ALDH2, further process the immediate metabolites of histamine for excretion or recycling. Bacteria also are capable of producing histamine using histidine decarboxylase enzymes unrelated to those found in animals. A non-infectious form of foodborne disease, scombroid poisoning, is due to histamine production by bacteria in spoiled food, particularly fish. Fermented foods and beverages naturally contain small quantities of histamine due to a similar conversion performed by fermenting bacteria or yeasts.
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Radioactivity is also seen from uptake by the liver, and excretion and accumulation in the bladder. Extra-thyroidal iodine exists in several other organs, including the mammary glands, eyes, gastric mucosa, cervix, cerebrospinal fluid, arterial walls, ovary and salivary glands . In the cells of these tissues the iodide ion (I−) enters directly by the sodium-iodide symporter (NIS). Different tissue responses for iodine and iodide occur in the mammary glands and the thyroid gland of rats.
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The diagnosis of AKI encompasses tests of the blood, urine, and imaging of the kidneys. The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is used as an index of kidney function and the most frequently used diagnostic test to calculate GFR is the serum creatinine level. GFR also factors in urine and plasma solute concentration. Unfortunately, serum creatinine is highly variable depending on age, sex, metabolic state, body composition (muscle mass), and rate of excretion by the kidney itself.
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Aggressive surgical removal of the tumor and any enlarged sublumbar lymph nodes is essential for treatment of the tumor and associated hypercalcaemia. There is a high recurrence rate, although removal of lymph nodes with metastasis may improve survival time. Radiation therapy and chemotherapy may be helpful in treatment. Severe hypercalcaemia is treated with aggressive IV fluid therapy using sodium chloride and medications such as loop diuretics (increased kidney excretion of calcium) and aminobisphosphonates (decreased calcium release from bones).
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A ureohydrolase is a type of hydrolase enzyme. The ureohydrolase superfamily includes arginase (), agmatinase (), formiminoglutamase () and proclavaminate amidinohydrolase (). These enzymes share a 3-layer alpha-beta-alpha structure, and play important roles in arginine/agmatine metabolism, the urea cycle, histidine degradation, and other pathways. Arginase, which catalyses the conversion of arginine to urea and ornithine, is one of the five members of the urea cycle enzymes that convert ammonia to urea as the principal product of nitrogen excretion.
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Proxicromil is a mast-cell stabilizer that prevents degranulation and release of mediators such as histamine from mast cells. In normal animals, the drug has no effect. Proxicromil is found to be hepatotoxic in dogs but not in rats, which is a result from the different metabolisms. This comes through the route of excretion which Proxicromil undergoes and which leads to a high concentrations at the biliary canaliculus and thus its accumulation and a consequent increase in hepatic exposure.
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Human MATE1 (hMATE1) is an electroneutral H+/organic cation (OC) exchanger responsible for the final excretion step of structurally unrelated toxic organic cations in kidney and liver. Glu273, Glu278, Glu300 and Glu389 are conserved in the transmembrane regions. Substitution with alanine or aspartate reduced export of tetraethylammonium (TEA) and cimetidine, and several had altered substrate affinities. Thus, all of these glutamate residues are involved in binding and/or transport of TEA and cimetidine, but their roles are different.
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All Taba verbs having Actor arguments carry affixes which cross-reference the Number and Person of the Actor, examples of proclitics are shown above. In Taba, there are valence-changing affixes which deal with patterns of cross-referencing with three distinct patterns. The dominant pattern is used with all verbs having an Actor argument. The other two patterns are confined to a small number of verbs: one for the possessive verb, the other for a few verbs of excretion.
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In aquatic organisms the most common form of nitrogen waste is ammonia, whereas land-dwelling organisms convert the toxic ammonia to either urea or uric acid. Urea is found in the urine of mammals and amphibians, as well as some fish. Birds and saurian reptiles have a different form of nitrogen metabolism that requires less water, and leads to nitrogen excretion in the form of uric acid. Tadpoles excrete ammonia but shift to urea production during metamorphosis.
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Upon the early detection, phosphate nephropathy can be treated with a timely renal replacement therapy such as haemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis in order to decelerate the calcium phosphate crystallization process. Haemodialysis is performed to assist the renal excretion via removing accumulated toxins, especially the overproduction of reactive oxygen species at the damaged tubular epithelial cells. The complete recovery of renal function after phosphate nephropathy progression to acute kidney injury or to chronic kidney disease, was reported to be rare.
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Feitian Space Suit A Feitian space suit () is a Chinese spacesuit that was developed for the Shenzhou 7. Astronaut Zhai Zhigang wore it during China's first-ever extra-vehicular activity (EVA) on 27 September 2008. The Feitian spacesuit was modelled after the Orlan-M spacesuit developed by Russia. The two are similar in shape and volume and are designed for spacewalks of up to seven hours, providing oxygen and allowing for the excretion of bodily waste.
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Free water clearance can be used as an indicator of how the body is regulating water. A free water clearance of zero means the kidney is producing urine isosmotic with respect to the plasma. Values greater than zero imply that the kidney is producing dilute urine through the excretion of solute-free water. Values less than zero imply that the kidney is conserving water (likely under the influence of antidiuretic hormone, ADH), resulting in the production of concentrated urine.
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CPSI plays a vital role in protein and nitrogen metabolism. Once ammonia has been brought into the mitochondria via glutamine or glutamate, it is CPSI's job to add the ammonia to bicarbonate along with a phosphate group to form carbamoyl phosphate. Carbamoyl phosphate is then put into the urea cycle to eventually create urea. Urea can then be transferred back to the blood stream and to the kidneys for filtration and on to the bladder for excretion.
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Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal Appointed to McGill's department of epidemiology and health in 1972, he focused on occupational and environmental health,White FMM, Swift J, Becklake MR, Rheumatic complaints and pulmonary response to chrysotile dust in the mines and mills of Quebec. Can Med Assoc J 1974, 111: 533 5.Archer DP, Gurekas VL, White FMM, Urinary fluoride excretion in school children exposed to fluoride air pollution: A Pilot Study. Can J Public Health 1975, 66: 407 10.
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Upon hearing her husband's friend talking about a secret project at the University of Chicago that hired scientists, she applied and was hired in the Biology Division of the Metallurgical Laboratory. Lathrop, who previously avoided work that involved experimenting on animals, was now studying the uptake, retention, distribution, and excretion of radioactive materials in animals. Lathrop's assignment in the project was to test the biological effects radiation had on animals. She worked on the Manhattan Project from 1945-1946.
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Hypocitraturia or low urinary-citrate excretion (defined as less than 320 mg/day) can cause kidney stones in up to 2/3 of cases. The protective role of citrate is linked to several mechanisms; citrate reduces urinary supersaturation of calcium salts by forming soluble complexes with calcium ions and by inhibiting crystal growth and aggregation. Therapy with potassium citrate or magnesium potassium citrate is commonly prescribed in clinical practice to increase urinary citrate and to reduce stone formation rates.
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The effector organs of the first homeostatic mechanism are the bones, the kidney, and, via a hormone released into the blood by the kidney in response to high PTH levels in the blood, the duodenum and jejunum. Parathyroid hormone (in high concentrations in the blood) causes bone resorption, releasing calcium into the plasma. This is a very rapid action which can correct a threatening hypocalcemia within minutes. High PTH concentrations cause the excretion of phosphate ions via the urine.
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Lurasidone is contraindicated in individuals who are taking strong inhibitors of the liver enzyme CYP3A4 (ketoconazole, clarithromycin, ritonavir, levodropropizine, etc.) or inducers (carbamazepine, St. John's wort, phenytoin, rifampicin etc.). The use of lurasidone in pregnant women has not been studied and is not recommended; in animal studies, no risks have been found.Pregnancy category Excretion in breast milk is also unknown; lurasidone is not recommended for breastfeeding women. In the United States it is not indicated for use in children.
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Treatment of flecainide cardiac toxicity involves increasing the excretion of flecainide, blocking its effects in the heart, and (rarely) institution of cardiovascular support to avoid impending lethal arrhythmias. Modalities that have had success include administration of a beta- sympathomimetic agent, and administration of a sodium load(often in the form of hypertonic sodium bicarbonate). Placing the individual on cardiopulmonary bypass support may be necessary in order to temporarily remove the need for a beating heart and to increase blood flow to the liver.
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Respiratory alkalosis is caused by hyperventilation, resulting in a loss of carbon dioxide. Compensatory mechanisms for this would include increased dissociation of the carbonic acid buffering intermediate into hydrogen ions, and the related excretion of bicarbonate, both of which lower blood pH. Hyperventilation-induced alkalosis can be seen in several deadly central nervous system diseases such as strokes or Rett syndrome. Metabolic alkalosis can be caused by repeated vomiting, resulting in a loss of hydrochloric acid in the stomach contents.
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Causes of hyperuricemia that are of mixed type have a dual action, both increasing production and decreasing excretion of uric acid. High intake of alcohol (ethanol), a significant cause of hyperuricemia, has a dual action that is compounded by multiple mechanisms. Ethanol increases production of uric acid by increasing production of lactic acid, hence lactic acidosis. Ethanol also increases the plasma concentrations of hypoxanthine and xanthine via the acceleration of adenine nucleotide degradation, and is a possible weak inhibitor of xanthine dehydrogenase.
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Uricosuric agents (benzbromarone, benziodarone, probenecid, lesinurad, sulfinpyrazone, ethebencid, zoxazolamine, and ticrynafen) increase the excretion of uric acid, by reducing the reabsorption of uric acid once the kidneys have filtered it out of the blood. Some of these medications are used as indicated, others are used off-label. In people receiving hemodialysis, sevelamer can significantly reduce serum uric acid, apparently by adsorbing urate in the gut. In women, use of combined oral contraceptive pills is significantly associated with lower serum uric acid.
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The flavin-containing monooxygenase (FMO) protein family specializes in the oxidation of xeno-substrates in order to facilitate the excretion of these compounds from living organisms. These enzymes can oxidize a wide array of heteroatoms, particularly soft nucleophiles, such as amines, sulfides, and phosphites. This reaction requires an oxygen, an NADPH cofactor, and an FAD prosthetic group. FMOs share several structural features, such as a NADPH binding domain, FAD binding domain, and a conserved arginine residue present in the active site.
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Test for ketonuria using Bayer Ketostix reagent strips Urine testing is the most common method of testing for ketones. Urine test strips utilize a nitroprusside reaction with acetoacetate to give a semi-quantitative measure based on color change of the strip. Although beta-hydroxybutyrate is the predominant circulating ketone, urine test strips only measure acetoacetate. Urinary ketones often correlate poorly with serum levels because of variability in excretion of ketones by the kidney, influence of hydration status, and renal function.
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Wilson disease happens when accumulation of copper inside the liver causes mitochondrial damage and cell destruction and shows symptoms of hepatic disease. Then, the loss of excretion of copper in bile leads to an increasing concentration of copper level in urine and causes kidney problems. Therefore, symptoms of Wilson's disease could be various including kidney disease and neurological disease. The major cause is the malfunction of ATP7B by single base pair mutations, deletions, frame-shifts, splice errors in ATP7B gene.
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Hepatic jaundice (hepatocellular jaundice) is due to significant damage to liver function → hepatic cell death and necrosis occur → impaired bilirubin transport across hepatocytes. Bilirubin transport across hepatocytes may be impaired at any point between hepatocellular uptake of unconjugated bilirubin and hepatocellular transport of conjugated bilirubin into the gallbladder. In addition, subsequent cellular edema due to inflammation causes mechanical obstruction of intrahepatic biliary tract. Most commonly, interferences in all three major steps of bilirubin metabolism — uptake, conjugation, and excretion — usually occur in hepatocellular jaundice.
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This gene encodes a protein belonging to a family of transporters involved in excretion of toxic electrolytes, both endogenous and exogenous, through urine and bile. This transporter family shares homology with the bacterial MATE (multi antimicrobial extrusion protein or multidrug and toxic compound extrusion) protein family responsible for drug resistance. This gene is one of two members of the MATE transporter family located near each other on chromosome 17. Alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been identified for this gene.
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He was also involved in successful trials relating to the armouring of Land Rovers against land mines. On 1 May 1966, he was promoted to group captain. He was then posted to RAF Hospital Wroughton, where he developed an interest in metabolic medicine. He published two articles in The Lancet in 1967; one on the relationship between calcium and sodium excretion and the management of kidney stones, and the other on topical steroids causing the suppression of the adrenal glands.
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Isosthenuria refers to the excretion of urine whose specific gravity (concentration) is neither greater (more concentrated) nor less (more dilute) than that of protein-free plasma, typically 1.008-1.012. Isosthenuria reflects damage to the kidney's tubules or the renal medulla. A closely related term is hyposthenuria, where the urine has a relatively low specific gravity, though not necessarily equal to that of plasma. Therefore, unlike isosthenuria, this condition is not associated with kidney failure as the kidney tubules have altered the glomerular filtrate.
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The drug may increase the risk of dehydration in combination with diuretic drugs. Because it increases renal excretion of glucose, treatment with canagliflozin prevents renal reabsorption of 1,5-anhydroglucitol, leading to artifactual decreases in serum 1,5-anhydroglucitol. Therefore, canagliflozin can interfere with the use of serum 1,5-anhydroglucitol (assay trade name, GlycoMark) as a measure of postprandial glucose levels. Dosing adjustment is also required for concomitant therapy with UDP-glucuronosyl transferase (UGT) inducers such as rifampin, phenytoin, or phenobarbital, ritonavir.
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Clopamide is categorised as a thiazide-like diuretic and works in similar way as the thiazide diuretics do. It acts in the kidneys, at the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) of the nephron where it inhibits the sodium- chloride symporter. Clopamide selectively binds at the chloride binding site of the sodium-chloride symporter in the PCT cells on the luminal (interior) side and thus interferes with the reabsorption of sodium chloride, causing an equiosmolar excretion of water along with sodium chloride.
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On-board toilet of an aircraft (Airbus) On-board toilets are enclosures equipped with a toilet for the use of human excretion, typically mounted within a vehicle. The small rooms also often are equipped with at least a sink, liquid soap, and paper towels for hand washing. Except in luxury versions, toilets of this kind are usually small and uncomfortable. The excreta are stored in a holding tank (when chemical toilets or vacuum toilets are used) or, on some ships, piped overboard.
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The collecting duct system of the kidney consists of a series of tubules and ducts that physically connect nephrons to a minor calyx or directly to the renal pelvis. The collecting duct system is the last part of nephron and participates in electrolyte and fluid balance through reabsorption and excretion, processes regulated by the hormones aldosterone and vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone). There are several components of the collecting duct system, including the connecting tubules, cortical collecting ducts, and medullary collecting ducts.
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One potential advantage of fondaparinux over LMWH or unfractionated heparin is that the risk for heparin- induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is substantially lower. Furthermore, there have been case reports of fondaparinux being used to anti-coagulate patients with established HIT as it has no affinity for PF4. However, its renal excretion precludes its use in patients with renal dysfunction. Unlike direct factor Xa inhibitors, it mediates its effects indirectly through antithrombin III, but unlike heparin, it is selective for factor Xa.
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The main interaction mechanism is competition for plasma protein transport. In these cases the drug that arrives first binds with the plasma protein, leaving the other drug dissolved in the plasma, which modifies its concentration. The organism has mechanisms to counteract these situations (by, for example, increasing plasma clearance), which means that they are not usually clinically relevant. However, these situations should be taken into account if other associated problems are present such as when the method of excretion is affected.
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The U.S. and Canadian Dietary Reference Intake review for protein concluded that there was not sufficient evidence to establish a Tolerable upper intake level, i.e., an upper limit for how much protein can be safely consumed. When amino acids are in excess of needs, the liver takes up the amino acids and deaminates them, a process converting the nitrogen from the amino acids into ammonia, further processed in the liver into urea via the urea cycle. Excretion of urea occurs via the kidneys.
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This will promote sodium reabsorption and fluid retention, causing diuretic resistance. Other factors includes gut edema which slows down the absorption of oral loop diuretics. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) reduces renal flow rate, reducing the delivery of diuretic molecules into the nephron, limiting sodium excretion and increasing sodium retention, causing diuretic resistance. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) can compete with loop diuretics for organic ion transporters, thus preventing the diuretic molecules from being secreted into the proximal convoluted tubules.
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Sodium benzoate is used as a treatment for urea cycle disorders due to its ability to bind amino acids. This leads to excretion of these amino acids and a decrease in ammonia levels. Recent research shows that sodium benzoate may be beneficial as an add-on therapy (1 gram/day) in schizophrenia.Add-on Treatment of Benzoate for Schizophrenia A Randomized, Double-blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial of d-Amino Acid Oxidase Inhibitor December 2013Mental Health Research Institute Staff Publications, University of Michigan.
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Methylation had been regarded as a detoxification process, but reduction from +5 As to +3 As may be considered as a bioactivation instead. Another suggestion is that methylation might be a detoxification if "As[III] intermediates are not permitted to accumulate" because the pentavalent organoarsenics have a lower affinity to thiol groups than inorganic pentavalent arsenics. Gebel (2002) stated that methylation is a detoxification through accelerated excretion. With regard to carcinogenicity it has been suggested that methylation should be regarded as a toxification.
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Initial testing for adipsia involves electrolyte, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine levels, serum and urine osmolality, blood hormone levels, like vasopressin (AVP). In patients who have defects in thirst regulation and vasopresin secretion, serum vassopresin levels are low or absent. Measurements of urine electrolytes and osmolality are critical in determining the central, rather than renal, nature of the defect in water homeostasis. In adipsia, the fractional excretion of sodium is less than 1%, unless a coexisting defect in AVP secretion is present.
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Mutations in this channel are associated with nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, which can be autosomal dominant or recessive. Mutations in the vasopressin receptor cause a similar X-linked phenotype. Lithium, which is often used to treat bipolar disorder, can cause acquired diabetes insipidus (characterized by the excretion of large volumes of dilute urine) by decreasing the expression of the AQP2 gene. The expression of the AQP2 gene is increased during conditions associated with water retention such as pregnancy and congestive heart failure.
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The function of the naris remains largely unresolved. Olson (1941) suggested that the anterior half served the typical function of smell detection and that the posterior half housed some kind of gland. Bolt (1974) conjectured that the well-developed nasal flange was probably for distribution of stresses throughout the skull and might be a hallmark of terrestrial dissorophoids. He then suggested that there might be a gland related to salt excretion (the "glandula nasalis externa") that would produce the enlargement of the naris.
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Peak levels in skin are achieved 3 hours after administration and exceed those in plasma by a factor of 2. Similarly, lung tissue concentrations range from two-fold to five-fold higher than plasma concentrations in the 24 hours after a single dose. The mean terminal plasma elimination half-life of levofloxacin ranges from approximately 6 to 8 hours following single or multiple doses of levofloxacin given orally or intravenously. Elimination occurs mainly via excretion of unmetabolized drug in the urine.
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In bovine species, the organism causes hemolytic anemia, so an infected animal shows pale mucous membranes initially. As the levels of bilirubin (a byproduct of red blood cell lysis) continue to increase, the visible mucous membranes become yellow in color (icterus) due to the failure of the liver to metabolize the excess bilirubin. Hemoglobinuria is seen due to excretion of red-blood-cell lysis byproducts via the kidneys. Fever of 40.5 °C (105 °F) develops due to release of inflammatory byproducts.
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Phenazopyridine can also cause headaches, upset stomach (especially when not taken with food), or dizziness. Less frequently it can cause a pigment change in the skin or eyes, to a noticeable yellowish color. This is due to a depressed excretion via the kidneys causing a buildup of the medication in the skin, and normally indicates a need to discontinue usage. Other such side effects include fever, confusion, shortness of breath, skin rash, and swelling of the face, fingers, feet, or legs.
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Shenzhou 3 () launched on March 25, 2002, was the third unmanned launch of China's Shenzhou spacecraft. This was the first Shenzhou spacecraft launched that could have actually carried a human and as such the main objective of the mission was to test the systems required to support a human in space. On board it carried a dummy to simulate physiological signals of a human — palpitation, pulse, breathing, eating, metabolism, and excretion. The launch had been delayed several months due to design changes.
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Chlortalidone's diuretic effect is diminished in persons with kidney impairment. By increasing the delivery of sodium to the distal renal tubule, chlortalidone indirectly increases potassium excretion via the sodium- potassium exchange mechanism (i.e. apical ROMK/Na channels coupled with basolateral Na+/K ATPases). This can result in a low blood concentration of potassium and chloride as well as a mild metabolic alkalosis; however, the diuretic effect of chlortalidone is not affected by the acid-base balance of the person being treated.
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If the contrast moves into the ureters and back into the kidneys, the radiologist makes the diagnosis of vesicoureteral reflux, and gives the degree of severity a score. The exam ends when the person voids while the radiologist is watching under fluoroscopy. Consumption of fluid promotes excretion of contrast media after the procedure. It is important to watch the contrast during voiding, because this is when the bladder has the most pressure, and it is most likely this is when reflux will occur.
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CoQ10 is a crystalline powder insoluble in water. Absorption follows the same process as that of lipids; the uptake mechanism appears to be similar to that of vitamin E, another lipid- soluble nutrient. This process in the human body involves secretion into the small intestine of pancreatic enzymes and bile, which facilitates emulsification and micelle formation required for absorption of lipophilic substances. Food intake (and the presence of lipids) stimulates bodily biliary excretion of bile acids and greatly enhances absorption of CoQ10.
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For instance, glutathione peroxidases catalyze the oxidation of GSH to glutathione disulfide (GSSG) by reducing free radicals and reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide. Glutathione S-transferase uses GSH to clean up various metabolites, xenobiotics, and electrophiles to mercapturates for excretion. Because of its antioxidant role, GSS mostly produce GSH inside the cytoplasm of liver cells and imported to mitochondria where detoxification occurs. GSH is also essential for the activation of the immune system to generate robust defense mechanisms against invading pathogens.
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While Bombardier beetles have well developed, like other carabid beetles, pygidial glands that empty from the lateral edges of the intersegment membranes between the seventh and eighth abdominal segments. The gland is made of two containing chambers. The first holds hydroquinones and hydrogen peroxide, with the second holding just hydrogen peroxide plus catalases. These chemicals mix and result in an explosive ejection, forming temperatures of around 100 C, with the breakdown of hydroquinone to H2 \+ O2 \+ quinone, with the O2 propelling the excretion.
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Endocrinology (from endocrine + -ology) is a branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine system, its diseases, and its specific secretions known as hormones. It is also concerned with the integration of developmental events proliferation, growth, and differentiation, and the psychological or behavioral activities of metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sleep, digestion, respiration, excretion, mood, stress, lactation, movement, reproduction, and sensory perception caused by hormones. Specializations include behavioral endocrinologyNelson, R. J. 2005. An Introduction to Behavioral Endocrinology, Fourth Edition.
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Most of erythromycin is metabolised by demethylation in the liver by the hepatic enzyme CYP3A4. Its main elimination route is in the bile with little renal excretion, 2%-15% unchanged drug. Erythromycin's elimination half-life ranges between 1.5 and 2.0 hours and is between 5 and 6 hours in patients with end-stage renal disease. Erythromycin levels peak in the serum 4 hours after dosing; ethylsuccinate peaks 0.5-2.5 hours after dosing, but can be delayed if digested with food.
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The blood- level decline of the parent drug was biphasic, with the short half-life ranging from 0.4-0.6 hours and the terminal half-life from 3.5–18.4 hours (mean 8.8 hours), depending on the study population and method of determination. Temazepam has very good bioavailability, with almost 100% being absorbed following being taken by mouth. The drug is metabolized through conjugation and demethylation prior to excretion. Most of the drug is excreted in the urine, with about 20% appearing in the faeces.
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Ambystoma gracile, the northwestern salamander, is a dark brown salamander reaching up to 23 centimeters long with dark protruding eyes and a visible parotoid glands. This salamander can be poisonous to its predators because of the excretion of a white poison through its glands when threatened. The northwestern salamander inhabits both forest and water bodies, but has a proclivity to live in burrows in the forest. The salamander also chooses to live under rocks, debris, and trees in the forest environment.
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Lip pits may be surgically removed either for aesthetic reasons or discomfort due to inflammation caused by bacterial infections or chronic saliva excretion, though spontaneous shrinkage of the lip pits has occurred in some rare cases. Chronic inflammation has also been reported to cause squamous-cell carcinoma. It is essential to completely remove the entire lip pit canal, as mucoid cysts can develop if mucous glands are not removed. A possible side effect of removing the lip pits is a loose lip muscle.
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The common ostrich, having a heavier body weight, should have larger, heavier nasal glands to more effectively excrete salt from a larger volume of blood, but this is not the case. These unequal proportions contribute to the assumption that the common ostrich's nasal glands do not play any role in salt excretion. The nasal glands may be the result of an ancestral trait, which is no longer needed by the common ostrich, but has not been bred out of their gene pool.
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This is a primitive gut or digestive cavity with only one opening that is used for ingestion and excretion; there are four long oral arms with crenulated margins that are the primary feeding surface. Each P. noctiluca medusa has eight long tentacles that emerge from the umbrella margin. Being radially symmetrical it has no head and thus no centralized nervous system. The nervous system present is primitive, consisting of a simple net composed of naked and largely non-polar neurons.
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Estetrol is an estrogen and has estrogenic effects in various tissues. So far the physiological function of estetrol is unknown. The possible use of estetrol as a marker for fetal well-being has been studied quite extensively. However, due to the large intra- and inter- individual variation of maternal estetrol plasma levels during pregnancy this appeared not to be feasible.J. Heikkilä, T. Luukkainen, Urinary excretion of estriol and 15a-hydroxyestriol in complicated pregnancies, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 110 (1971) 509-521.
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However, some long species have an anus and some with complex, branched guts have more than one anus, since excretion only through the mouth would be difficult for them. The gut is lined with a single layer of endodermal cells that absorb and digest food. Some species break up and soften food first by secreting enzymes in the gut or pharynx (throat). All animals need to keep the concentration of dissolved substances in their body fluids at a fairly constant level.
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Three quarters of the thorium that has penetrated the body accumulates in the skeleton. Absorption through the skin is possible, but is not a likely means of exposure. Thorium's low solubility in water also means that excretion of thorium by the kidneys and faeces is rather slow. Tests on the thorium uptake of workers involved in monazite processing showed thorium levels above recommended limits in their bodies, but no adverse effects on health were found at those moderately low concentrations.
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Ezetimibe is primarily metabolized in the liver and the small intestine via glucuronide conjugation with subsequent renal and biliary excretion. Both the parent compound and its active metabolite are eliminated from plasma with a half-life around 22 hours, allowing for once-daily dosing. Ezetimibe lacks significant inhibitor or inducer effects on cytochrome P450 isoenzymes, which explains its limited number of drug interactions. No dose adjustment is needed in patients with chronic kidney disease or mild hepatic dysfunction (Child-Pugh score 5–6).
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Mangroves are trees or shrubs that grow in low-oxygen soil near coastlines in tropical or subtropical latitudes. They are an extremely productive and complex ecosystem that connects the land and sea. Mangroves consist of species that are not necessarily related to each other and are often grouped for the characteristics they share rather than genetic similarity. Because of their proximity to the coast, they have all developed adaptions such as salt excretion and root aeration to live in salty, oxygen-depleted water.
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Because Vibrio gastroenteritis is self-limited in most patients, no specific medical therapy is required. Patients who cannot tolerate oral fluid replacement may require intravenous fluid therapy. Although most Vibrio species are sensitive to antibiotics such as doxycycline or quinolones, antibiotic therapy does not shorten the course of the illness or the duration of pathogen excretion. However, if the patient is ill and has a high fever or an underlying medical condition, oral antibiotic therapy with doxycycline or a quinolone can be initiated.
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Françoise Roch-Ramel (née Ramel; 20 September 1931 – 26 June 2001) was a Swiss pharmacologist and a leading expert on the renal transport of organic anions and cations, especially uric acid. A native of Château-d'Œx, her major research focus was the renal excretion of drugs and other xenobiotics. She was a Professor at the Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology at the University of Lausanne, where she was employed in the early 1960s as an assistant of Professor Georges Peters.
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Cefaclor belongs to the family of antibiotics known as the cephalosporins (cefalosporins). The cephalosporins are broad-spectrum antibiotics that are used for the treatment of septicaemia, pneumonia, meningitis, biliary tract infections, peritonitis, and urinary tract infections. The pharmacology of the cephalosporins is similar to that of the penicillins, excretion being principally renal. Cephalosporins penetrate the cerebrospinal fluid poorly unless the meninges are inflamed; cefotaxime is a more suitable cephalosporin than cefaclor for infections of the central nervous system, e.g. meningitis.
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In rats, the s are 500, 800 (oral), and 600 (skin) mg/kg. Excessive exposure can cause nausea, headache, muscle weakness, salivation, shortness of breath and seizures. In humans, it is deactivated by enzymatic hydrolysis to several carboxylic acid metabolites, whose urinary excretion half-lives are in a range of 5–7 hours. Worker exposure to the chemical can be monitored by measurement of the urinary metabolites, while severe overdosage may be confirmed by quantification of cyfluthrin in blood or plasma.
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For this reason, usage of oil dispersants, like Corexit, to treat oil spills can increase the uptake of PAHs by increasing their solubility in water and making them more available for uptake via the gills. Once a PAH is taken up, the fish's metabolism can affect the duration and intensity of the exposure to target tissues. Fish are able to readily metabolize 99% of PAHs to a more hydrophilic metabolite through their hepato- biliary system. This allows for the excretion of PAHs.
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These regions play a role in the excretion and absorption of salts. The KCNJ10 is an inwardly rectifying potassium channel which means it is important in the recycling of K+ believed to further be useful in building a gradient for Na+/K+ - ATPase's. In addition to diminishing Na+/K+ - ATPase's inadequate KCNJ10 functioning leads to depolarization of the basolateral membrane which reduces electrogenic transporters' driving force. The lack of Na+ typically leads to the low blood pressure typical of EAST syndrome patients.
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Dehydration from low fluid intake is a major factor in stone formation. Individuals living in warm climates are at higher risk due to increased fluid loss. Obesity, immobility, and sedentary lifestyles are other leading risk factors. High dietary intake of animal protein, sodium, sugars including honey, refined sugars, fructose and high fructose corn syrup, and excessive consumption of tea or fruit juices may increase the risk of kidney stone formation due to increased uric acid excretion and elevated urinary oxalate levels.
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The need for salt excretion in reptiles (such as marine iguanas and sea turtles) and birds (such as petrels and albatrosses) reflects their having much less efficient kidneys than mammals. Unlike the skin of amphibians, that of reptiles and birds is impermeable to salt, preventing its release. The evolution of a salt gland in early reptiles and birds allowed them to eat aquatic plants and animals with high salt concentrations. This evolutionary development does not account for the gland in elasmobranchs, suggesting convergent evolution.
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Genetic mutations known to cause hypouricemia are of two kinds: mutations causing xanthine oxidase deficiency, which reduces the production of uric acid; and mutations causing abnormal kidney function that increases the excretion of uric acid. Collectively known as familial renal hypouricemia, these latter mutations are of two types, involving defects of presecretory and postsecretory reabsorption. A genetic mutation in Dalmatian dogs causes hypouricemia due to a kidney defect that interferes with reabsorption of uric acid. A similar mutation has been reported in a human brother and sister.
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A key part of FBA is the ability to add constraints to the flux rates of reactions within networks, forcing them to stay within a range of selected values. This lets the model more accurately simulate real metabolism. The constraints belong to two subsets from a biological perspective; boundary constraints that limit nutrient uptake/excretion and internal constraints that limit the flux through reactions within the organism. In mathematical terms, the application of constraints can be considered to reduce the solution space of the FBA model.
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The Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) is a viverrid native to South and Southeast Asia. Since 2008, it is IUCN Red Listed as Least Concern as it accommodates to a broad range of habitats. It is widely distributed with large populations that in 2008 were thought unlikely to be declining. In Indonesia, it is threatened by poaching and illegal wildlife trade; buyers use it for the increasing production of kopi luwak, a form of coffee that involves ingestion and excretion of the beans by the animal.
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Glucose is a competitive inhibitor of the re- absorption. If blood glucose values rise over 180 mg/dL for any period of time, the kidney cannot re-absorb all glucose back into the blood, leading to increased excretion in the urine (glucosuria). As a result, blood levels of 1,5-AG decrease immediately, and continue to decrease until glucose values go below 180 mg/dL. Once the hyperglycemia is corrected, 1,5-AG begins to be re- absorbed from the kidney back into the blood at a steady rate.
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The most common (roughly 1%) side effect of pyrazinamide is joint pains (arthralgia), but this is not usually so severe that patients need to stop taking it. Pyrazinamide can precipitate gout flares by decreasing renal excretion of uric acid. The most dangerous side effect of pyrazinamide is hepatotoxicity, which is dose-related. The old dose for pyrazinamide was 40–70 mg/kg daily and the incidence of drug-induced hepatitis has fallen significantly since the recommended dose has been reduced to 12–30 mg/kg daily.
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In 1932, a well-known industrialist, Eben Byers died of radiation poisoning from the use of Radithor, a radium water guaranteed by the manufacturer to contain 2 μCi of radium. Cases sprung up of the development of carcinoma in patients who had used conventional radium therapy up to 40 years after the original treatments. Robley D. Evans made the first measurements of exhaled radon and radium excretion from a former dial painter in 1933. At MIT he gathered dependable body content measurements from 27 dial painters.
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Deficiency of this enzyme will increase the possibility of cholesterol gallstones. Disruption of CYP7A1 from classic bile acid synthesis in mice leads to either increased postnatal death or a milder phenotype with elevated serum cholesterol. The latter is similar to the case in humans, where CYP7A1 mutations associate with high plasma low-density lipoprotein and hepatic cholesterol content, as well as deficient bile acid excretion. There is also a synergy between plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and risks of coronary artery disease (CAD).
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The excretion and reabsorption of bile acids forms the basis of the enterohepatic circulation, which is essential for the digestion and absorption of dietary fats. Under certain circumstances, when more concentrated, as in the gallbladder, cholesterol crystallises and is the major constituent of most gallstones (lecithin and bilirubin gallstones also occur, but less frequently). Every day, up to 1 g of cholesterol enters the colon. This cholesterol originates from the diet, bile, and desquamated intestinal cells, and can be metabolized by the colonic bacteria.
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Angiotensin II increases blood pressure by stimulating the Gq protein in vascular smooth muscle cells (which in turn activates an IP3-dependent mechanism leading to a rise in intracellular calcium levels and ultimately causing contraction). In addition, angiotensin II acts at the Na+/H+ exchanger in the proximal tubules of the kidney to stimulate Na reabsorption and H+ excretion which is coupled to bicarbonate reabsorption. This ultimately results in an increase in blood volume, pressure, and pH. Hence, ACE inhibitors are major anti-hypertensive drugs.
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Excessive intake of potassium is not a primary cause of hyperkalemia because the human body usually can adapt to the rise in the potassium levels by increasing the excretion of potassium into urine through aldosterone hormone secretion and increasing the number of potassium secreting channels in kidney tubules. Acute hyperkalemia in infants is also rare even though their body volume is small, with accidental ingestion of potassium salts or potassium medications. Hyperkalemia usually develops when there are other co-morbidities such as hypoaldosteronism and chronic kidney disease.
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The failure of clinical translation of nanoparticles-mediated PTT is mainly ascribed to body persistence concerns. Indeed, the optical response of anisotropic nanomaterials can be tuned in the NIR region by increasing their size to up to 150 nm. On the other hand, body excretion of non- biodegradable noble metals nanomaterials above 10 nm occurs through the hepatobiliary route in a slow and inefficient manner. A common approach to avoid metal persistence is to reduce the nanoparticles size below the threshold for renal clearance, i.e.
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Fenoldopam causes arterial/arteriolar vasodilation leading to a decrease in blood pressure by activating peripheral D1 receptors. It decreases afterload and also promotes sodium excretion via specific dopamine receptors along the nephron. The renal effect of fenoldopam and dopamine may involve physiological antagonism of the renin-angiotensin system in the kidney. In contrast to dopamine, fenoldopam is a selective D1 receptor agonist with no effect on beta adrenoceptors, although there is evidence that it may have some alpha-1 and alpha-2 adrenoceptor antagonist activity.
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This inhibition leads to neurodegeneration with symptoms similar to those caused by Huntington's disease. Since leaf beetles produce high concentrations of 3-NPA esters, a powerful chemical defense against a wide range of different predators is obvious. The larvae of Chrysomelina leaf beetles developed a second defensive strategy that is based on the excretion of droplets via pairs of defensive glands at the back of the insects. These droplets are immediately presented after mechanical disturbance and contain volatile compounds that derive from sequestered plant metabolites.
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Dietary fiber can bind to lithocholic acid and aid in its excretion in stool; as such, fiber can protect against colon cancer. LCA (and LCA acetate and LCA propionate) can activate the vitamin D receptor without raising calcium levels as much as vitamin D itself. LCA was also shown to have anti-aging effects in a yeast study. A later study showed that the bile acid accumulates in the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes, altering the mitochondria's lipid composition by promoting or inhibiting various enzymes.
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If conception does not occur, decreasing excretion of progesterone will allow the hypothalamus to restart secretion of GnRH. These hormone levels also control the uterine (menstrual) cycle causing the proliferation phase in preparation for ovulation, the secretory phase after ovulation, and menstruation when conception does not occur. The activation of the HPG axis in both males and females during puberty also causes individuals to acquire secondary sex characteristics. In males, the production of GnRH, LH, and FSH are similar, but the effects of these hormones are different.
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The ammonia diffuses down its concentration gradient into the urine or into the blood, where it gets pumped through the branchial hearts and diffuses out the gills. The excretion of ammonia by O. vulgaris makes them ammonotelic organisms. Aside from ammonia, a few other nitrogenous waste products have been found to be excreted by O. vulgaris such as urea, uric acid, purines, and some free amino acids, but in smaller amounts. Within the renal sacs, two recognized and specific cells are responsible for the regulation of ions.
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ETF-QO subsequently relays the electrons via ubiquinone to complex III in the respiratory chain. The flavoenzymes that transfer electrons to ETF are involved in fatty acid beta oxidation, amino acid catabolism, choline metabolism, and special metabolic pathways. Defects in either of the ETF subunits or ETFDH cause multiple acyl CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (OMIM # 231680), earlier called glutaric acidemia type II. MADD is characterized by excretion of a series of substrates of the upstream flavoenzyes, e.g. glutaric, lactic, ethylmalonic, butyric, isobutyric, 2-methyl-butyric, and isovaleric acids.
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ETF-QO subsequently relays the electrons via ubiquinone to complex III in the respiratory chain. The flavoenzymes that transfer electrons to ETF are involved in fatty acid beta oxidation, amino acid catabolism, choline metabolism, and special metabolic pathways. Defects in either of the ETF subunits or ETFDH cause multiple acyl CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (OMIM # 231680), earlier called glutaric acidemia type II. MADD is characterized by excretion of a series of substrates of the upstream flavoenzyes, e.g. glutaric, lactic, ethylmalonic, butyric, isobutyric, 2-methyl-butyric, and isovaleric acids.
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Several definitions of venomous animals have been proposed. Bücherl states that venomous animals must possess at least one venom gland, a mechanism for excretion or extrusion of the venom, and apparatus with which to inflict wounds. Mebs states that venomous animals produce venom in a group of cells or gland, and have a tool, the venom apparatus, which delivers the venom by injection during a bite or sting. The venom apparatus in this definition encompasses both the gland and the injection device, which must be directly connected.
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Diuretic resistance is defined as failure of diuretics to reduce fluid retention (can be measured by low urinary sodium) despite using the maximal dose of drugs. There are various causes for the resistance towards loop diuretics. After initial period of diuresis, there will be a period of "post-diuretic sodium retention" where the rate of sodium excretion does not reach as much as the initial diuresis period. Increase intake of sodium during this period will offset the amount of excreted sodium, and thus causing diuretic resistance.
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A DMSA scan is a radionuclide scan that uses dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) in assessing renal morphology, structure and function. Radioactive technetium-99m is combined with DMSA and injected into a patient, followed by imaging with a gamma camera after 2-3 hours. A DMSA scan is usually static imaging, other radiotracers like DTPA & MAG3 are usually used for dynamic imaging to assess renal excretion. The major clinical indications for this investigation are # Detection and/or evaluation of a renal scar especially in patients having vesicoureteric reflux (VUR).
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Comparing to fentanyl's Ki (Ki=1.06 ± 0.15 nM), butyrfentanyl's ability to displace [3H] fentanyl is low and it requires high concentrations of the drug. Studies on urinary excretion revealed that almost all of the injected butyrfentanyl was excreted or metabolized within the first 3 h after injection, and only very low concentrations were still detectable after 3 h. Urinary concentrations of butyrylfentanyl from animals injected with 15 μg/kg and 45 μg/kg i.v. were measured by two techniques: radioreceptorassay and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS).
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It is especially important in treating these in newborn infants. It is given intravenously. Since the half-life of dopamine in plasma is very short—approximately one minute in adults, two minutes in newborn infants and up to five minutes in preterm infants—it is usually given in a continuous intravenous drip rather than a single injection. Its effects, depending on dosage, include an increase in sodium excretion by the kidneys, an increase in urine output, an increase in heart rate, and an increase in blood pressure.
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Polonium was administered to humans for experimental purposes from 1943 to 1947; it was injected into four hospitalised patients, and orally given to a fifth. Studies such as this were funded by the Manhattan Project and the AEC and conducted at the University of Rochester. The objective was to obtain data on human excretion of polonium to correlate with more extensive data from rats. Patients selected as subjects were chosen because experimenters wanted persons who had not been exposed to polonium either through work or accident.
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Codeine and its major metabolites may be quantitated in blood, plasma or urine to monitor therapy, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning or assist in a medico-legal death investigation. Drug abuse screening programs generally test urine, hair, sweat or saliva. Many commercial opiate screening tests directed at morphine cross-react appreciably with codeine and its metabolites, but chromatographic techniques can easily distinguish codeine from other opiates and opioids. It is important to note that codeine usage results in significant amounts of morphine as an excretion product.
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Since bile increases the absorption of fats, it is an important part of the absorption of the fat-soluble substances, such as the vitamins A, D, E, and K. Besides its digestive function, bile serves also as the route of excretion for bilirubin, a byproduct of red blood cells recycled by the liver. Bilirubin derives from hemoglobin by glucuronidation. Bile tends to be alkaline on average. The pH of common duct bile (7.50 to 8.05) is higher than that of the corresponding gallbladder bile (6.80 to 7.65).
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Accumulation at the sides of the head is from salivary gland due to uptake of I-131 mIBG by the sympathetic neuronal elements in the salivary glands. Meta-[I-131]iodobenzylguanidine is a radio- labeled analog of the adrenergic blocking agent guanethidine.Nakajo, M., Shapiro, B. Sisson, J.C., Swanson, D.P., and Beierwaltes, W.H. Salivary gland uptake of Meta-[I131]Iodobenzylguanidine. J Nucl Med 25:2–6, 1984 Radioactivity is also seen from uptake by the liver, and excretion by the kidneys with accumulation in the bladder.
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N-acetyltransferase (NAT) is an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of acetyl groups from acetyl-CoA to arylamines, arylhydroxylamines and arylhydrazines. They have wide specificity for aromatic amines, particularly serotonin, and can also catalyze acetyl transfer between arylamines without CoA. N-acetyltransferases are cytosolic enzymes found in the liver and many tissues of most mammalian species, except the dog and fox, which cannot acetylate xenobiotics. Acetyl groups are important in the conjugation of metabolites from the liver, to allow excretion of the byproducts (phase II metabolism).
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Dissolved oxygen is essential for fish respiration and concentrations below critical levels can induce stress and even lead to asphyxiation. Ammonia, a nitrogen excretion product, is highly toxic to fish at accumulated levels, particularly when oxygen concentrations are low. Many of these interactions and effects cause stress in the fish, which can be a major factor in facilitating fish disease. For many parasites, infestation depends on the host's degree of mobility, the density of the host population and vulnerability of the host's defence system.
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The constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) also known as nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group I, member 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NR1I3 gene. CAR is a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily and along with pregnane X receptor (PXR) functions as a sensor of and xenobiotic substances. In response, expression of proteins responsible for the metabolism and excretion of these substances is upregulated. Hence, CAR and PXR play a major role in the detoxification of foreign substances such as drugs.
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It influences the reabsorption of sodium and excretion of potassium (from and into the tubular fluids, respectively) of the kidney, thereby indirectly influencing water retention or loss, blood pressure and blood volume.Marieb Human Anatomy & Physiology 9th edition, chapter:16, page:629, question number:14 When dysregulated, aldosterone is pathogenic and contributes to the development and progression of cardiovascular and kidney disease. Aldosterone has exactly the opposite function of the atrial natriuretic hormone secreted by the heart. Aldosterone is part of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system.
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Metrizamide is a non-ionic iodine-based radiocontrast agent. A density gradient medium for the centrifugation of biological particles. Historically metrizamide replaced iofendylate (trade names: Pantopaque, Myodil) as the contrast agent of choice for myelography (an X-ray study of the spine now largely replaced by MRI). The radio opacity characteristics are such that finer detail is displayed with metrizamide, as well as the advantage of reabsorption from spinal fluid and excretion from the body – since unlike Pantopaque, metrizamide is a water-soluble substance.
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MDMA is a chiral compound and has been almost exclusively administered as a racemate. However, the two enantiomers have been shown to exhibit different kinetics. The disposition of MDMA may also be stereoselective, with the S-enantiomer having a shorter elimination half-life and greater excretion than the R-enantiomer. Evidence suggests that the area under the blood plasma concentration versus time curve (AUC) was two to four times higher for the (R)-enantiomer than the (S)-enantiomer after a 40 mg oral dose in human volunteers.
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The cues include the following behaviours: positioning, pheromone excretion, following females, making tapping sounds with legs, singing, wing spreading, creating wing vibrations, genitalia licking, bending the stomach, attempt to copulate, and the copulatory act itself. The songs of Drosophila melanogaster and Drosophila simulans have been studied extensively. These luring songs are sinusoidal in nature and varies within and between species. The courtship behavior of Drosophila melanogaster has also been assessed for sex-related genes, which have been implicated in courtship behavior in both the male and female.
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The occurrence of gout is connected with an excess production of uric acid. A diet rich in sucrose may lead to gout as it raises the level of insulin, which prevents excretion of uric acid from the body. As the concentration of uric acid in the body increases, so does the concentration of uric acid in the joint liquid and beyond a critical concentration, the uric acid begins to precipitate into crystals. Researchers have implicated sugary drinks high in fructose in a surge in cases of gout.
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Although occasionally it has been found in environmental soil and water samples, its natural habitat is still not known. Bacteria of this genus lack flagella, whip-like structures many bacteria use for locomotion, but exhibit twitching or swarming motility. This may be due to the activity of type IV pili, pole-like structures that can be extended and retracted. Motility in A. baumannii may also be due to the excretion of exopolysaccharide, creating a film of high-molecular-weight sugar chains behind the bacterium to move forward.
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MS 45131,f.54 This office made its holder the King's closest courtier. The duties in the earliest days of this ancient post involved assisting the king in the performance in a decorous manner of his bodily function of excretion. Arrangements would have to be made for the custody of the stool itself (the word derives from Old English & Norse stul, signifying "chair", or piece of furniture for sitting on), provision of a suitable room for the use thereof, with curtains, hangings being provided.
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The excretion of the unchanged compound into the bile did occur more slowly in rats. This is interpreted by the authors as evidence that no enterohepatic circulation takes place. Another research in rats showed that the plasma membrane of hepatocytes begun to form blebs after administration of benoxaprofen. This is suggested to be due to disturbances in the calcium concentration which is possibly a result of an altered cellular redox state which can have an effect on mitochondrial function and therefore cause disturbances in the calcium concentration.
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Many drugs follow a biphasic elimination curve — first a steep slope then a shallow slope: :STEEP (initial) part of curve —> initial distribution of the drug in the body. :SHALLOW part of curve —> ultimate excretion of drug, which is dependent on the release of the drug from tissue compartments into the blood. The longer half-life is called the terminal half-life and the half-life of the largest component is called the dominant half-life. For a more detailed description see Pharmacokinetics § Multi-compartmental models.
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It has been reported that the two enantiomers had different toxicokinetics and toxicity. It was reported that the (R)-styrene oxide was preferentially formed in mice, especially in the lung, whereas the (S)-styrene oxide was preferentially generated in rats. In human volunteers, the cumulative excretion of the (S)-enantiomer of styrene glycol and mendelic acid were higher than the R form after exposure to styrene. In human liver microsomes, cytochrome P450-mediated styrene oxidation showed the production of more S enantiomer relative to the R enantiomer.
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Uricosuric medications (drugs) are substances that increase the excretion of uric acid in the urine, thus reducing the concentration of uric acid in blood plasma. In general, this effect is achieved by action on the proximal tubule of the kidney. Drugs that reduce blood uric acid are not all uricosurics; blood uric acid can be reduced by other mechanisms (see other Antigout medications). Uricosurics are often used in the treatment of gout, a disease in which uric acid crystals form deposits in the joints.
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The classic clinical syndrome for vitamin B6 deficiency is a seborrhoeic dermatitis-like eruption, atrophic glossitis with ulceration, angular cheilitis, conjunctivitis, intertrigo, and neurologic symptoms of somnolence, confusion, and neuropathy (due to impaired sphingosine synthesis) and sideroblastic anemia (due to impaired heme synthesis). Less severe cases present with metabolic disease associated with insufficient activity of the coenzyme PLP. The most prominent of the lesions is due to impaired tryptophan–niacin conversion. This can be detected based on urinary excretion of xanthurenic acid after an oral tryptophan load.
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Most of these non-ditrysian families, are primarily leaf miners in the larval stage. In addition to the proboscis, there is a change in the scales among these basal lineages, with later lineages showing more complex perforated scales. With the evolution of the Ditrysia in the mid- Cretaceous, there was a major reproductive change. The Ditrysia, which comprise 98% of the Lepidoptera, have two separate openings for reproduction in the females (as well as a third opening for excretion), one for mating, and one for laying eggs.
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Gill of a rainbow trout The gills, located under the operculum, are a respiratory organ for the extraction of oxygen from water and for the excretion of carbon dioxide. They are not usually visible, but can be seen in some species, such as the frilled shark. The labyrinth organ of Anabantoidei and Clariidae is used to allow the fish to extract oxygen from the air. Gill rakers are finger-like projections off the gill arch which function in filter feeders to retain filtered prey.
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The specific function of this protein has not yet been determined; however, this protein may play a role in the transport of biliary and intestinal excretion of organic anions. Alternatively spliced variants which encode different protein isoforms have been described; however, not all variants have been fully characterized. ABCC3 is induced as a hepatoprotective response to a variety of pathologic liver conditions. The constitutive androstane receptor, pregnane X receptor and nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) transcription factors are involved in mediating induction.
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Cx36 (connexin 36) subunit mediates insulin excretion and glucose-induced insulin release from gap junctions of the liver and pancreas. Homeostasis in the liver and pancreatic organs are supported by an intricate system of cellular interactions called endocrine signaling. The secretion of hormones into the blood stream to target distant organs. However, endocrine signaling in the pancreas and liver operates along short distances in the cellular membrane by way of signaling pathways, ion channels, G-protein coupled receptors, tyrosine-kinase receptors, and cell-to-cell contact.
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This increasing inhibitory effect is seen in dosages up to 1500 mg per day; at higher doses, the inhibitory effect of AMPT decreases. The maximum effect of orally administered AMPT occurs 48 to 72 hours after administration of the drug. Catecholamine production levels return to normal 72 to 96 hours after administration of the drug ceases. Dosages as low as 300 mg per day have been found to have an effect on catecholamine production, which can be measured through urinary excretion analysis and cerebral spinal fluid assays.
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Analysis of faeces is the definitive method by which a suspected A. caninum infection is confirmed. The faeces are sampled and examined microscopically for the characteristic ovular, thin-shelled eggs of A. caninum. Absence of eggs in faeces does not rule out infection; a significant delay of at least 5 weeks exists between initial infection and excretion of eggs in the faeces (larvae must fully mature and reproduce before eggs can be laid). In fact, pups frequently die before passing of eggs in the faeces begins.
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Renal excretion occurs by both glomerular filtration and tubular secretion as evidenced by the high rate of renal clearance (approximately 275 mL/min). Within 24 hours of drug administration, 26 to 32% of the administered dose is recovered in the urine as norfloxacin with an additional 5-8% being recovered in the urine as six active metabolites of lesser antimicrobial potency. Only a small percentage (less than 1%) of the dose is recovered thereafter. Fecal recovery accounts for another 30% of the administered dose.
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In medicine, diuretics are used to treat heart failure, liver cirrhosis, hypertension, influenza, water poisoning, and certain kidney diseases. Some diuretics, such as acetazolamide, help to make the urine more alkaline and are helpful in increasing excretion of substances such as aspirin in cases of overdose or poisoning. Diuretics are sometimes abused by people with an eating disorder, especially people with bulimia nervosa, with the goal of losing weight. The antihypertensive actions of some diuretics (thiazides and loop diuretics in particular) are independent of their diuretic effect.
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Estriol has significant bioavailability, but its potency is limited by rapid metabolism and excretion and its relatively weak estrogenic activity. With oral administration, during first-pass metabolism, a considerable portion of estriol is conjugated via sulfation into estriol sulfate and rapidly excreted. Only about 10 to 20% of a dose of estriol remains in the circulation, and of this, only about 1 to 2% is present in its active, unconjugated form. Peak levels of estriol occur about 1 to 3 hours after an oral dose.
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Baekeland was already wealthy due to his invention of Velox photographic paper when he began to investigate the reactions of phenol and formaldehyde in his home laboratory. Chemists had begun to recognize that many natural resins and fibers were polymers. Baekeland's initial intent was to find a replacement for shellac, a material in limited supply because it was made naturally from the excretion of lac insects (specifically Kerria lacca). Baekeland produced a soluble phenol-formaldehyde shellac called "Novolak", but it was not a market success.
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The squid mantle cavity is a seawater-filled sac containing three hearts and other organs supporting circulation, respiration, and excretion. Squid have a main systemic heart that pumps blood around the body as part of the general circulatory system, and two branchial hearts. The systemic heart consists of three chambers, a lower ventricle and two upper atria, all of which can contract to propel the blood. The branchial hearts pump blood specifically to the gills for oxygenation, before returning it to the systemic heart.
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Tolerance builds with repeated usage, lasting for a few days. Mescaline causes cross-tolerance with other serotonergic psychedelics such as LSD and psilocybin. About half the initial dosage is excreted after 6 hours, but some studies suggest that it is not metabolized at all before excretion. Mescaline appears not to be subject to metabolism by CYP2D6 and between 20% and 50% of mescaline is excreted in the urine unchanged, and the rest being excreted as the carboxylic acid form of mescaline, a likely result of MAO degradation.
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In the 1940s, Francis Ernest Lloyd conducted extensive experiments with carnivorous plants, including Utricularia, and settled many points which had previously been the subject of conjecture. He proved that the mechanism of the trap was purely mechanical by both killing the trigger hairs with iodine and subsequently showing that the response was unaffected, and by demonstrating that the trap could be made ready to spring a second (or third) time immediately after being set off if the bladder's excretion of water were helped by a gentle squeeze; in other words, the delay of at least fifteen minutes between trap springings is due solely to the time needed to excrete water, and the triggers need no time to recover irritability (unlike the reactive trigger hairs of Venus Flytraps, for example). He tested the role of the velum by showing that the trap will never set if small cuts are made to it; and showed that the excretion of water can be continued under all conditions likely to be found in the natural environment, but can be prevented by driving the osmotic pressure in the trap beyond normal limits by the introduction of glycerine.
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The same position supported by the authors of one study developed in El Salvador, but the El Salvadoran study did not find an increased odds ratio for CKD in people exposed to agrochemical products, or direct evidence linking it to pesticides. Other studies from Sri Lanka have showed that chronic exposure of people in agrochemically laden fields to low levels of cadmium through the food chain and also to pesticides could be responsible for significantly higher urinary excretion of cadmium in individuals with CKDu, but urinary cadmium excretion is increased in all forms of CKD, and cadmium nephropathy is highly proteinuric while MeN is not. Based on that hypothetical possibility, Sri Lanka has banned many of these chemicals, and El Salvador has similar legislation pending, waiting for direct evidence linking the disease to the use of agrochemicals in the Mesoamerican region. A large (nearly 38,000 workers, 5 year follow up) prospective study from Thailand in 2012 found a 5-fold increased risk (adjusted odds ratio) for CKD in heat stress exposed workers with physical jobs, so the disease could be more prevalent around the globe than first thought, and needs a closer look.
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Aside from specific chronic medical conditions that may lead to hyperbilirubinemia, neonates in general are at increased risk since they lack the intestinal bacteria that facilitate the breakdown and excretion of conjugated bilirubin in the feces (this is largely why the feces of a neonate are paler than those of an adult). Instead the conjugated bilirubin is converted back into the unconjugated form by the enzyme β-glucuronidase (in the gut, this enzyme is located in the brush border of the lining intestinal cells) and a large proportion is reabsorbed through the enterohepatic circulation.
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However, even individuals with the same mutations or genotype may still show variability in their symptoms. This may be due to maternal factors, such as the transfer of cholesterol to the fetus during pregnancy, as well as the amount of cholesterol present in the brain before the blood–brain barrier forms prenatally. The rate of accumulation and excretion of toxic metabolites may vary from person to person. Maternal apolipoprotein E has also been implicated in individual variability in SLOS, although the exact nature of this relationship is unknown.
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However, schooling has disadvantages such as: oxygen- and food-depletion and excretion buildup in the breathing media. The school-array probably gives advantages in energy saving although this is a highly controversial and much debated field. Schools of herring can on calm days sometimes be detected at the surface from more than a mile away by the little waves they form, or from a few meters at night when they trigger bioluminescence in surrounding plankton ("firing"). All underwater recordings show herring constantly cruising reaching speeds up to per second, and much higher escape speeds.
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A typical female vampire bat weighs 40 grams and can consume over 20 grams (1 fluid ounce) of blood in a 20-minute feed. This feeding behavior is facilitated by its anatomy and physiology for rapid processing and digestion of the blood to enable the animal to take flight soon after the feeding. The stomach and intestine rapidly absorb the water in the blood meal, which is quickly transported to the kidneys, and on to the bladder for excretion. A common vampire bat begins to expel urine within two minutes of feeding.
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This also affects pipecuroniums metabolism by resisting hepatic uptake, metabolism, and biliary excretion. The length of the molecule (2.1 nm, close to ideal) and its rigidness make pipecuronium the most potent and clean one-bulk bis-quaternary. Even though the N-N distance (1.6 nm) is far away from what is considered ideal, its onium heads are well-exposed, and the quaternary groups help to bring together the onium heads to the anionic centers of the receptors without chirality issues. Adding more than two onium heads in general does not add to potency.
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He just came back from a mission and visited his grandmother Maestra in Seattle. He is obviously attached to her although she does not tolerate his mannerism. He does anything she asks of him, which is how he ends up in, as he puts it, "South too-damn-vivid America." Switters refrains from the more tedious routines of modern life, which he calls collectively "maintenance" - showering, shaving, primping of any kind, and though he has quite an appetite, especially for red-eye gravy, he can't abide to think of the process of excretion.
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It aims to balance the rate of iron accumulation from blood transfusion by increasing iron excretion in urine and in faeces with chelators. There are currently three licensed iron chelators, DFO, DFP and Deferasirox (DFX). The Guide for the Management of Transfusion Dependent Thalassaemia (TDT) issued by the Thalassaemia International Federation (TIF Publication No23, 2017) contains details of dose and regimen adjustment of iron chelation therapy, adherence to therapy and use of combination therapies as well as monitoring of chelation therapy in special circumstances such as pregnancy, renal impairment and summary recommendations.
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The space walk was broadcast live on Chinese media, and two cameras provided panoramic images. The Feitian spacesuit is similar to the Orlan-M (known as Haiying, 海鹰, in Chinese) in shape and volume and are designed for spacewalks of up to seven hours, providing oxygen and allowing for the excretion of bodily waste. According to Chinese media reports, spacesuit materials with such features as fire and radiation resistance were developed by several civilian corporations and national institutes. Each suit was reported to have cost 30 million RMB (about US$4.4 million).
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Tolvaptan and conivaptan antagonize the effects of antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin), thereby promoting the specific excretion of free water, directly ameliorating the volume overloaded state, and counteracting the hyponatremia that occurs due to the release of neuroendocrine hormones in an attempt to counteract the effects of heart failure. The EVEREST trial, which utilized tolvaptan, showed that when used in combination with conventional therapy, many symptoms of acute decompensated heart failure were significantly improved compared to conventional therapy alone although they found no difference in mortality and morbidity when compared to conventional therapy.
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These images confirm soft tissue mass (arrows) in the renal pelvis with contrast excretion into the collecting system (arrowheads). CT urography (CTU) is commonly used in the evaluation of hematuria, and specifically tailored to image the renal collecting system, ureters and bladder in addition to the renal parenchyma. Before the procedure, a person is often asked about things that might put them at risk - for example pregnancy or an allergy to contrast. They are asked to drink water, and not to urinate, so that the bladder is full.
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X-prolyl aminopeptidase (EC 3.4.11.9) is a proline- specific metalloaminopeptidase that specifically catalyzes the removal of any unsubstituted N-terminal amino acid that is adjacent to a penultimate proline residue. Because of its specificity toward proline, it has been suggested that X-prolyl aminopeptidase is important in the maturation and degradation of peptide hormones, neuropeptides, and tachykinins, as well as in the digestion of otherwise resistant dietary protein fragments, thereby complementing the pancreatic peptidases. Deficiency of X-prolyl aminopeptidase results in excretion of large amounts of imino-oligopeptides in urine (Blau et al.
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The related support system consists of the mouth to speak, hands to lift, feet to walk, tongue for tasting, nose for smelling, Apana for excretion, and the genitals for sexual enjoyment. The body discriminates and knows by Buddhi (intellect), fancies and thinks through Manas (mind) and speaks with speech. There are five tastes, representing food it needs for development, and these are sweet, saline, bitter, pungent and astringent. The body goes through six stages from existence in its life, and these are creation as foetus, birth, growth, maturity, decay and death.
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These foam cells often become trapped in the walls of blood vessels and contribute to atherosclerotic plaque formation. Differences in cholesterol homeostasis affect the development of early atherosclerosis (carotid intima- media thickness). These plaques are the main causes of heart attacks, strokes, and other serious medical problems, leading to the association of so-called LDL cholesterol (actually a lipoprotein) with "bad" cholesterol. HDL particles are thought to transport cholesterol back to the liver, either for excretion or for other tissues that synthesize hormones, in a process known as reverse cholesterol transport (RCT).
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In addition, at high altitude, the heart beats faster; the stroke volume is slightly decreased; and non-essential bodily functions are suppressed, resulting in a decline in food digestion efficiency (as the body suppresses the digestive system in favor of increasing its cardiopulmonary reserves). Full acclimatization requires days or even weeks. Gradually, the body compensates for the respiratory alkalosis by renal excretion of bicarbonate, allowing adequate respiration to provide oxygen without risking alkalosis. It takes about four days at any given altitude and can be enhanced by drugs such as acetazolamide.
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By aldosterone, insulin, and IGF-I, SGK1 has been suggested to influence the regulation of ENaC and participate in the regulation of renal Na+ excretion. It has been indicated "that activation of ENaC by ADH or insulin depends on SGK1 and/or reflects independent pathways induced by ADH/insulin and SGK1 that converge on the same target structures". Renal ENaC function, along with renal mineralocorticoid action, is also partly dependent upon the presence of SGK1. One study also determined that SGK1 has a critical role in insulin-induced renal Na+ retention.
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Once all results have returned to normal, zinc (usually in the form of a zinc acetate prescription called Galzin) may be used instead of chelators to maintain stable copper levels in the body. Zinc stimulates metallothionein, a protein in gut cells that binds copper and prevents their absorption and transport to the liver. Zinc therapy is continued unless symptoms recur or if the urinary excretion of copper increases. In rare cases where none of the oral treatments are effective, especially in severe neurological disease, dimercaprol (British anti-Lewisite) is occasionally necessary.
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She became a research associate at the department in 1927. Baetjer's early research focused on the effects of altitude and temperature on physiology. Prompted by concerns of increased lead poisoning among Baltimore children during the summer months, Baetjer conducted a study that demonstrated a link between high temperature and humidity and slower toxin excretion. In 1931, the Department of Physiological Hygiene lost its chief advocate with the retirement of William Henry Howell, a Physiological Hygiene professor who had served as the director of the School of Hygiene and Public Health.
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Although high levels of these opioids are eliminated in the urine, it has been suggested that a small part of them cross into the brain causing interference of signal transmission and disruption of normal activity. Three studies have reported that urine samples of people with autism show an increased 24-hour peptide excretion. A study with a control group found no appreciable differences in opioid levels in urine samples of people with autism compared to controls. Two studies showed an increased opioid levels in cerebrospinal fluid of people with autism.
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All known diapsids excrete uric acid as nitrogenous waste (uricotelic), and there is no known case of a diapsid reverting to the excretion of urea (ureotelism), even when they return to semi-aquatic lifestyles. Crocodilians, for example, are still uricotelic, although they are also partly ammonotelic, meaning they excrete some of their waste as ammonia. Ureotelism appears to be the ancestral condition among primitive amniotes, and it is retained by mammals, which likely inherited ureotelism from their synapsid and therapsid ancestors. Ureotelism therefore would suggest that turtles were more likely anapsids than diapsids.
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The zona glomerulosa cells express a specific enzyme aldosterone synthase (also known as CYP11B2). Aldosterone is largely responsible for the long-term regulation of blood pressure.Marieb Human Anatomy & Physiology 9th edition, chapter:16, page:629, question number:14 Aldosterone's effects are on the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of the kidney where it causes increased reabsorption of sodium and increased excretion of both potassium (by principal cells) and hydrogen ions (by intercalated cells of the collecting duct). Sodium retention is also a response of the distal colon, and sweat glands to aldosterone receptor stimulation.
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The primary mineralocorticoid, aldosterone, is produced in the adrenocortical zona glomerulosa by the action of the enzyme aldosterone synthase (also known as CYP11B2). Aldosterone is largely responsible for the long-term regulation of blood pressure. Aldosterone effects on the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of the kidney where it causes increased reabsorption of sodium and increased excretion of both potassium (by principal cells) and hydrogen ions (by intercalated cells of the collecting duct). Sodium retention is also a response of the distal colon, and sweat glands to aldosterone receptor stimulation.
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Rifampicin is easily absorbed from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract; its ester functional group is quickly hydrolyzed in bile, and it is catalyzed by a high pH and substrate-specific esterases. After about 6 hours, almost all of the drug is deacetylated. Even in this deacetylated form, rifampicin is still a potent antibiotic; however, it can no longer be reabsorbed by the intestines and is eliminated from the body. Only about 7% of the administered drug is excreted unchanged in urine, though urinary elimination accounts for only about 30% of the drug excretion.
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The efferent arterioles of the juxtamedullary glomeruli are much different. They do break up, but they form bundles of vessels (arteriolae recti) that cross the outer zone of the medulla to perfuse the inner zone. Vessels returning from the inner medulla (venulae recti) intersperse themselves in a highly regular fashion among the descending arteriolae recti to form a well- organized rete mirabile. This rete is responsible for the osmotic isolation of the inner medulla from the rest of the kidney and so permits the excretion of a hypertonic urine when circumstances require.
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Due to difference of function it is divided into two. manas (मनस्, mind) is that aspect whose function is doubting and buddhi (बुद्धि, intellect) is that whose functions are discrimination and determination. From the rajas (रजस्) part of the five subtle elements of prakṛti (प्रकृति) arose in turn the organs of actions known as the organ of speech, the hands, the feet, and the organs of excretion and generation. From the combination of arajas (रजस्) part of the five subtle elements of prakṛti (प्रकृति) arose the vital air (प्राण).
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The Solar Anus () is a short Surrealist text by the French writer Georges Bataille, written in 1927 and published with drawings by André Masson four years later. Albeit elliptically, its aphorisms refer to decay, death, vegetation, natural disasters, impotence, frustration, ennui and excrement. It makes ironic reference to the sun, which, although it brings life to the Earth, can also result in death from its unrestrained energies. Moreover, the anus may be seen as a symbol of the inevitability of residual waste due to its role in excretion.
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With this rate of salt loss, the infant cannot maintain blood volume, and hyponatremic dehydration begins to develop by the end of the first week of life. Potassium and acid excretion are also impaired when mineralocorticoid activity is deficient, and hyperkalemia and metabolic acidosis gradually develop. Ability to maintain circulation is further limited by the effect of cortisol deficiency. The early symptoms are spitting and poor weight gain, but most infants with severe CAH develop vomiting, severe dehydration, and circulatory collapse (shock) by the second or third week of life.
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Ruppert, Fox & Barnes (2004), pp. 529–530 Various groups of terrestrial arthropods have independently developed a different system: the end-product of nitrogen metabolism is uric acid, which can be excreted as dry material; the Malpighian tubule system filters the uric acid and other nitrogenous waste out of the blood in the hemocoel, and dumps these materials into the hindgut, from which they are expelled as feces. Most aquatic arthropods and some terrestrial ones also have organs called nephridia ("little kidneys"), which extract other wastes for excretion as urine.
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Because phytate from these grains and beans is unavailable for absorption, the unabsorbed phytate passes through the gastrointestinal tract, elevating the amount of phosphorus in the manure. Excess phosphorus excretion can lead to environmental problems, such as eutrophication. The use of sprouted grains will reduce the quantity of phytic acids in feed, with no significant reduction of nutritional value. Also, viable low-phytic acid mutant lines have been developed in several crop species in which the seeds have drastically reduced levels of phytic acid and concomitant increases in inorganic phosphorus.
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OAT3 is involved in the transport and excretion of organic ions some of which are drugs (e.g., penicillin G (benzylpenicillin), methotrexate (MTX), indomethacin (an NSAID), and ciprofloxacin (a fluoroquinolone antibiotic)) and some of which are pure toxicants. SLC22A8 (OAT3) is indirectly dependent on the inward sodium gradient, which is a driving force for reentry of dicarboxylates into the cytosol. Dicarboxylates, such as alpha-ketoglutarate generated within the cell, or recycled from the extracellular space, are used as exchange substrates to fuel the influx of organic anions against their concentration gradient.
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Definitive treatment of hyperkalemia requires actual excretion of potassium, either through urine (which can be facilitated by administration of loop diuretics such as furosemide) or in the stool (which is accomplished by giving sodium polystyrene sulfonate enterally, where it will bind potassium in the GI tract.) Severe cases will require emergent hemodialysis. The diagnosis of hypokalemia (not enough potassium) can be suspected when there is a history of diarrhoea or malnutrition. Loop diuretics may also contribute. The electrocardiogram may show flattening of T waves and prominent U waves.
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The main function of ANP is causing a reduction in expanded extracellular fluid (ECF) volume by increasing renal sodium excretion. ANP is synthesized and secreted by cardiac muscle cells in the walls of the atria in the heart. These cells contain volume receptors which respond to increased stretching of the atrial wall due to increased atrial blood volume. Reduction of blood volume by ANP can result in secondary effects such as reduction of extracellular fluid (ECF) volume, improved cardiac ejection fraction with resultant improved organ perfusion, decreased blood pressure, and increased serum potassium.
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The edible epigeous fruiting body of Cantharellus cibarius, the golden chanterelle Many ectomycorrhizal fungi rely upon mammals for the dispersal of their spores, particularly fungi with hypogeous fruiting bodies. Many species of small mammals are mycophages, eating a wide range of fungi and especially the fruiting bodies. Spores are dispersed either because the fruiting body is unearthed and broken apart, or after ingestion and subsequent excretion. Some studies even suggest that passage through an animal's gut promotes spore germination, although for most fungal species this is not necessary.
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In humans, MCC deficiency is a rare autosomal recessive genetic disorder whose clinical presentations range from benign to profound metabolic acidosis and death in infancy. Defective mutations in either the α or β subunit have been shown to cause the MCC-deficient syndrome. The typical diagnostic test is the elevated urinary excretion of 3-hydroxyisovaleric acid and 3-methylcrotonylglycine. Patients with MCC deficiency usually have normal growth and development before the first acute episode, such as convulsions or coma, that usually occurs between the age of 6-months to 3-years.
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Other plants like the soybean balance most of their NO3− intake with the excretion of OH− or HCO3−. Plants that reduce nitrates in the shoots and excrete alkali from their roots need to transport the alkali in an inert form from the shoots to the roots. To achieve this they synthesize malic acid in the leaves from neutral precursors like carbohydrates. The potassium ions brought to the leaves along with the nitrate in the xylem are then sent along with the malate to the roots via the phloem.
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A dosage of 100 mg/day CPA can achieve a 65 to 70% reduction in sebum excretion rate in males within 4 weeks of treatment, but doses of 10 mg/day CPA or less are said to have a negligible effect. On the basis of these findings, it has estimated that the threshold dosage of CPA to reduce sebum production may be 5 mg/day in males. In other studies, 25 mg/day CPA resulted in substantial improvement or complete clearance of severe acne in almost all males, whereas 12.5 mg/day was ineffective.
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Other parts of the amino acid molecules can be converted into glucose and used for fuel. When food protein intake is periodically high or low, the body tries to keep protein levels at an equilibrium by using the "labile protein reserve" to compensate for daily variations in protein intake. However, unlike body fat as a reserve for future caloric needs, there is no protein storage for future needs. Excessive protein intake may increase calcium excretion in urine, occurring to compensate for the pH imbalance from oxidation of sulfur amino acids.
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Increasing fluid intake to yield a urine output of greater than 2 liters a day can be advantageous for all patients with nephrocalcinosis. Patients with hypercalciuria can reduce calcium excretion by restricting animal protein, limiting sodium intake to less than 100 meq a day and being lax of potassium intake. If changing ones diet alone does not result in an suitable reduction of hypercalciuria, a thiazide diuretic can be administered in patients who do not have hypercalcemia. Citrate can increase the solubility of calcium in urine and limit the development of nephrocalcinosis.
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Acquired antithrombin deficiency occurs as a result of three distinctly different mechanisms. The first mechanism is increased excretion which may occur with renal failure associated with proteinuria nephrotic syndrome. The second mechanism results from decreased production as seen in liver failure or cirrhosis or an immature liver secondary to premature birth. The third mechanism results from accelerated consumption which is most pronounced as consequence of severe injury trauma but also may be seen on a lesser scale as a result of interventions such as major surgery or cardiopulmonary bypass.
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For example, CdSe nanocrystals are highly toxic to cultured cells under UV illumination, because the particles dissolve, in a process known as photolysis, to release toxic cadmium ions into the culture medium. In the absence of UV irradiation, however, quantum dots with a stable polymer coating have been found to be essentially nontoxic. Hydrogel encapsulation of quantum dots allows for quantum dots to be introduced into a stable aqueous solution, reducing the possibility of cadmium leakage. Then again, only little is known about the excretion process of quantum dots from living organisms.
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The blood volume determines the mean pressure throughout the system, in particular in the venous side where most of the blood is held. Increasing stretch of the receptors stimulates both an increase in heart rate and a decrease in vasopressin (ADH) secretion from posterior pituitary, and renin and aldosterone. The decrease in vasopressin secretion results in an increase in the volume of urine excreted, serving to lower blood pressure. In addition, stretching of atrial receptors increases secretion of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), which promotes increased water and sodium excretion through the urine.
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In general, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is introduced into the ocean environment from bacterial lysis, the leakage or exudation of fixed carbon from phytoplankton (e.g., mucilaginous exopolymer from diatoms), sudden cell senescence, sloppy feeding by zooplankton, the excretion of waste products by aquatic animals, or the breakdown or dissolution of organic particles from terrestrial plants and soils. Bacteria in the microbial loop decompose this particulate detritus to utilize this energy-rich matter for growth. Since more than 95% of organic matter in marine ecosystems consists of polymeric, high molecular weight (HMW) compounds (e.g.
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Potassium-sparing diuretics act to prevent sodium reabsorption in the collecting tubule by either binding ENaCs (amiloride, triamterene) or by inhibiting aldosterone receptors (spironolactone, eplerenone). This prevents excessive excretion of K+ in urine and decreased retention of water, preventing hypokalemia. Because these diuretics are weakly natriuretic, they do not cause clinically significant blood pressure changes and thus, are not used as primary therapy for hypertension. They can be used in combination with other anti-hypertensives or drugs that cause hypokalemia to help maintain a normal range for potassium.
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EU project report summary "Pharmaceutical Input and Elimination from Local Sources", 2012 Individuals may add PPCPs to the environment through waste excretion and bathing as well as by directly disposing of unused medications to septic tanks, sewers, or trash. Because PPCPs tend to dissolve relatively easily and do not evaporate at normal temperatures, they often end up in soil and water bodies. Some PPCPs are broken down or processed easily by a human or animal body and/or degrade quickly in the environment . However, others do not break down or degrade easily.
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Due to this relatively new field of science, researchers are continuously developing and understanding the impacts of pharmaceuticals in the environment and its risk on human and animal exposure. Environmental risk assessment is a regulatory requirement in the launch of any new drug. This precaution has become a necessary step towards the understanding and prevention of adverse effects of pharmaceutical residue in the environment. It is important to note that pharmaceuticals enter the environment from the excretion of drugs after human use, hospitals, and improper disposal of unused drugs from patients.
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On October 4, 2011 Sequenom introduced iPLEX ADME PGx Panel on MassARRAY System, developed to genotype polymorphisms in genes associated with drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME). This Research Use Only (RUO) panel contains a set of pre-designed single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP), insertions and deletions (INDELS) and copy number variation (CNV) assays for use in the investigation of variants with demonstrated relevance to drug metabolism. After detection on the MassARRAY (RUO) system, a proprietary software solution is then used to score and qualify polymorphisms to create a unique haplotype report.
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However, inputs from outside the system due to tidal advection or upstream sources may increase C. amurensis biomass, further driving plankton limitation. This feedback loop is further amplified because the clam may persist for more than one or two years, which puts added pressure on plankton populations during cycles of low productivity. The redirection of carbon by C. amurensis to the benthos has created a limited chain, leaving the pelagic web depauperate. Detrital production from clam excretion and death may fuel bacterial production, which may be circulated into the detrital food web, or microbial loop.
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Dicarboxylic aminoaciduria involves excretion of urinary glutamate and aspartate, resulting from the incomplete reabsorption of anionic amino acids from the glomerular filtrate in the kidney. This affects a diseased individual's amino acid pool, as they will have to spend additional resources to replenish the amino acids which would have otherwise been present. Additionally, glutamate transporters are responsible for the synaptic release of the glutamate (neurotransmitter) within the interneuronal synaptic cleft. This hindrance of functionality in individuals with dicarboxylic aminoaciduria may be related to growth retardation, intellectual disability, and a tendency toward fasting hypoglycemia and ketoacidosis.
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Ketoconazole: In-vitro replication studies have found a synergistic, dose- dependent antiviral activity against HSV-1 and HSV-2 when given with aciclovir. However, this effect has not been clinically established and more studies need to be done to evaluate the true potential of this synergy. Probenecid: Reports of increased half life of aciclovir, as well as decreased urinary excretion and renal clearance have been shown in studies where probenecid is given simultaneously with aciclovir. Interferon: Synergistic effects when administered with aciclovir and caution should be taken when administering aciclovir to patients receiving IV interferon.GlaxoSmithKline.
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The functional significance of this system is unclear, but it affords a possible route for interactions between the nervous system and immune system, and may be relevant to some autoimmune disorders. The renal dopaminergic system is located in the cells of the nephron in the kidney, where all subtypes of dopamine receptors are present. Dopamine is also synthesized there, by tubule cells, and discharged into the tubular fluid. Its actions include increasing the blood supply to the kidneys, increasing the glomerular filtration rate, and increasing the excretion of sodium in the urine.
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The core theory was disruption of the normal circulation of 'atoms' through the body's 'pores' caused disease. To cure a disease it is sufficient to observe some general symptoms of illnesses; and that there are three kinds of diseases, one bound, another loose (fluens, a disorder attended with some discharge), and the third a mixture of these. Sometimes the excretions of sick people are too small or too large, or a particular excretion might be deficient or excessive. These kinds of illnesses are sometimes severe, sometimes chronic, sometimes increasing, sometimes stable, and sometimes abating.
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While carrier females are generally an asymptomatic condition, they do experience an increase in uric acid excretion, and some may develop symptoms of hyperuricemia, and suffer from gout in their later years. Testing in this context has no clinical consequence, but it may reveal the possibility of transmitting the trait to male children. Women may also require testing if a male child develops LNS. In this instance, a negative test means the son's disease is the result of a new mutation, and the risk in siblings is not increased.
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N-Acetylglutamic acid (also referred to as N-acetylglutamate, abbreviated NAG, chemical formula C7H11NO5) is biosynthesized from glutamate and acetylornithine by ornithine acetyltransferase, and from glutamic acid and acetyl-CoA by the enzyme N-acetylglutamate synthase. The reverse reaction, hydrolysis of the acetyl group, is catalyzed by a specific hydrolase. It is the first intermediate involved in the biosynthesis of arginine in prokaryotes and simple eukaryotes and a regulator in the process known as the urea cycle that converts toxic ammonia to urea for excretion from the body in vertebrates.
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It retains a large number of bacteria on the order of 109 bacteria per gram of fresh weight. Bacteria in the trophosome are retained inside bacteriocytes, thereby having no contact with the external environment. Thus, they rely on R. pachyptila for the assimilation of nutrients needed for the array of metabolic reactions they employ and for the excretion of waste products of carbon fixation pathways. At the same time, the vestimentiferan depends completely on the microorganisms for the byproducts of their carbon fixation cycles that are needed for its growth.
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Diagram showing a schematic nephron and its blood supply. The basic physiologic mechanisms of handling fluid and electrolytes by the nephron - filtration, secretion, reabsorption, and excretion - are labelled. Assessment of kidney function occurs in different ways, using the presence of symptoms and signs, as well as measurements using urine tests, blood tests, and medical imaging. Functions of a healthy kidney include maintaining a person's fluid balance, maintaining an acid-base balance; regulating electrolytes including sodium, potassium, and other electrolytes; clearing toxins; regulating blood pressure; and regulating hormones, such as erythropoietin; and activation of vitamin D.
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Polonium-210 may be quantified in biological specimens by alpha particle spectrometry to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized patients or to provide evidence in a medicolegal death investigation. The baseline urinary excretion of polonium-210 in healthy persons due to routine exposure to environmental sources is normally in a range of 5–15 mBq/day. Levels in excess of 30 mBq/day are suggestive of excessive exposure to the radionuclide.Baselt, R. Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man, 10th edition, Biomedical Publications, Seal Beach, CA.
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According to Dagmar C. G. Lorenz, Simon Wiesenthal Center, > Hilsenrath calls things by their proper names and portrays life first and > foremost as physical existence, of whose details the reader is constantly > made aware: birth, nursing, feeding, sex, and excretion accompanied by > feelings of pleasure and pain. The rhetoric of politicians and political > theory are shown to be the schemes of beings ultimately dependent on these > bodily processes and subject to physical desires. Hilsenrath's very approach > is a protest against disrespect toward the mortal body, against the tyranny > of the mind over matter.
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Furthermore, heroin contains codeine (or acetyl codeine) as an impurity and its use will result in excretion of small amounts of codeine. Poppy seed foods represent yet another source of low levels of codeine in one's biofluids. Blood or plasma codeine concentrations are typically in the 50–300 µg/L range in persons taking the drug therapeutically, 700–7000 µg/L in chronic users and 1000–10,000 µg/L in cases of acute fatal over dosage. Codeine is produced in the human body along the same biosynthetic pathway as morphine.
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Individual differences in drug metabolism and response can be partially explained by epigenetic changes. Epigenetic changes in genes that encode drug targets, enzymes, or transport proteins that affect the body's ability to absorb, metabolize, distribute and excrete substances that are foreign to the body (Xenobiotics) can result in changes in one's toxicity levels and drug response. One of the main effects of drug exposure early in life is altered ADME (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion) gene expression. There is evidence that these genes are controlled by DNA methylation, histone acetylation, and miRNAs.
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Nuts are a moderate source of polyphenol antioxidants. Typical nuts are pecans, walnuts, hazelnuts, pistachio, almonds, cashew nuts, macadamia nuts and peanut butter. Sorghum bran, cocoa powder, and cinnamon are rich sources of procyanidins, which are large molecular weight compounds found in many fruits and some vegetables. Partly due to the large molecular weight (size) of these compounds, their amount actually absorbed in the body is low, an effect also resulting from the action of stomach acids, enzymes and bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract where smaller derivatives are metabolized and prepared for rapid excretion.
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The majority of I-131 will be eliminated from the human body in 3–5 days, through natural decay, and through excretion in sweat and urine. Smaller amounts will continue to be released over the next several weeks, as the body processes thyroid hormones created with the I-131. For this reason, it is advised to regularly clean toilets, sinks, bed sheets and clothing used by the person who received the treatment. Patients may also be advised to wear slippers or socks at all times, and avoid prolonged close contact with others.
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Animals must metabolize proteins to amino acids, at the expense of muscle tissue, when blood sugar is low. The preference of liver transaminases for oxaloacetate or alpha- ketoglutarate plays a key role in funneling nitrogen from amino acid metabolism to aspartate and glutamate for conversion to urea for excretion of nitrogen. In similar manner, in muscles the use of pyruvate for transamination gives alanine, which is carried by the bloodstream to the liver (the overall reaction being termed glucose-alanine cycle). Here other transaminases regenerate pyruvate, which provides a valuable precursor for gluconeogenesis.
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Some species form aggregations, others show an inclination to aggregate, and some exhibit parental care of their offspring. Cockroaches and termites have striking similarities in behaviour which they likely inherited from their common ancestor. These include an attraction to warm and humid places, thigmotaxis, burrowing, substrate manipulation, hygienic behaviour, food sharing, cannibalism, excretion behaviour, vibrational communication, kin recognition, trail following, allogrooming, care of the brood, cropping of antennae and certain mating behaviours. In some of these behaviours, there are marked similarities between termites and juvenile, but not adult, cockroaches.
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Glycopyrronium bromide affects the gastrointestinal tracts, liver and kidney but has a very limited effect on the brain and the central nervous system. In horse studies, after a single intravenous infusion, the observed tendencies of glycopyrronium followed a tri-exponential equation, by rapid disappearance from the blood followed by a prolonged terminal phase. Excretion was mainly in urine and in the form of an unchanged drug. Glycopyrronium has a relatively slow diffusion rate, and in a standard comparison to atropine, is more resistant to penetration through the blood- brain barrier and placenta.
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Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of substances, such as pesticides or other chemicals, in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a substance at a rate faster than that at which the substance is lost or eliminated by catabolism and excretion. Thus, the longer the biological half-life of a toxic substance, the greater the risk of chronic poisoning, even if environmental levels of the toxin are not very high."Bioaccumulation of Marine Pollutants [and Discussion]", by G. W. Bryan, M. Waldichuk, R. J. Pentreath and Ann Darracott.
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As a result, after the cancer cells were quickly killed by alpha particles from 225Ac, the radiation from the actinium and its daughters might induce new mutations. To solve this problem, 225Ac was bound to a chelating agent, such as citrate, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) or diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA). This reduced actinium accumulation in the bones, but the excretion from the body remained slow. Much better results were obtained with such chelating agents as HEHA () or DOTA () coupled to trastuzumab, a monoclonal antibody that interferes with the HER2/neu receptor.
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Renal excretion of unchanged prucalopride involves both passive filtration and active secretion. Plasma clearance averages 317 ml/min, terminal half-life is 24–30 hours, and steady-state is reached within 3–4 days. On once daily treatment with 2 mg prucalopride, steady-state plasma concentrations fluctuate between trough and peak values of 2.5 and 7 ng/ml, respectively. In vitro data indicate that prucalopride has a low interaction potential, and therapeutic concentrations of prucalopride are not expected to affect the CYP-mediated metabolism of co-medicated medicinal products.
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As a general rule, the upper zang-fu organs have the function of descending, and the lower zang-fu organs the function of ascending. Since the lung is the uppermost zang organ, its qi descends to promote the circulation of qi and body fluid through the body and to conduct them downwards. Dysfunction of the lung in descending may lead to upward perversion of lung qi with symptoms such as cough and shortness of breath. Regulating the water passages means to regulate the pathways for the circulation and excretion of water.
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Bladderwort traps: long, usually branching (but here simplified), antennae guide Daphnia to the trapdoors of an aquatic bladderwort. Bladderwort trap mechanism: seen from below, a bladder squeezed by water excretion suddenly swells as its trapdoor is released by an errant Daphnia. The bladder sucks in the nearby water, including the unfortunate animal which triggered the trap. The trapping mechanism of Utricularia is purely mechanical; no reaction from the plant (irritability) is required in the presence of prey, in contrast with the triggered mechanisms employed by Venus flytraps (Dionaea), waterwheels (Aldrovanda), and many sundews (Drosera).
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Actinobacteria) it is DtxR (diphtheria toxin repressor), so-called as the production of the dangerous diphtheria toxin by Corynebacterium diphtheriae is also regulated by this system. This is followed by excretion of the siderophore into the extracellular environment, where the siderophore acts to sequester and solubilize the iron. Siderophores are then recognized by cell specific receptors on the outer membrane of the cell. In fungi and other eukaryotes, the Fe-siderophore complex may be extracellularly reduced to Fe2+, while in many cases the whole Fe-siderophore complex is actively transported across the cell membrane.
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The mantle is fused on the dorsal side and between the exhalant siphon and the inhalant aperture. Water enters the mussel's mantle cavity through the inhalant aperture, and after describing a series of movements during which suspended particles are filtered out and either ingested, digested in the gut, and the undigested remains egested as feces, or discarded as pseudofeces, is expelled through the exhalant siphon. These water currents are also used for respiration and for discarding excretion waste products. The shell attaches to hard substrates by byssal threads, forming beds of closely packed animals.
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Many members of Oniscidea live in terrestrial, non-aquatic environments, breathing through trachea-like lungs in their paddle-shaped hind legs (pleopods), called pleopodal lungs. Woodlice need moisture because they rapidly lose water by excretion and through their cuticle, and so are usually found in damp, dark places, such as under rocks and logs, although one species, the desert dwelling Hemilepistus reaumuri, inhabits "the driest habitat conquered by any species of crustacean". They are usually nocturnal and are detritivores, feeding mostly on dead plant matter. A few woodlice have returned to water.
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The large intestine primarily serves as a site for fermentation of indigestible matter by gut bacteria and for resorption of water from digests before excretion. In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach. Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to begin enzymatic processing of starches. The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes.
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Bicarbonate is an intermediate in the transport of CO2 out of the body by respiratory gas exchange. The hydration reaction of CO2 is generally very slow in the absence of a catalyst, but red blood cells contain carbonic anhydrase, which increases the reaction rate by 10,000 to 1,000,000 times, producing bicarbonate (HCO3−) dissolved in the blood plasma. This catalysed reaction is reversed in the lungs, where it converts the bicarbonate back into CO2 and allows it to be expelled. The equilibration plays an important role as a buffer in mammalian blood."excretion".
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These other characteristics are often difficult to predict with rational design techniques. Nevertheless, due to high attrition rates, especially during clinical phases of drug development, more attention is being focused early in the drug design process on selecting candidate drugs whose physicochemical properties are predicted to result in fewer complications during development and hence more likely to lead to an approved, marketed drug. Furthermore, in vitro experiments complemented with computation methods are increasingly used in early drug discovery to select compounds with more favorable ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion) and toxicological profiles.
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Oil reservoirs are complex environments containing living (microorganisms) and non living factors (minerals) which interact with each other in a complicated dynamic network of nutrients and energy fluxes. Since the reservoir is heterogeneous, so do the variety of ecosystems containing diverse microbial communities, which in turn are able to affect reservoir behaviour and oil mobilization. Microbes are living machines whose metabolites, excretion products and new cells may interact with each other or with the environment, positively or negatively, depending on the global desirable purpose, e.g. the enhancement of oil recovery.
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The term homocystinuria describes an increased excretion of the thiol amino acid homocysteine in urine (and incidentally, also an increased concentration in plasma). The source of this increase may be one of many metabolic factors, only one of which is CBS deficiency. Others include the re-methylation defects (cobalamin defects, methionine synthase deficiency, MTHFR) and vitamin deficiencies (cobalamin (vitamin B12) deficiency, folate (vitamin B9) deficiency, riboflavin deficiency (vitamin B2), pyridoxal phosphate deficiency (vitamin B6)). In light of this information, a combined approach to laboratory diagnosis is required to reach a differential diagnosis.
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Doxycycline, like other tetracycline antibiotics, is bacteriostatic. It works by preventing bacteria from reproducing through the inhibition of protein synthesis. Doxycycline is highly lipophilic so can easily enter cells, meaning the drug is easily absorbed after oral administration and has a large volume of distribution. It can also be re-absorbed in the renal tubules and gastrointestinal tract due to its high lipophillicity so has a long elimination half life, and does not accumulate in the kidneys of patients with kidney failure due to the compensatory excretion in faeces.
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Animals in these species reingest their cecotropes, to extract further nutrients. Cecotropes derive from chewed plant material that collects in the cecum, a chamber between the large and small intestine, containing large quantities of symbiotic bacteria that help with the digestion of cellulose and also produce certain B vitamins. After excretion of the soft cecotrope, it is again eaten whole by the animal and redigested in a special part of the stomach. The pellets remain intact for up to six hours in the stomach; the bacteria within continue to digest the plant carbohydrates.
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In several groups of Nudibranchia, eyes can be located toward the bottom of these rhinophores which can entail possible homology of related ancestors. In internal organs, developing from the stomach is the intestine composing of a thick fold of tissue termed typhlosole which is plesiomorphic to Nudibranchia. In the superfamily Aeolidioidea, the typhlosole is present. The function of the typhlosole has not been determined, in some clades, it is possible that it aids in a secretion to help excretion of wastes or provides support in digestion of hard structures like sponge spicules.
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Oral administration of 15 to 45 mg of temazepam in humans resulted in rapid absorption with significant blood levels achieved in fewer than 30 minutes and peak levels at two to three hours. In a single- and multiple-dose absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) study, using tritium-labelled drug, temazepam was well absorbed and found to have minimal (8%) first-pass drug metabolism. No active metabolites were formed and the only significant metabolite present in blood was the O-conjugate. The unchanged drug was 96% bound to plasma proteins.
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Adverse effects of aldosterone occur in the heart and brain, due to changes in water retention and excretion of sodium and potassium. Common adverse drug reactions (ADRs) associated with the use of eplerenone include: hyperkalaemia, hypotension, dizziness, altered renal function, and increased creatinine concentration. Eplerenone may have a lower incidence than spironolactone of sexual side effects such as feminization, gynecomastia, impotence, low sex drive and reduction of size of male genitalia. This is because other antimineralocorticoids have structural elements of the progesterone molecule, causing progestogenic and antiandrogenic outcomes.
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The main goal of the identification of the first aldosterone antagonists, which happened during the 1950s, was to identify inhibitors of aldosterone activity. In those times, the main use of aldosterone was recognized as the control of renal sodium and the excretion of potassium. Hans Selye, a Hungarian-Canadian endocrinologist, studied the effects of aldosterone antagonists on rats and found that the use of one of the first aldosterone antagonists, spironolactone, protected them from aldosterone-induced cardiac necrosis. The same year, 1959, spironolactone was launched as a potassium-sparing diuretic.
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Living systems are capable of metabolism, reproduction, mutation, and propagation of the mutations. Lines of evidence for biogenicity, called biosignatures, come in various forms and appear at various scales, ranging from the atomic to the planetary dimension. Molecule-building, cell division, colony formation, respiration, excretion, active motility are amongst the biologic processes that effect changes in the environment and can leave distinctive morphologic features or signature chemical by-products in the geologic record. These attributes are susceptible to be modified or obliterated over geologic time, making it more difficult to recognize them in the rocks.
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The toxicity decreased markedly as the solution aged, to the point that after the solution turned to a gel it had no effects other than mechanical ones. The solutions were equally toxic when administed by intravenous injection, but seasoned or gelled solutions were about as toxic as fresh ones. Research concerning the correlation of aluminium and Alzheimer's disease has included the ability of silicic acid in beer to reduce aluminium uptake in the digestive system as well as to increase renal excretion of aluminium. Choline-stabilized orthosilicic acid (ch-OSA) is a dietary supplement.
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The intestine completes the process of digestion and nutrient absorption. In most vertebrates, digestion is a four-stage process involving the main structures of the digestive tract, starting with ingestion, placing food into the mouth, and concluding with the excretion of undigested material through the anus. From the mouth, the food moves to the stomach, where as bolus it is broken down chemically. It then moves to the intestine, where the process of breaking the food down into simple molecules continues and the results are absorbed as nutrients into the circulatory and lymphatic system.
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Urinary phosphate excretion was increased in both models by about 50%. Hyperphosphaturia in the Jentsch model was associated with decreased apical expression of the sodium/phosphate cotransporter NaPi2a that is the predominant phosphate transporter in the proximal tubule. However, NaPi2a expression is ClC-5-independent since apical NaPi2a was normally expressed in any proximal tubules of chimeric female mice, while it was decreased in all male proximal tubular knock-out cells. Serum parathormone (PTH) is normal in knock-out mice while urinary PTH is increased of about 1.7 fold.
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Hyperinsulinemia acutely enhances ACTH effects on both the androgen and glucocorticoid pathways leading to changes in steroid metabolites molar ratios that suggest insulin stimulation of 5 α-reductase activity. PCOS is associated with enhanced androgen and cortisol metabolite excretion and increased 5α-reductase activity that cannot be explained by obesity alone. Increased adrenal corticosteroid production represents an important pathogenic pathway in PCOS. Progression to castration- resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is accompanied by increased expression of SRD5A1 over SRD5A2, which is otherwise the dominant isoenzyme expressed in the prostate.
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Oversaturation of urine with crystals is by the far the biggest factor in stone formation in dogs and cats. This oversaturation can be caused by increased excretion of crystals by the kidneys, water reabsorption by the renal tubules resulting in concentration of the urine, and changes in urine pH that influence crystallization. Other contributing factors include diet, frequency of urination, genetics, current medications, and the presence of a urinary tract infection. The stones form around a nidus, which can consist of white blood cells, bacteria, and organic matrix mixed with crystals, or crystals alone.
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Dalmatians have a decreased rate of urate hepatic transport, leading to only about 30 to 40 percent conversion of urate to allantoin, compared with greater than 90 percent conversion in other breeds. Dogs with portosystemic shunts or endstage liver disease also have increased uric acid excretion in the urine due to reduced conversion of uric acid to allantoin and ammonia to urea. Urate stones make up about six percent of all stones in the cat. Urate stones can be dissolved using a diet with reduced purines that alkalinizes and dilutes the urine.
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The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone hypersecretion (SIADH) that occurs in some users of MDMA can compound hyponatraemia by disrupting the body's normal response of releasing excess water by excretion. The coroner recommended improved drug education information stressing the need for immediate medical attention if a user of MDMA became ill under its influence. J. A. Henry, a British physician from the Medical Toxicology Unit at Guy's Hospital, noted that British recommendations for appropriate water consumption for MDMA users stressed the different needs of users who were dancing strenuously and those who were not.
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Daily archanas are conducted in various parts of the ghats and makeshift temples erected at the festival site, attended by thousands of locals and tourists. In ‘Brahma Puranas’, 14 kinds of acts have been advised as unholy during ‘Kumbha- Parva’ such as having bath in river using soap, washing clothes, utensils in river water, throwing trash and excretion, etc. Those doing such things have been described as sinners; their sin considered to be as grave as slaughtering of cow. The state management erects notice bearing the same in various parts of the kumbh site.
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An elevation in serum bilirubin level of more than 2 times ULN with associated transaminase rise is an ominous sign. This indicates severe hepatotoxicity and is likely to lead to mortality in 10% to 15% of patients, especially if the offending drug is not stopped (Hy's Law). This is because it requires significant damage to the liver to impair bilirubin excretion, hence minor impairment (in the absence of biliary obstruction or Gilbert syndrome) would not lead to jaundice. Other poor predictors of outcome are old age, female sex, high AST.
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In addition, since enzymes are small enough to easily move into and out of the peritrophic matrix, they are rarely lost when the matrix, along with its contents still in the endoperitrophic space, is excreted. A counterflow of fluid in the ecoperitrophic space also helps recycle enzymes, thus maximizing their efficacy. The presence of a peritrophic matrix significantly simplifies the excretion process. Rather than having to continually sift through a mixture of digestible and unwanted molecules, digestible molecules are quickly broken down by enzymes, removed from the matrix and absorbed.
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The four mechanisms used to create and process the filtrate (the result of which is to convert blood to urine) are filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion. Filtration occurs in the glomerulus and is largely passive: it is dependent on the intracapillary blood pressure. About one-fifth of the plasma is filtered as the blood passes through the glomerular capillaries; four-fifths continues into the peritubular capillaries. Normally the only components of the blood that are not filtered into Bowman's capsule are blood proteins, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
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Autogenous vaccines allow cattle and poultry to be healthy and suitable for human consumption, by inducing immunity in animals, reducing the excretion of microbial toxins that can cause infections and limiting the use of excessive therapeutic agents. Autogenous vaccines are also a good and quick alternative when there are no vaccines for a novel emerging disease or a relatively uncommon disease or a relatively uncommon species. This type of vaccine can also be used when there is antigenic variability within the same bacterial species such that conventional vaccines cannot provide specific immunity.
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Pittendrigh has actively published on work facilitated by the availability of this genome, including research on determining that parasites evolve faster than their hosts, understanding vector competence in body lice (as compared to head lice that do not vector diseases),Kim, J.H, D.J. Previte, K.S. Yoon, E. Murenzi, J.M. Clark, J.E. Koehler, B.R. Pittendrigh and S. H. Lee. 2017. Comparison of the proliferation and excretion of Bartonella quintana between body and head lice following oral challenge: Insights into the vector competence difference. Insect Molecular Biology. 26(3): 266-276.
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Its long half-life and high bioavailability are largely in part of its high pKa (8.6); it is ionized at physiological pH, and thus can strongly attract proteins. It is slowly metabolized in the liver by CYP3A4, with its amine group being oxidized and its side ester chain being hydrolyzed, resulting in an inactive pyridine metabolite. Renal elimination is the major route of excretion with about 60% of an administered dose recovered in urine, largely as inactive pyridine metabolites. However, renal impairment does not significantly influence amlodipine elimination.
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Kominsky JR, Wisseman CL, Morse DL. 1980. Hexachlorocyclopentadiene contamination of a municipal wastewater treatment plant. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 415.52-556 Other proposed parameters for characterizing effects in humans, like urinary porphyrin excretion, were also tested for their potential use as a biomarker, but none were deemed significant enough. Experiments performed on laboratory animals like rats and mice show that a yellow-brown pigment forms in the epithelium of the nose after long-term inhalation exposure, even at low doses, which is considered a useful biomarker for long-term exposure.
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The medication was used to treat hypogonadism and eunuchoidism in males and for palliation of breast cancer in females. It was developed by Ciba Pharmaceutical Company. A study found that, measured by 17-ketosteroid excretion, 300 mg testosterone propionate in oil solution had a duration of 5 days, 300 mg testosterone propionate in aqueous suspension had a duration of 13 days, 353 mg testosterone cypionate in oil solution had a duration of 24 days, and 354 mg testosterone phenylacetate in aqueous suspension had a duration of 66 days.
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Its effects, depending on dosage, include an increase in sodium excretion by the kidneys, an increase in urine output, an increase in heart rate, and an increase in blood pressure. At low doses it acts through the sympathetic nervous system to increase heart muscle contraction force and heart rate, thereby increasing cardiac output and blood pressure. Higher doses also cause vasoconstriction that further increases blood pressure. While some effects result from stimulation of dopamine receptors, the prominent cardiovascular effects result from dopamine acting at α1, β1, and β2 adrenergic receptors.
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The body wall consists of a cuticle, an epidermis and a thick layer of fibrous connective tissue in which are embedded the circular muscles, the diagonal muscles and the powerful longitudinal muscles. There are also dorso-ventral muscles. The coelomic channels run the full length of the body, the two main ones being on either side; these have taken over the function of the hemal system (blood vessels) in other annelids. Part of the lining epithelium consists of chloragogen cells which are used for the storage of nutrients and in excretion.
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The single gonad is located in front of the heart, and releases gametes through a pair of pores just in front of those used for excretion. The underside of the gumboot chiton, Cryptochiton stelleri, showing the foot in the center, surrounded by the gills and mantle: The mouth is visible to the left in this image. The mouth is located on the underside of the animal, and contains a tongue-like structure called a radula, which has numerous rows of 17 teeth each. The teeth are coated with magnetite, a hard ferric/ferrous oxide mineral.
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Small amounts of salicylic acid are also hydroxylated to gentisic acid. With large salicylate doses, the kinetics switch from first-order to zero-order, as metabolic pathways become saturated and renal excretion becomes increasingly important. Salicylates are excreted mainly by the kidneys as salicyluric acid (75%), free salicylic acid (10%), salicylic phenol (10%), and acyl glucuronides (5%), gentisic acid (< 1%), and 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid. When small doses (less than 250mg in an adult) are ingested, all pathways proceed by first-order kinetics, with an elimination half-life of about 2.0 h to 4.5 h.
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When higher doses of salicylate are ingested (more than 4 g), the half-life becomes much longer (15 h to 30 h), because the biotransformation pathways concerned with the formation of salicyluric acid and salicyl phenolic glucuronide become saturated. Renal excretion of salicylic acid becomes increasingly important as the metabolic pathways become saturated, because it is extremely sensitive to changes in urinary pH. A 10- to 20-fold increase in renal clearance occurs when urine pH is increased from 5 to 8. The use of urinary alkalinization exploits this particular aspect of salicylate elimination.
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Metals with a density of more than 5 g/cm3 and toxic effects. Including arsenic, cobalt, lead, lithium, mercury, and thorium, have documented ototoxic potential. The metals represent a different aspect of toxicology in that they do not undergo breakdown to other metals (to do so would be transmutation of the elements, an old alchemical principle still not possible without huge sources of energy, and a particle accelerator!). The absorption, disposition and excretion of metals are largely dependent on physical factors, such as solubility, ionisation, particle size and chemical species (for metal salts).
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Kidneys are paired vital organs located behind the abdominal cavity at the bottom of the ribcage corresponding to the levels T12-L3 of the spine vertebrae. They perform about a dozen physiologic functions and are fairly easily damaged. Some of these functions include filtration and excretion of metabolic waste products, regulation of necessary electrolytes and fluids and stimulation of red blood cell-production. These organs routinely filter about 100 to 140 liters of blood a day to produce 1 to 2 liters of urine, composed of wastes and excess fluid.
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Two deferasirox molecules binding iron The half-life of deferasirox is between 8 and 16 hours allowing once a day dosing. Two molecules of deferasirox are capable of binding to 1 atom of iron which are subsequently eliminated by fecal excretion. Its low molecular weight and high lipophilicity allows the drug to be taken orally unlike deferoxamine which has to be administered by IV route (intravenous infusion). Together with deferiprone, deferasirox seems to be capable of removing iron from cells (cardiac myocytes and hepatocytes) as well as removing iron from the blood.
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Estriol (E3), also spelled oestriol, is a steroid, a weak estrogen, and a minor female sex hormone. It is one of three major endogenous estrogens, the others being estradiol and estrone. Levels of estriol in women who are not pregnant are almost undetectable. However, during pregnancy, estriol is synthesized in very high quantities by the placenta and is the most produced estrogen in the body by far, although circulating levels of estriol are similar to those of other estrogens due to a relatively high rate of metabolism and excretion.
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The process of housebreaking or house-training a kitten is vastly different from doing so for a puppy. Rather than a designated area outside, the designated area is indoors within a litter box. A cat's instinct is to excrete within a substrate, and then scratch and dig to hide the excretion; litter boxes support this natural behavior. There are a variety of options for what substrate (or litter) to put within a litter box but most veterinarians agree a scent-free clumping clay substrate is what cats prefer.
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Colistin is considered to have high toxicity, mainly having renal and neurological effects, including but not limited to decreased urine secretion, increased urea nitrogen concentrations in the blood and acute tubular necrosis. This is the result of Colistin removal via renal excretion, thus renal function should be monitored. Neurological effects are more common to develop in children, causing weakness, lethargy, confusion and respiratory paralysis. Bleomycin use causes side effects ranging from nausea, vomiting, anorexia and fevers, to fatal pulmonary toxicity in 1–2% of cases resulting in death.
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Studies into the metabolism and excretion processes for the molecule have shown that the compound undergoes two primary phase II biotransformations to form the corresponding glucuronide and sulfate. Different cell types have a bias towards which metabolite gets produced, with the human hepatoma cell line primarily metabolizing to the corresponding sulfate, and hepatocytes metabolizing to both the glucuronide and the sulfate compounds. Additionally, phase I metabolism produces various hydroxylated metabolites of BPF, with the main metabolites being meta-hydroxylated BPF, ortho-hydroxylated BPF and dihydroxybenzophenone (DHB). These metabolic pathways are P450 dependent.
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In 1992, Lake Forest gained national attention when it attempted to ban the sale of offensive music to anyone under the age of 18. City council members used existing ordinances against obscenity—defined in the codes as "morbid interest in nudity, sex or excretion"—to buttress their campaign. Mayor Charles Clarke stated, "If they sell an obscene tape to somebody underage, we will prosecute." The person who came up most frequently in discussions of obscene content was Ice-T, a rapper who has since also performed as an actor.
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Very low concentrations of nutrients are released during decomposition because the bacteria are utilizing them to build their own biomass. Bacteria, however, are consumed by protozoa, which are in turn consumed by zooplankton, and then further up the trophic levels. Nutrients, including those that contain carbon and phosphorus, are reintroduced into the water column at any number of points along this food chain via excretion or organism death, making them available again for bacteria. This regeneration cycle is known as the microbial loop and is a key component of lentic food webs.
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24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is formed from 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 by the action of P450cc24 (25-hydroxyvitamin D3-24-hydroxylase), which appears to be "a multicatalytic enzyme catalyzing most, if not all, of the reactions in the C-24/C-23 pathway of 25-OH-D3 metabolism." It has been proposed that 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is a metabolite of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 which is destined for excretion. It is not known whether the compound might also have some physiologically significant activity. Some evidence of a possible receptor has been obtained.
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199 Toilet humour, or potty or scatological humour (compare scatology), is a type of off-colour humour dealing with defecation, urination and flatulence, and to a lesser extent vomiting and other bodily functions. It sees substantial crossover with sexual humour, such as dick jokes. Toilet humour is popular among a wide range of ages, but is especially popular with children and young teenagers, for whom cultural taboos related to acknowledgement of waste excretion still have a degree of novelty. The humour comes from the rejection of such taboos, and is a part of modern culture.
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