Regarding the entailment problem it is proved that (a) deciding simple or RDF/S entailment of RDF graphs is NP- Complete,H. J. ter Horst. "Completeness, decidability and complexity of entailment for RDF Schema and a semantic extension involving the OWL vocabulary." J. of Web Sem.
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'Probabilistic textual entailment: Generic applied modeling of language variability' in: PASCAL Workshop on Learning Methods for Text Understanding and Mining (2004) Grenoble.Tătar, D. e.a. Textual Entailment as a Directional Relation Determining whether this relationship holds is an informal task, one which sometimes overlaps with the formal tasks of formal semantics (satisfying a strict condition will usually imply satisfaction of a less strict conditioned); additionally, textual entailment partially subsumes word entailment.
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Textual entailment is similar but weakens the relationship to be unidirectional. Mathematical solutions to establish textual entailment can be based on the directional property of this relation, by making a comparison between some directional similarities of the texts involved.
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The significance of inequality for Hilbert-style systems is that it corresponds to the latter's deduction or entailment symbol \vdash. An entailment :: \phi_1, \ \phi_2, \ \dots, \ \phi_n \vdash \psi is translated in the inequality version of the algebraic framework as :: \phi_1\ \land\ \phi_2\ \land\ \dots\ \land \ \phi_n\ \ \le\ \ \psi Conversely the algebraic inequality x \le y is translated as the entailment ::x\ \vdash\ y. The difference between implication x \to y and inequality or entailment x \le y or x\ \vdash\ y is that the former is internal to the logic while the latter is external. Internal implication between two terms is another term of the same kind.
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Epistemological relations are often logical connections that obtain between two concepts or ideas, like "entailment." The fact that all men are mortal and that Socrates is a man entails that Socrates is mortal—the relation between Socrates' mortality and the mortality of all men is an entailment relation.
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Textual entailment (TE) in natural language processing is a directional relation between text fragments. The relation holds whenever the truth of one text fragment follows from another text. In the TE framework, the entailing and entailed texts are termed text (t) and hypothesis (h), respectively. Textual entailment is not the same as pure logical entailment – it has a more relaxed definition: "t entails h" (t ⇒ h) if, typically, a human reading t would infer that h is most likely true.
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And disputed it was, on the ground that it clashed with Frederick Henry's entailment, by the beneficiary of that entailment, Luise Henriette's son Frederick I of Prussia. But Frederick was not the only person who contested William's will. Frederick Henry's entailment happened to be the last in a long line of entailments by previous holders of the title Prince of Orange, beginning with René of Châlon, who had founded the dynasty by willing the title to his nephew William the Silent, the progenitor of most of the claimants. René had made an entailment that gave the succession to the female line of his nephew, in case the male line would become extinct.
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Inverse subsumption for complete explanatory induction. Machine learning, 86(1):115–139, 2012. However, the operation of the anti-entailment since being highly non-deterministic is computationally more expensive. Therefore, an alternative hypothesis search can be conducted using the operation of the inverse subsumption (anti-subsumption) instead which is less non-deterministic than anti-entailment.
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Relational frame theory (RFT) is a behavioral theory of human language. It is rooted in functional contextualism and focused on predicting and influencing verbal behavior with precision, scope and depth. Relational framing is relational responding based on arbitrarily applicable relations and arbitrary stimulus functions. The relational responding is subject to mutual entailment, combinatorial mutual entailment and transformation of stimulus functions.
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Through careful distinctions among various occurrence contexts, it may also be possible to factor similarity into more specific relations such as synonymy, entailment, and antonymy.
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In logic, the idea of no-cloning and no-deleting correspond to the notion of disallowing two rules of inference: the rule of weakening (monotonicity of entailment) and the rule of contraction (idempotency of entailment). The removal of these two rules of inference from classical logic results in linear logic, which is the form of logic that describes quantum systems (or, more generally, the behavior of tensor products on Hilbert spaces).
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As it happened, the beneficiary of this provision was one William Hyacinth of Nassau-Siegen, who also vigorously contested the will in 1702. To complete the confusion, Maurice, Prince of Orange, Philip William's half-brother made an entailment that would give the succession to the male line of Ernst Casimir of Nassau- Dietz, a younger son of John VI, and the progenitor of John William Friso. This was (next to William's will) the main claim to the inheritance of John William Friso. (Frederick Henry's entailment overturned this entailment of his half-brother, if such a thing would have been possible; apparently he did not fancy the succession by Willem Frederik of Nassau-Dietz, who would otherwise have benefited).
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In Inductive Logic Programming, pages 296–308. Springer, 1997. On the other hand, Imparo is complete by both anti-entailment procedure Timothy Kimber. Learning definite and normal logic programs by induction on failure.
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Monotonicity of entailment is a property of many logical systems that states that the hypotheses of any derived fact may be freely extended with additional assumptions. In sequent calculi this property can be captured by an inference rule called weakening, or sometimes thinning, and in such systems one may say that entailment is monotone if and only if the rule is admissible. Logical systems with this property are occasionally called monotonic logics in order to differentiate them from non-monotonic logics.
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Ido Dagan, Oren Glickman and Bernardo Magnini. The PASCAL Recognising Textual Entailment Challenge, p. 2 in: Quiñonero-Candela, J.; Dagan, I.; Magnini, B.; d'Alché-Buc, F. (Eds.) Machine Learning Challenges. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol.
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In pragmatics, entailment falls in a category with implicature and presupposition. All three deal with assumptions made by the listener or reader about a situation. Entailment differs from implicature in that for the latter the truth of A suggests the truth of B, but does not require it. For example, the sentence "Jack missed the meeting after his car broke down" implies that Jack missed the meeting because his car broke down; but in reality Jack could have missed the meeting four days after his car broke down because he slept in too late.
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This means that though the sentence can be seen as logically true, it is normally interpreted as incorrect because there is no referent for "the king of France". Entailment also does not allow for a lack of referent.
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Natural deduction was invented by Gerhard Gentzen and Jan Łukasiewicz. Truth trees were invented by Evert Willem Beth.Beth, Evert W.; "Semantic entailment and formal derivability", series: Mededlingen van de Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdeling Letterkunde, Nieuwe Reeks, vol. 18, no.
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To judge whether an entailment is true, one can ask, "Could it ever be the case that B isn't true while A is true?" In order to accurately recognize entailments, a strong knowledge of the denotation of the word is required.
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As the best known of the paradoxes, and most formally simple, the paradox of entailment makes the best introduction. In natural language, an instance of the paradox of entailment arises: :It is raining And :It is not raining Therefore :George Washington is made of rakes. This arises from the principle of explosion, a law of classical logic stating that inconsistent premises always make an argument valid; that is, inconsistent premises imply any conclusion at all. This seems paradoxical because although the above is a logically valid argument, it is not sound (not all of its premises are true).
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This distinguishes such inferences from entailment. They are also non-detachable. A conversational implicature is said to be non-detachable when, after the replacement of what is said with another expression with the same literal meaning, the same conversational implicature remains.Korta p.
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This overruled the agnatic succession apparently prevailing before this time for the title. It is unclear who would inherit according to this rule, but apparently there was no claimant, basing himself on it. (The two eldest daughters of William the Silent, one of whom was married to William Louis, Count of Nassau- Dillenburg, the brother of John William Friso's ancestor, died without issue). However, Philip William, Prince of Orange William the Silent's eldest son, made an entailment that would override René's entailment, restoring the agnatic succession, and giving it to the male line of John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, William the Silent's brother.
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Anti-entailment is another possible constraint. Other sorts of constraints are possible, such as requiring regions that are neighbors of neighbors to use different or identical colors. This concept can be considered as applying to regions at graph distance two, and can be generalized to greater distances.
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Entailment as external implication between two terms expresses a metatruth outside the language of the logic, and is considered part of the metalanguage. Even when the logic under study is intuitionistic, entailment is ordinarily understood classically as two-valued: either the left side entails, or is less-or-equal to, the right side, or it is not. Similar but more complex translations to and from algebraic logics are possible for natural deduction systems as described above and for the sequent calculus. The entailments of the latter can be interpreted as two-valued, but a more insightful interpretation is as a set, the elements of which can be understood as abstract proofs organized as the morphisms of a category.
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Dunn's research focuses on information based logics, particularly relevance logics and other so-called "substructural" logics. He has an algebraic approach to these under the heading of "gaggle theory" (for generalized galois logics), which he has developed in articles, his book with G. Hardgree Algebraic Methods in Philosophical Logic (Oxford, 2001) , and a book with K. Bimbó, Generalized Galois Logics: Relational Semantics of Nonclassical Logical Calculi. (CSLI Publications, 2008). In his work on relevance logic, he was fortunate to study as a graduate student with the two major figures in relevance logic, Alan Ross Anderson and Nuel D. Belnap, Jr. He was a contributing author to their book Entailment: The Logic of Relevance and Entailment Vol.
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A few of the rights were drawn from Spanish practices.Ericson (Apr 1959), p. 458. The proposed constitution forbade the English practices of primogeniture and entailment, following a change made to Spanish law in 1821. Delegates retained the traditional Spanish prohibition against seizing a debtor's physical propertyEricson (Apr 1959), p. 460.
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Victims' legal representatives argued in their court filings that assets of 14 of the 50 parishes should be considered diocesan assets and subject to entailment by victims. In response to this lawsuit, the diocese filed a motion with the federal district court asking for its bankruptcy proceeding to be dismissed.
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Many fees tail arose from wills, rather than from marriage settlements which usually made some provision for daughters. Austen was very familiar with the law of entail; her brother, Edward, had inherited similarly entailed estates at Chawton, Godmersham and Winchester from distant cousins under the will of Elizabeth Knight, who died in 1737. Law professor Maureen B. Collins (2017)Maureen B. Collins, "The Law of Jane: Legal Issues in Austen’s Life and Novels", Persuasions On-line 38.1 (Winter 2017). cites several other authors debating the accuracy of Austen's depiction of the entailment, including Appel (2013),Appel, Peter A. "A Funhouse Mirror of Law: The Entailment in Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice", Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law 41.3 (2013): 609–636.
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Entailment differs from implication in that whereas the latter is a binary operation that returns a value in a Boolean algebra, the former is a binary relation which either holds or does not hold. In this sense entailment is an external form of implication, meaning external to the Boolean algebra, thinking of the reader of the sequent as also being external and interpreting and comparing antecedents and succedents in some Boolean algebra. The natural interpretation of \vdash is as ≤ in the partial order of the Boolean algebra defined by x ≤ y just when x∨y = y. This ability to mix external implication \vdash and internal implication → in the one logic is among the essential differences between sequent calculus and propositional calculus.
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The clearest exposition of the principles of sexual division of labour across the full range of human societies can be summarised by a large number of logically complementary implicational constraints of the following form: if women of childbearing ages in a given community tend to do X (e.g., preparing soil for planting) they will also do Y (e.g., the planting) while for men the logical reversal in this example would be that if men plant they will prepare the soil. White, Brudner, and Burton's (1977) "Entailment Theory and Method: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of the Sexual Division of Labor", using statistical entailment analysis, shows that tasks more frequently chosen by women in these order relations are those more convenient in relation to childrearing.
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Sylvan was instrumental in the development and study of relevance logic. In 1972, Sylvan (in a paper co-authored with Plumwood) proposed a semantics for certain relevant logics that had been developed by American philosophers Nuel Belnap and Alan Ross Anderson.Routley, R. and V. Routley (1972). "Semantics of First Degree Entailment", Noûs, 3: 335–359.
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Entailments do not allow these reinterpretations. Entailment also differs from presupposition in that in presupposition, the truth of what one is presupposing is taken for granted. The classic and often mentioned example of this is, "the king of France is not ill". This sentence presupposes that there is a king of France, which there is currently not.
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Many natural language processing applications, like question answering, information extraction, summarization, multi-document summarization, and evaluation of machine translation systems, need to recognize that a particular target meaning can be inferred from different text variants. Typically entailment is used as part of a larger system, for example in a prediction system to filter out trivial or obvious predictions.
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The entailment of the system by its logical foundation is what distinguishes a formal system from others which may have some basis in an abstract model. Often the formal system will be the basis for or even identified with a larger theory or field (e.g. Euclidean geometry) consistent with the usage in modern mathematics such as model theory.
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When Richard II was forced to abdicate the throne in 1399, Henry was next in line to the throne according to Edward III's entailment of 1376. That entailment clearly reflects the operation of agnatic primogeniture, also known as the Salic law. At this time, it was by no means a settled custom for the daughter of a king to supersede the brothers of that king in the line of succession to the throne. Indeed, it was not an established belief that women could inherit the throne at all by right: the only previous instance of succession passing through a woman had been that which involved the Empress Matilda, and this had involved protracted civil war, with the other protagonist being the son of Matilda's father's sister (not his brother).
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In this interpretation the cut rule of the sequent calculus corresponds to composition in the category. Boolean and Heyting algebras enter this picture as special categories having at most one morphism per homset, i.e., one proof per entailment, corresponding to the idea that existence of proofs is all that matters: any proof will do and there is no point in distinguishing them.
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Patricia and Paul Churchland have criticised Chalmers claim that everything but consciousness logically supervenes on the physical, and that such failures of supervenience mean that materialism must be false. Heat and luminescence, for instance, are both physical properties that logically supervene on the physical., pp. 30-1 Others have questioned the premise that a priori entailment is required for logical supervenience. pp.
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The strangeness of the paradox of entailment comes from the fact that the definition of validity in classical logic does not always agree with the use of the term in ordinary language. In everyday use validity suggests that the premises are consistent. In classical logic, the additional notion of soundness is introduced. A sound argument is a valid argument with all true premises.
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From conversation theory, Pask developed what he called a "Cognitive Reflector". This is a virtual machine for selecting and executing concepts or topics from an entailment mesh shared by at least a pair of participants. It features an external modelling facility on which agreement between, say, a teacher and pupil may be shown by reproducing public descriptions of behaviour.See Pask 1975.
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His son, Herluf Trolle, inherited the estate in 1667. In 1707, he sold it to his broither, Ulrik Adolph Holstein. In 1708, he established the Countship of Holsteinsborg from Snedinge and the farms Fyrendal and Trolholm. The Countship of Holsteinsborg existed until it was dissolved as a result of the lensafløsningen (abolition of legal titles and entailment of property) of 1921.
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Later, only one third of Rudnica belonged to Sam Rudnica. In the 18th century part of Rudnica was again subjected to the farm in Stobno. However, with the emancipation of the property of Stobno (horns emblem), this part of the village of Rudnica was freed. In 1865, the town of Rudnica became part of the new entailment of Reitzenstein in Kiełpino.
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Retrieved 30 November 2017 (subscription required). In 1977, Kempson published Semantic Theory, which discusses the concept of entailment in linguistics. A proposition (P) is entailed by another (Q) if P is true when Q is true and Q is false when P is false, but Q is not strictly defined if P is true. She was awarded a Fellow of the British Academy in 1989.
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Propositional Identity occurs when the proposition (α) is given because it is identical with the proposition (β) and proposition (β) is true. a. Did you hear that Otto went to Russia (β)? b. I can't believe that [he went to Russia]Given (α). Asymmetric Entailment occurs when the proposition (α) is given because the proposition (α) is always true when the proposition (β) is true. a.
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The impartial game Contact (Silverman, 1971) uses a single color with the entailment constraint: all moves after the first color a neighbor of the most recently colored region. Silverman also provides an example of Misère Contact. The concept of a map-coloring game may be extended to cover games such as Angels and Devils, where the rules for coloring are somewhat different in flavor.
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At the moment he is dedicated to his private practice and to teaching, even though it maintains entailment with the National Action of Party, in the federal electoral process of 2006, he was Operative Coordinator of Campaign in the presidential campaign of Felipe Calderón in the State of Oaxaca. In the federal electoral process of 2009 he was Operative Coordinator of Campaign, with National Action Party in Oaxaca.
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Bootstrapping knowledge representations: from entailment meshes via semantic nets to learning webs. Kybernetes, 30(5/6), 691–725. The evolutionary principle notes that variation through (re)combination of parts and natural selection of the fitter combinations results in ever more complex and adaptive systems. This principle is a direct application of Universal Darwinism, the idea that Darwinian mechanisms can be extended to virtually all disciplines and problem domains.
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Only nobleman who owned an estate of at least were regarded prosperous, but the number of estates reaching that size quickly decreased.The number of estates of between decreased from 20,000 to 10,000 from 1867 to 1900. The magnates took advantage of the lesser noblemen's bankruptcies and bought new estates during the same period. New fideicommissa were created which enabled the magnates to preserve the entailment of their landed wealth.
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Waldgravine Beatrix later married Theoderich von Heinzenberg, who in 1225 gave the village back to the Monastery. This dependent relationship remained in place until the time of the Reformation. Within municipal limits, a few border stones from the time of monasterial ownership can still be found. In 1492, the abbot of Otterberg Abbey issued a letter of entailment to the landowners in Berzweiler, according to which the estates were hereditarily transferred to them.
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Feys directed Belnap to read Wilhelm Ackermann's article on rigorous implication in the Journal of Symbolic Logic.Wilhelm Ackermann (1956) Begrundung einer strengen implikation, Journal of Symbolic Logic 21: 113 to 128 via Project Euclid Alan Ross Anderson and Belnap began to discuss relevant implication. In 1960 Anderson told Belnap to write up the work he had done on relevance logic, and this was Belnap's PhD dissertation at Yale (entitled The Formalization of Entailment).
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Some of the latter then began to harmonize Thomism with broader contemporary philosophical trends. Similarly, the Kraków Circle in Poland used mathematical logic in presenting Thomism, which the Circle judged to have "a structured body of propositions connected in meaning and subject matter, and linked by logical relations of compatibility and incompatibility, entailment, etc." The Circle has been said to be "the most significant expression of Catholic thought between the two World Wars".
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The conversion of a fief into a freehold — a familiar process in the 19th century — is called enfranchisement. Ownership of enfranchised fiefs continued to be limited, however, to the rights of the former feudatories. Only the overall suzerainty of the feudal lord over the estate was repealed, while the rights of the feudatory remained unaffected. Such an enfranchised fief became analogous to entailment (Familienfideikommiss); often it was explicitly converted into a fee tail (Fideikommissgut).
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1, and a full co-author with them to Vol. 2. He has also worked on quantum logic and quantum computation, subjective probability in the context of incomplete and conflicting information, and with Katalin Bimbό recently proved the decidability of Ticket Entailment (a problem open since 1960). Dunn has recently been honored by the book J. Michael Dunn on Information Based Logic, edited by Katalin Bimbó and appearing in Springer's series Outstanding Contributions to Logic.
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Mutual entailment refers to deriving a relation between two stimuli based on a given relation between those same two stimuli: Given the relation A to B, the relation B to A can be derived. For example, Joyce is standing in front of Peter. The relation trained is stimulus A in front of stimulus B. One can derive that Peter is behind Joyce. The derived relation is stimulus B is behind stimulus A. Another example: Jared is older than Jacob.
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With this host of male offspring, although Charles Theodore certainly wished to acquire more territory, he needed it to be territory that he could bequeath through his testament, rather than territory encumbered by a legal entailment that could only pass to a legitimate child.Henry Smith Williams. The Historians' History of the World: a comprehensive narrative of the rise and development of nations as recorded by the great writers of all ages. London: The Times, 1908, p. 245.
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Entailment describes the relation between expression α and expression β when one of the following conditions applies: Co-reference is one of the two semantic relations that express Givenness. Formally, references α and β both refer to the same entity (the referent): α,β ∈ De, α = β. A pronoun (α) usually identifies a noun phrase that has been mentioned (β) in a prior context and (α). Examples of: #On my way home, a dog barked at me.
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Muggleton S.H. "Inductive Logic Programming", Academic Press, 1992. In this field he has made contributions to theory introducing predicate invention, inverse entailment and stochastic logic programs. He has also played a role in systems development where he was instrumental in the systems Duce, Cigol, Golem, Progol and Metagol and applications — especially biological prediction tasks. He worked on a Robot Scientist together with Ross D. King that is capable of combining Inductive Logic Programming with active learning.
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Although Charles Theodore certainly wished to acquire more territory, he had only illegitimate natural sons, thus he preferred territory that he could dispose of through his testament, rather than territory encumbered by a legal entailment that could only pass to a legitimate son.Henry Smith Williams. The Historians' History of the World: a comprehensive narrative of the rise and development of nations as recorded by the great writers of all ages. London: The Times, 1908, p. 245.
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If it is studied from the viewpoint of relational organization then it is defined as semantic entailment in the brain of functional integration. It aims to present studies of functional organization of particular brain systems across scale through hierarchical integration leading to species-typical behaviors under normal and pathological states. As such, integrative neuroscience aims for a unified understanding of brain function across scale. Spivey's continuity of mind thesis extends integrative neuroscience to the domain of continuity psychology.
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A propositional knowledge base KB is vivid iff KB is a complete and consistent set of literals (over some vocabulary).Knowledge Representation and Reasoning / Ronald J. Brachman, Hector J. Levesque / page 337 Such a knowledge base has the property that it as exactly one interpretation, i.e. the interpretation is unique. A check for entailment of a sentence can simply be broken down into its literals and those can be answered by a simple database-like check of KB.
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If I were M and "U" were W, then I could directly attribute to myself the property (1) or M-B-W, while indirectly to "U" the property (2) or W-B-M, thereby referring to "U". That is, to say (1) is relatively to say (2), or to explicate M-B-W is to implicate W-B-M. His idea of indirect attribution (1981) is relevant to John Searle's "indirect speech act" (1975) and Paul Grice's "implicature" (1975), in addition to entailment.
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He indicates that, however, he sees no good reason to call statements which employ them either true or false. Some have attempted to solve this problem by means of many-valued logics; van Fraassen offers in their stead the use of supervaluations. Questions of completeness change when supervaluations are admitted, since they allow for valid arguments that do not correspond to logically true conditionals. His paper "Facts and tautological entailment" (J Phil 1969) is now regarded as the beginning of truth-maker semantics.
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The classical map-coloring problem requires that no two neighboring regions be given the same color. The classical move constraint enforces this by prohibiting coloring a region with the same color as one of its neighbor. The anticlassical constraint prohibits coloring a region with a color that differs from the color of one of its neighbors. Another kind of constraint is entailment, in which each move after the first must color a neighbor of the region colored on the previous move.
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Some many-valued logics may have incompatible definitions of equivalence and order (entailment). Both conjunction and disjunction are associative, commutative and idempotent in classical logic, most varieties of many-valued logic and intuitionistic logic. The same is true about distributivity of conjunction over disjunction and disjunction over conjunction, as well as for the absorption law. In classical logic and some varieties of many-valued logic, conjunction and disjunction are dual, and negation is self-dual, the latter is also self-dual in intuitionistic logic.
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Given the multiple claims, the 1535 Mayorazgo (entailment) guaranteeing the continuation of the Marquessate was conditioned on (among others) loyalty to the King of Spain. The current and 17th Marquess is Álvaro de Llanza y Figueroa, a private equity fund manager and former Citigroup investment banker.Citywire: Professional curriculum of Álvaro de Llanza y Figueroa He was born on 26 January 1960 and married Isabel López-Quesada in the chapel of the Real Club de la Puerta de Hierro in June 1988. They have 3 children.
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But these plans did not proceed because the estate was short of money. In 1803 Leveson-Gower inherited the huge fortune of the Duke of Bridgewater, and the estate now had the money for improvements. Many of the estate's leases did not end until 1807, but planning was started to restructure the estate. Despite the conventions of the day and the provisions of the entailment on Lady Sutherland's inheritance, Leveson-Gower delegated overall control of the estate to his wife; she took an active interest in its management.
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A default theory can have zero, one, or more extensions. Entailment of a formula from a default theory can be defined in two ways: ; Skeptical : a formula is entailed by a default theory if it is entailed by all its extensions; ; Credulous : a formula is entailed by a default theory if it is entailed by at least one of its extensions. Thus, the Nixon diamond example theory has two extensions, one in which Nixon is a pacifist and one in which he is not a pacifist. Consequently, neither nor are skeptically entailed, while both of them are credulously entailed.
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Upon the inheritance of the title, in compliance with the mayorazgo or entailment, the family adopted the name Aragona Tagliavia Cortés, although commonly referred to as Tagliavia d'Aragona.The Pignatelli Aragona Cortés Line. Official site of the Pignatelli family. Retrieved 21 January 2011 This marriage produced a single child, Giovanna, one of the richest heiresses of her time, who married Ettore Pignatelli, 5th Duke of Monteleone, giving birth to a dynasty that assembled the immense wealth of the Aragonas, the Tagliavias, the Pignatellis and the Cortés, their titles and their fiefs, among which the Mexican marquessate was the crown jewel.
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In semantics, entailments depend entirely on the denotation (also called the "dictionary definition" of the words in question). An example of this, as shown in M. Lynne Murphy's Lexical Meaning would be, "If it is a shoe, then it is made to be worn on a foot." This example references the 'footwear' meaning of the word shoe, and not the adjective, which is considered a different use of the word and thus a different meaning. For an entailment to be true, the then statement (denoted as B) must always be true when the if statement (denoted as A) is true.
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The Inspector General also requested that a representative sum of the coins, ingots, and gemstones, which are not considered to be cultural patrimony under the concept of repetition, must be given to the central bank, Banco de la República, for preservation. The Minister of Culture, Mariana Garcés Córdoba, stated that 2016 will be "a year of exploration, not extraction". According to the Minister, Colombia sees the discovery as a project of investigation that implies the creation of laboratories that will include the entailment of specialists from different work areas, in order to properly study the shipwreck and its contents.
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One of the main points of disagreement lies in the relation between probability and belief. Logical probabilities are conceived (for example in Keynes' Treatise on Probability) to be objective, logical relations between propositions (or sentences), and hence not to depend in any way upon belief. They are degrees of (partial) entailment, or degrees of logical consequence, not degrees of belief. (They do, nevertheless, dictate proper degrees of belief, as is discussed below.) Frank P. Ramsey, on the other hand, was skeptical about the existence of such objective logical relations and argued that (evidential) probability is "the logic of partial belief".
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However, the estate was handicapped by a serious shortage of the capital needed, and these large plans were not proceeded with until money became available. When, in 1803 George Leveson-Gower inherited the huge fortune of the Duke of Bridgewater, funds were available for the Sutherland Estate to proceed with a program of improvement. Many of the estate's leases did not end until 1807, but planning was started to restructure the estate. Despite the conventions of the day and the provisions of the entailment, Leveson-Gower delegated overall control of the estate to Lady Sutherland; she took an active interest in its management.
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The social, communicative practice of argumentation can and should be distinguished from implication (or entailment)—a relationship between propositions; and from inference—a mental activity typically thought of as the drawing of a conclusion from premises. Informal logic may thus be said to be a logic of argumentation, as distinguished from implication and inference.Johnson, 1999 Argumentation theory is interdisciplinary in the sense that no one discipline will be able to provide a complete account. A full appreciation of argumentation requires insights from logic (both formal and informal), rhetoric, communication theory, linguistics, psychology, and, increasingly, computer science.
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In chapter 1, when Mr Bingley arrives, she declares "I am thinking of his marrying one of them". Inheritance was by descent but could be further restricted by entailment, which would restrict inheritance to male heirs only. In the case of the Bennet family, Mr Collins was to inherit the family estate upon Mr Bennet's death and his proposal to Elizabeth would have ensured her security but she refuses his offer. Inheritance laws benefited males because most women did not have independent legal rights until the second half of the 19th century and women's financial security depended on men.
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The four elementary relationships can be combined to form more complex configurations of relationships called meta-relational models. Meta-relational models typically take the form of entailments or prohibitions, which imply certain obligations, behaviors or relationships between multiple dyads within a particular configuration (e.g., within a triad with members A, B and C, A being in a CS relationship with B prohibits B from being in a CS relationship with A's enemy, C). Examples of meta-relational models include the compadrazgo relationship, describing the entailment of relationships between the parents and godparents of a child, and the incest taboo, describing the prohibition of relationships among certain members of the same family.
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The tasks in this area have many potential applications, such as information extraction, question answering, document summarization, machine translation, construction of thesauri and semantic networks, language modeling, paraphrasing, and recognizing textual entailment. In each of these potential applications, the contribution of the types of semantic analysis constitutes the most outstanding research issue. For example, in the word sense induction and disambiguation task, there are three separate phases: #In the training phase, evaluation task participants were asked to use a training dataset to induce the sense inventories for a set of polysemous words. The training dataset consisting of a set of polysemous nouns/verbs and the sentence instances that they occurred in.
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In the last three years of his life Pask presented models based on Knot theory knots which described minimal persisting concepts. He interpreted these as acting as computing elements which exert repulsive forces to interact and persist in filling the space. The knots, links and braids of his entailment mesh models of concepts, which could include tangle-like processes seeking "tail-eating" closure, Pask called "tapestries". His analysis proceeded with like seeming concepts repelling or unfolding but after a sufficient duration of interaction (he called this duration "faith") a pair of similar or like-seeming concepts will always produce a difference and thus an attraction.
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William Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich Touchstone Edition, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990 He was instrumental in founding the Nazi Reichsnährstand corporation as part of the Gleichschaltung process. Darré campaigned for big landowners to part with some of their land to create new farms, and promoted the controversial Reichserbhofgesetz. He also converted most of the country's small farms into hereditary estates that were to be passed from father to son under the ancient laws of entailment. While this protected small farmers from foreclosure and many other modern financial problems, it also tied them and their descendants to the soil to the end of time.
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Richard Evans (born 23 October 1969) is an artificial intelligence (AI) research scientist at DeepMind. His research focuses on integrating declarative interpretable logic-based systems with neural networksLearning Explanatory Rules from Noisy DataThe deepest problem with deep learningCan Neural Networks Understand Logical Entailment, and on formal models of Kant's Critique of Pure ReasonFormalizing Kant's RulesHigh-level Perception and Program Synthesis, FLoC, Oxford, 2018 Previously, he designed the AI for a number of computer games. He was the co-founder, along with Emily Short, of Little Text People, developing real-time multiplayer interactive fiction. Little Text People was acquired by Linden Lab in January 2012 for an undisclosed sum.
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Textual entailment measures natural language understanding as it asks for a semantic interpretation of the text, and due to its generality remains an active area of research. Many approaches and refinements of approaches have been considered, such as word embedding, logical models, graphical models, rule systems, contextual focusing, and machine learning. Practical or large-scale solutions avoid these complex methods and instead use only surface syntax or lexical relationships, but are correspondingly less accurate. However, even state-of-the-art systems are still far from human performance; a study found humans to be in agreement on the dataset 95.25% of the time, while algorithms from 2016 had not yet achieved 90%.
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Common temporal limitations include life estate, a land ownership that terminates upon the grantee's (or another person's) death even if the land had been granted to a third party, or a term of years, a lease for a specified term, such as in an estate for years. A fee also could be limited through the method of its inheritance, such as by an "entailment", which created a fee tail. Traditionally, fee tail was created by words of grant such as "to N. and the male heirs of his body", which would restrict those who could inherit the property. If no heirs could be found, then the property would revert to the original grantor's heirs.
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His son and successor Adam Anton Siegfried established a fideicommiss or entailment in 1739 (the year of his death), including the Turjak lordship, the holding of Nadlischegg in Mokronog and the Turjak (or Auersperg) PalaceLjubljana City Museum in Ljubljana. He was succeeded by eldest son Adolf Engelbert Ignaz, who died in 1768. On 20 May 1769, the allodial land ownership passed to his widow Elisabeth (nee Lichtenberg), while the fideicommiss went to his brother-in-law Josef Maria. After his death on 24 December 1805, the fideicommiss properties went to Johann Paul Alois, and then to the count Josef von Auersperg, who held it until his death on 12 October 1883, followed by his son count Leo von Auersperg.
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Bennet's dismay. Mr. Bennet's family estate, Longbourn House, comprises a residence and land located within the environs of the fictional township of Meryton, in Hertfordshire, just north of London. From his family estate, Mr. Bennet derives an annual income of £2,000, which is very a respectable income for a gentleman (but certainly not on the same scale to Mr Darcy's annual income of £10,000). Longbourn House also has an entailment upon it, meant to keep the estate intact and in the sole possession of the family, down the male line, rather than being divided also amongst younger sons and any daughters; it is to be passed down amongst first male heirs only.
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If, before Mr. Bennet's death, one of his daughters should be able to present him with a grandson, said grandson would then become the new heir presumptive of the entailment, by virtue of being Mr. Bennet's closest living male blood relative. This fact is likely why Mr. Collins' late father urged his son to 'mend the rift' with the Bennets. If Mr. Collins were to marry one of one of Mr. Bennet's daughters and father a son, it would make Mr. Collins' claim to Longbourn House more likely to succeed. Emily Auerbach criticises Mr Bennet for ignoring the fate of his daughters and suggests that he possesses "too little sense of duty or responsibility".
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If the terms 'p', 'q' and 'r' stand for arbitrary propositions then the main paradoxes are given formally as follows: # These, which are all equivalent to (p \lor eg p) \lor q : ##( eg p \land p) \to q, p and its negation imply q. This is the paradox of entailment. ## eg p \to (p \to q) or p \to (q \lor p), if p is false then it implies every q, in which cases the statement p \to q is said to be vacuously true; or if p is true then it implies itself or every q since p \to p is equivalent to p \lor eg p. This is referred to as 'explosion'.
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Berlin: Springer. and Imparo Kimber, T., Broda, K., & Russo, A. (2009). Induction on failure: learning connected Horn theories. In LNCS: Vol. 5753. Proceedings of the 10th international conference on logic programing and nonmonotonic reasoning (pp. 169–181). Berlin: Springer. find a hypothesis using the principle of the inverse entailment for theories , , : B \land H \models E \iff B \land eg E \models eg H. First they construct an intermediate theory called a bridge theory satisfying the conditions B \land eg E \models F and F \models eg H. Then as H \models eg F, they generalize the negation of the bridge theory with the anti-entailment.Yoshitaka Yamamoto, Katsumi Inoue, and Koji Iwanuma.
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However, because such entailment is conditional on such a set of facts holding true under a particular set of circumstances, the fact entailed is still fundamentally brute relative to such facts, just that in such a case the leap in inference occurs at the level of the circumstances, not that of the facts themselves. Finally, if a fact brute relative to other facts holds true, it follows that some set of facts it is brute relative to is also true, e.g. if the customer owes the grocer money, then it follows that the grocer supplied them with potatoes. After all, had they not done so, then the customer would not owe them money.
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In his work on agrarian law, he called on the crown to eliminate the concentration of land ownership in the entailment of landed estates, ownership of land by the Catholic Church, and the existence of common lands unavailable to private ownership. In his view, Spain's wealth lay in its agricultural productivity which would allow its population to grow and prosper. In the eighteenth-century regime of land tenure, productivity was stifled by the latifundia (large landed estates) of the political elites and the Catholic Church as an institution, and common lands where there was no incentive for individuals to invest in its productivity. Jovellanos was influenced by Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations (1776), which saw self-interest as the motivating force for economic activity.
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Combinatorial mutual entailment refers to deriving relations between two stimuli, given the relations of those two stimuli with a third stimulus: Given the relation, A to B and B to C, the relations A to C and C to A can be derived. To go on with the examples above: Joyce is standing in front of Peter and Peter is standing in front of Lucy. The relations trained in this example are: stimulus A in front of B and stimulus B in front of C. With this it can be derived that Joyce is standing in front of Lucy and Lucy is standing behind Joyce. The derived relations are A is in front of C and C is behind A. John is older than Jared and Jared is older than Jacob.
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" If the conditional if p then…z is understood strictly then slippery slope arguments about the real world are likely to fall short of the standards required for sound deductive reasoning and might be dismissed as a fallacy but, as Walton points out, slippery slope arguments are not formal proofs, they are practical arguments about likely consequences. Rizzo says, "first and foremost, slippery slopes are slopes of arguments: One practical argument tends to lead to another, which means that one justified action, often a decision, tends to lead to another. When we say that one argument (and its supported action) tends to lead to another, we mean that it makes the occurrence of the subsequent argument more likely, not that it necessarily makes it highly likely or, still less, inevitable. Hence the transition between arguments is not based on strict logical entailment.
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FrameNet has proven to be useful in a number of computational applications, because computers need additional knowledge in order to recognize that "John sold a car to Mary" and "Mary bought a car from John" describe essentially the same situation, despite using two quite different verbs, different prepositions and a different word order. FrameNet has been used in applications like question answering, paraphrasing, recognizing textual entailment, and information extraction, either directly or by means of Semantic Role Labeling tools. The first automatic system for Semantic Role Labeling (SRL, sometimes also referred to as "shallow semantic parsing") was developed by Daniel Gildea and Daniel Jurafsky based on FrameNet in 2002. Semantic Role Labeling has since become one of the standard tasks in natural language processing, with the latest version (1.7) of FrameNet now fully supported in the Natural Language Toolkit.
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Assigning themselves his properties in Chippenham, the couple (described by Alison Wall in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography as "scoundrels" and by R. J. W. Swales as "unscrupulous adventurers") directed Baynton's money and estates to themselves, contrary to his intended entailment of the assets to his brother Edward. Sharington has consequently been described by Wall as "corrupt" and Pleydell as "notorious"; according to Bindoff, the action "confirm[s] for Gabriel Pleydell a niche in parliamentary history, detract[ing] still further from his reputation".Edward Baynton the titles attached to his late brother's property Pleydell released any titles inherited from the acquired estates, which included the manors of the Clench and Stanley hamlets, to Edward Baynton (Andrew's brother) on 19 July 1566 and the Privy Council therefore rejected allegations of forgery against him. Edward had long been suspicious of Pleydell and Sharington, and brought an unsuccessful forgery charge against them to a prerogative court as early as July 1560.
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Propositional calculus is commonly organized as a Hilbert system, whose operations are just those of Boolean algebra and whose theorems are Boolean tautologies, those Boolean terms equal to the Boolean constant 1. Another form is sequent calculus, which has two sorts, propositions as in ordinary propositional calculus, and pairs of lists of propositions called sequents, such as A∨B, A∧C,... \vdash A, B→C,.... The two halves of a sequent are called the antecedent and the succedent respectively. The customary metavariable denoting an antecedent or part thereof is Γ, and for a succedent Δ; thus Γ,A \vdash Δ would denote a sequent whose succedent is a list Δ and whose antecedent is a list Γ with an additional proposition A appended after it. The antecedent is interpreted as the conjunction of its propositions, the succedent as the disjunction of its propositions, and the sequent itself as the entailment of the succedent by the antecedent.
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But if one did not make that assumption, then the simplest definition might not be the right one for the most useful concept; in any case, it would destroy the (transitive) entailment of Ti by Tj, allowing (for example) non-Hausdorff regular spaces. Topologists working on the metrisation problem generally did assume T1; after all, all metric spaces are T1. Thus, they used the simplest definitions for the Ti. Then, for those occasions when they did not assume T1, they used words ("regular" and "normal") for the more complicated definitions, in order to contrast them with the simpler ones. This approach was used as late as 1970 with the publication of Counterexamples in Topology by Lynn A. Steen and J. Arthur Seebach, Jr. In contrast, general topologists, led by John L. Kelley in 1955, usually did not assume T1, so they studied the separation axioms in the greatest generality from the beginning.
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Making decisions in many domains (such as natural language processing and computer vision problems) often involves assigning values to sets of interdependent variables where the expressive dependency structure can influence, or even dictate, what assignments are possible. These settings are applicable not only to Structured Learning problems such as semantic role labeling, but also for cases that require making use of multiple pre-learned components, such as summarization, textual entailment and question answering. In all these cases, it is natural to formulate the decision problem as a constrained optimization problem, with an objective function that is composed of learned models, subject to domain- or problem-specific constraints. Constrained conditional models form a learning and inference framework that augments the learning of conditional (probabilistic or discriminative) models with declarative constraints (written, for example, using a first-order representation) as a way to support decisions in an expressive output space while maintaining modularity and tractability of training and inference.
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In both of Gettier's actual examples (see also counterfactual conditional), the justified true belief came about, if Smith's purported claims are disputable, as the result of entailment (but see also material conditional) from justified false beliefs that "Jones will get the job" (in case I), and that "Jones owns a Ford" (in case II). This led some early responses to Gettier to conclude that the definition of knowledge could be easily adjusted, so that knowledge was justified true belief that does not depend on false premises. The interesting issue that arises is then of how to know which premises are in reality false or true when deriving a conclusion, because as in the Gettier cases, one sees that premises can be very reasonable to believe and be likely true, but unknown to the believer there are confounding factors and extra information that may have been missed while concluding something. The question that arises is therefore to what extent would one have to be able to go about attempting to "prove" all premises in the argument before solidifying a conclusion.
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